Report title

by

A.N. Other
SU student number

Practical Report
Module name and code (e.g. Thermodynamics A224)
Department of Process Engineering

12 January 2017
PLAGIARISM DECLARATION

I have read and understood the meaning and consequences of plagiarism as detailed in the
Stellenbosch University Calendar 2017 Part 1.

Signed on 3 May 2017

I hereby declare that this is my own work and recognition was given to all external sources used
in this report.

Signed on 3 May 2017

1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1

2 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS, OR USES, OF COMPOSITES IN PROCESS PLANTS......1

2.1 PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES (PRC)......................................................................................1

2.2 FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES (FRC)............................................................................................2
2.3 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES.................................................................................................................4
3 STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOUR IN-SERVICE AS TO WHY
COMPOSITES IS PREFERRED FOR THE SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS.........................................5

4 THE CAUSES FOR COMPOSITE FAILURE INCLUDING EXAMPLES OF FAILURES

THAT HAVE OCCURRED....................................................................................................................6

4.1 PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES.................................................................................................6

4.2 FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES.......................................................................................................7
4.3 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES.................................................................................................................9
5 REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................10

2
1 INTRODUCTION
Various modern technologies require materials with unusual combinations of properties that
cannot be met by conventional metal alloys, ceramics and polymers. A composite can be
described as a material which is made by combining two or more components with different
physical or chemical properties to obtain a new material with a combination of structural
properties not present in any individual component. Distinct interfaces are present between the
different components. The newly formed materials properties are superior to that of the
individual components for the intended use.
Many composite materials are composed of just two phases: the matrix, which is continuous and
surrounds the other phase, and the reinforcement. The properties of composites are a function of
the properties of the constituent phases, their relative amounts, and the geometry of the
dispersed phase. The various composite types can be classified into the following three main
groups:
Particle-Reinforced Composites
Fibre-Reinforced Composites
Structural Composites
In the sections below, typical examples of applications of composites in process plants are
provided. The structure, properties and behavior in-service as to why composites are preferred
for the specific applications, are also discussed. Lastly, causes for composite failure, including
examples of failures that have occurred, is given.

2 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS, OR USES, OF COMPOSITES IN PROCESS

PLANTS

2.1 Particle-Reinforced Composites (PRC)

Concrete is a common example of a PRC with a composition varying according to its intended
use. Specialised industrial concrete flooring is used throughout various types of industrial
facilities. Concrete is also used during the general construction of process plants. A photograph
of a flooring company (Stanford) installing high quality, high tolerance industrial flooring can
be seen in the Figure 1(a) below. Concrete is also frequently used as material of construction for
cooling towers. Figure 1(b) shows a cooling tower project in Massachusetts (Somerset), USA.

1
Figure 1: A photo of (a) the Stanford company installing high quality, high tolerance industrial
flooring and (b) the Somerset Cooling Tower Project.
Rubber particle-reinforced composites have the following applications on process plants:
Lining of tanks (Protect tanks from abrasive materials, corrosion etc.)
Lining of pipes (Protect pipes from abrasive materials, corrosion etc.)
Rubber Seals (Pumps etc.)
Transmission belts (Big Machinery)
Conveyers (Mining industry)
Coatings for rollers (Paper industry)
Examples are provided in the photographs provided below.

Figure 2: A photo of (a) Rubber lining in Pipes [] and (b) Polyurethane and Polyuria Spray
Coatings on industrial fluid storage tank.

2
2.2 Fiber-Reinforced Composites (FRC)
CFRPs (Carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites) are increasingly used to 'retrofit' existing
large structures such as structures made of reinforced concrete. The carbon fibre fabric is
wrapped around the parts that need strengthening. Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) has also
widely been recognized as an effective seismic retrofit material for new and existing concrete
structures (such as needed at Koeberg power station). A picture of this is provided below.

