2017526 DiscretemathematicsWikipedia

Discretemathematics
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Forthemathematicsjournal,seeDiscreteMathematics(journal).

Thisarticleneeds
additionalcitations
forverification.Please
helpimprovethis
articlebyaddingcitations
toreliablesources.
Unsourcedmaterialmay
bechallengedand
removed.(February
2015)(Learnhowandwhento
removethistemplatemessage)

Discretemathematicsisthestudyofmathematicalstructuresthat
arefundamentallydiscreteratherthancontinuous.Incontrast
torealnumbersthathavethepropertyofvarying"smoothly",the
objectsstudiedindiscretemathematicssuch
asintegers,graphs,andstatementsinlogic[1]donotvary
smoothlyinthisway,buthavedistinct,separated
values.[2]Discretemathematicsthereforeexcludestopicsin
"continuousmathematics"suchascalculusandanalysis.Discrete
objectscanoftenbeenumeratedbyintegers.Moreformally, Graphslikethisareamongtheobjects
studiedbydiscretemathematics,fortheir
discretemathematicshasbeencharacterizedasthebranchof interestingmathematicalproperties,their
mathematicsdealingwithcountablesets[3](setsthathavethe usefulnessasmodelsofrealworldproblems,
samecardinalityassubsetsofthenaturalnumbers,including andtheirimportanceindeveloping
computeralgorithms.
rationalnumbersbutnotrealnumbers).However,thereisno
exactdefinitionoftheterm"discretemathematics."[4]Indeed,
discretemathematicsisdescribedlessbywhatisincludedthanbywhatisexcluded:continuouslyvarying
quantitiesandrelatednotions.

Thesetofobjectsstudiedindiscretemathematicscanbefiniteorinfinite.Thetermfinitemathematicsis
sometimesappliedtopartsofthefieldofdiscretemathematicsthatdealswithfinitesets,particularlythose
areasrelevanttobusiness.

Researchindiscretemathematicsincreasedinthelatterhalfofthetwentiethcenturypartlyduetothe
developmentofdigitalcomputerswhichoperateindiscretestepsandstoredataindiscretebits.Conceptsand
notationsfromdiscretemathematicsareusefulinstudyinganddescribingobjectsandproblemsinbranches
ofcomputerscience,suchascomputeralgorithms,programminglanguages,cryptography,automated
theoremproving,andsoftwaredevelopment.Conversely,computerimplementationsaresignificantinapplying
ideasfromdiscretemathematicstorealworldproblems,suchasinoperationsresearch.

Althoughthemainobjectsofstudyindiscretemathematicsarediscreteobjects,analyticmethodsfrom
continuousmathematicsareoftenemployedaswell.

Inuniversitycurricula,"DiscreteMathematics"appearedinthe1980s,initiallyasacomputersciencesupport
courseitscontentsweresomewhathaphazardatthetime.Thecurriculumhasthereafterdevelopedin
conjunctionwitheffortsbyACMandMAAintoacoursethatisbasicallyintendedtodevelopmathematical
maturityinfreshmenthereforeitisnowadaysaprerequisiteformathematicsmajorsinsomeuniversitiesas

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics 1/8
2017526 DiscretemathematicsWikipedia

well.[5][6]Somehighschoolleveldiscretemathematicstextbookshaveappearedaswell.[7]Atthislevel,
discretemathematicsissometimesseenasapreparatorycourse,notunlikeprecalculusinthisrespect.[8]

TheFulkersonPrizeisawardedforoutstandingpapersindiscretemathematics.

Contents[hide]
1 Grandchallenges,pastandpresent
2 Topicsindiscretemathematics
2.1 Theoreticalcomputerscience
2.2 Informationtheory
2.3 Logic
2.4 Settheory
2.5 Combinatorics
2.6 Graphtheory
2.7 Probability
2.8 Numbertheory
2.9 Algebra
2.10 Calculusoffinitedifferences,discretecalculusordiscreteanalysis
2.11 Geometry
2.12 Topology
2.13 Operationsresearch
2.14 Gametheory,decisiontheory,utilitytheory,socialchoicetheory
2.15 Discretization
2.16 Discreteanaloguesofcontinuousmathematics
2.17 Hybriddiscreteandcontinuousmathematics
3 Seealso
4 References
5 Furtherreading
6 Externallinks

Grandchallenges,pastandpresent [ edit ]

