Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Doktor ingeni0r
February 1994
MASTER
DISTRIBUTION OF THIS UOCUM~NT IS UNLIMITED
}tct
1
Summary
The main objectives for the work presented in this thesis has been to develop
calculation models for LNG heat exchangers and LNG liquefaction cycles, in
order to do realistic simulations of LNG plants.
The thesis consists of three different parts :
This thesis sum up some of the results from a research project carried out.
at The Division of Refrigeration Engineering, at the Norwegian Institute of
Technology. The project has been financed by Statoil, and I would like to
thank the responsible project managers who made this work possible.
Professor Einar Brendeng has been my supervisor.
Mr. Bengt O. Neeraas wrote his MSc.-thesis on measurements from a early
version of the test facility, and requirement for reconstruction was identified.
The test facility was ready for operation late 1989. Both the test heat-
exchanger and part of the instrumentation had been changed. The work on
construction, instrumentation and commissioning have been carried out as
parts of the work on this'thesis. I would like to thank Mr. Havard Rekstad
and the laboratory personnel for excellent assistance during the reconstruc-
tion and commissioning period. The measurements used in this thesis have
been carried out in the period from 1989 to 1992. Mr. Harald M;ehlum has
performed the measurements on binary mixtures.
The LNG heat-exchanger model was developed and implemented in CryoPro
in the p~riod from 1990 to 1992. I would like to tank Dr. Geir Owren for his
support during this period.
Mr. Hamid MGehlum and Mr. Havard Rekstad have made the AutoCad
drawings.
I would also thank my family for their patience during a rather long prepa-
ration period for this thesis.
ii
Contents
iii
IV Contents
Nomenclature
Latin
All Flow area m2
Ah.e Heat transfer surface m2
B Estimated uncertainty from systematic error
Cp Specific heat capacity J/kgK
dX Longitudinal element m
D Diameter m
DP Pressure difference in test facility Pa
E Electrical potential V
E Exergy loss W
f Fugacity Pa
Fr Froude number
g Acceleration due to gra.vity m/s2
h Enthalpy J/kg
K Equilibrium constant (K-V<Ilue)
m Number for last tube layer
m Mass flow velocity kg/m 2s
M Mass flow rate kg/s
M Number of set of measurements
n Number for first tube layer
N Number of items ( general )
N Number of replicated readings
Nu Nusselt number
P Pressure Pa
Pr Radial distance between tube centers m
Pr Prandtl number
PI Longitudinal distance between tube centeiS m
q Heat flux W/m2
Q Heat transferred to fluid W
R Resistance n
Ru Universal gas constant Nm/kgK
-Re Reynolds number
S Distance between tubes m
5 Slip factor
S Standard deviation-
t ...,P Student-t vab.e
T Temperature C orK
VIll Nomenclature
u Velocity mjs
U Total heat-transfer coefficient W/m 2 K
VI Est~mated total uncertainty interval
W Wattmeter signal W
X Length m
i Vapour quality
X Liquid _composition array
y Vapour composition array
Z Total composition array
Greek
Q Heat-transfer coefficient W/m 2 K
0
Q Inclination angle for all tubes
f) True uncertainty from systematic error
0 Film thickness !D
LlhLV Heat of evaporation J/kg
LlNT Increase in number of tubes
LlT Temperature difference K
LlX Step length for integration m
Ll(} Angle between identical configurations 0
Subscript
a Acceleration
bu Bundle
calib Calibrated -..alue
cb Cold b!i.ndle
Nomenclature IX
co Core
com Component
cs Cold strea~
f Friction and drag force
g Static head or gravity
iJ General number
i-I Relative value between stream i and stream 1-
In In-lirl.o:cuutiguratlon
lam Laminar
lay Layer
10 Liquid only
Is Liquid superficial
L Liquid phase
m Measured
n Step number
oh Superheated
onb Onset of nucleate boiling
or Orifice
P Probability
ref Reference value
sat Saturated
sh Shell or jacket
st Staggered con1iguration
tp Twcr-phase
tu Tube
tui Inside t'!!be
vo Vapour only
vs Vapour superficial
V Vapour phase
w VVall
wb VVarm l-n"dle
ws VVarm ~t.ream
x Nomenclature
Mathematical
() Function parenthesis
4X/dY Gradient of X with respect to Y
Acronym
SRK-EOS Soave-Redlich-K wcng equation-of-state
PR-EOS Peng-Robinson equation-of-state
G-EOS Cubic eq~atioD-of-state
CSP Corresponding state principle
GPA Gas processors association
CWHX COil-WOUD_d heat excha.nger
MCR M ultico.:D p-cilent refrigerant
LNG Liquefied natural gas
MITA Minimum temperature approach
PTFE Teflon
EMF Electromotive force
IPTS-68 The International Practical: Temperature '5cale of 1968
1 Thermal design of LNG heat
exchangers
1.1 Introduction
Coil-wound heat exchangers ( CWHX ) have been used as main heat ex-
changers i:J. most of the LNG production plants built until now. The main
application areas for CWHX are as natural gas condensers in LNG production
plants, as steam boilers in nuclea.r power production plants and occasionally
as heat exchangers in petrochemical. or cryognic plants. Use of CWHX
in !:!'fG plants is based on the advantages of multist~eam capability, high
compactness, efficient heat transfer, high flexibility with regard to design
temperature and pressure and robustness with regard to rapid changes in
temperature and pressure.
CWHX may be constructed with one or several tube-side streams. Two
or three tube-side streams ue normal for LNG application. These streams
exchange heat with a common shell-side stream. The fluid ma.y be in one-
phase flow or in two-phase flow, both on the tube-side and on the shell-side.
The shell-side stream for the Ll'iG application is a.n evaporating multicompo-
nent mixture which produces cooling duty for the condensing and subcooling
streams on the tube-side. The two-phase flow on the shell side is limited to
the cryogenic LNG application. The design pressures may be up to over 200
Bar on tube-side, but a normal design pressure for LNG appliC<'.tion is in
the range of 30-50 Bar on tube side and 2-10 Bar on shell-side. The area-
to-volume ratio is in the range of 150 to 250 m2 /m 3 in t!:.e heat exchanger
bundle, depending on tube diameter and radial and longitudinal tube spac-
ing. High compactness combined with efficient heat transft:r due to local
cross-flow and total counter-current flow, make it possible to build la...rge heat
exchanger units, which are utilized in LNG plants.
1
2 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
The direct capital cost for the main neat exchanger may be about 30 % of tne
total investment cost pro liquefaction train [1], [2J. The energy consumption
<j.ue to exergy loss :n the main heat exchanger could be about 25 % of the
total energy consumption pro liquefaction train. Optim~J design of the main
heat exchanger is therefore important with regard to investment costs and
energy consumption during operation.
A simulation program, CryoPro, has been developed in order to carry out
thermal design and simulation of the liquefaction cycle and the main heat
e.'(changer in an LNG plant. The computer program was developed at The
Division of Refrigeration Engineering, at the Norwegian Institute of Tech-
nology, with financial support from StatoiL The design procedure for LNG
heat exchangers, described in this chapter, have also been implemented in
CryoPro.
Figure 1.1 shows a flow diagram for a natural gas liquefaction process. The
process is a propane precooled MCRI process, the most widely-u~ process
for LNG production worldwide.
A complete description of the process is given by Newton et al. in references
[3], [4], [5]. The process consists of a pretreatment system, a liquefaction sys,-
tem and a compressor/driver system. Heavy hydrocarbons, water, CO 2 , HzS
and Hg are removed down to a specified limi.t in the pretreatment system.
