Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING

A Typology of Training Design and

Work Environment Factors Affecting
Workplace Learning and Transfer
DARLENE RUSS-EFT
American Institutes for Research

The purpose of this article is to develop a typology of elements involved in

the design of training as well as in the work environment that affect work-
place learning and transfer. This typology focuses on elements that can be
manipulated by the human resource development (HRD) researcher and
practitioner as part of the HRD implementation rather than on
dispositional and personality characteristics of individuals participating
in the intervention. It identifies elements within the work environment, as
well as elements before, during, and after training. By presenting a
typology, this article provides a first step in theory building or a theory of
the middle range. Furthermore, it leads to implications for future theoret-
ical development, research, and practice.

Human resource development (HRD) is defined as a set of systematic and

planned activities designed by an organization to provide its members with
the opportunities to learn necessary skills to meet current and future job
demands (DeSimone, Werner, & Harris, 2002, p. 3). These authors sug-
gested that learning forms the core of HRD efforts. They also stated that

a main goal of HRD is to ensure that employees perform their jobs effectively. In
addition to learning and retaining new material, employees must also use it on the
job to improve performance. The transfer of training to the job situation is criti-
cally important to the success of HRD efforts. (p. 88)

Baldwin and Fords (1988) transfer of training model identified the training
inputs as including trainee characteristics, training design, and work environ-
ment. Given potential ethical issues involved in selecting or manipulating
trainee characteristics, the present article focuses on elements in the training
design and the work environment. (See Naquin & Holton, in press, for a contrary
argument.) Its purpose is to present a typology of such elements from training
situations that can be manipulated and used to enhance workplace learning and
transfer. Furthermore, these elements are ones that appear in recent research on
learning and transfer.

Human Resource Development Review Vol. 1, No. 1 March 2002 45-65

2002 Sage Publications
46 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

Typologies as Theories of the Middle Range

Rather than present a theoretical model, the present article focuses on the
development of a typology or taxonomy of training design and work envi-
ronment factors that affect training transfer. Some argue that a theory
involves a specification of the relationships among certain variables and that
a typology or taxonomy does not constitute a theory (Bacharach, 1989;
Blalock, 1969; Scott, 1981). Indeed, Dubin (1969) stated that a theoretical
model includes four features. First, a theory begins with the identification of
variables or units. This is followed by a specification of the laws of interac-
tion governing these variables or units. Third, a theory describes the limits
or boundaries for the theory or theoretical model. Finally, a theory identifies
various system states and indicates the ways in which the variables or
units interact within each of these different states.
By presenting a typology, this article identifies certain variables or units
and represents the first step in Dubins (1969) approach to theory building.
As such, it provides a theory of the middle range (Merton, 1968). Both
Pinder and Moore (1979) and Doty and Glick (1994) argued for such theo-
ries of the middle range in general and for typologies more specifically. Fur-
thermore, Doty and Glick (1994) stated that typologies are complex theo-
retical statements (p. 231).
Typologies enable the theorist to identify and put together similar or like
entities. They offer an advantage by providing for chunking or grouping
these entities, thus allowing large amounts of information . . . [to] be col-
lapsed into more convenient categories that would be easier to process, store
and comprehend (Carper & Snizek, 1980, p. 73). At the same time, because
of smaller within-cell variance, change can be better predicted (Bobko &
Russell, 1991, p. 295).
Typologies or taxonomies can be created empirically, through clustering
or factor analysis (Pinder & Moore, 1979). Although empirically derived
taxonomies may excel in their ability to predict differences, they lack
generalizability to different organizations and situations (Bobko & Russell,
1991). To provide the basis for theory, research, and practice in a wide vari-
ety of organizations, the present article focuses on the development of a
typology of elements leading to workplace learning and performance through
the use of theoretical derivation based on existing research (Bobko & Rus-
sell, 1991; Doty & Glick, 1994).

A Typology of Workplace Learning and Transfer

Figure 1 presents a typology of training design and work environment
elements that affect workplace learning and transfer. Prior to discussing
each of these in detail, it is important to describe the development and place-
ment of these elements. The development of this typology and some of the
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 47

Situational Elements
(or the Transfer Environment)

Supervisor support
Supervisor sanction
Workload
Opportunity to use
Peer support
Posttraining Elements
Pretraining Elements Training Design Elements (training initiated)

Persuasive message linking Advance organizers Relapse prevention

mastery and job survival
Realistic training previews
Voluntary versus involuntary
Guided discovery
Error-based learning
versus distal
Metacognitive instruction
Learner control
Mastery orientation
versus performance
orientation
Self-management
Goal setting: proximal
Training in self-talk
Visualization
Posttraining follow-up

Practice:
behavioral practice versus
symbolic practice;
spaced practice;
variable examples/practice;
random practice;
overlearning
Coaching/feedback/
scaffolding

FIGURE 1: Elements to Enhance Transfer of Training

included elements were initially identified in the work of Baldwin and Ford
(1988). Later, Broad and Newstrom (1992) suggested that important trans-
fer elements exist before, during, and after the training. Thus, the structure
of the typology identifies pretraining elements, training design elements,
and posttraining elements.
The typology also includes elements from the work environment as origi-
nally suggested by Baldwin and Ford (1988). Later, Rouillier and Goldstein
(1993) confirmed that these work environment elements may actually lead
to greater transfer than various aspects of the training. More recently,
48 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

Holton, Bates, Seyler, and Carvalho (1997) and Holton, Bates, and Ruona
(2000) provided research on an instrument measuring transfer climate, or in
other words, the work environment facilitating or inhibiting transfer of the
training to the job.

Situational Elements
The following situational elements emerge from the work of Baldwin and
Ford (1989), Rouillier and Goldstein (1993), and Holton et al. (1997, 2000).
Note that several of the elements identified in Holton et al. (2000) could be
considered personality or individual factors, such as motivation to transfer,
personal capacity to transfer, perceived content validity, and others. These
factors have been omitted because they may not be easily manipulated by the
HRD researcher or practitioner. Other factors, such as transfer design and
performance coaching, are discussed in other sections of the typology.
At this point, it seems appropriate to mention that the placement of ele-
ments within this typology, or any typology, can be problematic. The
notion of taxonomies (or categories) implies that elements under analysis
(individuals, tasks, etc.) can be placed in discrete, mutually exclusive cate-
gories. However, it may be that there are underlying continuities involved
(Bobko & Russell, 1991, p. 304). For example, performance coaching,
placed as a training design element in the present typology, could be
included as an element in the work environment or as one of the posttraining
elements. As another example, goal setting could be undertaken as a
pretraining intervention, as part of the training design, or as part of the
posttraining intervention. For the present article, these elements will be
placed in accordance with the empirical studies cited in the various sections.