Figure 3: A photo of the installation of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) seismic retrofit material.
Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite piping (from IDE Technologies) is a key
element in the operations at a desalination plant, located in Carlsbad, USA. This is because the
piping must be able to handle highly corrosive water and high concentrations of salt. It is also
the most suitable solution for large-diameter, low-pressure piping that travels above ground. A
picture of the composite pipes used on the desalination plant can be seen in the figure below.

Figure 4: GFRP pipes on a desalination plant located in Carlsbad, USA.

General uses of FRCs on process plants include:
Corrosion resistant products
Constructions (High impact resistance)
Electrical rods, tubes and components
Miscellaneous

3
More examples are given in Figure 5 below. Figure 5(a) shows a picture of thirty miles of glass
fibre reinforced plastic (manufactured by Fabricated Plastics Ltd.) for a chlorine processing
facility at a plastics resin plant in Texas. Chlor alkali processors were among the first in the
chemical industry to recognize the value of FRP for corrosion resistance. Figure 5(b) shows high
wet-scrubber tray towers of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy Novolac vinyl ester installed to remove
process-generated pollutants at a large steel producer (Heil Process Equipment, Ohio). These
towers are designed to resist 36 percent concentrations of hydrochloric acid at 250F/121C.

Figure 5: A photo of (a) Glass fibre reinforced plastic for a chlorine processing plant used for its
corrosion resistance (b) High wet-scrubber tray towers of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy Novolac
vinyl ester.
Figure 6 shows very large storage tanks, fabricated from glass fiber-reinforced plastic (by
Ershigs Inc.), which is being transported via the river to the Vales Long Harbour nickel
processing plant in Newfoundland, Canada. They will contain hydrochloric acid used in
hydrometallurgical processes to extract active metals from ore slurries.

4
Figure 6: A photo of a large storage tank, fabricated from glass fiber-reinforced plastic (by
Ershigs Inc.), which is being transported via the river to the Vales Long Harbour nickel
processing plant in Newfoundland, Canada.

2.3 Structural Composites

Structural composites can be either laminar or sandwich panels. Plywood is a common example
of a laminar structural composite. One of main uses of Mets Wood Plywood panels, is concrete
casting projects (industrial or construction). The company is able to offer the suitable formwork
panel for each type of casting to achieve the highest quality concrete cast finish. A photograph
below shows how the composite is used during this application. Plywood and other laminar
composites are also used for insulation in the industrial and construction industries.

Figure 7: A photo of a Mets Wood Plywood concrete casting projects.

Other uses of structural composites include:

5
 Roof insulation Engine covers
Roof panels Drive shafts
Flooring Radar equipment
Propellers and blades Subsea structures
Rudders Sound insulation

3 STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOUR IN-SERVICE AS TO WHY

COMPOSITES IS PREFERRED FOR THE SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
Composites have been created to provide superior properties than which is found in any of the
separate components. Composites are generally chosen for in-service applications due to the
following properties they possess:

low weight/density resistance to corrosion

greater stiffness, toughness and strength high-temperature strength
low coefficient of expansion abrasion- and impact resistant
resistance against fatigue Durability
ease in manufacturing complex shapes Fatigue life
simple repair of damaged structures Acoustical insulation
The composite properties are attained as result of the properties of the combined individual
components. Properties are given by both the matrix and the reinforcement as seen in the figure
below.

Figure 8: Combined properties of a composite.

6
4 THE CAUSES FOR COMPOSITE FAILURE INCLUDING EXAMPLES OF
FAILURES THAT HAVE OCCURRED
There are various causes for composites to fail. The laminate to separate at the interface between
two layers due to shock, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses. This condition is known
as delamination. Individual fibres can separate from the matrix and cause fibre pull-out.
Compression failures can occur at both the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fibre in
compression buckling. Tension failures can be net section failures of the part or degradation of
the composite at a microscopic scale where one or more of the layers in the composite fail in
tension of the matrix or failure of the bond between the matrix and fibres.
Some composites are brittle and have little reserve strength beyond the initial onset of failure
while others may have large deformations and have reserve energy absorbing capacity past the
onset of damage. The variations in fibres and matrices that are available and the mixtures that
can be made with blends leave a very broad range of properties that can be designed into a
composite structure. The best-known failure of a brittle ceramic matrix composite is the Space
Shuttle Columbia case. The failure occurred when the carbon-carbon composite tile on the
leading edge of the wing fractured when it was impacted during take-off. It led to catastrophic
break-up of the vehicle when it re-entered the Earth's atmosphere.

