ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURAL BEARING CAPACITY OF

AN AIRPORT USING RUDIMENTARY TEST RESULTS AS

INPUT INTO THE SAMDM

P.W. de Bruin1, G.J. Jordaan1 J. Andre2, F. Francisco2 and N.A.S. Domingos3

1
Tshepega Engineering
PO Box 35256, Menlopark, 0102, South Africa.
E-mail: debruinpw@tshepega.co.za and jordaangj@tshepega.co.za
2
Ministry of Public Works, Luanda, Angola.
3
Ministry of Airports, Luanda, Angola.

ABSTRACT

Logistical problems, in remote areas in Africa, make it extremely difficult if not impossible to use
sophisticated testing methods to analyse the bearing capacity of roads and airport pavements.
Hence, engineers have to be innovative in obtaining maximum information with easily
transportable equipment and testing methods such as the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP).
Information obtained from such testing can be used to get appropriate input values into existing
design models in order to determine the bearing capacity and rehabilitation needs. This paper
covers a preliminary analysis for an airport in Angola. The South African Mechanistic Design
Method (SAMDM), together with the International Civil Aviation Organisations (ICAOs)
empirically design method/s (i.e. based on the US FAA CBR design method), were used to
calculate the bearing capacity of the airport for the design aircraft. The results obtained from the
SAMDM analyses are compared with the designs recommended by ICAOs and show great
promise in analysing airport pavement structures. It is demonstrated that the results obtained
using the SAMDM (with rudimentary test results as input) compare excellently with the design
obtained using the ICAO method. The SAMDM procedure was also used to determine the
Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) ratios (or equivalent factors) for the different aircraft types
for comparison reasons.

Keywords: airport design, ACN, ICAO, DCP, structural bearing capacity

1. INTRODUCTION

With the ageing of road networks and airport pavements all over the world, more and more
emphasis is placed on the cost-effective rehabilitation of these pavements. A meaningful
assessment methodology is therefore required, for the evaluation of the existing structural
condition of pavements and the effect thereof on possible alternative rehabilitation options. The
Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E) analysis of the bearing capacity of pavements is a methodology
that can accurately take into account the effect of rehabilitation measures. This methodology is
able to simulate any type of load and tyre pressure (which is a great benefit in analyzing
different aircraft types) and the influence of such loading on the pavement layers in order to
calculate the structural bearing capacity of the pavement. The South African Mechanistic Design
Method (SAMDM) developed since 1982 (Jordaan, 1994), (Theyse et al, 1996) is well
established and is widely used by many road designers for pavement rehabilitation design
purposes. This method has been used extensively by researchers for new pavement designs
and for the refinement of existing designs as well as by engineers for practical applications
(Freeme et al, 1982). The current method of mechanistic analysis/design used in South Africa
has been developed largely from the results of extensive Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) testing
and is based on the non-hereditary aspects of linear elastic stress/strain theory.

Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa (CAPSA'04) 12 16 September 2004
ISBN Number: 1-920-01718-6 Sun City, South Africa
Proceedings produced by: Document Transformation Technologies cc
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

Currently, the structural bearing capacity of airport pavements is usually analysed using the
International Civil Aviation Organisations (ICAOs) empirically design method/s, which are
based on the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) California Bearing Ratio (CBR) design
method (ICAO, 1983). Although these empirically design methods are widely used and
accepted, there is a tendency world-wide towards using the Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E) design
analysis approach in design applications.

In remote areas in Africa, logistical problems make it extremely difficult if not impossible to use
sophisticated testing methods to analyse the bearing capacity of airport pavements. Hence,
engineers have to be innovative in obtaining maximum information with easily transportable
equipment and testing methods such as the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP). Information
obtained from such testing is then used to get appropriate input values into existing design
models in order to determine the bearing capacity and rehabilitation needs.

The objectives of the paper are to:

do a preliminary analysis and to compare the bearing capacity derived from the ICAO
empirically design method with results obtained from the SAMDM,

determine ACN ratio (or equivalent factors) for different aircrafts using the SAMDM and
compare it with ACN ratios calculated by using ICAOs traffic calculation method (UK
CAN-PCN classification) (ICAO UK, 1989), and

illustrate that the M-E design method can be used to accurately simulate aircraft loading and
to determine the structural bearing capacity requirements of an airport pavement structure.

For the purpose of this paper the preliminary design will mainly focus on the analysis of the
runway.