The limits for maximum content of these components are normally given in
order to prevent freeze-out and blocking in the main heat exchanger. The
design specification for the fractioning system would be given by the inlet
composition of the natural gas and the freeze out limit in the main heatsx-
changer. The liquefaction system consists of a PI':COCling system which uses
a propane cycle or a binary-fluid cycle (Dual-mix), aud a main liquaaction
system which uses an MCR cycle. The pretreatment system and tha precool-
ing system are normally incorporated into the same process block. The main
heat exchanger consists of two bundles built together in one shelL The two
bundles are called the warm bundle and the cold bundle respectively.
The natural gas and the MCR mixture are precooled before they are con-
_-
..........
-
-
rrr~
I
II
I (
Figure 1.1: Flow diagram for a na.tural gas liquefaction process [3).
4 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
dense<! in the warm bundle and subcooled in the r.old bundle. The MeR
fluid is separated into liquid and gas, before entering the warm bundle, in
()rder to obtain different compositions of the evaporating fluid in the warm
and the cold bundle. The MeR mixture is totally evaporated in the warm
bundle before being compressed and recondensed again. The natural gas and
the MeR are multicomponent mixtures, and will therefore condense at de-
creasing temperature. The MeR mixtures will also evaporate at increasing
temperature.
The natural gas enters the main heat exchanger with specified composition,
flow rate and pressure. The flow rata of the fuel gas is specified from the
total demand in the plan'!;. The natural gas temperature at the outlet of the
cold end in the main heat exchanger will be a function of this fuel-rate.
The selection of the remaining process parameters for the MeR refrigerant
has to ~ done in close ccnnectir,m with the thermal design of the liquefac-
tion cycle and the main heat exchanger. These process parameters could be
summarized. as :
Temperature at the split point between the warm and the cold bundle
The inlet temperature to the warm end of the heat exchanger is a function
of the temperature in the precooling loop. If a propane cycle is used, this
temperature may only vary v.ithin a narrow range. If a duel-mixture cycle
is used the flexibility will be much greater with respect to selection of in-
let temperature and distribution of cooling duty and driver capacity in the
precooling cycle and the MeR cycle.
The exergy loss in the liquefaction loop may always be minimized by changing
the MeR composition. The local exergy loss due to heat tIG.!'!.sfer of a duty
Q between a warm and a cold stream with temperatures Tws and Tes may
1 Thennal design of LNG heat excha:agers 5
The exergy loss in the main heat exchanger will also be a function of the
delivery pressure from the MeR compressors. Expanders may also be used
as throttle devices for the natural gas stream and the two MCR streams, in
the main heat exchanger. Use of expanders entails a reduction in exergy loss
in the liquefaction unit.
6 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
The design procedure for the main heat exchanger is based on two main
principles.
The total surface in the main heat exchanger will depend on the location
of the split point between the warm and the cold bundle. The location
will always have an optimum solution .
A specified minimum temperature in the main heat exchanger can al-
ways be obtained by cha.nging the pressure on the shell side.'
The first statement is only valid for design purpose, where the geometrical
lay-out has to be established. The last statement may be used both for design
and for simulation.
A design procedure for the main heat exchanger is summarized in Figure 1.2.
The specification contains process parameters for the inlet natural gas stream
and the outlet LNG product, specified minimum temperature difference in
the heat exchanger, specified temperature difference in the warm end of the
heat exchanger and an object function for the optimization. The object
function could, for iI!stance, be exergy loss, investment cost or a combination
of investment cost and operational costs.
The design starts with a heat balance around the main heat exchanger with
given process conditions in order to calculate MeR flow rate. The hea.t
exchanger length is estimated by use of a step-by-step calcula.tion from the
warm to the cold end, with a heat balance on each step. The length of the
warm bundle is settled by use of a. split criterion, and the specified minimum
temperature difference is obtained by control of suction pressure. A new
total heat balance and a new ftow rate are calculated every time the suction
pressure is updated. The change of suction pressure and the location of split
point, and tile calculation of surface in the heat excilanger bundle will be
described in detail.
A procedure for simulation of the main neat excha.nger is given in Figure
1.3. The heat transfer area is fixed, and the operational conditions, such as
natural gas :flow rate and gas composition may be varied. MeR :flow ra.te
1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers 7
Figure 1.2: Ba.sic procedure for design of the main heat exchanger.
Figure L3: Basic procedure for simulation of the main heat exchanger.
I
I
I
I
.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Stream Nst
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I I Stream .
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I Stream 2
I
,
I
I
I
I
.
I
,
, ,,
I I I I
I Stream 1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
. , ,
I
I
I
i = 2Ns i. (1.2)
dh N~, dh M
[-h=2,)-k-' (1.3)
dX ;=2 dX Ml
i= lNst (1.4)
51, S2 and 52 are integer constants with values of -lor 1 depending on inte-
gration direction, flow direction and direction of phase change. An adiabatic
1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers 9
i=1Nst (1.5)
Equations 1.2 to 1.4 express the enthalpy and the pressure for each stream
through the heat-exchanger bundle by first-order differential equations. The
right-hand side of the equations has to be calcdated from a set of algebraic
equations and constants. The constants are given by the geometrical lay-
out such as heat transfer area pro unit length and cross-sectional area for
each stream. The algebraic equations, sach as heat-transfer coefficient for
each stream and pressure gradient for each stream will vary through the heat
exchanger, as the temperature and pressure vary. The total heat-transfer
coefficient is calculated from the local heat-transfer coefficients by the same
method as for a shell and tube heat exchanger [6].
The total mathematical model consists of (2 Nst - 1) independent differential
equations and a set of independent algebraic equations. A solving procedure
for the equations is given in Figure 1.5. The geometrical lay-out refers to
parameters such as radial and longitudinal tube spacing, number oftubes for
each stream and tube length. .
..I\.s described in Chapter 1.3.1. all of the input streams to the heat exchanger
are known or guessed in the wa.rm end. These streams are considered as
10 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
specified input values. There will also be design limitations such as ma.ximum
pressure drop, maximum length and so on. These limits could be based on
J;Danufa.cturing, transport, or process considerations. The design starts ,..lith
a choice of geometrical lay-out for the bundle. k soon as these values are
established the heat transfer area pro unit length and the cross-sectional area
for each stream can be calculated. The geometrical parameters are constant
throughout the heat exchanger bundle.
The solution of Equation 1.2 to Equation 1.4 is based on a numerical inte-
gration of the differential equations from length 0 to length X of the heat
exchanger. Different numerical methods may be used to integrate equations
1.2 to 1.4. The simple first-order Euler method is given by Equation 1.6. The
method is a. step-by-step method, where 11. refers to integration step number
and i refers to stream numb~r. LlX is the length of each integration step.
The pressure and the enthalpy at the next integration step are calcula.ted
from equations 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. The temperature is calculated from Equa-
tion 1.5 and the rigbt-hand sides of equa.tions 1.2 to 1.4 a.re updated in order
to calculate yet another integration step.
(1.6)
Different design criteria may be used in order to establish the split point
between the warm and the cold bundle. Figure 1.6 shows an example on the
temperature difference in the warm and the cold bundle as a function of rela-
tive length. The split point must be within the range of relative length where
both the warm and the cold bu~dle have a positive temperature difference.
This range will vary with composition and suction pressure. The profile is
generated with the assumption of equal temperature on each warm. stream
at each grid point.
Different criteria for detection of split point may be :
The first criterion may not be obtainable due to the actual range with positive
temperature differences for both bundles.