Thehistoryofdiscretemathematicshasinvolvedanumberofchallenging
problemswhichhavefocusedattentionwithinareasofthefield.Ingraph
theory,muchresearchwasmotivatedbyattemptstoprovethefourcolor
theorem,firststatedin1852,butnotproveduntil1976(byKennethAppel
andWolfgangHaken,usingsubstantialcomputerassistance).[9]

Inlogic,thesecondproblemonDavidHilbert'slistof
openproblemspresentedin1900wastoprovethat
theaxiomsofarithmeticareconsistent.Gdel'ssecondincompleteness
theorem,provedin1931,showedthatthiswasnotpossibleatleastnot
withinarithmeticitself.Hilbert'stenthproblemwastodeterminewhethera
givenpolynomialDiophantineequationwithintegercoefficientshasan
integersolution.In1970,YuriMatiyasevichprovedthatthiscouldnotbe Muchresearchingraph
done. theorywasmotivatedby
attemptstoprovethatallmaps,
TheneedtobreakGermancodesinWorldWarIIledtoadvances likethisone,could
incryptographyandtheoreticalcomputerscience,withthefirst becoloredusingonlyfour

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics 2/8
2017526 DiscretemathematicsWikipedia

programmabledigitalelectroniccomputerbeingdevelopedat colorssothatnoareasofthe
samecolortouched.Kenneth
England'sBletchleyParkwiththeguidanceofAlanTuringandhisseminal
AppelandWolfgang
work,OnComputableNumbers.[10]Atthesametime,militaryrequirements Hakenprovedthisin1976.[9]
motivatedadvancesinoperationsresearch.TheColdWarmeantthat
cryptographyremainedimportant,withfundamentaladvancessuchaspublic
keycryptographybeingdevelopedinthefollowingdecades.Operationsresearchremainedimportantasatool
inbusinessandprojectmanagement,withthecriticalpathmethodbeingdevelopedinthe1950s.
Thetelecommunicationindustryhasalsomotivatedadvancesindiscretemathematics,particularlyingraph
theoryandinformationtheory.Formalverificationofstatementsinlogichasbeennecessaryforsoftware
developmentofsafetycriticalsystems,andadvancesinautomatedtheoremprovinghavebeendrivenbythis
need.

Computationalgeometryhasbeenanimportantpartofthecomputergraphicsincorporatedintomodernvideo
gamesandcomputeraideddesigntools.

Severalfieldsofdiscretemathematics,particularlytheoreticalcomputerscience,graphtheory,
andcombinatorics,areimportantinaddressingthechallengingbioinformaticsproblemsassociatedwith
understandingthetreeoflife.[11]

Currently,oneofthemostfamousopenproblemsintheoreticalcomputerscienceistheP=NPproblem,which
involvestherelationshipbetweenthecomplexityclassesPandNP.TheClayMathematicsInstitutehasoffered
a$1millionUSDprizeforthefirstcorrectproof,alongwithprizesforsixothermathematicalproblems.[12]

Topicsindiscretemathematics [ edit ]

Theoreticalcomputerscience [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Theoreticalcomputerscience

Theoreticalcomputerscienceincludesareasofdiscretemathematics
relevanttocomputing.Itdrawsheavilyongraph
theoryandmathematicallogic.Includedwithintheoreticalcomputer
scienceisthestudyofalgorithmsforcomputingmathematical
results.Computabilitystudieswhatcanbecomputedinprinciple,and
hasclosetiestologic,whilecomplexitystudiesthetimetakenby
computations.Automatatheoryandformallanguagetheoryareclosely
relatedtocomputability.Petrinetsandprocessalgebrasareusedto
modelcomputersystems,andmethodsfromdiscretemathematicsare Complexitystudiesthetimetaken
byalgorithms,suchasthissorting
usedinanalyzingVLSIelectroniccircuits.Computational
routine.
geometryappliesalgorithmstogeometricalproblems,whilecomputer
imageanalysisappliesthemtorepresentationsofimages.Theoretical
computersciencealsoincludesthestudyofvariouscontinuouscomputationaltopics.

Informationtheory [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Informationtheory

Informationtheoryinvolvesthequantificationofinformation.Closelyrelatediscodingtheorywhichisusedto
designefficientandreliabledatatransmissionandstoragemethods.Informationtheoryalsoincludes
continuoustopicssuchas:analogsignals,analogcoding,analogencryption.