2. BACKGROUND

The airport runway identified for analysis purposes is situated in Angola and is approximately
3.4 kilometers long and at an altitude of about 1982 m above sea level. The runway was
constructed in 1961 and was until recently mainly used as a military airport. The asphalt
surfacing on the outer shoulders of the runway shows severe signs of distress. The centre 20 to
25 m of the main runway is in a better condition since the asphalt surfacing was replaced in
1994 using a 50 mm thick asphalt surfacing. This relatively new surfacing is not of a good
quality and is also exhibiting distress in terms of inter alia cracking. The visual condition
investigation / inspection of the airport showed clearly that the runway, taxiway and apron are in
urgent need for rehabilitation.

The existing asphalt surfacing (AC) layer varies in thickness between 50 and 70 mm. The base
layer along the runway, taxiways and the apron consists of a large stone Waterbound Macadam
(WBM) with sand used as a filler material. The layer varies in thickness between 80 and 100mm
for the runway and 150 mm for the taxiways and aprons. This Waterbound Macadam (WM)
layer was placed on a 150 mm subbase layer, which consists of an imported gravel sand layer
(ferricrete).

Due to logistical problems, it was not an option to use sophisticated testing methods (e.g.
measurement of deflections etc) to characterize the pavement and to determine the material
properties of the different pavement layers. Hence, the engineers were to obtain maximum
information using easily transportable equipment and testing methods (non-destructive) such as
the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP). In South Africa, the measurement of the in-situ shear
strength of the pavement layers using a DCP is well established (Jordaan, 1994a),
(Kleyn et al, 1987), (Kleyn, 1984), (Kleyn and Savage, 1982), (DOT, 1997). The DCP is used to
measure the rate of penetration (DN) through the various components (layers) of the pavement
structure. The penetration is a function of the in-situ shear strength of the material and the
profile in depth thereof gives an indication of the effective in-situ properties of the materials in all
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the pavement layers up to a depth of penetration (800 mm is recommended). The California

Bearing Capacity (CBR) test, which are required as an input parameter into the ICAO design,
also gives an indication of the shear strength of the material but has the typical limitation of all
similar laboratory tests, such as unnatural conditions, which makes it difficult and time
consuming to obtain the in-situ prevailing pavement condition. Although in principle the DCP
and CBR both measure the shear strength of the material, the DCP has the advantage that it is
non-destructive, easy to transport and use and allows for the detailed in-situ evaluation and
analysis of pavement structures and their different layers (Jordaan, 1994a), (Kleyn et al, 1987),
(Kleyn, 1984), (Kleyn and Savage, 1982). Good correlations were found and documented
between the DCP measurements and the well known California Bearing Capacity (CBR) of
granular materials and the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of cemented materials
(Kleyn, 1984), (Kleyn and Savage, 1982), (DOT, 1997). The DCP test results, together with test
pits, are also used to determine the thicknesses of the different layers, which have similar shear
properties. The different layer thicknesses are of utmost importance in the design approach and
required as input into both the SAMDM and ICAO design methods.

Information obtained from the DCP testing is used to get appropriate input values (CBR and
Stiffness (E-moduli)) into existing design models (e.g. the SAMDM and ICAO design method) in
order to determine the bearing capacity and design needs.

The material definitions and descriptions, e.g. Asphalt (ic) (Concrete) Surfacing (AC),
Waterbound Macadam (WM), Graded Crushed Stone (G1&G2) and Natural Gravel (G6), used
in this paper are well documented and described in TRH 14 (1987).

3. TRAFFIC LOADING

3.1 Number of Aircraft and Type

The following initial information was received from the client as a basis for the preliminary
analysis of the pavement structure:

Type of aircraft (currently using the airport): IL- 76T aircraft of 171 ton
(18 wheel configuration), and
B727 200 (design aircraft)

Frequency (Number of departures / day): 7 flights per day (given by client as a realistic
scenario)

Estimated ACN: 45
Design period: 20 years

During discussions with the client it was made clear that the runway must be designed to allow
its use by other types of aircraft.

The following large aircrafts were identified by the authorities to be included in the design
aircraft traffic mix (future):

IL-76T aircraft,

B727-200 aircraft,

B737-200 aircraft, and

B707-320B aircraft.