Figure 1.7 shows an example for the total heat transfer surface in a main heat
exchange!" as a function of the relative length at the split point between the
warm and cold bundles. A decrease in the warm bundle length will reduce
12 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
::.::
8.0
OJ
{J Warm bundle - -
C
OJ
Cold bundle ___ .
6.0
1-1
OJ I
~- ..... ,,
"-l
"-l I" I
I ' ,
-rI
'0 4.0 I. '. \,I
, "I
OJ I , I
1-1
:l
2.0
,
I .... J
J.J
<0
1-1
OJ
~
QI
0.0
E-t 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Relative length [-]
the total surface because the total heat transferred is reduced due to the
fact that there are more streams in the warmb-undle than in the cold bundle
and because the temperature difference in the warm bundle is increased. The
surface in the cold bundle will increase at the same time since the temperature
difference is reduced. The minimum surface will be at a length where these
two effects balance each other. The possible split range is narrow for this case
and the temperature difference in the cold bundle increases very rapidly with
respect to relative length. The split point for minimum surface is therefore
located very close to the lowest range limit. The criteria for minimum surface
is set up in Equation 1.7. The optimum po!nt for minimum surface is given
in Figure 1.7.
(1.7)
The use cf the minimum surface criterion PN~UCes a lower Ll T for the cold
bundle than for warm bundle. If the pinch point for the heat exchanger is
located in the split point, the suction pressure will have to be kept lower
than necessary in crder to obtain the specified, minimum pi.nch point. The
1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers 13
40000 r---~r-r---...,...----"----'
N I
~
E
~ 36000
ItS
""':II-<
til
32000 Surface - -
Minim1.lJ.iI ----
Max_ DT ----
2800 0 '--_---J~ _ _.....J,..._ ___L_ _ ~
Figure 1.7: Total h eat- transfer surface as a. fun ctian of th e split pai:Jt between
the warm and coid bundle.
14 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
maximum obtainable ~ T in the split point wi.ll be for relative length where
th~ temperature difference is equal for the warm and the cold bundle, as
given in Equation 1.8.
(1.8)
Figure 1.8 shows the temperature difference through the heat exchanger as a.
function of relative length at different specifications for minimum tempera-
ture approach (MITA ). The split point between the warm and cold bundle is
ca.Iculated from the criterion of maximum temperature-difference in the split
point. The profiles are generated with the assumption of equal. temperature
on each warm stream. The change in MITA specification creates a. change
in suction pressuro:;. The different temperature ?rofiles have a parallel dis-
placement to each othe:.r with respect to change in suction pressure or MITA
specification. There are six different pinch points in this example, four-in the
warm bundle and two in the cold bundle. The last one in the warm :,undle
and the first one in the cold bundle are located in the split point. These two
are similar due the specification of maximum temperature difference. Two
of the different pinch points are in position to be a MITA point.
Figure 1.9 shows a trace of the different pinch points as a function of suction
pressure. The pinch points are detected from the definition given in Equation
1.-9.
dT
[dXbu]; = 0.0 (1.9)
1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers 15
::.::
~ 10.0
(!)
u
MITA = 1.5
t: = 2.5
(!) 8.0 = 3.5
l-l
(!)
....,
...., 6.0
"'-- ..
. I
I "
.
.,.,j
'0
4.0
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 D.B 1.0
The MITA specification is located at the pinch point which gives the lowest
suction pressure. Each of the pinch points has to be traced during iteration
on suction pressure due to the fact that the MITA point jumps from one pinch
point to another when the pressure is varied. At a given suction. pressure,
the MITA point is located at two different pinch points.
The slo.,-.a of the dinerznt pinch traces is a strong function of pressure drop
on the shell side. If the eqQations are solved without the assumption of equal
temperature on each v;ann stream, the number of pinch points increase:::, as
shov.,,!!jn Figure 1.10. The total heat-transfer coefficient is assumed to be
constant for each stream through the heat exchanger in this example. There
are about 10 different pinch points in the figure.
Heating and cooling curves for the main heat exchanger in an MeR, propa.n~
precooled, liquefaction system are given in figure l.li.
Figure 1.12 shows the total heat transfer surface and the exergy loss in an
LNG heat exc.h.ar.ger as a function of the suction pressure to the MeR com-
pressor. A change of ~:uction pressure will lead to a pa.rallel displacement of
the heating and cooling curves in figure L 11. The optimum solution has to
16 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
~
~ 10.0
(!)
()
Split point pinch
W 8.0 Warm #1
1-1
(!) , Warm *2
:!j 6.0 ' .c:-.-".", Warm #3
..-1 , .............------,'::.~ Cold #::!.
'0
(!)
1-1
4.0
....-:::........
.......
.
....~---
-:::-............... ---..:::--..
.-.-.-.:~:::~
----
;:!
J..J
ItS 2.0
>-I
(!) .
0: L I
e:Q} 0.0
8
1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9
~ 15.0
(!)
() !1CR liquid. - -
W12.0 MCR vapour ----
1-1 Natural gas
Q}
::::
..-1
9.0 ..' ,,
I ,
'0 " \,
6.0 "
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Temp=mre [KJ
I
I I I ! HotSheIlFass
240.00
,
1\\.
I
I I I
HotTlibePassl
HOlTi!beP"aSSi---
230.00 HotTii~-
220.00
~, I !
I ColdSbCilPaSs - .
~
coidTiibcPaSSC
210.00
I I CcldTuiid'iSsr
I~,
I
200.00
I
I
I II~-,- I I
190.00
I I ~ ~\. I
180.00
170.00
i "\ 1
160.00
I \.1
150.00
I II \l\
140.00
I I I~\ I
I \\ I
\'
130.00
I I I
';~
II
120.00
I I 1 \1
I I
110.00
I
I
I
I I
I
I
1
I Re1:uive Length [-]
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Figure 1.11: Heating and cooling curve for for the main heat exchanger in
an MeR, propane precooled, liquefaction process.
18 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
til 60
til
o
.-l 50 Area
Exergy loss
40
30
20
M
E 10
o ~----~------~----~----~
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Figure 1.12: Total heat transfer surface and exergy loss as a functioD. of
suction pressure.
1.4 Geometricallay--out
USUALLY COUNTER-CURRENT
Figure 1.13: Sketch of a .:oil-wound hea.t exchanger bundle OYith four streams,
LINDE A.G. [8}
20 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
for each stream. The bundle is covered by a. jacket on the outside in order to
avoid a by-pass stream on the shell side.
A uniform two-phase flow distribution on {;he shell-side is crucial in a heat
exchanger used for LNG production in order to achieve constant tempera-
ture on each layer at a given length. Maldistribution may result in reduced
production capacity or increased power consumption.
The distribution system in a heat exchanger used for LNG production may
be constructed as given in Figure 1.14 as a separator and a perforated plate
spray tower [7]. The liquid phase is distributed over the entire CfO<:S section
ofthe tube bundle by gravity force, through the perforated plates; and :8.ows
as a thin film on the tube wall. The vapour is distributed in between the
liquid phase by pressure differences. The liquid and the vapour are in thermal
equilibrium a.t the top of the bundle, downstream the distribution system.
INTEIUUU.
SEPJlRATOR
DISTRIBUTOR TRATS
FOR UQU\D
Figure 1.14: Two-phase :Bow distribution system for a CWHX, Bukacek [7}
coil-wound heat exchangers are also given ir. references [3], [7] and [9].
The main objective for the geometrical calculations in CryoPro is to establish
the bundle geometry, and to calculate variables which influence on the heat
transfer and the pressure drop. The geometrical data are classified in three
different categories, given in Table 1.2. The input data which have an initial
estimate may be changed during the calculation.
