1.11.

3 Nonlinear Cable Members for Advanced Cable Analysis

Cable members used for a Advanced Cable Analysis are specified by using the MEMBER CABLE
command.

When specifying cable members, either the initial tension in the cable or the unstressed length of
the cable must first be provided. The initial tension is sufficient for keeping the cable in tension
because the catenary theory behind the element formulation will prevent the cable from behaving
in compression. However, a larger initial tension (or smaller unstressed length) increases the
numerical stability

A nonlinear cable may have large deformation. The force equilibrium at cable ends is checked on
every load step and on every equilibrium iteration.

Following considerations exist in Advanced Cable Analysis:

1. The nonlinear cable element provides stiffness and resistance forces to only three
translational degrees (i.e., FX, FY, and FZ). It is not able to carry any moments. So, when
two nonlinear cable elements meet at a common joint and if there isnt a support or a 3rd
member connected to the joint it is a point of potential instability. The program
introduces a very weak spring to overcome this problem.

2. Due to the reason as described in item 1, applying any moment to a cable element is not
advisable.

3. The cable is not able to carry any compression forces. So, when the load tends to cause
compression in a cable and if there are no other members connected to the cable and the
cable can deform freely there will be some numerical instability.

4. Due to the instability problem explained in item 1, subdividing a cable member into
several smaller cable elements should be done only when it is necessary. An example of
one such necessary case may be when there is force load applied in the middle of the
cable member. For this case, the cable member has to be broken so that the forces can be
applied as joint loads at cable nodes.

5. The increase of stiffness of the cable (by increasing the initial tension or decreasing
unstressed length) is always beneficial for numerical stability. The iteration will stop only
when the force equilibrium is reached.

6. In advanced cable analysis, the self weight of a cable member is initially considered to
obtain the initial configuration of cable members under self weight. Any additional
weight required along with self weight can be included using FWY parameter in the
MEMBER CABLE command.

This analysis feature can be used only when Advanced Analysis License is active
5.23.2 Member Cable Specification

This command may be used to model a specified set of members as CABLE members.

Cable members, in addition to elastic axial deformation, are also capable of accommodating the
stiffness effect of initial tension and tension due to static loads. When used in a nonlinear cable
analysis, cable members are capable of accommodating large displacements. See "1.11 Cable
Members" for a theoretical discussion of cable members.

General Format

MEMBER CABLE

member-list cable-spec

cable-spec = { TENSION f1 ( { START | END } )| LENGTH f2 } *{ (FWX f3) | (FWY f4)

| (FWZ f5) }

Where:

f1 = Initial tension in cable member (in current units), when the TENSION option is specified.

f2 = Unstressed cable length (in current units), when the initial LENGTH option is specified.

f3, f4, f5 = Multiplying factors on self weight components applied in the global X, Y, and Z
directions, respectively.

START, END = The initial tension is measured at the cable start node or cable end node,
respectively. This is used for advanced cable analysis (refer to Note 5 in Nodes for use with
Advanced Cable Analysis).

Notes for use with Standard Cable Analysis

1. The tension specified in the cable member is applied on the structure as an external load
as well as is used to modify the stiffness of the member. The tension value must be
positive to be treated as a cable otherwise it is a truss (See "1.11 Cable Members"). If the
TENSION parameter or the value is omitted, a minimum tension will be used.

The end at which initial tension is measured is not used for standard cable analysis (i.e.,
START or END is ignored).

2. This is a truss member but not a tension-only member unless you also include this
member in a MEMBER TENSION input (See "5.23.3 Member Tension/Compression
Specification"). Note also that Member Releases are not allowed.
 3. The tension is a preload and will not be the final tension in the cable after the
deformation due to this preload.

4. The tension is used to determine the unstressed length. That length will be shorter than
the distance between the joints by the distance that the tension will stretch the cable.

5. No weight (other than the assumed self weight) is used with standard cable analysis.

Notes for use with Advanced Cable Analysis

1. A cable member is a truss member that has three translational degrees of freedom only.
Note also that member releases are not allowed for a cable member.

2. FWY is used to add any additional weight that may be acting on the cable along with self
weight before the application of external applied load. This additional weight will be
added to cable self-weight in global Y direction. These are used to find the initial cable
profile before the application of the external load.

3. If no self weight is included in the external applied load and also FWY parameter is not
defined, the program will calculate self weight of the cable member and include it in the
analysis.