Supervisor Support
This element refers to situations in which supervisors provide reinforce-
ment for the use of learning on the job. It includes working with trainees to
set goals to use learning, giving trainees assistance, providing a model of the
trained behaviors, and offering positive reinforcement for the use of skills.
Baldwin and Ford (1988), in examining the influence of the work environ-
ment on transfer of training, noted that supervisory support is considered a
key environmental variable. Taylor (1992) found a positive correlation
between ratings of support from immediate supervisors and training
outcomes.

Supervisor Sanctions
This element, which can be viewed as the negative side of supervisor sup-
port, emerged in Holton et al.s (1997, 2000) work as an independent and
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 49

separate factor. It includes supervisors indifference to trainees use of

trained skills, negative feedback or no feedback, and active opposition to the
use of skills. Indeed, Mathieu, Tannenbaum, and Salas (1992) found that
trainees reporting situational constraints, such as lack of time, equipment,
and resources, expressed lower motivation to learn at the beginning of
training.

Workload

Time and energy are needed to facilitate learning and transfer; the indi-
viduals workload may contribute to or hinder such learning and transfer. For
example, Porras and Hargis (1982) found a negative correlation between on-
the-job skill use and the factors of role conflict, overload, and job-generated
stress. Decker and Nathan (1985) reported the individuals workload as an
important factor affecting training success. Russ-Eft (2001), however,
reviewed some of the literature on workload and stress and indicated that
further efforts are needed to untangle the complex relationships shown in
previous research. Finally, The Holton et al. (1997, 2000) work confirmed
this factor, providing a label of personal capacity to transfer.

Opportunities to Use
In this case, trainees are provided with the resources and tasks that allow
them to use the trained skills on the job. This includes needed time and
resources to use the training. Baldwin and Ford (1988) included this element
as part of their model. Later, Ford, Quinones, Sego, and Sorra (1992) found
significant differences among air force technical trainees in the opportunity
to apply what they had learned. Pentland (1989) found that attempts to prac-
tice computer skills immediately upon returning to the job had a major
impact on long-term retention. Supervisor and peer support was related to
these opportunities to perform trained tasks. Indeed, the importance of
supervisory support for training appears in the provision of opportunities to
perform the skills learned during training (Quinones, Ford, Sego, & Smith,
1992).

Peer Support

This element, as described by Holton et al. (1997), involves peers pro-

viding reinforcement for trainees use of learning on the job. It includes
helping trainees set goals to use the training, giving trainees some assis-
tance, and offering positive feedback for the use of skills. Note the relation-
ship to the element of opportunity to use.
50 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

Pretraining Interventions

Pretraining interventions tend to prepare trainees for the training experi-

ence. Each of these may be related to the factor of learner readiness identi-
fied by Holton et al. (2000).

Persuasive Message

Haccoun (1996) demonstrated the effectiveness of a persuasive message.

Such a message draws the trainees attention to the links between mastery of
the skill and job survival. Haccoun (1997) suggested other approaches, such
as pre-training pep talks, group discussions about the reasons for training,
and emphasizing the marketability of the new skills (p. 342).

Realistic Training Previews

Realistic training previews may lead to higher levels of motivation
regarding the training. Hicks and Klimoski (1987), for example, compared a
realistic preview with the traditional pretraining announcement. The realis-
tic preview contained the following elements: (a) outcomes expected from
the workshop, (b) content indicating specific topics and expected home-
work, (c) expected evaluation procedures, (d) an indication of who should
attend, and (e) workshop leaders, dates, times, and locations. The traditional
announcement contained (a) outcomes expected from the workshop (very
brief and positive), (b) content (very brief), and (c) workshop dates, times,
and locations. The realistic preview resulted in significantly higher levels of
commitment to attend the training and motivation to learn from the training.
Further research is needed to determine whether such motivational factors
enhance training outcomes.

Voluntary Versus Mandatory Training

The voluntary nature of training appears to result in better outcomes as
compared with mandatory training (Martocchio, 1992; Mathieu et al.,
1992). Nevertheless, such voluntary participation may be difficult to moti-
vate, particularly if training requires some effort and is perceived as involv-
ing some evaluation (Hesketh, 1997; McLean, 1998). For example, Hicks
and Klimoski (1987) examined the issue of voluntary and mandatory train-
ing. Of those with a high degree of choice, 46 (17% [of the 263 managers
and supervisors]) attended the training, whereas 55 (71% [of the 77 manag-
ers and supervisors]) who had a low degree of choice attended (p. 545).
Nevertheless, these researchers found that . . . participants who had a high
degree of choice received higher achievement test scores and reported that
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 51

they learned more from the training than those who had a low degree of
choice (p. 548).

Training Design Strategies

These training design strategies relate to a variety of theoretical perspec-

tives and will be discussed separately. Training design strategies refer to
manipulations undertaken during training (Broad & Newstrom, 1992). Fur-
thermore, they may be related to the factor of transfer design, defined as the
degree to which (1) training has been designed and delivered to give trainees
the ability to transfer learning to the job, and (2) training instructions match
job requirements (Holton et al., 2000, p. 345).

Advance Organizers
Ausubel (1968) defined advance organizers as materials presented at the
beginning of training that provide a framework for the training. As such, we
might consider advance organizers to be related to notions included in cog-
nitive theories and schema theories in which learners actively process infor-
mation. Indeed, Mayer (1979) suggested that advance organizers allow
trainees to organize and retain material to be learned. In his study, Mayer
operationalized the advance organizer by using an analogy from the individ-
uals previous experience (using scoreboards, ticket windows, and shopping
lists to train people to program a computer). Such advance organizers should
include a demonstration of the end goal (Glaser & Bassok, 1989). Note that
advance organizers that are inconsistent with the information that follows
can create contextual interference. This can force the learner to stop and
think while trying to reconcile the inconsistency. Thus, with the inconsis-
tency, immediate performance may be worse, but transfer performance is
improved (as compared with advance organizers that are consistent with
training). In addition, an advance organizer condition in which trainees cre-
ate their own organization of the material can lead to more adaptive transfer
(e.g., DiVesta & Peverly, 1984).