Table 1.2: Geometrical data for the main heat exchanger in CryoPro.
Fixed input data
Inside and outside tube diameter
Radial tube pitch
Longitudinal tube pitch
Input data with initial estimate
Core diameter
Number of tubes for each stream
Output data
Shell diameter
Bundle length
Heat transfer surface for each stream
Flow area for each stream
Number of layers
Tube inclination
40 degrees 60 degrees
s::
....0
0000 000 6
"'u"' 0000 00
0000 000
Q)
....'0
l-;
.....
III
400
....'0s::
::s o degrees 20 degrees
...."'"'
OJ
s::
0
..J 0000 o 00
0000 00
0000 0~08
Radial direction
(LID)
The cross-flow area on the shell-side may be calculated from Equation 1.11,
where SreJ is the radial reference distance between to neighboring tubes,
calculated from one of the different methods reviewed in Appendix A.2.
(Lll)
The different methods calculate different values for the reference distance
and the lIow area. Comparisons between the methods are given in Table 1.3,
for four different cases. The methods are compared on a relative basis with
respect to the in-line flow area for given values of Pr, PI and Dt... These
parameters are also given in Table 1.3 and represent a reasonable range of
choice with respect to geometrical data in an LNG heat exchanger.
Table L3: Rel:;,:'ive Bow area on shell side, calculated by four different meth-
ods.
Case 1 : D tu = 10.0 mm, Pr = 13.0 mm, PI = 12.D mm
=
Case 2: D tu = 10.0 mm, Pr 13.0 mm, PI = 11.0 mm
Case 3 : Dtu = 10.0 mm, Pr = 15.0 mm, PI = 12.0 mm
=
Case 4 : Dt'OL = 10.0 mm, Pr 15.0 mm, PI = 11.0 mID.
- ..c!' Relative flow area
Method Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
In-line 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Staggered 1.4393 1.3719 1.2311 1.1953
Glaser [13] 1.1493 1.1206 1.0782 1.0659
Gilli [14] 1.2313 1.1961 1.1220 1.1032
(1.12)
The total tube length and the total bundle length are calculated as a result
from the integration. The two length parameters are related as given in
Equation 1.13.
Ta.ble ! .4: TherlIlodynamica.l and physical properties used for design of the
main heat exchanger and da.ta. reduction in the test fa.ci1ity.
I Property Calculation method
Equilibrium. data
Pure component Vapour pressure or C-EOS
Multicomponent C-EOS
Solid-liquid GPA
Thermodynamic properties
Enthalpy CSP (C-EOS in test facility)
Heat of evapora.tion . CSP (C-EOS in test facility)
Entropy CSP (C-EOS in test facility)
Heat capacity CSP (C-EOS in test fwlity)
Density CSP
Physical properties
Viscosity I ....
Cet>
Thermal cond.lcti\"ity CSP
I Surface tension CSP
26 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
Figure 1.16: The layers ofTP-lib used for calculation of thermodynamic and
physical properties [10]-
The program consists of different layers and the interface between CryoPro
and TP-lib is on the application level. The system is also used as a basis for
the data reduction in tbe test facilities.
1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchallgers 27
(1.14)
The vapour quality is influenced by th~ K-value for each component, which
is the equilibrium constant that describes the distribution of a component
between the two phases. The K-~ues are functions of temperature, pressure
and composition and a.re obtained from the definition of thermodynamic
equilibrium, given in Equation 1.16, where the fugacity for a component, i,
is equal in both phases. The temperature and the pressure are also equal in
the two phases.
Different models may be used for calculation of the fugacity, and a G-EOS
is normally used for both phases in light hydrocarbon systems with small
amounts of polar components present. The K-value for a component, i, may
then be calculated from Equation 1.17.
Ki = Yi = (h,i(T,P,X"r (1.17)
Xi BV,i(T, P, Y)
The CWHX design is based on Equations 1.2 to 1.5, and the accuracy in
the calculations depends on the C-EOS model, in turn dependent upon the
28 1 Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
Viscosity and thermal conductivity for pure or mixed hydrocarbon fluids are
estimated o;>r use of a corresponding state method similar to the method used
for calculation of density. A complete review of the method is given by Ely
et aI. [16]. The method has been implemented in TP-lib as a part of the
work on the thesis.
The uncertainty in calculated dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity
for pure hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon mbctures is evaluated to be within
8 % for this method [16]. A def::illed comparison is performed in Appendix
A.5 for pure component dyna-..lic viscosity. The uncertainty in calculated
dynamic viscosity for pure propane is regarded to be within 3 %.
Thermal conductivity and viscosity for a pure component are given by YOllD-
glove et aI. [18], [19]. The uncertainty for the calculated properties for
nitrogen gas above critical temperature is quoted to be within 6 %, both
for viscosity and thermal conductivity.
2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers
2.1 Introduction
Design- and simulation results for LNG heat exchangers are sensitive to the
loeal heat-transfer coefficient and pressure gradient on the shell side, due to
small temperature differences between warm and coLd streams and a high
~ gradient on the shell side. No commercial computer program is available
to calculate such an exchanger. Information regarding heat transfer and
pressure drop are normally proprietary for manufa...-turers I)f such exchangers.
Two different test facilities have baen built in order to verify and improve
the simulation program CryoPro. The test facility described here is built for
measurement on down-flow evaporation on the shell side.
The local heat transfer coefficient and pressure gradient are measured, and
the whole shell-side range, in an LNG heat exchanger, may be covered by
.::hanging different parameters in the test facility. The test fluid may be
pure or mixed hydrocarbons and the test facility are operated at realistic
pressures and temperatures. Different parameters which affect the measured
heat-transfer and pressure drop are varied.
The construction of the test heat-exchanger, and the commissioning of the
test facility have been performed in connection to this thesis.
A flow diagram for the test facility, including the major parts of equipment
and instrumentation, is presented in Figure 2.1. The facility consists of a
test circuit, a propane brine circuit and a methane cooling cirC1!it.
The local hea.t-tra.nsfer coeilicient and the pressure gradient are measured
30
2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers 31
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I .
H~
_~ __ ~___Lj~~r, ~fl~'"
I
~
-------liliI-L--LrO;- ....
)---L~"""J.:T5 @yI..N
in the test heat exchanger. The test fluid is circulated through the test
heat exchanger as gas- , liquid- or two-phase flow. When measurements are
Rerformed at two-phase conditions, the fluid is separated into a liquid stream
and a vapour stream, after the test heat exchanger. The flow rate and the
composition are measured for the two different phases. The V3.pour stream is
circulated by use of a gas blower and cooled before it is mixeJ with the liquid
in the test he:~,t exchanger. The liquid stream is cooled after the separator
and circulated by use of a pump before it is mixed with the gas in the test
hea.t exchanger again.
The liquid and the vapour streams in the test circuit are cooled against the
propane in the brine ci,rcuit. The propane is circulated by use of a pump
a.nd cooled against evaporating methane in the main cooling circuit. The
brine circuit is branched into three courses; one for cooling of liquid, one
for cooling of vapour and one for recirculation of brine. The main cooling
circuit operates by thermosyphon circulation. The methane is conde!lsed in
a cryogenerator, which is the cold-supplier in the plant.
The vapour- and the liquid flowrates are changed by means of frequency regu-
lation on the gas blower- and the pump motor, and by means of recirculation
of liquid from the pump to the separator. This system provides a smooth
regulation of flow rate through the test heat exchanger. The flow rate in the
brine circuit is changed by means offrequency regulation on the pump motor
and by means of regulation of the split ratio between the different courses.