Warning message will be issued in the output file.

4. If self weight is included in the external applied load, during calculation cable self weight
will not be considered in the external applied load vector. The reason is that it will be
considered separately while finding the initial cable configuration under self weight and
thus cannot be considered as external applied load.

5. If START or END is not specified with the initial TENSION parameter in the cable
member, then the average tension is assumed. The average option is suitable only for a
taut cable. This is because in a taut cable, the undeformed length is shorter than the chord
length. due to this, the taut cable carries significant tension with little sag. The
undeformed legth, Lu, is calculated as:

where

Lc = chord length

Tavg = intial average tension in the taut cable

E = Young's modulus
 A = area of the cross-section

However, for a slack cable, this does not hold true because the undeformed length is
longer that the chord length and the cable member has significant sag. The catenary curve
effect is required to be included. Thus, for a slack cable, initial TENSION should be
defined either at the START or END node of the cable member. For a cable member
which is considered to have significant sag, defining the average tension is not a suitable
option.

Example

A series of cable members with a tension of 15.5 specified for use with either standard or
advanced cable analysis:

MEMB CABLE

20 TO 25 TENSION 15.5

A series of cable members with a tension of 15.5 at the cable start node for use with advanced
cable analysis. An additional weight on the cable of 20% of the cable self weight which acts in
the same direction of the cable's self weight is used.

MEMB CABLE

20 TO 25 TENSION 15.5 START FWY -0.2

.18.2.7 Nonlinear Cable/Truss Analysis

This feature is available in limited form.

When all of the members, elements and support springs are linear except for cable and/or
preloaded truss members, then this analysis type may be used. This analysis is based on applying
the load in steps with equilibrium iterations to convergence at each step. The step sizes start
small and gradually increase (15-20 steps is the default). Iteration continues at each step until the
change in deformations is small before proceeding to the next step. If not converged, then the
solution is stopped. You can then select more steps or modify the structure and rerun.

Structures can be artificially stabilized during the first few load steps in case the structure is
initially unstable (in the linear, small displacement, static theory sense).

The user has control of the number of steps, the maximum number of iterations per step, the
convergence tolerance, the artificial stabilizing stiffness, and the minimum amount of stiffness
remaining after a cable sags.

This method assumes small displacement theory for all members/trusses/elements other than
cables & preloaded trusses. The cables and preloaded trusses can have large displacement and
moderate/large strain. Cables and preloaded trusses may carry tension and compression but
cables have a reduced E modulus if not fully taut. Pretension is the force necessary to stretch the
cable/truss from its unstressed length to enable it to fit between the two end joints. Alternatively,
you may enter the unstressed length for cables.

The current nonlinear cable analysis procedure can result in compressive forces in the final cable
results. The procedure was developed for structures, loadings, and pretensioning loads that will
result in sufficient tension in every cable for all loading conditions. The possibility of
compression was considered acceptable in the initial implementation because most design codes
strongly recommend cables to be in tension to avoid the undesirable dynamic effects of a slack
cable such as galloping, singing, or pounding. The engineer must specify initial preloading
tensions which will ensure that all cable results are in tension. In addition this procedure is much
more reliable and efficient than general nonlinear algorithms. To minimize the compression the
SAGMIN input variable can be set to a small value such as 0.01, however that can lead to a
failure to converge unless many more steps are specified and a higher equilibrium iteration limit
is specified. SAGMIN values below 0.70 generally requires some adjustments of the other input
parameters to get convergence.

Currently the cable and truss are not automatically loaded by selfweight, but the user should
ensure that selfweight is applied in every load case. o not enter component load cases such as
wind only; every case must be realistic. Member loads will be lumped at the ends for cables and
trusses. Temperature load may also be applied to the cables and trusses. It is OK to break up the
cable/truss into several members and apply forces to the intermediate joints. Y-up is assumed
and required.

The member force printed for the cable is Fx and is along the chord line between the displaced
positions of the end joints.

The analysis sequence is as follows:

1. Compute the unstressed length of the nonlinear members based on joint coordinates,
pretension, and temperature.

2. Member/Element/Cable stiffness is formed. Cable stiffness is from EA/L and the sag
formula plus a geometric stiffness based on current tension.