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4. DESIGN CRITERIA

4.1 Design Criteria Runway

The ICAO manuals (ICAO, 1983), (ICAO, 1999), (ICAO, 1984) give guidelines for the planning
of an airport (aerodrome) using certain aeroplane reference codes. The intent of the reference
codes is to provide a simple method for interrelating the numerous specifications concerning the
characteristics of aerodromes so as to provide a series of aerodrome facilities that are suitable
for the aeroplanes that are intended to operate at the airport. The codes are not intended to be
used for determining runway length or pavement requirements (ICAO, 1983). The code
comprise of the following two elements:

Code element 1 (Code number) - Aeroplane field length,

Code element 2 (Code letter) - Wing span and outer gear wheel span.

The particular specification of the airport is related to the more appropriate of the two elements
or a combination of the two elements. The code letter or number is related to the critical
aeroplane characteristics for which the facility is provided.

The identified design aircraft (B727-200) have the following characteristics (ICAO, 1983):

ACN (for flexible pavement) (CBR >15): 45

Wing Span: 32.9

Outer main wheel span 6.9

Taking the above into consideration as well as the characteristics of the other types of aircrafts
identified in using the airport, the airport reference codes (ICAO, 1984) composed for the airport
are as follows:

Code element 1 - Aeroplane field length >1800m (3400m) Code number = 4,

Code element 2 - Wing span (between 24m and 36m) and outer gear wheel span
(between 6m and 9m) Code letter = C

The characteristics of the various pavement layers of the runway were determined as discussed
in Section 5 of this paper. It is clear that the design CBR as determined using the various
percentile levels are all above a value of 15. Therefore, in terms of the ICAO definition there is
no doubt that the in-situ material represents a subgrade with a high CBR. It follows that all
calculations based on the ICAO manuals are done for the subgrade conditions with a High CBR.

4.2 Design Criteria Traffic

Using the scenario for a subgrade with a high CBR, the following Aircraft Classification Numbers
(ACN) are obtained for the various identified aircrafts:

IL-76T ACN - 37
B727-200 ACN - 45
B737-200 ACN - 22
B707-320B ACN - 42

It is clear that the ACN for the B727-200 aircraft is the highest, representing the aircraft that
requires the runway pavement with the highest bearing capacity. Taking the above into
consideration as well as the fact that it is envisaged that the B727-200 aircraft will most
frequently used the airport facilities, it was agreed that the B727-200 will be the design aircraft
for the airport.

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5. GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

5.1 Geotechnical Information and Material Investigation

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) tests were done along the centre line of the runway during
the visit to the airport.

During this investigation data were gathered in order to:

obtain a meaningful indication of the layer thicknesses, and

determine the material quality and properties and uniformity of the pavement structure.

Both these measurements are important input parameters required for the evaluation of the
pavement structure, analysis of pavement bearing capacity and to determine an appropriate
rehabilitation design for the pavement. The DCP tests were used to obtain the in-situ CBR of the
materials in all the pavement layers. The in-situ CBR values of the different pavement layers
were also used to derive the soaked CBR values of each pavement layer.

According to sound pavement engineering, the results of geotechnical/material tests should be

combined and statistically processed to obtain reliable design data based on a certain lower
percentile level. Hence, the data was processed and combined to obtain a 90-percentile (lower)
design profile (used in South Africa) (TRH12, 1997) of all the pavement layers of the runway in
depth, as well as the lower mean minus one standard deviation design profile (recommended in
the ICAO manual Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) design) (ICAO, 1983) of all the
pavement layers of the runway in depth. These results are shown in detail in Figure 1 and
summarised in Table 1.

The in-situ material characteristics for the different pavement layers are used in various design
methods as discussed in detail in the following sections dealing with the rehabilitation design of
the runway.

5.2 Test Pit and Layer Information

Due to the uniformity of the DCP measurements, only two tests pits were opened on the runway
in order to identify the pavement structures and properties of the different layers. The following
pavement structures were identified for the runway:

Surfacing 50 mm severely cracked Asphalt (ic) (Concrete) (AC) surfacing (The centre
20-25 m of the runway was repaired with a new asphalt in 1994 also cracked although
less severe).

Base 80 mm to 100 mm Waterbound Macadam (WBM) base

Subbase 150 mm Imported Coarse Gravel Sand (G6) (ferricrete)

Selected layer/s several imported/in-situ gravel/sand layers each about 100mm thick (G6)

Subgrade In-situ sand

6. INVESTIGATION AND DESIGN

6.1 General

Two methodologies or approaches are used to calculate the bearing strength or capacity (in
terms of coverages of the design aircraft) of the rehabilitated pavement of the runway.