Guided Discovery
In contrast to traditional learning methods that provide trainees with the
task, its concepts, rules, and strategies, discovery learning forces trainees to
explore and experiment with the task to infer and learn the concepts, rules,
and strategies (e.g., Hermann, 1969). Such ideas seem related to the notion
of having authentic training, as incorporated into situated cognition. Early
research indicated that such discovery learning led to greater transfer, par-
ticularly for complex tasks. Such learning can result in higher levels of moti-
vation (Singer & Pease, 1976), greater attention to the application of strate-
52 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

gies (McDaniel & Schlager, 1990; Veenman, Elshout, & Busato, 1994), and
better integration with existing knowledge structures (Egan & Greeno,
1973; Frese et al., 1988). More recent formulations (Frese et al., 1988;
Smith, 1995; Smith, Ford, & Kozlowski, 1997) suggest that providing guid-
ance to learners in forming hypotheses about the material and in testing
ideas can be beneficial in reducing the burden on the trainee and the instruc-
tional time required for such learning. Note that more research can be used
to confirm such speculations.

Error-Based Learning

Although behaviorists recommended minimizing incorrect responses

(e.g., Skinner, 1987), researchers from the cognitive perspective, including
both cognitive and situated cognitive theorists, have argued that making
errors can be beneficial. Specifically, errors elicit attention, alert trainees to
incorrect assumptions, and force increasing mental processing (e.g., Frese
et al., 1988; Ivancic & Hesketh, 1995). Providing error management strate-
gies can enable trainees to overcome negative motivational consequences.
Such strategies include (a) focusing trainees on the beneficial aspects of
error for learning, (b) identifying the information that such errors can pro-
vide, and (c) helping trainees determine what caused an error and how it can
be avoided in the future.

Metacognitive Instruction
Metacognition refers to an awareness of ones cognitive processes and a
monitoring and evaluating of selected strategies while performing tasks
(Etelapelto, 1993). Instruction in metacognitive processing comes from
schema theory. Such metacognitive processing can be enhanced by encour-
aging trainees to (a) identify learning and skill goals, (b) generate new ideas,
(c) elaborate on existing ideas, and (d) strive for better understanding
(Scardamalia, Bereiter, & Steinbach, 1984). Increasing learning control and
encouraging a mastery orientation appear to promote the development of
metacognitive skills (Smith et al., 1997). It should be noted that this instruc-
tion can be used as a pretraining intervention.

Learner Control

Steinberg (1989) argued that giving learners control over instructional

elements facilitates metacognitive processing, again stemming from
schema theory. Such control can include choice over the content, sequence,
and pacing of instruction. This learner control can allow trainees to focus
more time on material that is difficult for them (Wilson & Cole, 1991).
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 53

Mastery Orientation Versus Performance Orientation

Trainees can be encouraged to adopt either of these orientations toward

training (Stevens & Gist, 1996). A mastery orientation leads trainees to
believe that training will result in improved outcomes, development of new
skills, and use of self-referenced standards. In contrast, a performance ori-
entation leads trainees to believe that ability is demonstrated by performing
better than others perform and to use normative-based standards. Research
on classroom settings emphasizing mastery or performance has shown sig-
nificant differences. Mastery goals lead students to (a) use more effective
learning strategies, (b) prefer challenging tasks, (c) express more positive
attitudes about the class, and (d) indicate a stronger belief that success will
come from effort (Ames & Archer, 1988). Performance goals lead students
to (a) focus on their abilities, (b) evaluate their abilities negatively, and
(c) attribute failure to their lack of ability. In addition, when facing challeng-
ing tasks, those with mastery goals tend to persistence, whereas those with
performance goals tend to avoid such tasks (Dweck, 1986; Dweck &
Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988). Although much of the research has
examined training orientation as part of the training, Stevens and Gist
(1996) incorporated it as part of a posttraining intervention.

Practice
One of the basic tenets of behaviorism and connectionism is practice
makes perfect, which could be referred to as Thorndikes law of frequency.
Some recent (and not so recent) research suggests that certain forms of prac-
tice may prove more effective than others. The following subsections will
explore some of these: behavioral versus symbolic practice, variable exam-
ples or practice, spaced practice, random practice, and overlearning.
Behavioral versus symbolic practice. Behavioral practice refers to some
reproduction of the skills, and suggestions for such behavioral practice would
seem to come from behaviorist and connectionist theories. In behavior modeling
training, this tends to take the form of structured role-playing exercises. This
type of practice has been compared with symbolic rehearsal or practice, in
which trainees practice by mentally manipulating symbols representing certain
behaviors. Such mental practice might be considered as related to cognitive or
schema theories. Some studies showed superior reproduction of trained behav-
iors with behavioral practice (e.g., Decker, 1983; Stone & Vance, 1976). Other
studies found superior retention and generalization with symbolic practice
(Bandura, Jeffery, & Bachicha, 1974; Decker, 1980, 1982).
Perhaps reproduction can be enhanced with behavioral practice, whereas
retention and generalization can be enhanced with symbolic practice. More
54 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

