Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Human Body * Anatomy - science of structure - relationships revealed by dissection (cutting apart) - imaging techniques * Physiology - science of body functions - normal adult physiology studied in this text — some genetic variations described * Subdivisions of A & P= Table 1.1 Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-1Levels of Organization crema oe © Tsvo eet * Chemical e os ooo * Cellular en i sms * Tissue (nA * Organs @orgnisma ove * System Level * Organism Level ‘Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Digestive system ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-2Levels of Structural Organization * Chemical Level - atomic and molecular * Cellular level - smallest living unit of the body * Tissue level (Histology/normal, Pathology/diseased-abnormal) - group of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together on one task - 4 basic tissue types * epithelium, muscle, connective tissue, and nerve Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 13Levels of Structural Organization ¢ Organ level - grouping of 2 or more tissue types into a recognizable structure with a specific function. * Organ system - collection of related organs with a common function - often an organ is part of more than one system * Organism level - one living individual. Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-411 organ systems of body Integumentary- Skeletal- bones, Muscular- skeleNervous- Skirandassoc. cartilage ajuints muscle tissue _ brain,spircaird, structures nervespscial sensergans Endocrine- all Cardiovaseular-ijmpisielinnuisles:RESpiratory- lun hormone bloodjearand Lymphatic tissuand ssociated producing glandsloodessels lymphndymph passageways vessels Digéstive- _Ufiftéry- kidney Reprodiictive- gastrointestinal ureters, gonadand tract and bladder,urethra associated ass@iated organs structures Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1556 Life Characteristics/Processes 1. Metabolism = sum of all chemical processes - breakdown of large molecules into small - building new structural components (proteins) - providing chemical energy for cells 2. Responsiveness - detect & respond to changes in internal or external environment - some typical responses * muscle contraction, electrical signals, hormone or glandular secretion Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 16Life Processes cont. 3. Movement at any structural level - the body, an organ, a cell or cell component 4. Growth - increase in number or size of cells or the material found between cells 5. Differentiation - specialization of cells for a specific function - stem cells give rise to cells that specialize 6. Reproduction - formation of new cells or new individuals Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-7Homeostasis * Maintaining the internal environment within optimal physiological limits * Example - blood glucose level is kept within narrow range 70-110 mg/dL Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-8Homeostasis of Body De Body fluid sub-categories Dy - intracellular fluid (ICF/cytosol) = within ) cells gy - extracellular fluid (ECF) = outside cells * intercellular fluid = tissue fluid = interstitial fluid + plasma = fluid portion of whole blood * lymph= found in lymph vessels - See p. 833-834 * Composition of fluids change as substances move between categories Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-9Blood capillary Venule Tissue cell -—— Arteriole Blood =—— Blood Interstitial fluid oe Lymphatic Je capillary Lymph ee iaTortora & Gralt Right lymphatic duct Right subclavian vein Thymus gland Red bone marrow: Lymphatic vessel: Left internal jugular vein ‘Thoracic duct Loft subclavian vein Axillary node Spleen ‘Small intestine ‘Aggregated lymphatic follicle (Peyer's patch) lliac node Inguinal node LilControl of Homeostasis * Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by - external stimuli * intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen, etc. - internal stimuli * psychological stresses + Exercise + Fever, etc. ¢ Disruptions are usually mild & temporary ¢ If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-12Nervous System and Endocrine System Controls * Process of maintaining a controlled condition - sensory receptors (nerve) detect change in a monitored variable (heat, CO level, etc.) — nervous system and/or endocrine system responds ¢ Example of control of blood gas level - Exercise (increased cell respiration = increased blood CO; levels) - sensory receptors detect change — nervous system increases heart and breathing rates to remove excess CO2 adrenal gland releases epinephrine to increase heart and breathing rates Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-13Components of Feedback Loop ¢ Receptor - monitors a controlled condition * Control center - determines next action ¢ Effector - receives directions from the control center - produces a response that changes the controlled Es condition Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-14Negative & Positive Feedback Loops * Negative feedback loop - Output reverses original stimulus - most feedback systems in the body are negative - used for conditions that need frequent adjustment - body temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pressure * Positive feedback loop — Output intensifies original stimulus - seen during normal childbirth and blood clotting Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-15Homeostasis of Blood Pressure negative feedback Pressure receptors in walls of