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They are as follow:

International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) method (US FAA method) (ICAO, 1983) is
based on empirically derived design curves based on the CBR method (flexible pavement).

Mechanistic Design Method (SAMDM) (Jordaan, 1994), (Theyse et al, 1996) this method
is based on sound engineering principles, using basic material properties and characteristics
of the existing pavement structure together with the traffic loading to calculate the stresses
and strains in each pavement layer.

Both the abovementioned methods are internationally recognised as standard practice in

pavement evaluation and design.

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

-100

-200
Depth (mm)

-300

-400

-500

-600

-700

-800
% CBR (In-Situ & Soaked)
90th In-Situ CBR 90th Soaked CBR
FAA Soaked CBR FAA In-Situ CBR

Figure 1. 90th Percentile CBR/layer and the FAA CBR/layer.

6.2 Evaluation Methodology and Analysis of Data

6.2.1 ICAO (US FAA design) method

The ICAO (US FAA) method is based on empirically derived design curves, which are based on
the CBR method (flexible pavement) and the Unified Soil Classification System (ICAO, 1983).
This method has been used extensively and is well known in the pavement industry. The
material properties (CBR) calculated in the geotechnical investigation were used for analysis
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purposes. The in-situ CBR values of the different pavement layers were also used to derive the
soaked CBR values of each pavement layer.

Table 1. Summary of material properties (CBR and E-moduli values) calculated statistically
for the different pavement layers.
CBR values calculated from the DCP testing results
Pavement Layer 90th 90th (FAA Std.) (FAA Std.)
layers thickness Percentile Percentile Mean 1xStdev Mean
(mm) in-situ soaked in-situ 1xStdev
CBR CBR CBR soaked CBR
1 50 110 85 130 105
2 80 140 114 160 134
3 150 51 26 60 34
4 100 53 28 59 34
5 100 70 45 76 51
6 100 65 40 73 48
E-Moduli based on CBR values using E=10 x CBR (ICAO, 1983)
Pavement Layer 90th 90th (FAA Std.) (FAA Std.)
layers thickness Percentile Percentile in-situ soaked
(mm) in-situ soaked (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa) (MPa)
1 50 1100 850 1300 1050
2 80 1400 1140 1600 1340
3 150 510 260 600 340
4 100 530 280 590 340
5 100 700 450 760 510
6 100 650 400 730 480
E-Moduli based on penetration rate (DN) values using Eeff=10 (3.04785 1.06166 . log (DN))
(DOT, 1997)
Pavement Layer 90th (FAA Std.)
layers thickness Percentile soaked
(mm) soaked (MPa)
(MPa)
1 50 372 429
2 80 452 510
3 150 195 222
4 100 201 219
5 100 254 272
6 100 238 264
Final input data for pavement layers used in the mechanistic design analysis programme
Pavement Layer E-moduli Poisson Material definitions according to TRH 14
layers thickness (MPa) ratio (TRH14, 1987)
(mm)
0 100-150 2000 0.44 New Asphalt (ic) (Concrete) Overlay (AC)
1 50 600 0.35 Old cracked asphalt surfacing (AC) almost in an
equivalent granular state (failure - deformation)
properties similar to Graded Crushed Stone -
analysed as a G2 graded crushed stone
2 80 600 0.35 Waterbound Macadam (WM) properties
similar to Graded Crushed stone (failure -
deformation) analysed as a G1 graded
crushed stone
3 150 260 0.35 CBR>25 Natural gravel - (G6)
4-6 260 0.35 CBR>25 Natural gravel - (G6)

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According to sound pavement engineering, the results of the geotechnical/material tests should
be combined and statistically processed to obtain reliable design data based on a certain lower
percentile level. Hence, the data was processed and combined to obtain a lower mean minus
one standard deviation design profile of all the pavement layers of the runway in depth
(recommended in ICAO manual (FAA) design) (ICAO, 1983). These results are shown in
detail in Figure 1 and summarised in Table 1. The ICAO (CBR) design curves for the design
aircraft (B727-200 dual wheel gear) require the following design input parameters:

subgrade and subbase CBR (34 Table 1, minimum CBR of 20 (subgrade) was used for
calculations),

annual departures (1,785 for the design aircraft calculated in Table 2),

gross aircraft mass (84, 005kg ICAO), and

gear configurations (dual wheel gear - ICAO).