4.1 Particle-Reinforced Composites

Particle-reinforced (including rubber) composites usually fail as a result of the following:
Temperature too high (Melt/crack)
Worn over time (abrasion)
Too low temperature (becomes brittle)
Using wrong elastomer for wrong application
Chemical Attack/Corrosion
Degradation by bacteria
Environmental stress cracking (chemical and mechanical)
Adhesion failure

7
Figure 9: A photo of (a) a failed 30-inch diameter asbestos cement (AC) pipe and (b) a failed
concrete tower being repaired by the CCS Group.
Above (left), a photograph of a failed 30-inch diameter asbestos cement (AC) water pipeline,
which ruptured in California, USA, is shown. The failure was due to bad design and unsafe
operation. The photograph on the right shows a failed concrete tower being repaired by the CCS
Group.
The picture below shows a Slipform concrete silo that Marietta Silos was called in to inspect.
Due to heavy usage, original design and potential construction issues the silo has a horizontal
crack that coincides with the material floor inside. At the point of damage, there is reinforcing
steel tied into the wall concrete inside the silo. Above the horizontal crack is additional cracking
that is both horizontal and vertical. Under continued usage this silo's concrete would inevitably
further delaminate and fail.
The picture on the right (below) shows a closer look at the silo wall cracking and delaminating
above the horizontal crack. Delamination of the concrete is caused by the lack of bonding to the
interior structural steel reinforcement, thus weakening the silos structural capacity. Issues of
this nature will require repair sooner rather than later. To repair cracks in a poured in place silo,
an epoxy injection is used to fill in the cracks. After epoxy injection, it is recommended to add
post-tensioned strands completely around the silo area of delamination to provide additional
structural integrity.

8
Figure 10: A photo of a cracked Slipform concrete silo that Marietta Silos was called in to
inspect (with a close up on the right).

4.2 Fiber-Reinforced Composites

The failure of fibre-reinforced composites can occur due to the following factors:
High Tensile forces can cause
o Shear at the interface between matrix and fibers
o Separate fibers from the matrix
o Fiber/Matrix fracture
o Cracking
High temperature exposure of glass composites to acidic fluids can result in increased
corrosion
Due to thermal effects in general (too high or too low temperature)
Due to manufacture and cure-related factors
Effects of moisture
Thermal oxidation
Corrosion/Chemical Attack
Unsafe use

The following modes of failure is most common:

Fibre-debonding
Interlaminar Failure
Fibre bucklilng
Fibre pull-out 9
Delamination
 Fibre breakage
Matrix cracking
Shear loading failure
Fatigue failure

Creep

Figure 11: A photo of failure of a composite insulator in China.

The numbers of composite insulators used on the Chinese overhead power network have been
increasing steadily
Other than failure due to mother nature (lightening, bird droppings), poor manufacturing quality
was clearly identified as the dominant factor in failures such as brittle fracture and interface
breakdown of FRP core rods. Generally, interface puncture is caused by breakdown of the rod-
shed interface or by defective rods and can even occur at nominal service voltage.
Such breakdowns are classified as serious failures since they can lead to complete destruction of
the housing and even line drops. One such example involved composite insulators from an
international supplier that had been in service for only about 2.5 years on the 500 kV Beilan
Line in Zhejiang Province. Much attention should therefore be paid to avoiding such problems
even though statistics suggest that the incidence of this failure mode among composite insulators
in China is presently still very low.

10
4.3 Structural Composites

Figure 12: A photo of failure of a composite insulator in China.