Logic [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Mathematicallogic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics 3/8
2017526 DiscretemathematicsWikipedia

Logicisthestudyoftheprinciplesofvalidreasoningandinference,aswellas
ofconsistency,soundness,andcompleteness.Forexample,inmostsystemsof
logic(butnotinintuitionisticlogic)Peirce'slaw(((PQ)P)P)isatheorem.For
classicallogic,itcanbeeasilyverifiedwithatruthtable.Thestudy
ofmathematicalproofisparticularlyimportantinlogic,andhasapplications
toautomatedtheoremprovingandformalverificationofsoftware.

Logicalformulasarediscretestructures,asareproofs,whichform
finitetrees[13]or,moregenerally,directedacyclicgraphstructures[14][15](with
eachinferencestepcombiningoneormorepremisebranchestogiveasingle
TheASCIIcodesfor
conclusion).Thetruthvaluesoflogicalformulasusuallyformafiniteset,generally theword"Wikipedia",
restrictedtotwovalues:trueandfalse,butlogiccanalsobecontinuousvalued, givenhereinbinary,
e.g.,fuzzylogic.Conceptssuchasinfiniteprooftreesorinfinitederivationtrees provideawayof
representingtheword
havealsobeenstudied,[16]e.g.infinitarylogic.
ininformationtheory,as
wellasforinformation
Settheory [ edit ] processingalgorithms.
Mainarticle:Settheory

Settheoryisthebranchofmathematicsthatstudiessets,whicharecollectionsofobjects,suchas{blue,white,
red}orthe(infinite)setofallprimenumbers.Partiallyorderedsetsandsetswithotherrelationshave
applicationsinseveralareas.

Indiscretemathematics,countablesets(includingfinitesets)arethemainfocus.Thebeginningofsettheory
asabranchofmathematicsisusuallymarkedbyGeorgCantor'sworkdistinguishingbetweendifferentkinds
ofinfiniteset,motivatedbythestudyoftrigonometricseries,andfurtherdevelopmentofthetheoryofinfinite
setsisoutsidethescopeofdiscretemathematics.Indeed,contemporaryworkindescriptivesettheorymakes
extensiveuseoftraditionalcontinuousmathematics.

Combinatorics [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Combinatorics

Combinatoricsstudiesthewayinwhichdiscretestructurescanbecombinedorarranged.Enumerative
combinatoricsconcentratesoncountingthenumberofcertaincombinatorialobjectse.g.thetwelvefold
wayprovidesaunifiedframeworkforcountingpermutations,combinationsandpartitions.Analytic
combinatoricsconcernstheenumeration(i.e.,determiningthenumber)ofcombinatorialstructuresusingtools
fromcomplexanalysisandprobabilitytheory.Incontrastwithenumerativecombinatoricswhichusesexplicit
combinatorialformulaeandgeneratingfunctionstodescribetheresults,analyticcombinatoricsaimsat
obtainingasymptoticformulae.Designtheoryisastudyofcombinatorialdesigns,whicharecollectionsof
subsetswithcertainintersectionproperties.Partitiontheorystudiesvariousenumerationandasymptotic
problemsrelatedtointegerpartitions,andiscloselyrelatedtoqseries,specialfunctionsandorthogonal
polynomials.Originallyapartofnumbertheoryandanalysis,partitiontheoryisnowconsideredapartof
combinatoricsoranindependentfield.Ordertheoryisthestudyofpartiallyorderedsets,bothfiniteand
infinite.

Graphtheory [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Graphtheory

Graphtheory,thestudyofgraphsandnetworks,isoftenconsideredpartofcombinatorics,buthasgrownlarge
enoughanddistinctenough,withitsownkindofproblems,toberegardedasasubjectinitsown
right.[17]Graphsareoneoftheprimeobjectsofstudyindiscretemathematics.Theyareamongthemost
ubiquitousmodelsofbothnaturalandhumanmadestructures.Theycanmodelmanytypesofrelationsand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics 4/8
2017526 DiscretemathematicsWikipedia

processdynamicsinphysical,biologicalandsocialsystems.Incomputer
science,theycanrepresentnetworksofcommunication,data
organization,computationaldevices,theflowofcomputation,etc.In
mathematics,theyareusefulingeometryandcertainpartsoftopology,
e.g.knottheory.Algebraicgraphtheoryhascloselinkswithgrouptheory.
Therearealsocontinuousgraphs,howeverforthemostpartresearchin
graphtheoryfallswithinthedomainofdiscretemathematics.