3. Assemble and solve the global matrix with the percentage of the total applied load used
for this load step.

4. Perform equilibrium iterations to adjust the change in directions of the forces in the
nonlinear cables, so that the structure is in static equilibrium in the deformed position. If
force changes are too large or convergence criteria not met within 15 iterations then stop
the analysis.

5. Go to step 2 and repeat with a greater percentage of the applied load. The nonlinear
members will have an updated orientation with new tension and sag effects.
 6. After 100% of the applied load has converged then proceed to compute member forces,
reactions, and static check. Note that the static check is not exactly in balance due to the
displacements of the applied static equivalent joint loads.

The load cases in a nonlinear cable analysis must be separated by the CHANGE command and
PERFORM CABLE ANALYSIS command. The SET NL command must be provided to specify
the total number of primary load cases. There may not be any Multi-linear springs, compression
only, PDelta, NONLINEAR, or dynamic cases.

Also for cables and preloaded trusses:

1. Do not use Member Offsets.

2. Do not include the end joints in Master/Slave command.

3. Do not connect to inclined support joints.

4. Y direction must be up.

5. Do not impose displacements.

6. Do not use Support springs in the model.

7. Applied loads do not change global directions due to displacements.

8. Do not apply Prestress load, Fixed end load.

9. Do not use Load Combination command to combine cable analysis results. Use a primary
case with Repeat Load instead.

.11.1 Linearized Cable Members

Cable members may be specified by using the MEMBER CABLE command. While specifying
cable members, the initial tension in the cable must be provided. The following paragraph
explains how cable stiffness is calculated.

The increase in length of a loaded cable is a combination of two effects. The first component is
the elastic stretch, and is governed by the familiar spring relationship:

F = Kx

Where:

Kelastic = EA/L
The second component of the lengthening is due to a change in geometry (as a cable is pulled
taut, sag is reduced). This relationship can be described by

F = Kx

but here,

Where:

w = weight per unit length of cable

T = tension in cable

= angel that the axis of the cable makes with a horizontal plane (= 0, cable is horizontal; = 90,
cable is vertical).

Therefore, the "stiffness" of a cable depends on the initial installed tension (or sag). These two
effects may be combined as follows:

When T = infinity, Kcomb = EA/L and that when T = 0, Kcomb = 0. It should also be noted that as
the tension increases (sag decreases) the combined stiffness approaches that of the pure elastic
situation.

The following points need to be considered when using the cable member in STAAD :

1. The linear cable member is only a truss member whose properties accommodate the sag
factor and initial tension. The behavior of the cable member is identical to that of the
truss member. It can carry axial loads only. As a result, the fundamental rules involved in
modeling truss members have to be followed when modeling cable members. For
example, when two cable members meet at a common joint, if there isn't a support or a
3rd member connected to that joint, it is a point of potential instability.

2. Due to the reasons specified in 1) above, applying a transverse load on a cable member is
not advisable. The load will be converted to two concentrated loads at the 2 ends of the
cable and the true deflection pattern of the cable will never be realized.

3. A tension only cable member offers no resistance to a compressive force applied at its
ends. When the end joints of the member are subjected to a compressive force, they "give
in" thereby causing the cable to sag. Under these circumstances, the cable member has
zero stiffness and this situation has to be accounted for in the stiffness matrix and the
displacements have to be recalculated. But in STAAD, merely declaring the member to
 be a cable member does not guarantee that this behavior will be accounted for. It is also
important that you declare the member to be a tension only member by using the
MEMBER TENSION command, after the CABLE command. This will ensure that the
program will test the nature of the force in the member after the analysis and if it is
compressive, the member is switched off and the stiffness matrix re-calculated.

4. Due to potential instability problems explained in item 1 above, you should also avoid
modeling a catenary by breaking it down into a number of straight line segments. The
cable member in STAAD cannot be used to simulate the behavior of a catenary. By
catenary, we are referring to those structural components which have a curved profile and
develop axial forces due their self weight. This behavior is in reality a non-linear
behavior where the axial force is caused because of either a change in the profile of the
member or induced by large displacements, neither of which are valid assumptions in an
elastic analysis. A typical example of a catenary is the main U shaped cable used in
suspension bridges.

5. The increase of stiffness of the cable as the tension in it increases under applied loading is
updated after each iteration if the cable members are also declared to be MEMBER
TENSION. However, iteration stops when all tension members are in tension or slack;
not when the cable tension converges.