Above is a figure of structural composite flooring failure on an industrial plant. It failed due to bad
design and foot-traffic (wear).

5 REFERENCES
1. Scheirs, John. Compositional and Failure Analysis of Polymers. 1st ed. Chichester:
Wiley, 2000. Print.

11
2. Jones, Robert M. Mechanics of Composite Materials. 1 st Ed. New York:McGraw-Hill,
1975. Print.
3. The Essential Chemical Industry (ECI): CIEC Promoting Science at the University of
York. Materials and Applications: Composites. Date last amended: 18th March 2013.
Available at:
<http://www.essentialchemicalindustry.org/materials-and-applications/composites.html>.
Accessed: 30 April 2017.
4. Callister, William D; Rethwisch, D.G. Materials Science and Engineering. 8 th Edition.
New York: John Wiley, 2010.
5. H. P. Degischer: Leichtbau: Prinzipien, Werkstoffauswahl und Fertigungsvarianten, VCH
Wiley, 2012.
6. Stanford. Concrete flooring products. 2015. Available at:
<http://stanfordflooring.co.uk/concrete-flooring-products.html>. Accessed on: 30 April
2017.
7. Piping Engineering. Rubber Lined Piping: A Solution to Corrosion Resistance. 2017.
Available at:
< http://www.piping-engineering.com/rubber-lined-piping-solution-to-corrosion-
resistance.html>. Accessed on: 30 April 2017.
8. AmorThane. Resources: Industrial Fluid Storage Tank Coatings. 2017. Available at:
< https://www.armorthane.com/resources/news/tank-corrosion-prevention.htm>.
Accessed on: 30 April 2017.

9. TUF BAR. How is FRP the best earthquake resistant material. Available at:
< https://www.tuf-bar.com/how-is-frp-the-best-earthquake-resistant-material/>. Accessed
on: 30 April 2017.
10. Ashland Performance Materials (Dublin, Ohio) has a corrosion resistance guide on its
Available at:<http://www.ashland.com/strategic-applications/corrosion-resistant-frp>.
Accessed on: 30 April 2017.
11. AOC. World leader in resin technology. Case History: Tray Towers. Available at:
< http://www.aoc-resins.com/pdf/cs_cr_tray_tower_HEIL_1.pdf>. Accessed on: 30 April
2017.
12. Composites World. Industrial Corrosion Control: Huge opportunities. Available at:
<http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/industrial-corrosion-control-huge-
opportunities>. Accessed on: 30 April
13. Composites Lab. Pipe & Tank applications: Composite Piping Key to Success of New
California Desalination Plant. Available at: < http://compositeslab.com/composite-piping-
key-to-success-of-new-california-desalination-plant>
14. Marietta Silos. Case Histories: Slipform Cement Silo Wall Cracking Michigan.
Available at:
< http://www.mariettasilos.com/case-histories/section/3/casehistory/18/slipform-cement-
silo-wall-cracking---michigan> Accessed: 11 May 2017.
15. Edwards, Curtis. APWA Reporter. CSI: Engineers. September 2005. Available at:
< http://www3.apwa.net/Resources/Reporter/Articles/2005/9/CSI-Engineers>. Accessed:
11 May 2017
16. CCS Group. Catastrophic Failure Repair. 2017. Available at:
< https://ccsgrouponline.com/catastrophic-failure/>. Accessed: 11 May 2017.
17. INMR. Article Archive: Failures of Composite Insulators in China. 24 Desember, 2015.

12
 Available at: < http://www.inmr.com/failures-composite-insulators-china/>. Accessed: 11
May 2017.
18. Composite Material. Wikipedia. Available at:
< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_material>. Accessed on: 10 May 2017.
19. MetsaWood. Products: Plywood: Shuttering Plywood and Formwork Panels. Avaiable at:
< http://www.metsawood.com/global/Products/plywood/applications/Pages/Concrete-
formwork.aspx>. Accessed: 30 April 2017.
20.

13