The brine temperature is set by regulation of the cooling duty in the cryogen-
erator and by regulation of the electrical heat-input. The temperature in the
test heat exchanger follows the brine t~mperature. The pressure in the test
heat exchanger is a function of the temperature and the total composition of
the nuid in the test circuit.
The test facility may be operated at temperatures from 0 to -150 0 C, and
pressures from 1 to 15 bar. The mass-flow velocity in the test section may
be varied from 20 to 200 kg/m 2 s. The whole quality range from superheated.
vapour flow to liquid film flow may be covered for a particular mixture,
by changing the temperature and the flow rate of liquid and vapour in the
test circuit. Pure-component or mixtures of nitrogen, methane, ethane and
propane would normally be used as test fluid.
2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers 33
(1)- Tubes with vertical slits (2)- Heated palt of test section
(3)- Outer half-tubes (4)- Inner half-tubes
(5)- Flow inlet (6)- Flow braker
(7)- Pressure tapping (8)- Separator plate
(9)- Partition plate
2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers 35
coiled to the right and the two half-tube layers are coiled to the left. Three
longitudinal space bars are inserted between each of the layers. The tubes in
the center coil are also separated by space bars in the longitudinal direction.
The core and the half-tubes on the inner wall are cut on the lathe with high
accuracy, from one piece of metaL Five parallel half-tube hollows with correct
inclination and longitudinal distance were made on the outer walL The tubes
was squeezed down into t:,~ hollows in order to form the ~uter half-tubes
on the walL
The test section consists of a flow stabilization zone, an isothermal zone and
a heated test zone. The total heat exchanger consists of 24 succ~ing tubes
in the flow direction. The flow-stabilizer zone consists of 6 succeeding tUDes
where a correct velocity profile and flow distribution are esta.blished.
The heated zone corresponds to one round for each tube in the coil, which
again corresponds to four succeeding tubes in the flow direction. Outside
tube diameter, heated area, longitudinal tube pitch, radial tube pitch and
tube inclination have been measured directly or calculated from indirect mea-
surements. The geometrical data are used in date reduction and in models for
heat transfer and pressure drop. An uncertainty limit for each of the geomet-
rical parameters is estima.ted. The geometrical data for the test section are
cited in Table 2.1, and reflect a normal geometrical choice for a coil-wound
heat exchanger. The determination of the different geometrical parameters
and the relation between the different parameters are shown in Appendix
B.1.
Each of the four aluminium tub~ in the center layer is heated with electrical
heating elements at the center of the tu bes. The heated test zone is separated
36 2 Test fadlity for LN G heat excha.ng~rs
from the rest Cif the heat exchanger by PTFE plugs in order to prevent heat
leakage. The heat flux from the tubes may be varied from 0 to 10 kW 1m2
A mixing chamber is insta.lled after the heated test section in order to bring
the fluid back to isothermal conditions before the temperature is measured.
The mixing chamber consists of saddle pocking, as used in distillation columns.
The main sources for uncertainty in measured values are calibration, data
acquisition and data reduction. Methods for estimation of errors and uncer-
tainty interval are given in Appendix B.2.
2.5.1 Temperature
DATAE..OGGER
VOLTMETER
CONNECTOR
MEASUREMENT
POINT
+ G
CONSTANTAN
SHIELD
100 k
Identifier Location
TIl - T14 Fluid temperatures before the heated test section
TSl - T 3 Fluid temperatures after the mixing chamber
TZAl - TZAa Wall temperatures in the upper part
T2Bl - T2B8 Wall temperatures in the lower part
T4 Liquid temperature at the outlet of the separator
Ts Liquid tempera.ture at the outlet of the liquid cooler
'1'6 Liquid tempera.ture at the inlet of the mixing system
T7 Vapour temperature at the outlet of the separator
Ts Vapour temperature before tr.e orifice meters
T9 Vapour temperature at the inlet of the mixing system
TIO Propane temperature at the outlet of the p'lmp
Tn Propane temperature at the outlet of the liquid cooler
TI2 Propane temperature at the inlet of the pl\mp
Tlcb Laboratory temperature
function.
The inaccuracy for the data logger is based on a.n air temperature !n the range
of 15 - 35C and recalibration of the logger once a year. The total uncertainty
limit for each measured. temperature is estimated by use of Equa.tkl !! B.17
without dependency between the different sources. The uncertainty limit
will vary with respect to tem~rature. The total uncertainty interval for two
thermocouple elements is given in Figure 2.4, as a funct!on of temperature.
Element one corresponds to measur~ment of fluid temperature and element
two corresponds to measurement of wall temperature.
The last column in Ta.ble 2.3 describes dependency status for different error
sources when different temperatures are combined into a result. The different
sources a.re random with respect to each other for a single measurement. The
small random part for the calibration error is neglected..
2.5.2 Pressure
0.25 ,
u 0.20
'-
-- --
'-
--:------_._-------------
>.
~ 0.15
.-j
ttl
t 0.10 Element one
Q) Element two
u
0.05
0.00
-150 -120 -90 -60 -30 o
Temperature [C]
Identifier Location
P sec Absolute pressure in the test section
DP s1 - DP s2 Differential pressures in the test section
Por Absolute pressure before the orifice-meter
DP or Differential pressure through the orifice-meter
DPm.cr Liquid level in the separator
42 2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers
DATALOGGER
VOLlMETER
P1
R
+
PorDP 4-20mA
P2
the test section. and about 126 mill above the end of the heated test section.
The longitudir.al distance between the pressure taps is 126 0.5 mm which
corresponds to nine succ~ive tubes in the flow direction. The upper pressme
taps are located about 84 mm below the entrance of the test section. which
corresponds to si.... successive tubes in the flow direction. The difference in
peripherical angle between DP.. 1 and DP.. 2 is about 90 0. p ..ec is connect~
to one of the lower tappings. The tappings are located between two parallei
tubes in the outer half-tube layer.
The tra.nsmi~ters ~;ve; a 4-2(1 !IlA outliut signal as a function of pressure.
This signal is convc:-ted to a v"luge signal by use of a precision resistance, in
order !!) achie....~ ('. higher degr~ C(~ accuracy in the data-Iogge!". The signal is
regardl'"C! to be linear OVt:!i" the calibrated range. The measured voltage signal
is converted to pressure or differential pressure by use of Equation 2.2.
(2.2)
a and b are constants estimated from individual of-site calibration. The con-
stants and the precision resistances for the different transmitters are given in
Appendi.x B.9, along with a detailed description of the calibra.tion procedure
for the different transr.litters.
The main error sources for the measurement of pressure and differential pres-
sure are given in Ta.ble 2.5. The accuracy for the trans"itters is given in Table
B.17.
Status
Source
Data logger
function of reading
Uncertainty
O.Ol % Dependent
-1I
Function of resolution 0.8 mV Independent
Precision resistance O.l n Independent I
Transmitter I Table B.17 Independent
The total uncert~inty limit for each measured pressure is estimated by us('
of Equation B.17 without dependency between the different sources. The
sensiti ..;ty coefficients are calculated from Equation 2.2. The uncertainty
44 2 Test facility for LNG heat excha"\gers
limit will vary with respect to measured pressure level. The uncertainty due
to reading in the data logger is treated as dependent when pressure data are
c~mbined.
Vapour flow rate may be measured by use of one of the orifice meters at the
point DPor in Figure 2.1. The choice between the different meters depends on
the total vapour flow rate and the pressure drop through the orifice meters.
The lower limit for differential pressure is set to about 500 Pa in order to
adlieve a high degree of accuracy. Geometrical data for the orifice meters
are presented in Appendix 8.10. Data for the different pressure transmitters
are given in Appendix B.9.