research is needed to determine which practice condition leads to the spe-

cific desired outcome.
Variable examples or practice. Research in the area of motor performance
has shown the effectiveness of variable practice as suggested by some cognitive
theorists. For example, Kerr and Booth (1978) asked 8-year-old children to toss
miniature beanbags at a target. In the variable practice group, the children prac-
ticed throwing at the target from 2 feet to 4 feet, whereas in the constant practice
group, the children always practiced using a target that was 3 feet away. Those in
the variable practiced performed with fewer errors, even though the criterion
distance was set at 3 feet. Other research has shown that variable practice leads
to improved generalization to novel situations (e.g., Lee, Magill, & Weeks,
1985; Van Rossum, 1990).
Similar findings have been shown in the use of variable models in behav-
ior modeling training. The use of either positive models only or a mixture of
positive and negative models resulted in the highest levels of behavior
change and cognitive gain (e.g., Mills, 1985; Newman & Fuqua, 1988;
Russ-Eft & Zuchelli, 1987; Trimble, Decker, & Nathan, 1991). Baldwin
(1994), for example, examined the effects of positive and negative models
on retention and generalization. He found that the mixed-model condition
significantly improved the behavior on the generalization task.
Spaced practice. Research over the past century confirms the general superi-
ority of spaced practice (Dempster, 1988; Ebbinghaus, 1885/1964; Jost, 1897).
Spaced practice refers to situations in which training or practice is interspersed
with periods of no training or practice. Such spaced training can be contrasted
with massed training and practice, in which these take place at one time. The per-
formance gains obtained from massed training and practice yield superior per-
formance during training or in short intervals after training. Spaced training and
practice yields lower levels of performance during training. But, as shown in
more recent study of learning foreign language vocabulary, improved retention
occurred with increasing amounts of spacing (Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, &
Bahrick, 1993). The last section of this article provides more discussion of some
of the issues related to spaced practice.
Random practice. Random practice refers to practice in which trainees
switch from task to task during practice. This can be contrasted with blocked
practice, in which the trainees practice several trials of one task (a block) before
proceeding to the next task. Hall, Domingues, and Cavazos (1994) showed the
superiority of random practice.
Overlearning. Overlearning refers to deliberate training and practice beyond
a set criterion performance. For example, a criterion may be set at one errorless
performance. If it takes 10 trials to reach the criterion, overlearning would con-
sist of additional trials. Five additional trials would represent 50% overlearning;
10 additional trials would represent 100% overlearning, and so forth.
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 55

Ebbinghaus (1885/1964) and Krueger (1929, 1930) provided the earliest

examination of the effects of overlearning. More recently, Schendel and
Hagman (1982) showed that 100% overlearning resulted in 65% fewer
errors than a control group when retested after 8 weeks (with the task being
the disassembly and assembly of an M60 machine gun).
Driskell, Willis, and Cooper (1992) in a meta-analytic study, showed that
overlearning is an effective method for enhancing retention for both physi-
cal and cognitive tasks. They showed that greater overlearning led to greater
retention, and they suggested 100% and 150% overlearning. Finally, they
found that the performance benefit of overlearning was reduced by one half
after 19 days and to zero after 5 to 6 weeks. As a result, they recommended
that maintaining optimal performance requires that additional training
take place after approximately 3 weeks (p. 621).
Note that such overlearning may enhance retention and reproduction. It
is uncertain whether it would lead to improved or reduced generalization
and transfer.

Coaching, Feedback, and Scaffolding

Feedback on performance can lead to improvements in performance and
would seem consistent with behaviorism (e.g., Ammons, 1956; Ashford &
Cummings, 1983; Ilgen, Fisher, & Taylor, 1979; Komaki, Barwick, & Scott,
1978; Payne & Hauty, 1955). Much of this work showed improvements in
production quantity. Ilgen and Moore (1987), however, demonstrated per-
formance improvements along the separate dimensions of quantity and
quality.
Several studies have shown the effectiveness of feedback combined with
behavior modeling training (Decker, 1983; Fyffe & Oei, 1979; Wallace,
Horan, Baker, & Hudson, 1975). Certainly, the use of feedback is consistent
with social learning theory (Bandura & Cervone, 1983). Feedback provides
information to the learner that allows a comparison of current and desired
behavior. This comparison motivates the person to invest further effort to
change his or her behavior or performance standard.
More feedback is not necessarily better, however, and may be related to
the notion of scaffolding in situated cognition. Research on motor learning
has shown that those who receive feedback after every attempt during train-
ing tend to perform more poorly on subsequent tests of retention than do
those receiving less frequent feedback (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984;
Schmidt, 1991; Winstein & Schmidt, 1990). Schooler and Anderson (1990)
showed that reduced feedback during learning the computer language LISP
facilitated retention. In addition, Brophy (1999) recommended scaffolding
to gradually transfer responsibility for learning to the learners. Because no
studies are reported in the area of interpersonal and communications skills
56 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

training, some investigation of the beneficial effects of faded feedback

(Hesketh, 1997) would be warranted.

Posttraining Intervention Elements

As with the pretraining interventions and the training design elements,

the concept of posttraining interventions were included as part of the trans-
fer framework presented by Broad and Newstrom (1992).

Relapse Prevention

Relapse prevention originated in clinical psychology to enhance mainte-

nance behaviors in treating addiction (Marlatt & Gordon, 1980, 1985) and
may be related to some of the ideas included in cognitive theories or even
social perspective theories. Marx (1982) suggested that an adaptation of
these relapse prevention procedures might address problems that trainees
experienced in transferring skills to the job. Marx (1982, 1986) and Burke
(1997) described the full relapse prevention method as including the follow-
ing actions by trainees: (a) choosing a specific skill that they want to main-
tain, along with a specific, measurable skill-maintenance goal; (b) defining
what constitutes a slip and a relapse; (c) identifying the positive and nega-
tive consequences of using the new skill; (d) reviewing cognitive and behav-
ioral transfer strategies; (e) predicting the situation for the first slip, as well
as strategies to deal with it; and (f) reviewing a chart to track their progress
on their skill-maintenance goal. (Note that limited research has been under-
taken on the use of this method in corporate settings and that that research
has been limited by design and conceptual issues.)

Self-Management
Self-management as a posttraining intervention can be viewed as similar
to relapse prevention (Gist, 1997) and may also be related to both cognitive
and social perspective theories. It consists of the following steps: (a) encour-
age by not requiring trainees to set goals, (b) ask trainees to identify obsta-
cles to success, (c) have them plan how to overcome the identified obstacles,
(d) encourage self-monitoring of progress, and (e) suggest trainees use self-
reinforcement to motivate accomplishments. Gist, Stevens, and Bavetta
(1991) found that the effects of the posttraining intervention interacted with
the self-efficacy of the trainees. Self-management training led to superior
maintenance performance of learned interpersonal skills for low self-efficacy
individuals. In contrast, having trainees set goals appeared better for high
self-efficacy trainees. Bavettas (1992) research suggests that low self-
efficacy trainees performed better under the directive conditions of relapse
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 57

prevention or self-management, whereas high self-efficacy trainees did

better with a less directive approach.