Graphtheoryhascloselinks
Probability [ edit ]
togrouptheory.Thistruncated
Mainarticle:Discreteprobabilitytheory tetrahedrongraphisrelatedto
thealternatinggroupA4 .
Discreteprobabilitytheorydealswitheventsthatoccurin
countablesamplespaces.Forexample,countobservationssuchasthe
numbersofbirdsinflockscompriseonlynaturalnumbervalues{0,1,2,...}.Ontheotherhand,continuous
observationssuchastheweightsofbirdscompriserealnumbervaluesandwouldtypicallybemodeledbya
continuousprobabilitydistributionsuchasthenormal.Discreteprobabilitydistributionscanbeusedto
approximatecontinuousonesandviceversa.Forhighlyconstrainedsituationssuchasthrowingdiceor
experimentswithdecksofcards,calculatingtheprobabilityofeventsisbasicallyenumerativecombinatorics.

Numbertheory [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Numbertheory

Numbertheoryisconcernedwiththepropertiesofnumbersingeneral,
particularlyintegers.Ithasapplicationstocryptography,cryptanalysis,
andcryptology,particularlywithregardtomodulararithmetic,diophantine
equations,linearandquadraticcongruences,primenumbersandprimality
testing.Otherdiscreteaspectsofnumbertheoryincludegeometryof
numbers.Inanalyticnumbertheory,techniquesfromcontinuous
mathematicsarealsoused.Topicsthatgobeyonddiscreteobjects
includetranscendentalnumbers,diophantineapproximation,padic
analysisandfunctionfields. TheUlamspiralofnumbers,
withblackpixelsshowingprime
Algebra [ edit ] numbers.Thisdiagramhintsat
Mainarticle:Abstractalgebra patternsinthedistributionofprime
numbers.
Algebraicstructuresoccurasbothdiscreteexamplesandcontinuous
examples.Discretealgebrasinclude:booleanalgebrausedinlogic
gatesandprogrammingrelationalalgebrausedindatabasesdiscreteandfiniteversions
ofgroups,ringsandfieldsareimportantinalgebraiccodingtheorydiscretesemigroupsandmonoidsappear
inthetheoryofformallanguages.

Calculusoffinitedifferences,discretecalculusordiscreteanalysis [ edit ]
Mainarticle:finitedifference

Afunctiondefinedonanintervaloftheintegersisusuallycalledasequence.Asequencecouldbeafinite
sequencefromadatasourceoraninfinitesequencefromadiscretedynamicalsystem.Suchadiscrete
functioncouldbedefinedexplicitlybyalist(ifitsdomainisfinite),orbyaformulaforitsgeneralterm,orit
couldbegivenimplicitlybyarecurrencerelationordifferenceequation.Differenceequationsaresimilarto
adifferentialequations,butreplacedifferentiationbytakingthedifferencebetweenadjacenttermstheycan
beusedtoapproximatedifferentialequationsor(moreoften)studiedintheirownright.Manyquestionsand

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics 5/8
2017526 DiscretemathematicsWikipedia

methodsconcerningdifferentialequationshavecounterpartsfordifferenceequations.Forinstance,where
thereareintegraltransformsinharmonicanalysisforstudyingcontinuousfunctionsoranaloguesignals,there
arediscretetransformsfordiscretefunctionsordigitalsignals.Aswellasthediscretemetrictherearemore
generaldiscreteorfinitemetricspacesandfinitetopologicalspaces.

Geometry [ edit ]
Mainarticles:discretegeometryandcomputationalgeometry

Discretegeometryandcombinatorialgeometryareaboutcombinatorialproperties
ofdiscretecollectionsofgeometricalobjects.Alongstandingtopicindiscrete
geometryistilingoftheplane.Computationalgeometryappliesalgorithmsto
geometricalproblems.

Topology [ edit ]

Althoughtopologyisthefieldofmathematicsthatformalizesandgeneralizesthe
Computational
intuitivenotionof"continuousdeformation"ofobjects,itgivesrisetomany geometryapplies
discretetopicsthiscanbeattributedinparttothefocusontopologicalinvariants, computeralgorithmsto
representations
whichthemselvesusuallytakediscretevalues.Seecombinatorial
ofgeometricalobjects.
topology,topologicalgraphtheory,topologicalcombinatorics,computational
topology,discretetopologicalspace,finitetopologicalspace,topology(chemistry).