Flow rate through an orifice meter may be calculated by use of Equation 2.3.
The differential pressure through the orifice and the upstream temperature
and pressure are measured [30].
DATALOGGER
YOL"IIIETER
FLOW
R
F'ULSE-RA1E
4-20mA
+
CONVERTER
may be divided into different sections where the function between the 4-20
mA signal and the flow rate is assumed to be linear. The signal is converted
t.o flow rate by use of Equation 2.4.
(2.4)
a and b are constants estimated from the calibration data. The constants
in Equation 2.4 and the precision resistances are giver. in Appendix B.ll,
along with a detailed description of the calibration procedure for the turbine
mete!".
The uncertainty limit for the turbine meter is estimated to be within
0.5 % of the reading. The limit includes precision and bias error from the
data logger, the turbine meter, the pulse-rate converter and the precision
resistance. The turbine is calibrated, and used within a narrow range, and
the calibration is not affected by the full scale nonlinearity in the turbine
meter.
The heat flux in the test sectio!l is measured by use of a wattmeter and
by use of voltage measurement and effect calculation as a control method.
The measuring chain for heat flux is given in Figure 2.7, where both met;h-
ods are illustrated. The control method uses the measured voltage and a
temperature-corrected resistance in order to calculate the effect. The control
method is described in Appendix. B.12.
The wattmeter is calibrated and the observed value is corrected as given
in Equation 2.5. The W ca.lib function is assumed to be linear between the
different calibration points. Calibration data for the wattmeter are given in
Appendix B.12.
The different error sources for measurement of heat flux are given in Table
2.7. The sources are regarded to be independent.
2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers 47
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
R3 R2 R1
DATALOGGER
VOLTMETER
WATTMETER U R4
+ -
Figure 2_7: Instrumentation diagram for heat-flux measurement_
48 2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers
2.5.5 Composition
Voltage signals from temperature, pressure and flow measurements are col-
lected by use of a FLUKE 2280B data. logger, and transferred to a VAX-730
computer by means of the LABSYS data sampling system. The data from
the wattmeter is transferred manually. The measured data a.re combined with
geometrical data and thermophysical data by use of a computer program in
order to calculate output data such as heat-transfer coefficient and pressure
drop.
The calculation of different output data from measured data will be described
along with an estimation of uncertainty limit.
The total pressure drop through the test section is a combination of pressure
drop by friction, static head and acceleration. The mea.n total pressure drop
is calculated from the measurements in DP sl and DP s2, by use of Equation
2.6.
The measured pressure drop is corrected fOT static head. due to a difference
in location of pressure taps, by using Equation 2.7.
The pressure drop due to a change ir. static head m;::.y be calculated by use
of Equation 2.8.
_ .. 2 . ..!!:..[~ (1 - X)2 1
D p... - 0.126 m dX + (l-c) 'PL J (2.9)
Pv'c
1
e:= ------~~~- (2.10)
1 + E::!...
p, (1-:-;;) .
~
S
The slip factor, S, is defined as the ratic between vapour- and liquid velocity.
The slip will be small at small vapour fractions with a liquid film fow on
the wall and a small amount of vapour :flOwing in the free space between the
tubes. As the vapour quality increases the vapour velocity will be higher
than the liquid velocity and 5 > 1. At high vapour quality the shear rate
will be high a.nd the flow will tend to flow at homogeneous conditions with
5 = 1. P_ slip rat!o of 1 0.5 is used for data reduction.
The fluid temperature may vary througho::.t the heated test section due to
variations in enthalpy and pressure. A representative mean value is estimated
at the center of the heated test section. The heat transfer COefficient calcu-
lated from the measured data is based on the assumption of thermodynamic
equilibrium in the fluid. It is impos..,.jble to measure a representative mean
fluid temperature in the heated part of the test section, and the majority of
2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers 51
1 4
"1\ = -. LT 1, (2.11)
4 .=1
(2.12)
The temperatures may vary due to random error in the measuring chain
and due to actual variation in temperature in the section. The standard
deviation for the mean value may be estimated using Equation B.lS where
the covariance between the measurements is taken into account. The total
uncertainty interval is estimated by a combination of bias and random error.
Common bias errors for each of the measured temperatures are considered.
The cha.nge in temperature from point 1 to point 3 is a function of pressure
drop, heat input in the test section and heat leakage from the surroundings.
The pure propane temperature is only affected by pressure drop. For nit~en
gas and two-phase mixtures the change in temperature is also affected by heat
input.
The length from point 1 to the outlet of the section is about 240 mm. The
height of the mixer is about 160 mm. The total length which creates pressure
drop is about 400 mm, and the pressure drop profile is assumed to be linear.
The total length between point 1 and point 3 is about 700 mm. The length
from point 1 down to the center of the section is about 210 mm. The profiles
for heat input and temperature in the heated part of the test section are
assumed to be linear. The mean fluid temperature in the center of the test
section may be estimated by use of Equation 2.13.
(2.13)
The constant L Jra.c ma.y be set to 0.5 due to pressl!re drop and heat input from
the test section. The influence from heat leakage will require a lower constant,
52 2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers
but this !nfiuence is smaller than for the other two, and the constant is set
to 0.5 O.L The standard deviation for the mean value may be estimated
by use of Equation B.15.
The mean temperature may also be estimated from equilibrium calculation
with specified pressure, vapour quality and total composition as described in
Equa.tion 2.14. The method is only used as a. control method.
(2.14)
The mean wall temperature in the test section, Tw, is based on measurements
at 16 different points. A mean wall temperature is estimated in the upper
and the lower part of the heated test section, and the temperature approach
is assumed to be linear between these two points. A representative mean wall
temperature may therefore be estimated by Equation 2.15.
_ 1 8 1 8
Tw = 0.5 [_. :L T 2A. + - . LT2BJ (2.15)
8 ;=1 8 i=l
Figure 2.8 shows a plot of the measured wall temperatures in serie B7 where
the heat flux is varied. The repeated measurements for each point may be
regarded as normally distributed, but the total distribution of each mean
value has bias errors with respect to the grand average. An uncertainty limit
for each point may be calculated by a combination of bias error and precision
error for each point.
The actual wall temperature will vary due to :
.-.
u
c 0-4
0
.r-i
JJ
C1l
.r-i
0.2
;>
(l,)
'0 0.0
Q)
l-i
='
JJ
-0.2
!G
l-i
Q)
0. -0.4
5:
OJ
E-t 0 2 4 6 8 1u - 12 14 16
Wall point
The total flow rate may be calculated by use of Equation 2.16. The equation
is set up from a mass balance around the test section and the separator.
The vapour and liquid holdup in the system ma.y be neglected as long as the
level in the separator is constant, and the temperature and the pressure are
constant.
(2.16)
The vapour flow rate is calculated directly from the measurements by use
of EG1;ation 2.3. The density in the turbine meter is calculated from the
estimated temperature and pressure after the pump. The temperature is
me-"l.Sured at Ts, located 3.2 m downstream the turbine meter, and corrected
due to heat input from the surroundings. The corrected temperature Tst is
estimated from Equation 2.li, by use of a maximum heat fluX. The A -value
for the insulation is estimated to be 0.05 0.02 W jmK. The tube diamete~
54 2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers
'T' _
.LS'-.LS-
'T' 16.0 . ). (11lab- Ts + Ts')
ML-CPL 2
The differential pressure over the pump is about 0.5 0_1 bar during oper-
ation. The pressure will decrease from point 1, where the section pressure
is measured, to point :3, and increase from point 3 to point 5 at the pump
suction_ The total pressure variation will be within 0_01 bar_ The pressure
in the turbine meter may therefore be estimated from Equation 2_18.