Goal Setting: Proximal Versus Distal, Performance Versus Learning

Goal setting appears to lead to increased effort and improved perfor-

mance (Locke & Latham, 1990; Wexley & Latham, 1991; Werner, OLeary-
Kelly, Baldwin, & Wexley, 1994) and may be related to both cognitive and
social perspective theories. Such improvements occur whether goals are
assigned or set participatively (Wexley & Baldwin, 1986). In addition, hav-
ing trainees monitor such goals after training through the use of checklists
leads to better application of training (Wexley & Nemeroff, 1975).
Hesketh (1997) recommended setting proximal goals as a way of dealing
with the conflict between long-term and short-term outcomes in training
(p. 333). In contrast, Locke and Latham (1990), Wexley and Latham (1991), and
Werner et al. (1994) recommended setting proximal in addition to distal goals.
They suggested that

proximal goals should be set for knowledge and skill acquisition during the train-
ing program, and distal goals should be set for maintenance and enhancement after
training. The distal goal for continuous learning regarding skill acquisition could
be 1-3 years after training. (Locke & Lathem, 1990, p. 372)

Goal setting can, however, have a negative influence. Kanfer and Ackerman
(1989) showed that assigning goals in the early stages of learning led to lower
performance when compared with assigning goals at a later time. Difficult, spe-
cific goals can impair performance, particularly for novel and complex tasks
(Earley, Connolly, & Ekegren, 1989). Dweck (1986) contrasted performance
goals and learning goals. Performance goals tend to lead to defensive strategies
and to interpreting failures or errors as lack of ability. In contrast, learning goals
tend to encourage individuals to increase their efforts when encountering obsta-
cles. H. J. Klein and Thoms (1995) provided additional empirical evidence sup-
porting the use of learning goals. But, frankly, further research in actual training
settings is needed.

Self-Talk

Millman and Latham (1996) found that self-talk was a source of persua-
sion for increasing self-efficacy, and increases in self-efficacy can aid in
dealing with environmental obstacles. This element appears related to cog-
nitive theories. The Millman and Latham study involved training unem-
ployed managers to monitor their functional and dysfunctional self-talk
regarding reemployment. The training involved 2-hour sessions conduced
over a 2-week period. Within 9 months, 50% of those trained to increase
58 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

their functional self-talk found jobs, whereas only 1% of those in the control
group were reemployed. Presumably, training in self-talk may help trainees
overcome barriers in the work environment.

Visualization

Mental imaging techniques can enhance performance on cognitive tasks

(Bennett, Wheatley, Maddox, & Anthony, 1994; Driskell, Cooper, &
Moran, 1994; Neck & Manz, 1992). Latham and Seijts (1997) stated that
mental practice as a post-training intervention should lead to transfer of
training through an increase in self-efficacy (p. 373). Indeed, Neck and
Manz (1992) suggested that when trainees mentally rehearse a task, they see
themselves performing the task. This provides trainees with another exam-
ple of a positive model.

Posttraining Follow-Up
Baldwin and Ford (1988) mentioned booster sessions as a means of creat-
ing conducive transfer environments, and such recommendations appear
related to behaviorist theories. Furthermore, trainees who expected some
form of posttraining follow-up left training with stronger intentions to trans-
fer the training to the job (Baldwin & Magjuka, 1991). Marx and Karren
(1990) found that trainees were more likely to apply time management when
follow-up occurred 3 weeks after a time-management course. This result
corroborated the recommendation from Driskell et al. (1992).

Conclusion
This article has presented a typology of elements affecting workplace
learning and transfer. Although appearing in a journal devoted to theory
building, the greatest value of this taxonomy may be as a tool for enhancing
training. HRD practitioners can, potentially, use one or more of these ele-
ments with some assurance that there will be increases in training transfer
among trainees. Unlike personality or motivational factors characteristic of
individual trainees, each of the elements in this taxonomy can be manipu-
lated or influenced by the HRD practitioners. When undertaking such
manipulations, HRD practitioners can partner with HRD researchers to
examine the impact of these manipulations.
Such a structuring of variables can lead to future research and theory-
building efforts. Each of the elements listed in the following model
before, during, and after traininghave been shown to affect training out-
comes in one or more studies. Nevertheless, some additional research and
theoretical questions still remain, and some of these, already mentioned ear-
lier in the article, will be highlighted in the following paragraphs.
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 59

As mentioned in the previous section on realistic training previews,

research has shown that such previews lead to higher levels of motivation.
Whether these higher levels of motivation lead to improved performance
and transfer needs further investigation. Hesketh (1997), in her review of the
training research literature, suggested that training methods yielding better
transfer may require greater levels of effort and active processing than train-
ees prefer. Such a suggestion indicates that there may be a disconnect
between trainee motivation and later learning and performance.
Similarly, the notion of guided discovery needs further research. Cer-
tainly, discovery learning has been shown to be effective (Frese et al., 1988;
McDaniel and Schlager, 1990; Veenman et al., 1994). Research can deter-
mine whether providing some guidance to learners reduces the cognitive
burden and the instructional time for such interventions as suggested by
Frese et al. (1988), Smith (1995), and Smith et al. (1997). Furthermore, by
providing such guidance, one can examine whether the benefits of discovery
learning have been reduced.
Another area needing further research involves comparisons of behav-
ioral practice and symbolic practice. Previous work has suggested that
behavioral practice yields better performance in reproducing the learned
skills (e.g., Decker, 1983). In contrast, symbolic practice appears to lead to
better retention and generalization (e.g., Decker, 1980, 1983). A direct com-
parison of these two types of practice may help to untangle the advantages of
each separately and in combination.
Overlearning is yet another area requiring further investigation. Indeed,
such overlearning enhances retention (e.g., Driskell et al., 1992) and may
lead to a certain level of expertise and some level of automaticity of
response. However, some specific features of expertise seem to lead to a
decline in the ability to generalize the skills and to transfer those skills to
other situations (Marchant, Robinson, Anderson, and Schadewald, 1991).
According to Anderson (1982), learning a new skill requires some effort and
that knowledge exists in a declarative form. With practice and repetition,
that skill becomes proceduralized or automated and requires fewer
attentional resources. It also leads to domain specificity and tends to rely on
using previous experiences and examples rather than a set of rules (Ericsson
& Kintsch, 1995; Ericsson & Pennington, 1993; G. A. Klein & Calderwood,
1991). Both of these conditions lead to reductions in the generalizability and
transfer of skills.
Several of the elementscoaching, feedback and scaffolding, relapse
prevention, and goal settingneed further investigation within the organi-
zational training setting and with a variety of interventions. Such techniques
may show positive results in laboratory settings or with selected topics.
Whether these positive findings can generalize to various settings and topics
needs additional testing.
60 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

In addition, this taxonomyor any taxonomyfails to recognize that

some of these elements can exist on a continuum. Thus, another line of
research can focus on determining the place and relationship among these
various elements. One example is the element of goal setting. Based on
Kanfer and Ackermams (1989) work, it may be that the timing of any goal
setting yields different results. Similarly, other elements, such as
metacognitive instruction, within this taxonomy may prove more or less
effective depending on the timing and placement of that element.
A final phase for future research can be undertaken to determine whether
these elements are additive or multiplicative in their impact on learning and
performance. This future work can help to determine the laws of interaction
among the presented elements. Then, additional work can identify the limits
of the theory as well as the system states. At that point, this will become a
theoretical model of workplace learning and performance.