Operationsresearch [ edit ]
Mainarticle:Operationsresearch

Operationsresearchprovidestechniquesforsolvingpracticalproblemsin
engineering,business,andotherfieldsproblemssuchasallocatingresources
tomaximizeprofit,orschedulingprojectactivitiestominimizerisk.Operations
researchtechniquesincludelinearprogrammingandotherareas
ofoptimization,queuingtheory,schedulingtheory,networktheory.Operations
researchalsoincludescontinuoustopicssuchascontinuoustimeMarkov PERTchartslikethis
provideaproject
process,continuoustimemartingales,processoptimization,andcontinuousand managementtechnique
hybridcontroltheory. basedongraphtheory.

Gametheory,decisiontheory,utilitytheory,socialchoicetheory
[ edit ]
Decisiontheoryisconcernedwithidentifyingthevalues,uncertaintiesand Cooperate Defect
otherissuesrelevantinagivendecision,itsrationality,andtheresulting
10,
optimaldecision. Cooperate 1,1
0
Utilitytheoryisaboutmeasuresoftherelativeeconomicsatisfactionfrom,
ordesirabilityof,consumptionofvariousgoodsandservices. 5,
Defect 0,10
5
Socialchoicetheoryisaboutvoting.Amorepuzzlebasedapproachto
votingisballottheory. PayoffmatrixforthePrisoner's
dilemma,acommonexample
Gametheorydealswithsituationswheresuccessdependsonthechoices ingametheory.Oneplayerchooses
arow,theotheracolumnthe
ofothers,whichmakeschoosingthebestcourseofactionmorecomplex. resultingpairgivestheirpayoffs
Thereareevencontinuousgames,seedifferentialgame.Topics
includeauctiontheoryandfairdivision.

Discretization [ edit ]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics 6/8
2017526 DiscretemathematicsWikipedia

Mainarticle:Discretization

Discretizationconcernstheprocessoftransferringcontinuousmodelsandequationsintodiscrete
counterparts,oftenforthepurposesofmakingcalculationseasierbyusingapproximations.Numerical
analysisprovidesanimportantexample.

Discreteanaloguesofcontinuousmathematics [ edit ]

Therearemanyconceptsincontinuousmathematicswhichhavediscreteversions,suchasdiscrete
calculus,discreteprobabilitydistributions,discreteFouriertransforms,discretegeometry,discrete
logarithms,discretedifferentialgeometry,discreteexteriorcalculus,discreteMorsetheory,difference
equations,discretedynamicalsystems,anddiscretevectormeasures.

Inappliedmathematics,discretemodellingisthediscreteanalogueofcontinuousmodelling.Indiscrete
modelling,discreteformulaearefittodata.Acommonmethodinthisformofmodellingistouserecurrence
relation.

Inalgebraicgeometry,theconceptofacurvecanbeextendedtodiscretegeometriesbytaking
thespectraofpolynomialringsoverfinitefieldstobemodelsoftheaffinespacesoverthatfield,and
lettingsubvarietiesorspectraofotherringsprovidethecurvesthatlieinthatspace.Althoughthespacein
whichthecurvesappearhasafinitenumberofpoints,thecurvesarenotsomuchsetsofpointsasanalogues
ofcurvesincontinuoussettings.Forexample,everypointoftheform for a
fieldcanbestudiedeitheras ,apoint,orasthespectrum of
thelocalringat(xc),apointtogetherwithaneighborhoodaroundit.Algebraicvarietiesalsohaveawell
definednotionoftangentspacecalledtheZariskitangentspace,makingmanyfeaturesofcalculusapplicable
eveninfinitesettings.

Hybriddiscreteandcontinuousmathematics [ edit ]

Thetimescalecalculusisaunificationofthetheoryofdifferenceequationswiththatofdifferentialequations,
whichhasapplicationstofieldsrequiringsimultaneousmodellingofdiscreteandcontinuousdata.Anotherway
ofmodelingsuchasituationisthenotionofhybriddynamicalsystem.