The vapour quality in the test section may be estimated on weight basis by
use of Equation 2.19. MV2 is the local vapour flow rate in the test section .
. - MV2
X=--
M tp
The local vapour fiow rate may diiler from the measured vapour flow rate,
and a heat and a mass balance is set up around the test section in order
to estimate the local vapour quality_ The heat balance is given in Equation
2.20_ Point 6" is the recirculated liquid from the pump.
M4 = Mstl+ML
Ah + Mv = M~
M tp = + MV2 (2.21)
2 Test facility for LNG heat exchangers 55
(2.22)
c _ h4 - hL2
, 2 - !:lhLv
c - Q""+Q
2 loss (2.23)
, 4 - !:l.hLv
The correction for vapour flow rate depends on the heat input and the vari-
ation in fluid condition from the test section to the separator. The constant
C3 may be set to 0.0. This assumption depends on the variation in fluid tem-
perature from point 4 to point 6", and it is made due tG the fact that Ms"
is unknown. The liquid at point 4 and the vapour at point 7 are regareled to
be in equilibrium. The change in fluid condition between point 2 and point
(4,7) depends on pressure drop. The measured condition downstream,the
mixer is used in order to estimate change in fluid conditions. The heat loss
is estimated from Equation 2.24, where the). -value is 0.05 0.02 W /mK.
(2.24)
The local heat-transfer coefficient in the test section may be calculated from
Equation 2.25. Qsec is measured as described in Chapter 2.5.4. A temper-
atu.Te difference based on the fluid temperature aft2r the section, and the
mean wall temperature in the lower part may also be used.
(2.25)
3.1 Introduction
56
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 57
Different m~thoJ5 for calculation of heat transfer and pressure drop are re-
viewed from the li~eratl>.e.
The Pr number is about 0.7 for both series. The dimensionless Re, Nu and
Pr numbers are used for presentation, as givei' in Equa.tion 3.1. The in-line
area is used for measured and calculated values in the presented graphs. The
d::tferent calculation models may employ other definitions.
mDt... _ Dt'U. Cp J1
, .Nu _
(X
R e= ,\.' Pr=-,\.- (3.1)
p.
58 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
300 I I
Series Vl
HEDH Vl ......~
2S0 - Series V2 + ......<i-+-
HEDH V2 ........ +
l-l .~ .....++
IV
- -
/~*
- 200
;l
s:
150 - -
/
;l
Z
I I
100
10000 30000 SOOOO 70000
Re number [-]
(3.2)
The turbulent and laminar Nu numbers are given in Equation 3.3 a.nd E<;.ua-
tio!! 3.4.
. 0.037 ReO. . Pr 8
]v Uturb = -----.....".~...,.-__:_:~--
1 + 2.443 Re-O1 (Pr(2/3) - 1)
(3.4)
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 59
Re = _'l_'_X_'-,-P
(3.5)
'Y'p.
-y for an in-line tube bank and the arrangement factor fA, are given in Equa-
tion 3.6, where Pr and PI denotes the radial and longitudinal distances be-
tween tube centers.
Deviations between measured and calculated values are given in Figure 3.2.
There is a small increase in deviation as a function of increased flow rate,
but the overall deviation is small, generally within 5 %. The estimated
uncert2inty for the measured values is given in Figllre 3.3. Th~ uncertainty
is generally within 2 %. Th-e method is expected to predict heat transfer
within 10 %.
60 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
10.0 ,
Series 'Vl ~
Series V2 +
dfJ s.o - -
t:;
-'
..-i
oW
0.0 ............................................................. -
ot-~ <)~ .f;1 ~~
III
...-\
-++
g>- -5.0 ~ + +++=t
-10.0
, I
Re number [- ]
10.0
. 'Vl ,
Ser~es <>
dfJ 8.0 ~ Series V2 + -
>.
oW
.t:
..-\
6.0 f-
+ -
Ct\
.:...J
\..I
OJ
4.0 ...
+
-
u
t:
=:J
2.0 f- <)K><>~~~+~ ++ + ++=+
I I
0.0
10000 30000 50000 70000
Re number [-]
6000
+
J.J
o :r.-t. .
4000 0,,- -b....
i
. ~
,/ +,:1=.....
.. :it ...
2000 f /
~/ 4 t-:f... "Series
~."'."
Q>'" .~...
+ ..,
EARBE VI
Series V2
E.z:~RBE
VI
V2
+
~ 0 ______
~' ~~ ______ ~ ______-L__ ~
The pressure drop for single phase flow in a tube bank may be calculated by
use of Equation 3.7. .
(3.7)
2
F = 1 1 {3.8)
..n:r;.+"ff;;
62 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
The in-line and staggered pa.rt of the function may be calculated by use of
Equation :3.9. The equations must be solved by iteration.
(3.9)
The friction factors for in-line or staggered tube bank may be calculated by
use I)fa method dev~loped by Idel'cik [29J, given in Equation 3.10 to Equation
3.12. The 30w area and the Re number are calculated by use of the method
developed by Gilli [14].
Pr Pi
a=-, b=- (3.10)
D tu D tu
m = 0.27 (3.12)
If Pr :5 PI :
n=O.2 (3.14)
If Pr > PI :
(3.15)
b-1
n=0.2 [--] 2 (3.16)
a-I
Deviations between measured and calculated values are given in Figure 3.5.
The deviation is generally within 15 %. The estimated uncertainty for the
measured values are given in Figure 3.6. The uncertainty varies as a function
of:fl.ow rate, and increases rapidly at low rate, due to lower measured pressure
drop. The method is expected to predict pressure drop within 20 %.
3 Beat transf~,'t'and pressure drop 63
20.0 r-------~--------~------__,
riP 10.0
c
o
M 0.0
.w
n:!
M
> Series Vl <)
~ -10.0 Series V2 +
-20,0
10000 30000 50000 70000
Re number [- 1
20.0 I I
dP
Series Vl <:>-
~ 15.0 r- Series V2 + -
>. <:>-
.w
C +
M
co
1!)'0 r-
+ -
.oJ
\...0 <> ++
<:> ++-\.r
Q)
u
c
5.0 t- O
00 ++ + -
=> ++ of
I I
0.0
10000 30000 50000 70000
Re numbey [-]
-:'he heat leak-d.ge into the test section is estima.ted from the nitrogen data,
as a deviation between the heat input to the test section and the j;:~...ased
temperature or enthalpy for the iluid. /~
The :esults are given in Figure 3.7, as a function of tl.ow fa."te. The leakage
increases 3S a function of fio,~' rate, t1~,~ to increased .!ie~.t transfer. Tne
leakage may be estimated fmm Equation 3.17. Thp equation may also be
used to estimate the effective leak area in the section, Aler:.;;.
(3.17)
30 I
II + +-i
::: 25
Q)
til 20
[
...L.4> +* ++ +
~ *
/'Cl
~
u
t!l
15 00 .J..~
Q)
.-i
*0 +t.'
10
LJ
/'Cl
OJ 5
[ Series V1 <;>
Series V2 +
:J:;
0
10000 30000 50000 70000
Re nu.'Tlber [-]
The Reynolds number for the liquid film is defined in Equation 3_18_
4-r
ReL=--
J.LL
r is the mass 'ffow rate pro unit length, calculated from Equation 3.19. The
liquid is distributed on both sides of the tubes.