References
Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students learning strategies
and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260-267.
Ammons, R. B. (1956). Effects of knowledge of performance: A survey and tentative theoretical for-
mulation. Journal of General Psychology, 54, 279-299.
Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 89, 369-406.
Ashford, S. F., & Cummings, L. L. (1983). Feedback as an individual resource: Personal strategies
for creating information. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32, 370-398.
Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart, &
Winston.
Bacharach, S. B. (1989). Organization theories: Some criteria for evaluation. Academy of Manage-
ment Review, 14, 495-515.
Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E. (1993). Maintenance of foreign lan-
guage vocabulary and the spacing effect. Psychological Science 4, 316-321.
Baldwin, T. T. (1994). Effects of alternative modeling strategies on outcomes of interpersonal-skills
training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 147-154.
Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research.
Personnel Psychology, 41, 63-105.
Baldwin, T. T., & Magjuka, R. J. (1991). Organizational training and signals of importance: Linking
pretraining perceptions to intentions to transfer. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 2(1),
25-36.
Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1983). Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the
motivational effects of goal systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1017-
1028.
Bandura, A., Jeffery, R. W., & Bachicha, D. L. (1974). Analysis of memory codes and cumulative
rehearsal in observational learning. Journal of Research in Personality, 7, 295-305.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York:
Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Bavetta, A. G. (1992). Effects of communicator supportiveness and directiveness on recipient per-
formance and satisfaction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Washington.
Bennett, R. H., Wheatley, W. J., Maddox, E. N., & Anthony, W. P. (1994). The minds eye and the
practice of management: Envisioning the ambiguous. Management Decision, 32, 21-29.
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 61

Blalock, H. M., Jr. (1969). Theory construction: From verbal to mathematical formulations.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bobko, P., & Russell, C. (1991). A review of the role of taxonomies in human resources manage-
ment. Human Resource Management Review, 1, 293-316.
Broad, M. L., & Newstrom, J. W. (1992). Transfer of training: Action-packed strategies to ensure
high payoff from training investments. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Brophy, J. (1999). Toward a model of the value aspects of motivation in education: Developing
appreciation for particular learning domains and activities. Educational Psychology, 34(2),
75-85.
Burke, L. A. (1997). Improving positive transfer: A test of relapse prevention training on transfer
outcomes. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 8, 115-128.
Carper, W. B., & Snizek, W. E. (1980). The nature and types of organization taxonomies: An over-
view. Academy of Management Review, 5, 65-75.
Decker, P. J. (1980). Effects of symbolic coding and rehearsal in behavior-modeling training. Jour-
nal of Applied Psychology, 65, 627-634.
Decker, P. J. (1982). The enhancement of behavior modeling training of supervisory skills by the
inclusion of retention processes. Personnel Psychology, 35, 323-332.
Decker, P. J. (1983). The effects of rehearsal group size and video feedback in behavior modeling
training. Personnel Psychology, 36, 763-773.
Decker, P. J., & Nathan, B. R. (1985). Behavior modeling training: Principles and applications.
New York: Praeger.
Dempster, F. N. (1988). The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psycho-
logical research. American Psychologist, 43, 627-634.
DeSimone, R. L., Werner, J. M., & Harris, D. M. (2002). Human resource development (3rd ed.).
Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt.
DiVesta, F. J., & Peverly, S. T. (1984). The effects of encoding variability, processing activity, and
rule-example sequence on the transfer of conceptual rules. Journal of Educational Psychology,
76, 108-119.
Doty, D. H., & Glick, W. H. (1994). Typologies as a unique form of theory building: Toward
improved understanding and modeling. Academy of Management Review, 19, 230-251.
Driskell, J. E., Cooper, C., & Moran, A. (1994). Does mental practice enhance performance? Jour-
nal of Applied Psychology, 79, 481-492.
Driskell, J. E., Willis, R. P., & Cooper, C. (1992). Effect of overlearning on retention. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 77, 615-692.
Dubin, R. (1969). Theory building. New York: Free Press.
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040-
1048.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
Psychological Review 95, 256-273.
Earley, P. C., Connolly, T., & Ekegren, G. (1989). Goals, strategy development and task perfor-
mance: Some limits on the efficacy of goal setting. Journal of Applied Science, 74, 24-33.
Ebbinghaus, H. (1964). Memory (H. A. Ruger & C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). New York: Teachers Col-
lege. (Original work published as Das Gedchtnis, 1885)
Egan, D. E., & Greeno, J. G. (1973). Acquiring cognitive structure by discovery and rule learning.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 64, 85-97.
Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5-12.
Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102,
211-245.
Ericsson, K. A., & Pennington, N. (1993). Experts and expertise. In G. Davis & R. Lobie (Eds.),
Memory in everyday life (pp. 241-272). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
62 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