Seealso [ edit ]

Outlineofdiscretemathematics Discretemathematics
Cyberchase,ashowthatteachesDiscreteMathematicstochildren portal

References [ edit ]

1.^RichardJohnsonbaugh,DiscreteMathematics,PrenticeHall,2008.
2.^Weisstein,EricW."Discretemathematics" .MathWorld.
3.^Biggs,NormanL.(2002),Discretemathematics ,OxfordSciencePublications(2nded.),NewYork:The
ClarendonPressOxfordUniversityPress,p.89,ISBN9780198507178,MR1078626 ,"DiscreteMathematicsisthe
branchofMathematicsinwhichwedealwithquestionsinvolvingfiniteorcountablyinfinitesets."
4.^BrianHopkins,ResourcesforTeachingDiscreteMathematics,MathematicalAssociationofAmerica,2008.
5.^KenLevasseurAlDoerr.AppliedDiscreteStructures .p.8.
6.^AlbertGeoffreyHowson,ed.(1988).MathematicsasaServiceSubject.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.77
78.ISBN9780521353953.
7.^JosephG.Rosenstein.DiscreteMathematicsintheSchools.AmericanMathematicalSoc.p.323.ISBN9780
821885789.
8.^"UCSMP" .uchicago.edu.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics 7/8
2017526 DiscretemathematicsWikipedia

9.^ a bWilson,Robin(2002).FourColorsSuffice.London:PenguinBooks.ISBN9780691115337.
10.^Hodges,Andrew.AlanTuring:theenigma.RandomHouse,1992.
11.^TrevorR.HodkinsonJohnA.N.Parnell(2007).ReconstructiontheTreeofLife:TaxonomyAndSystematicsof
LargeAndSpeciesRichTaxa .CRCPressINC.p.97.ISBN9780849395796.
12.^"MillenniumPrizeProblems" .20000524.Retrieved20080112.
13.^A.S.TroelstraH.Schwichtenberg(20000727).BasicProofTheory .CambridgeUniversityPress.
p.186.ISBN9780521779111.
14.^SamuelR.Buss(1998).HandbookofProofTheory .Elsevier.p.13.ISBN9780444898401.
15.^FranzBaaderGerhardBrewkaThomasEiter(20011016).KI2001:AdvancesinArtificialIntelligence:Joint
German/AustrianConferenceonAI,Vienna,Austria,September1921,2001.Proceedings .Springer.
p.325.ISBN9783540426127.
16.^Brotherston,J.Bornat,R.Calcagno,C.(January2008)."Cyclicproofsofprogramterminationinseparation
logic".ACMSIGPLANNotices.43(1).CiteSeerX10.1.1.111.1105 .doi:10.1145/1328897.1328453 .
17.^GraphsonSurfaces ,BojanMoharandCarstenThomassen,JohnsHopkinsUniversitypress,2001

Furtherreading [ edit ]

NormanL.Biggs(20021219).DiscreteMathematics.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN9780198507178.
JohnDwyer(2010).AnIntroductiontoDiscreteMathematicsforBusiness&Computing.ISBN9781
907934001.
SusannaS.Epp(20100804).DiscreteMathematicsWithApplications.ThomsonBrooks/Cole.ISBN978
0495391326.
RonaldGraham,DonaldE.Knuth,OrenPatashnik,ConcreteMathematics.
RalphP.Grimaldi(2004).DiscreteandCombinatorialMathematics:AnAppliedIntroduction.Addison
Wesley.ISBN9780201726343.
DonaldE.Knuth(20110303).TheArtofComputerProgramming,Volumes14aBoxedSet.Addison
WesleyProfessional.ISBN9780321751041.
JiMatouekJaroslavNeetil(1998).DiscreteMathematics.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN978019
8502081.
Obrenic,Bojana(20030129).PracticeProblemsinDiscreteMathematics.PrenticeHall.ISBN978013
0458032.
KennethH.RosenJohnG.Michaels(2000).HandBookofDiscreteandCombinatorialMathematics.CRC
PressILlc.ISBN9780849301490.
KennethH.Rosen(2007).DiscreteMathematics:AndItsApplications.McGrawHillCollege.ISBN9780
072880083.
AndrewSimpson(2002).DiscreteMathematicsbyExample.McGrawHillIncorporated.ISBN978007
7098407.
Veerarajan,T.(2007),Discretemathematicswithgraphtheoryandcombinatorics,TataMcgrawHill

Externallinks [ edit ]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics 8/8