Based on the above design input parameters and the evaluation of the bearing capacity of the
pavement, the total required thickness (using Table 4-37 in the ICAO design manual), calculated
for the design aircraft is 380 mm (including the 100 mm bituminous surfacing layer). Thus,
according to the ICAO design method a total thickness of 150 mm asphalt surfacing (AC) is
required for the design traffic loading and a design period of 20 years.

Table 2. Traffic analysis for flexible pavements - based on ICAO design. (US FAA Practice)
(20 year design traffic) (ICAO, 1983).
Aircraft Gear No of Forecast Conversion Dual Maximum Wheel Wheel Equivalent
Type Type Daily Annual Factor Gear Take-off Load Load Annual
Depart. Depart. to Gear Depart. Weight (kg) - Design Depart.
Depart. (MTOW)* Aircraft - Design
(kg) (kg) Aircraft
IL-76T Dual-Tandem 2 730 1.7 1,241 171,000 10,150 19,950 161
B727-200# Dual 2 730 1.0 730 84,005 19,950 19,950 730
B737-200 Dual 1 365 1.0 365 45,722 10,860 19,950 78
B707-320B Dual-Tandem 2 730 1.7 1,241 148,778 17,670 19,950 816
#
Design Aircraft, * MTOW = Maximum Take Off Weight, Depart = Departures 1,785

6.2.2 The South African Mechanistic Design Method (SAMDM)

Methodology: The methodology and approach used for the evaluation and determination of the
structural bearing capacity of the pavement (equivalent coverages) of the runway, using the
SAMDM, are briefly described and involve the following steps:

Collection of all available data. This included a geotechnical investigation during which
available information on pavement structural data, test pits and material test results (DCP
(CBR) testing) are obtained,

Identification of uniform pavement sections. The identification of uniform pavement sections

are based on a holistic approach taking into account all available data such as as-built data,
material test results, geology and measurements giving an indication of the bearing capacity
of the different pavement layers. According to sound pavement engineering, the results of
geotechnical/material tests should be combined and statistically processed to obtain reliable
design data based on a certain lower percentile level. Hence, the data was processed and
combined to obtain a 90-percentile (lower) design profile (used in South Africa)
(TRH12, 1997) of all the pavement layers of the runway in depth (Jordaan, 1994),
(Theyse et al, 1996). The structural condition (visually detected as well as measured) do not
vary along the length of the runway (similar geology along the runway length) and the
runway was therefore not subdivided into several uniform sections for analysis purposes.

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Characterisation of the pavement layers. The pavement layers are characterised in terms of
the elastic modulus, Poisson ratio and thickness of each pavement layer. The material
properties (i.e. effective elastic moduli (E-moduli) etc) derived from the material testing are
summarised in Table 1 and involved the following steps:
- First: Determination of the CBR values. The following empirical relationships between
the DCPs penetration rate (DN value=penetration rate (mm/blow)) and CBR were used
to determine the CBR values of the different pavement layers (DOT, 1997):

CBR=66.66 DN2 330 DN + 563.33 DN<2, (Eq.1)

CBR=410 DN 1.27 DN>2 (Eq.2)

- Second: Determination of the Effective Elastic Moduli (Eeff). The following two empirical
relationship between DCP and Effective Elastic Moduli were used to determine the
stiffness (Eeff) of the different pavement layers:

E=10 CBR (Recommended by ICAO), (ICAO, 1983) (Eq.3)

Eeff=10 (3.04785 1.06166 x log (DN)), (DOT, 1997) (Eq.4)

The final material properties that have been used as input into the M-E design model are
summarised in Table 1. Due to the fact that it was extremely difficult to use sophisticated testing
methods to accurately characterise and determine the material properties of the pavement
layers (e.g. deflection measurements etc) the use of rudimentary tests (e.g. DCP) and input
values derived from these tests need to be used with caution. Experience and engineering
judgement were used to determine the final input values for the elastic modulus of the pavement
layers derived from the DCP test results.