Etelapelto, A. (1993). Metacognition and the expertise of computer program comprehension. Scan-
dinavian Journal of Educational Research, 37, 243-254.
Ford, J. K., Quinones, M. A., Sego, D. J., & Sorra, J. S. (1992). Factors affecting the opportunity to
perform trained tasks on the job. Personnel Psychology, 45, 511-527.
Frese, M., Albrecht, K., Altmann, A., Lang, J., Papstein, P. V., Peyerl, R., et al. (1988). The effects of
an active development of the mental model in the training process: Experimental results in a
word processing system. Behaviour and Information Technology, 7, 295-304.
Fyffe, A. E., & Oei, T.P.S. (1979). Influence of modeling and feedback provided by the supervisors
in a microskills training program for beginning counselors. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35,
651-656.
Gist, M. E. (1997). Training design and pedagogy: Implications for skill acquisition, maintenance,
and generalization. In M. A. Quinones & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.), Training for a rapidly changing
workplace: Applications of psychological research. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Gist, M. E., Stevens, C. K., & Bavetta, A. G. (1991). Effects of self-efficacy and post-training inter-
vention on the acquisition and maintenance of complex interpersonal skills. Personnel Psychol-
ogy, 44, 837-861.
Glaser, R., & Bassok, M. (1989). Learning theory and the study of instruction. Annual Review of
Psychology, 40, 631-666.
Haccoun, R. R. (1996). Enhancing transfer of training: The results of four field experiments. Paper
presented at the International Congress of Psychology, Montreal, Canada.
Haccoun, R. R. (1997). Transfer and retention: Lets do both and avoid dilemmas. Applied Psychol-
ogy: An International Review/Psychologie Appliquee: Revue Internationale, 46, 340-344.
Hall, K. G., Domingues, D. A., & Cavazos, R. (1994). Contextual interference effects with skilled
baseball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 835-841.
Hermann, G. (1969). Learning by discovery: A critical review of studies. Journal of Experimental
Education, 38, 58-72.
Hesketh, B. (1997). Dilemmas in training for transfer and retention. Applied Psychology: An Inter-
national Review, 46, 317-386.
Hicks, W. D., & Klimoski, R. J. (1987). Entry into training programs and its effects on training out-
comes: A field experiment. Academy of Management Journal, 30, 542-552.
Holton, E. F., III, Bates, R., & Ruona, W.E.A. (2000). Development of a generalized learning trans-
fer system inventory. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11, 333-360.
Holton, E. F., III, Bates, R., Seyler, D. L., & Carvalho, M. B. (1997). Toward a construct validation of
a transfer climate instrument. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 8(2), 95-113.
Ilgen, D. R., Fisher, C. D., & Taylor, M. S. (1979). Consequences of individual feedback on behavior
in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 349-371.
Ilgen, D. R., & Moore, C. F. (1987). Types and choices of performance feedback. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 72, 401-406.
Ivancic, K., & Hesketh, B. (1995). Making the best of errors during training. Training Research
Journal, 1, 103-125.
Jost, A. (1897). Die Assoziationsfestigkeit in ihrer Abhangigkeit von der Verteilung der
Wiederholungen [Strength of association in its dependence on the distribution of repetitions].
Zeitschrift der Psychologie, 14, 436-472.
Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-
treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition. Journal of Applied Psychology (Mono-
graph), 74, 657-690.
Kerr, R., & Booth, B. (1978). Specific and varied practice of motor skill. Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 46, 395-401.
Klein, G. A., & Calderwood, R. (1991). Decision models: Some lessons from the field. IEEE Trans-
actions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 21, 1018-1026.
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 63

Klein, H. J., & Thoms, P. (1995). The setting of goals and skill acquisition. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the Academy of Human Resource Development, St. Louis, MO.
Komaki, J., Barwick, K. D., & Scott, L. R. (1978). A behavioral approach to occupational safety:
Pinpointing and reinforcing safe performance in a food manufacturing plant. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 63, 434-445.
Krueger, W.C.F. (1929). The effect of overlearning on retention. Journal of Experimental Psychol-
ogy, 12, 71-78.
Krueger, W.C.F. (1930). Further studies in overlearning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 13,
152-163.
Latham, G. P., & Seijts, G. H. (1997). Overcoming mental models that limit research on transfer of
training in organisational settings. Applied Psychology: An International Review/Psychologie
Appliquee: Revue Internationale, 46, 371-375.
Lee, T. D., Magill, R. A., & Weeks, D. J. (1985). Influence of practice schedule on testing schema
theory predictions in adults. Journal of Motor Behavior, 17, 283-299.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal-setting and task performance. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Marchant, G., Robinson, J., Anderson, U., & Schadewald, M. (1991). Analogical transfer and exper-
tise in legal reasoning. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 48, 272-290.
Marlatt, G. A., & Gordon, J. R. (1980). Determinants of relapse: Implications for the maintenance of
behavior change. In P. O. Davidson & S. M. Davidson (Eds.), Behavioral medicine: Changing
health life styles (pp. 410-452). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Marlatt, G. A., & Gordon, J. R. (1985). Relapse prevention: Maintaining strategies in the treatment
of addictive behaviors. New York: Guilford.
Martocchio, J. J. (1992). Microcomputer usage as an opportunity: The influence of context in
employee training. Personnel Psychology, 45, 529-552.
Marx, R. D. (1982). Relapse prevention for managerial training: A model for maintenance of behav-
ioral change. Academy of Management Development, 5(2), 27-40.
Marx, R. D. (1986). Improving management development through relapse prevention strategies.
Journal of Management Development, 5(2), 27-40.
Marx, R. D., & Karren, R. J. (1990, August). The effects of relapse prevention and post-training fol-
low-up on time management behavior. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of
Management, San Francisco.
Mathieu, J. E., Tannenbaum, S. L., & Salas, E. (1992). Influences of individual and situational char-
acteristics on measures of training effectiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 882-
887.
Mayer, R. E. (1979). Can advance organizers influence meaningful learning? Review of Educational
Research 49, 371-383.
McDaniel, M. A., & Schlager, M. S. (1990). Discovery learning and transfer of problem-solving
skills. Cognition and Instruction, 7, 129-159.
Melton, A. W. (1970). The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory. Journal
of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 596-606.
McLean, R. (1998). The perceptions of trainees when training is considered mandatory. Unpub-
lished doctoral dissertation, Department of Foundations and Adult Education, Kansas State
University.
Merton, R. (1968). Social theory and social structure. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Millman, Z., & Latham, G. P. (1996). Increasing re-employment through training in verbal self-
guidance. Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings, August 10-14, Cincinnati, OH.
Mills, G. (1985). The effects of positive and negative models in learning and displaying basic com-
munication skills. Unpublished manuscript, Brigham Young University, Department of Com-
munications, Provo, UT.
64 Human Resource Development Review / March 2002