certain arteries detect an increase in BP - blood Pressure = force of blood on walls of vessels Brain receives input and signals heart and blood vessels Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate (increase in diameter) BP returns to normal Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-16Positive Feedback during Childbirth » Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to the brain » Brain releases hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully * More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc. * Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-17Basic Anatomical Terminology ¢ Anatomical position * Regions of the body « Anatomical planes, sections and directional terms Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-18Anatomical Position ¢ Standardized position from which to describe directional terms - standing upright - facing the observer, head level - palms turned forward * Prone position = lying face down * Supine position = lying face up Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-19Common Regional Names * Clinical terminology based on a Greek or Latin root word. ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-20Planes and Sections * A plane is an imaginary flat surface that passes through the body. * A section is one of the 2 surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cut by a plane passing through it. Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-21Sagittal Plane * Sagittal plane - divides the body or an organ into left and right sides * Midsagittal plane — produces equal halves * Parasagittal plane — produces unequal halves Micegita pane Fig tert! vow Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 4-22Other Planes and Sections * Frontal or coronal plane - divides the body or an organ into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions * Transverse(cross-sectional) or horizontal plane - divides the body or an organ into upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions * Oblique plane - some combination of 2 other planes seg! pane Fight onteroltr vow Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-23Planes and Sections of the Brain (3-D anatomical relationships revealed) * Horizontal Plane ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS.Major Directional Terms LATERAL<—» MEDIAL-<@—p> LATERAL Midtine SUPERIOR Esophagus ood ube Feceaue eee) PROXIMAL Right ung, ‘Sternum (breastbone) Yi] woscsnas ] Wilf] — reson DISTAL / 7 INFERIOR * See Definitions page 15 ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-25Superior or Inferior © Superior (Cephalic/Cranial) * towards the head — The eyes are superior to the mouth. * Inferior (caudal) - away from the head - The stomach is inferior to the heart. Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-26Dorsal or Ventral ¢ Dorsal or Posterior - at the back of the body - The brain is posterior to the forehead. ¢ Ventral or Anterior - at the front of the body - The sternum is anterior to the heart. Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-27Medial or Lateral ¢ Medial — nearer to the midline of the body - The heart lies medial to the lungs. * Lateral - farther from the midline of the body - The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand. Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-28Proximal or Distal ¢ Proximal - nearer to the attachment of the limb to the trunk - The knee is proximal to the ankle. Distal - farther from the attachment of the limb to the trunk - The wrist is distal to the Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS elbow. 1-29Superficial or Deep ¢ Superficial - Toward/on the surface * Epidermis is superficial to the dermis * Deep - Away from the surface * Dermis is deep to the epidermis Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-30Dorsal Body Cavity ¢ Near dorsal surface of body ¢ 2 subdivisions - cranial cavity * holds the brain * formed by skull - vertebral or spinal canal Cranial ———42—~_\\ cavity Vertebral canal * contains the spinal cord caret: * formed by vertebral an column Powe . . oe fe ¢ Meninges line dorsal Ne body cavity Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-31MMB oonsaL eooy cavity [ZI[E] veNtraL eooy cavity (a) ight lateral vow () Anterior viow Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. Potvie cavity ‘Chest cavity; superior portion of ventral body cavity; contains pleural and pericardial cavities ‘and mediastinum. Each surrounds a lung; the serous membrane of the ploural caviios is tho pleura. ‘Surrounds the heart the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity isthe pericarckum. ‘Contra portion of thoracle cavity between the Jungs; extends from sternum to vertebral column ‘and from neck to diaphragm: contains heart, ‘thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels. Intro portion of vert bay cavity: subsided it nbdorina ana pa ain Contains stomach, spleen, liver, galblader, ‘small intestine, and most of large intestine; the ‘S6r0Us mombrane of the abdominal cavity is. {he peritonoum. Contains urnary base, portons targets, fninoma orgne fvebocucten. * S00 figure 1.7 for detals of to thoracic cavity 1-32Mediastinum Pericardial cavity Parietal pericardium Visceral pericardium Left pleural cavity Right pleural cavity Parietal pleura Visceral pleura Diaphragm Anterior view (©2006 John Wiley & Sons Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-33Thoracic Cavity ANTERIOR ont) Sterna Muscle Pevearsum Plt ung Fight pura Esophagus ‘oth horace FP in peural cavity Rb POSTERIOR (osck) ¢ Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle ¢ Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum * Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungs ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-34Pleural, Mediastinum & Pericardial Cavities ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-35PleuralCavities * Visceral pleura clings to surface of lungs --- Parietal pleura lines chest wall ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-36Mediastinum ANTERIOR, Sternum Heart PERICARDIAL wy Lett ung Right lung Esophagus Aorta - a Vertebral column GH | a, \ (backbone) PLEURAL. y LEFT PLEURAL CavITy POSTERIOR * Midline wall of tissue (false cavity with no true lining) that contains heart and great vessels, esophagus, trachea and thymus. ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-37Pericardial ANTERIOR Sternum Heart PERICARDIAL cAVITY Lett ung PLEURAL, cavity Esophagus pi sop! - Vertebral column RIGHT i ‘ x (backbone) PLEURAL y i cavity | . % LerT POSTERIOR ¢ Heart * Visceral pericardium covers heart --- Parietal pericardium lines pericardial sac ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-38Ventral Body Cavity Near ventral surface of body 2 subdivisions - thoracic cavity above diaphragm - abdominopelvic cavity below diaphragm Diaphragm = large, dome -shaped muscle Organs called viscera Organs covered with serous membrane Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-39Abdominopelvic Cavity * Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-40Abdominopelvic Cavity (cont.) Diaphragm Stomach Small intestine Urinary bladder ¢ Abdominal- 8 organs (stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, kidneys, small intestine, most of large intestine) ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-41Abdominopelvic Cavity (cont.) Diaphragm Stomach Small intestine Urinary bladder * Pelvic -Urinary bladder, rest of large intestine and internal reproductive organs ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-42MMB oonsaL eooy cavity [ZI[E] veNtraL eooy cavity (a) ight lateral vow () Anterior viow Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. Potvie cavity ‘Chest cavity; superior portion of ventral body cavity; contains pleural and pericardial cavities ‘and mediastinum. Each surrounds a lung; the serous membrane of the ploural caviios is tho pleura. ‘Surrounds the heart the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity isthe pericarckum. ‘Contra portion of thoracle cavity between the Jungs; extends from sternum to vertebral column ‘and from neck to diaphragm: contains heart, ‘thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels. Intro portion of vert bay cavity: subsided it nbdorina ana pa ain Contains stomach, spleen, liver, galblader, ‘small intestine, and most of large intestine; the ‘S6r0Us mombrane of the abdominal cavity is. {he peritonoum. Contains urnary base, portons targets, fninoma orgne fvebocucten. * S00 figure 1.7 for detals of to thoracic cavity 1-43Serous Membranes ¢ Thin slippery membrane lines body cavities not open to the outside - parietal layer lines walls of cavities - visceral layer covers viscera within the cavities * Serous fluid reduces friction between moving/enlarging/reducing viscera and other structures. Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-44Peritoneum ime | iver Diaphragm Stomach Gallbladder Small intestine 3 Urinary bladder Large intestine * Visceral peritoneum --- serous membrane that covers the abdominal viscera ¢ Parietal peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall ‘Tortora & Grabowski 9c © 2000 JWS. 1-45Medical Imaging * Allows visualization of structures without surgery * Useful for confirmation of diagnosis ¢ Examples of imaging techniques Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-46Conventional Radiography —— Left clavicle Left lung Heart Diaphragm Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS A single burst of xrays Produces 2-D image on film Known as radiography or x-ray Poor resolution of soft tissues Major use is osteologyComputed Tomography (CT/CAT Scan) ANTERIOR * Moving x-ray beam * Image produced ona video monitor of a cross- section through body * Computer generated image reveals more soft tissue detail - kidney & gallstones * Multiple scans used to build 3D views Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-48Digital Subtraction Angiography(DSA) * Radiopaque material injected into blood vessels * Before and after images compared with a computer program * Image of blood vessel is shown on a monitor Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS 1-49Ultrasound (US) Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS High-frequency sound waves emitted by hand-held device Safe, noninvasive & painless Image or sonogram is displayed on video monitor Used for fetal ultrasound and examination of pelvic & abdominal organs, heart and blood flow through blood vesselsMagnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Sagittal pane trough bran Anterior Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field Protons align themselves relative to magnetic field Pulse of radiowaves used on protons generating an image on video monitor Can not use on patient with metal in their body Reveals fine detail within soft tissues 1-51Positron Emission Tomography(PET) Tortora & Grabowski 9% © 2000 JWS Substance that emits positively charged particles is injected into body Collision with negatively charged electrons in tissues releases gamma rays Camera detects gamma rays & computer generates image displayed on monitor