Development of a M-E model (computer based) of the pavement structures using one of the
available linear elastic software packages, allows for the simulation of the effect of any load
(e.g. any aircraft) on the pavement structure. The following input data is required by the
Mechanistic Analysis software programme for calculation purposes:
- contact tyre pressure (1.02 MPa) and design load (198kN) (e.g. for the design aircraft
B727-200),
- number of wheels and position (dual wheel 86cm spacing),
- material properties including the estimated effective elastic moduli (elastic stiffness). The
effective elastic moduli were derived from the CBR results obtained from the
geotechnical investigation as shown in Figure 1 and Table 1 using engineering
judgement and procedures recommended by the SAMDM,
- Poissons ratio of each layer typical values used in South Africa,
- layer type and description (Table 1),
- number of pavement layers (Figure 1 and Table 1),
- layer thicknesses (Figure 1 and Table 1),
- calculation of the associated stresses and strains using a linear elastic software
programme (e.g. Elsym 5 and CHEV15),

Calculation of the structural bearing capacity (number of coverages) of the different

pavement layers in the proposed pavement model. An important aspect in the calculation of
the number of coverages of the design aircraft is to take lateral wandering into account. The
lateral wander of loads over a trafficked section has a significant influence on the calculated
pavement response. Unlike the random variation in other design parameters (which can
cause either a decrease or increase in calculated pavement response parameters), the
traffic wander always causes a decrease in the calculated stress or strain response,
because any degree of wander constitutes a movement away from the evaluation positions.
Lateral wander typically increases with lane width.

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Because of the significant effect that traffic wandering has on the calculated pavement
response, it is important to determine beforehand whether the transfer function that will be used
for interpreting the calculated pavement response already takes into account the effect of lateral
wander. If the transfer function is based on laboratory results, then it is possible that lateral
wander is not taken into account in the transfer function. However, if the transfer function is
based on long-term field evaluation (Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) testing), coupled with
mechanistic design calculations, then traffic wander has already been taken (indirectly) into
account. Thus, lateral wandering has already been indirectly taken into account using the
transfer functions in the SAMDM.

A typical example of the output model obtained from the mechanistic analysis is shown in
Figure 2. The mechanistic design method allow for the calculation of pavement life to a state
of cracking or deformation originating in any of the pavement layers (inter alia, deflection
based relationships are based on pavement life to a rut depth of 10 mm). Transfer functions
are used to determine the fatigue life of the different pavement layers (failure curves) in
order to calculate the bearing strength capacity of the pavement. Failure criteria, given in
Table 3, are used to determine the total number of coverages / repetitions of the design
loading that any of the pavement layers in the pavement model can carry before reaching a
defined level of distress. The transfer functions and the failure criteria used in the
mechanistic analysis are based on the SAMDM, which are internationally recognised and
well documented (Jordaan, 1994), (Theyse et al, 1996). The transfer functions and failure
criteria will not be discussed in detail in this paper.
Table 3. Failure criteria for different material types (Jordaan, 1994), (Theyse et al, 1996).

Material type Mode of Critical failure criteria

distress Horizontal Vertical Horizontal
strain strain stress
(r) (v) ()
Asphalt (ic) (Concrete) (AC) Cracking X
Overlay or
Bitumen Treated Layer (BTB or Deformation X
DBM)
Large Aggregate Mixes for Bases
(LAMBS)
Emulsion Treated Material (ETB) Cracking X
Cement Treated Materials (C1 Cracking X
C4)
Equivalent granular materials Deformation X
(Post crack) (EG3-EG6)
Granular Materials (G1 G6) Deformation X
Subgrade or soils (G7-G10) Deformation X

ICAOs FAA design procedure and approach (ICAO, 1983) was used to get a preliminary
indication of the additional strength that will be required during the rehabilitation of the runway.
Information obtained from the empirically derive curves indicated that the existing pavement
structure will require an asphalt overlay of approximately 150 mm in order to be able to carry the
future design traffic loading for a 20 year design period.

Based on the FAA design output requirements, several mechanistic design analyses were done,
inter alia, for a new 100 mm and 150 mm asphalt overlay. Details of the input parameters and
the respective analysis are given in Table 1 and Figure 2 (a typical example).

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The design aircrafts (B727-200) bearing capacity (number of equivalent coverages) for the two
proposed rehabilitated pavement structures, (using the SAMDM approach), are as follows:

150 mm overlay = 21,378 total equivalent coverages,

100 mm overlay = 15,738 total equivalent coverages.

6.3 Comparison Between Bearing Capacity and Design Life Obtained from the
Different Methods

In order to compare (validation) the two rehabilitation design methods output, the following two
criteria were assessed for comparison:

design life (number of years) of the pavement, and

number of equivalent coverages.