Naquin, S. S., & Holton, E. F., III. (in press). The effects of personality, affectivity, and work com-
mitment on motivation to improve work through learning. Human Resource Development
Quarterly.
Neal, A., & Hesketh, B. (1996, April). Adaptability of abstract and exemplar based knowledge to
rule changes. Paper presented at the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Con-
ference, San Diego, CA.
Neck, C. P., & Manz, C. C. (1992). Thought self-leadership: The influence of self-talk and mental
imagery on performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 681-699.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem-solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Newman, J. L., & Fuqua, D. R. (1988). A comparative study of positive and negative modeling in
counselor training. Counselor Education and Supervision, 28, 121-129.
Payne, R. B., & Hauty, G. T. (1955). The effect of psychological feedback on work decrement. Jour-
nal of Experimental Psychology, 50, 343-351.
Pentland, B. T. (1989). The learning curve and the forgetting curve: The importance of time and tim-
ing in the implementation of technological innovations. Paper presented at the 49th annual meet-
ing of the Academy of Management, Washington, DC.
Pinder, C. C., & Moore, L. F. (1979). The resurrection of taxonomy to aid the development of middle
range theories of organizational behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(1), 99-118.
Porras, J. L., & Hargis, K. (1982). Precursors of individual change: Responses to a social learning
theory based on organization intervention. Human Relations, 35, 973-990.
Quinones, M. A., Ford, J. K., Sego, D., & Smith, E. (1992, April). The opportunity to perform train-
ing skills: A predictive study. Paper presented at the 7th Annual Conference of the Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Montreal, Canada.
Rouillier, J. Z., & Goldstein, I. L. (1993). The relationship between organizational transfer climate
and positive transfer of training. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 4, 377-390.
Russ-Eft, D. (2001). Workload, stress, and human resource development. Human Resource Devel-
opment Quarterly, 12(1), 1-3.
Russ-Eft, D., & Zuchelli, L. (1987). When wrong is alright. Training & Development, pp. 78-79.
Salmoni, A. W., Schmidt, R. W., & Walter, C. B. (1984). Knowledge of results and motor learning: A
review and critical reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin 95, 355-386.
Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C., & Steinbach, R. (1984). Teachability of reflective processes in written
composition. Cognitive Science, 8, 173-190.
Schendel, J. M., & Hagman, J. D. (1982). On sustaining procedural skills over a prolonged retention
interval. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 605-610.
Schmidt, R. A. (1991). Frequent augmented feedback can degrade learning: Evidence and interpre-
tations. In G. E. Stelmach & J. Requin (Eds.), Tutorials in motor neuroscience. Dordrecht, the
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
Schooler, L. J., & Anderson, J. R. (1990). The disruptive potential of immediate feedback. In The
Twelfth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 702-708). Hillsdale, NJ: Law-
rence Erlbaum.
Scott, W. R. (1981). Organizations: Rationale, natural, and open systems. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Singer, R. N., & Pease, D. (1976). A comparison of discovery learning and guided instructional strat-
egies on motor skill learning, retention, and transfer. Research Quarterly, 47, 788-796.
Skinner, B. F. (1987). Upon further reflection. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Smith, E. M. (1995). The effects of individual differences, discovery learning, and metacognition on
learning and adaptive transfer. Unpublished dissertation proposal, Michigan State University.
Smith, E. M., Ford, J. K., & Kozlowski, S.W.J. (1997). Building adaptive expertise: Implications for
training design strategies. In M. A. Quinones & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.), Training for a rapidly
changing workplace (pp. 89-118). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Steinberg, E. R. (1989). Cognition and learner control: A literature review, 1977-1988. Journal of
Computer Based Instruction, 16, 117-121.
 Russ-Eft / TAXONOMY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING 65

Stevens, C. K., & Gist, M. E. (1996). Effects of self-efficacy and goal-orientation training on inter-
personal skill maintenance: What are the mechanisms? Working paper, University of Maryland,
College Park.
Stone, G. L., & Vance, A. (1976). Instructions, modeling, and rehearsal implications for training.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 23, 272-279.
Taylor, P. (1992). Training directors perceptions about the successful implementation of supervi-
sory training. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 3, 243-259.
Trimble, S. K., Decker, P. J., & Nathan, B. R. (1991). Effects of positive and negative models on
learning: Testing for proactive and retroactive interference. Journal of Human Behavior and
Learning, 7(2), 1-12.
Van Rossum, J. H. (1990). Schmidts schema theory: The empirical base of the variability of practice
hypothesis: A critical analysis. Human Movement Science, 9, 387-435.
Veenman, M.V.J., Elshout, J. J., & Busato, V. V. (1994). Metacognitive mediation in learning with
computer-based simulations. Computers in Human Behavior, 10, 93-106.
Wallace, W. G., Horan, J. J., Baker, S. B., & Hudson, G. R. (1975). Incremental effects of modeling
and performance feedback in teaching decision-making counseling. Journal of Counseling Psy-
chology, 22, 570-572.
Werner, J. M., OLeary-Kelly, M. O., Baldwin, T. T., & Wexley, K. N. (1994). Augmenting behavior-
modeling training: Testing the effects of pre- and post-training interventions. Human Resource
Development Quarterly, 5, 169-183.
Wexley, K., & Latham, G. P. (1991). Developing and training human resources in organizations.
New York: HarperCollins.
Wexley, K., & Nemeroff, W. F. (1975). Effectiveness of positive reinforcement and goal setting as
methods of management development. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 446-450.
Wexley, K. N., & Baldwin, T. T. (1986). Post-training strategies for facilitating positive transfer: An
empirical exploration. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 503-520.
Wilson, B., & Cole, P. (1991). A review of cognitive teaching models. Educational Technology
Research & Development, 39, 47-64.
Winstein, C. J., & Schmidt, R. A. (1990). Reduced frequency of knowledge of results enhances
motor skill learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
16, 677-691.

Darlene Russ-Eft, Ph.D., is director of research services at AchieveGlobal,

Inc. She has authored several books and articles about leadership, human
resource development, research, and evaluation. Her most recent books
include Everyone a Leader: A Grassroots Model for the New Workplace
(John Wiley and Sons) and Evaluation in Organizations: A Systematic
Approach to Enhancing Learning, Performance, and Change (Perseus). Dr.
Russ-Eft is past chair of the Research Committee of the American Society for
Training & Development and a past member of the Board of the American
Evaluation Association. She received the 1996 Times Mirror Editor of the
Year Award for her research work and the Year 2000 Outstanding Scholar
Award from the Academy of Human Resource Development. She is the editor
of Human Resource Development Quarterly.