PROPERIES OF FLUID

FLUID MECHANICS
A. Study of forces and motions in fluids
B. Fluid : keep on moving as long as the force is applied
C. Subdivisions are :
1. Hydraulic : water in rivers, pipes, canals, pump
2. Aerodynamics :air around airplanes
3. Meteorology : the flow of the atmosphere
4. Particle dynamics :dust settling, pneumatic transport
5. Hydrology : water and water pollutants in the ground
6. Reservoir mechanics : oil, gas , sludge, and water in
petroleum reservoirs
7. Multiphase flow : oil wells, carburetors, sprays
8. Combinations of fluid flow : mass transport in distillation
9. Viscous dominated flows : lubrication, injection molding
DEFINITION OF A FLUID
A fluid is a substance that flows under the
action of shearing forces. If a fluid is at rest, we
know that the forces on it are in balance.
A gas is a fluid that is easily compressed. It fills
any vessel in which it is contained.
A liquid is a fluid which is hard to compress. A
given mass of liquid will occupy a fixed volume,
irrespective of the size of the container.
BASIC IDEAS IN FLUID MECHANICS
1. The principle of the conservation of mass,

2. The first law of thermodynamics (the principle

of the conservation of energy),

3. The second law of thermodynamics,

4. Newtons law of motion (as F = ma).

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1. Mass and weight
2. Density
3. Specific gravity,
4. Viscosity (absolute, relative and kinematic)
a. Newtonian
b. Non newtonian
5. Surface tension.
6. Pressure (gauge, absolute)
STATIC FLUIDS
STATIC FLUIDS (Liquid Only)
1). Pressure - Depth relationships dP g dz
2). At constant density P2 P1 g z2 z1

3). [gauge pressure, at constant density) P gz

4). Force F PdA

5). Buoyant force (Archimedes principle) = Vg
6). Pressure measurement (manometer)
 BAROMETERS
A barometer is used to
measure the pressure of the
vacuum p1 = 0
atmosphere. The simplest
type of barometer consists of
a column of fluid.
h
p2 - p1 = gh
p2 = pa
pa = gh
water:
h = pa/ g =105/(103*9.8) m
MANOMETERS

p1 = px (negligible pressure
change in a gas)
p1 (since they are at
p2=pa px = py
the same height)
z pz= p2 = pa
h
x y py - pz = gh
liquid p1 - pa = gh
density

So a manometer measures gauge pressure.

Static Fluid in Fluid Flow Measurement

1. Pitot Tube
h

Flow direction
v1 1
v1 2gh 2
Static Fluid in Fluid Flow Measurement

2. Pitot Tube
1
2
Flow direction 2 P
1
v1
f

2 Hg f gh
Pitot tube v1
Static tube
f
P
Manometer
1. Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot
tube within the pipe can be used in an arrangement
shown below to measure velocity of flow.
2. From the expressions above,

1 2
p2 p1 V1
2

1 2
gh2 gh1 V1
2
V 2 g h2 h1
Figure 4.3 : A Piezometer and a Pitot tube
 Pitot static tube
The tubes recording static
pressure and stagnation pressure
are frequently combined into one
instrument known as a Pitot-static
tube
The static tube surrounds the
total head tube and two or more
small holes are drilled radially
through the outer wall into the
annular space.
The position of these static holes
is important. This instrument,
when connected to a suitable
Figure 4.5: Pitot static tube
manometer, may be used to
measure point velocities in pipes,
channels and wind tunnels.
 Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line of the
Pitot tube and using the theory of the manometer,
PA = P2 + gX
PB = P1 + g(X-h) + maxgh
PA = PB
P2 + gX = P2 + g(X h) + mangh
We know that , substituting this in to the above gives

2 gh( max )
V1
Static Fluid In Fluid Flow Measurement

3. Venturi Meter

Flow direction
v1P1 v2P2
z1 z2

1
2

h 2 gh
Hg f
v1 cv 2
, cv 1 0,95 0,99
A1
f 1
A2
 Venturi meter
The Venturi meter is a device for
measuring discharge in a pipe.
It consists of a rapidly converging
section, which increases the
velocity of flow and hence reduces
the pressure.
It then returns to the original
dimensions of the pipe by a gently
diverging diffuser section. By
measuring the pressure differences
the discharge can be calculated.
Figure 4.6: A Venturi meter
This is a particularly accurate
method of flow measurement as
energy losses are very small.
Applying Bernoulli Equation between (1) and (2), and using
continuity equation to eliminate V2 will give :
2g
p1 p2
Z1 Z2
g
V1 2
A1
1
A2

and Qideal = V1A1

To get the actual discharge, taking into consideration of losses
due to friction, a coefficient of discharge, Cd, is introduced.
p1 p2
2g Z1 Z2
g
Qactual = Cd Qideal =C d A1
A1
2