The basis used for comparison is founded in the outcome of the ICAO empirically design
method, where the existing pavement requires a 150 mm asphalt surfacing over a design period
of 20 years. Thus, the two design methods can be compared by calculating the design life
(number of years) that can be expected for the same rehabilitation actions (e.g. 150 mm AC
overlay) using different design methods (ICAO and mechanistic). This can be achieved by
dividing the total number of equivalent coverages calculated by the mechanistic design for a
150 mm AC overlay (21,378) with the total number of equivalent annual coverages. The
following two different approaches were used in order to assess and calculate the annual
required equivalent coverages:

Using ICAOs United Kingdom (UK) ACN-PCN Classification to calculate the total equivalent
annual coverages of the typical design aircraft (B727-200) (ICAO UK, 1989),

Using the Mechanistic Design Method (SAMDM), as described in (Jordaan, 1994),

(Theyse et al, 1996), for the recommended aircraft mix to calculate the annual equivalent
coverages

6.3.1 Calculation of total equivalent annual coverages for the typical design aircraft
(B727-200) using ICAOS-UK ACN-PCN classification method
The calculation of the total equivalent annual coverages for the typical design aircraft
(B727-200) using ICAOs - UK ACN-PCN classification method (ICAO UK, 1989) is given in
Table 4. The total annual equivalent coverages were both calculated for a 10 and a 20 year
design period.

Based on the analysis, the following annual equivalent coverages for the typical design aircraft
were calculated:

10 year design 994 equivalent coverages/year,

20 year design 1,082 equivalent coverages/year.

Using the above 10 year and 20 year annual equivalent coverages, an average equivalent
coverage of 1,038 was calculated for the typical design aircraft (B727-200). Hence, the
expected design life (number of years) for the proposed rehabilitation actions using the
mechanistic design approach together with the average equivalent annual coverage derived
from the ICAO-UK ACN-PCN classification method is as follows:

150 mm overlay = 20.6 years,

100 mm overlay = 15.2 years.

This compares well with the 20 year design life obtained from the ICAO design.

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6.3.2 Calculation of total effective coverages using mechanistic design analysis

procedures for different aircraft types
The same approach that has been followed to calculate the total equivalent coverages for the
design aircraft has been used to calculate the total equivalent coverages for the different aircraft
types in the aircraft design mix using mechanistic design analysis procedures. The total
equivalent coverages for each aircraft type has been modelled in the mechanistic analysis
programme using their unique load and tyre pressures as input into the programme. The
calculated bearing capacity of the pavement structure for each aircraft type from the
mechanistic design analysis was then used to calculate the equivalent repetition factor
(ACN ratio) for each aircraft in terms of the design aircraft. The equivalent repetition factors
calculated for the different aircraft types are summarised in Table 5.

The total annual equivalent coverages were both calculated for a 10 and a 20 year design
period.

Based on the analysis, the following annual equivalent coverages for the typical design aircraft
were calculated:

10 year design 1,009 equivalent coverages/year,

20 year design 904 equivalent coverages/year.

The calculated equivalent repetition factors (equivalency factors), correlate well with the ACN
ratio factors calculated in Table 4 using the ICAOs UK ACN-PCN classification method
(ICAO UK, 1989). These repetition factors derived from the mechanistic analysis incorporates
the effect of each aircraft and are now used to calculate the effective annual coverages of the
design traffic loading. Using the above 10 year and 20 year annual equivalent coverages, an
average equivalent coverage of 957 was calculated for the typical design aircraft (B727-200).

The average total life (number of years) for typical rehabilitation actions, inter alia considered, is
as follow:

150 mm overlay = 22.3 years,

100 mm overlay = 16.4 years.

Taking all the above into consideration, both the identified methods (ICAO and the SAMDM)
give similar estimated predicted life of the proposed rehabilitation actions. For the 100 mm
overlay design it is estimated that the pavement will be able to carry the design traffic loading
(equivalent coverages) for a pavement life of approximately between 15.2 and 16.4 years
provided that adequate routine maintenance are provided. Likewise, for a 150 mm overlay the
pavement life can be expected to be between 20.6 and 22.3 years. The mechanistic-empirical
design method can be used to predict the design life (number of years) for a rehabilitation action
proposed, which is not always possible with the ICAO (FAA) design method.