1
A2

Itcan be shown that the discharge can also be expressed in

terms of manometer reading :
2 gh man
1

Q actual = C d A1
A1
2

1
A2

where man = density of manometer fluid

Static Fluid in Fluid Flow Measurement

4. Orificemeter
Orifice plate

Flow direction

1 2
1
2

2 Hg f gh
h v1 co 2
A1
f 1
A2
d orifice
Relation Co with Re and
ID pipe
Orifice meter
(1)

h
streamline
(2)
datum

Consider a large tank, containing an ideal fluid, having

a small sharp-edged circular orifice in one side.
If the head, h, causing flow through the orifice of
diameter d is constant (h>>d), Bernoulli equation may
be applied between two points, (1) on the surface of
the fluid in the tank and (2) in the jet of fluid just
outside the orifice. Hence :
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
h 0 losses
g 2g g 2g
 Now P1 = Patm and as the jet in unconfined, P2 = Patm. If
the flow is steady, the surface in the tank remains
stationary and V1 0 (z2=0, z1=h) and ignoring losses we
get :
2
V2
z1 z2 h
2g

or the velocity through the orifice,

V2 2gh

This result is known as Toricellis equation.

Assuming no loses, ideal fluid, V constant across jet at
(2), the
Q A0 V2
discharge through the orifice is
where A0 is the area of the orifice

Q A0 2gh
For the flow of a real fluid, the velocity is less than that
given by eq. 4.7 because of frictional effects and so the
actual velocity V2a, is obtained by introducing a
modifying coefficient, Cv, the coefficient of velocity:

Velocity, V2a Cv 2gh

actual velocity
or Cv
theoretical velocity
(typically about 0.97)
 Vena contracta

d0

P = Patm

approx. d0/2

Figure 4.8: The formation of vena contracta

Asa real fluid cannot turn round a sharp bend, the jet
continues to contract for a short distance downstream (about
one half of the orifice diameter) and the flow becomes
parallel at a point known as the vena contracta (Latin :
contracting vein).
The area of discharge is thus less than the orifice area and a
coefficient of contraction, Cc, must be introduced.
area of jet at vena contracta
Cc
area of orifice
Hence the actual discharge is :

Qa C c A0 C v 2gh (typically about 0.65)

or introducing a coefficient of discharge, Cd, where :

actual discharge (typically 0.63)

Cd
theoretical discharge
(4.9)
Qa C d A0 2gh
(4.10)
Cd = Cc . Cv
From Ch.E Fluids Mechanic bay Darby R.
Nozzles
dnozzle

contraction
within nozzle
In a nozzle, the flow contracts gradually to the outlet and
hence the area of the jet is equal to the outlet area of the
nozzle.
Figure 4.9: Contraction within a nozzle
i.e. Cc = 1.0
therefore Cd = Cv
Taking a datum at the nozzle, Torricellis equation gives
the total energy head in the system as it assumes an
ideal fluid and hence no loss of energy, i.e. theoretical
head : 2
V2
ht
2g
 But the actual velocity is :
V2a = Cv V2
and the actual energy in the jet is :
2
V2a
ha
2g
as P2 and z2 are zero
Therefore the actual energy head is :
2 2
Cv V2
ha
2g
And the loss of energy head, hf , in the nozzle due to friction
is :
2 2
V2 CvV2
hf ht ha
2g 2g

theoretical actual

2
V2 2
(1 Cv )
2g
2
hf (1 Cv ) ht
A General Weir Equation
To determine an expression for the theoretical flow
through a notch we will consider a horizontal strip of width
b and depth h below the free surface, as shown in the
figure
velocity through the strip
V = 2 gh
discharge through the strip,
Q AV b h 2gh
Integrating
from the free surface, h = 0, to the weir crest,
h = H gives the expression for the total theoretical
discharge, H
1
Qtheoretical = 2 g bh dh 2

0
Rectangular Weir
Fora rectangular weir the width does not
change with depth so there is no relationship
between b and depth h. We have the
equation, b = constant = B.
Substitutingthis with the general weir
equation gives:
H
1
Qtheoretical B 2g h 2 dh
Figure 4.11 :
O
A rectangular weir
2 3
B 2g H 2 (4.14)
3
To calculate the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of discharge,
Cd, which accounts for losses at the edges of the weir and contractions in
the area of flow, giving :
2
(4.15)
3
Qactual Cd B 2g H 2
3
Static Fluid in Fluid Flow Measurement
5. Rotameter
Shape types
Pipe wall
Flow direction

Solid ball with

Do and B

calibration correlation of h vs Q
(equation or diagram) Q = A v
Flow direction