6.3.3 Comparison of the equivalent repetition factor (ACN ratio) derived from the
SAMDM with the ICAO ACN factors
The equivalent repetition factors (ACN ratios) derived from the SAMDM and ICAOs ACN ratios
are summarised in Tables 4 and 5 and diagrammatically shown in Figure 2. As can be seen
from these results, the equivalent repetition factors (ACN ratio) calculated by using the SAMDM
for the different aircraft in the design mix compare well with the ACN ratio calculated by using
ICAOs UK ACN-PCN classification method (ICAO UK, 1989). These results are found to be
comparable irrespective of the different assumptions built into each method. The advantage of
calculating the equivalent repetition factors with the mechanistic-empirically design method is
that an equivalent repetition factor for a specified aircraft design mix and a typical pavement
structure can now be determined/simulated accurately.

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Table 4. Equivalent annual coverages calculated for the design aircraft (B727-200) for a traffic
loading for flexible pavement using ICAOs UK ACN-PCN classification method (ICAO UK, 1989).
Aircraft Main *ACN Pass-to- No of Annual Coverage *ACN Flexible Modified Equivalent
Wheel Coverage Daily Depart During Ratio Mix Flexible Coverages -
Config Ratio Depart. Design Traffic Mixed Design
Life Factor Traffic Aircraft
(20 years) (FMTF) Factor (B727-200)
(20 years) (6)x(7) (20 years)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
Dual-
IL-76T 37 1.6 2 730 9,125 0.82 1.01 0.831 7,581
Tandem
B727-
Dual 45 3.2 2 730 4,563 1.00 0.91 4,563
200#
B737-200 Dual 22 3.2 1 365 2,281 0.49 0.80 0.393 897
B707- Dual-
42 1.6 2 730 9,125 0.93 1.01 0.943 8,605
320B Tandem
# 2555 Total Coverages 21,646
Design Aircraft
*ACN - Aircraft Classification Number Total Annual Coverages (20 years) 1,082
Depart. = Departures; Config. = Configuration Total Annual Coverages (10 years) 994

Table 5. Effective annual coverages of the design traffic using equivalency factors derived from
the SAMDM (100mm).
Aircraft Main No of No of Pass-to- Effective Equivalent Effective Effective
Wheel Daily Annual Coverage Coverage Repetition Annual Annual
Configuration Depart. Depart. Ratio / Year Factor Coverage / Coverage
(*ACN (Design (20 Year
ratio) Aircraft) Design)
IL-76T Dual-Tandem 2 730 1.6 456 0.69 316 6,328
B727-200# Dual 2 730 3.2 228 1.00 228 4,563
B737-200 Dual 1 365 3.2 114 0.46 52 1,049
B707-320B Dual-Tandem 2 730 1.6 456 0.90 412 8,237
#
Design Aircraft; *ACN - Aircraft Classification Number; Depart. = Departures 1,009 20,176

Figure 2. Equivalency factors / ACN ratios for the different aircraft as determined
by different methods (SAMDM & ICAO).
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7. CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are made:

It was demonstrated that excellent comparative results could be obtained between ICAOs
empirically design method (FAA design method) and the mechanistic-empirical (SAMDM)
design method. Both the two methods predict the same pavement design life and the total
number of coverages for a similar proposed rehabilitation design action.

The fact that rudimentary tests results, obtained from easily transported equipment that is
non-destructive (Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP), were used to characterize the
different pavement layers and served as input into the Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E)
(SAMDM) design method shows great promise in analysing airport pavement structures in
remote areas. However, experience and engineering judgement are required to incorporate
such results meaningfully.

Equivalent repetition factors (ACN ratios) calculated by using the SAMDM for the different
aircraft in the design mix compare well with the ACN ratio calculated by using ICAOs UK
ACN-PCN classification method (ICAO UK, 1989). The advantage of calculating the
equivalent repetition factors with the mechanistic-empirically design method is that an
equivalent repetition factor for a specified aircraft design mix and a typical pavement
structure can now be determined/simulated accurately.

The M-E design method can be used to accurately simulate different aircraft loadings and
determine the bearing capacity (the total number of equivalent aircraft coverages) for a
pavement structure.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The paper is presented with the permission of the Angola Ministry of Public Works and the
Ministry of Airports. The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the Ministries.

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Kleyn, E.G. (1984). Aspects of pavement evaluation and design as determined with the
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