(3.19)
The now in the film wiD var'J from laminar through wavy-laminar to turbulent
as a function of How ra.tE:. The transitiOn range from laminar to turbulent
;nay be observed for a Re,L number in the range from 1000 to 20GO for a fiat
plate [44}. A ReL number of 1600 has been used as transition criterion. The
Re number for the film flow in an LNG heat exchanger will normally be :n
the range of 1,000 - 10,000, which is in the laminar-wavy or slightly turbulent
region. The drip-off from tube to tube may also create agitation effects for
the film f!O"il!, which enhance the heat-transfer coefficient.
The heat-transfer coefficient for film flow may be described by the Nusselt
number as ce:finecl by Equation 3.21 where the 111m thickness equals the
characteristic lec.gth.
a
iVUL
1
=-
>"1.,- (3.21)
The real fillL thickness may be difficult to estimate and the Nu number is
often chara.cterized by the reference film thickness, as given by Equation 3.22.
Both representations have been :.Jsed in the liter::.ture in order to characterize
the Nusselt number in the :film flow.
(3.22)
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 67
(3.23)
The dimensionless tube diameter and the dimensionless vertical tube spacing
is defined in Equation 3.24.
(3.24)
(3.25)
The real film thickness and the film velocity may be difficult to estimate,
because they are a function of parameters as total flow rate, quality, vapour
share and entrainment. The thickness will also vary around the tube. The
liquid holdup in the vertical space between the tubes will also affect the film
thickness. The average -film thickness for laminar film flow on a vertical plate
may be calculated by Nusselt film analysis a.E given :n Equation 3.26 [42].
3 VL r 3 !
c Ret
I I
5Iam =[
gPL
]3" = [-]3"5
4
(3.26)
The film thickness for wavy laminar or turbulent "flow is difficult to predict
and a normal approad, is to use an analogy as given in Equation 3.27, as re-
viewed by Seban [43]. Most previous studies have been performed on vertical
plates and the results may not be transferred to horizontal tubes, where the
i11m is redistributed for each tube row.
o
--=aReL
b
(3.27)
li1am - .
Heat-tra.nsfer coefficients for film flow have been measured by use of pure
propane and of mixtures of propane and ethane. Film flow has been obtained
by circulation of liquid or low-quality two-phase !low through the test section.
68 3 Heat transfei" and pressure drop
The main objective has been to vary the Reynolds number for the film by
varying the flow rate. Some series performed at low vapour quality have also
Qeen classified as film !low. Test conditions for the measurements with pure
propane are given in Table 3.2. The test section is too short to measure
pressure difference in film flow. The flow velocity refers to the in-line flow
a.rea. and it is used to compare film measurements to shear fiow measurements.
The variation in Prandtl number was only within 10 %, due to the variation
in temperature and pressure.
The measured heat transfer coeffici.ents for pure propane a.re given in Figure
:3.8 by the Nu~ number as a function of the ReL number. The measured
heat-transfer coefficients for propane-ethane mixtures are given in Figure 3.9.
Some of the measurements at low Re number may be very close to the laminar
transition range with decreasing influence from liquid flow rate. The overall
uncertainty for the measured Nu numbers are given in Figure 3.10. The
estimated uncertainties are within 5 to 10 % and increase with increasing
flow rate.
0.40 I I
Xl
X G
~
I 0.35 I- El&
-
~
~
+
(j)
~0.30 I-
~
Fl -
s:: F2 +
~ 0.25 - ~ F3 8 -
z- F4 X
F5 A
I I I
0.20
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Re numbar [-]
(3.28)
0.40 I I I
~
I 0.35 - )J+
~ -
H ~
W
..q 0.30 - -
-.
~ BF1
BF2
0
+
-5 - xa+-
0
BF3 G -
BF4 X
I I I
0.20
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Re number [-]
15.0
a;; 12.5 + I
+ ()
>. 10.0 + :1-+ 0+. <)
+ ~~~+ ~
1
.w
c
..-j
rtl
7.5 ~-r~~()
.w
H 5.0 0 00
III
U Propane ()
C Mixtures +
::> 2.5
0.0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Re number [-]
decrease until the thermally fully-developed region is reached. The film Sow is
treated similar to single phase flow, as a combination of heat conduction and
heat convection. The cOD:?tants w!l] therefore vary from region to region. The
Nu. number decreases with an increasing Re number for laminar flow, wnere
heat conduction and film thickness govern the heat transfer. ..0\5 the flow
becomes turbulent the Nu number a.ugments with an increasing Re number
and convection governs the heat transfer. The heat-transfer is also increased
v.ith a growing Pr number as for single phase flow. The dimensionless group
Dc: reiates the flow length over one tube to the heat transfer; and Lc: relates
the holdup 'in the free vertical space and the inertia. effect for the falling film
between the tubes to the heat transfer.
Bennett et al. hav ~ developed a model for calculation of heat-transfer coeffi-
cient for downward film flow in a tube bank with horizontal tubes [34]. The
equation "''as developed by use of Rll with one heated tuDe. The original
model is given in Equation 3.29. All of the thermo-physical properties are
calculated for the liquid.
2 A2 .;./3 2/3 C 4 r
Q = 0.886. [ ' .P g . P]i/3. [...]lJ4. [__]1/9 (3.29)
... Dtv. . 1-'1/3 JLw jJ-
The ratio between the bulk and the wall viscosity may be set to l.0, due to
low tempera,ture difference. The equation may be re-structured to its general
form by introducing the Pr numb~r and the dimensionless tube diameter.
Kocamustafaogullari et al. have also developed models for calculation of the
heat-transfer coefficient for dowm....ard film How in a tube bank with hori-
zontal tubes [45]. A model was developed from hydrodynamic and thermal
theoretical analysis by a finite difference method. The model was used to
generate data fOT pazameter variation. The results were :fitted in order to
estimate the constants in the general equation 3.28. The constants from
Bennett et al. an~ Kocamustafaogullari et al. are given in Table 3.4 for
different conditions. Only turbulent flow is consi.dered. All of the thermo-
physical properties are calculated for the liquid. The transition Re number
is used to choose between the constants in the thermal developing region,
and constants for fully develo~d flow for the Kocamustafaogullari equation.
The Ku number for fully developed fio ....; is used as asymptotic value in the
thermai dev~loping region. The transition Re number is calculated by use
of Equation 3.30. The two equatioIls are equal for n in the range of 8 - 9.
72 3 Heat transfer and p:ressure drop
Benn'=!tt et al. also investigated the thermal developing length by using three
heated tubes in the experiments. They concluded with a reduction of about
2. - 4 % for the third tube.
(3.30)
are tho::refore assumed to be in the fully developed region even though Koca-
mustafaogullari et aL predicted a higher thermal developing rang~ [44J. The
measured values aiso correspond to the measurements taken by Bennett et
al.
All of the measured values have been compa.red to the two models, and the
results are given in Figure 3.11. The overall agreement with the Bennett
model is good but the influence from Re number is underestimated, ar,d the
deviation is also influenced by variation in Pr number.
The deviation from the Koca.mustafaogullari is higher, and the moriel under-
predicts for all of the measurements. This model includes more effects and
the de"iation is ne?-rly constant. A new a constant is developed from thE:
measured data. The constant is set to 0.031 and does not V'dory between data
measured ""-ith pure propane and data measurw with binary mixtures. The
results are presented in Figure 3.12. The agreemem l;es generally v,.;thin
10 %, ill accord with the uncertainty for the measurements. The slope for
the Nu numbe!" as a function of the Re number is low, and the uncertainty
will propagate into a fit for the constants.
50
B (pure) 0-
dP 30 R (mix) +
..... K (pure) []
::: ~"T"+ K (mix) X
10
.....0 ..............~... ~;~.~~......... .
"-'
-10
'">
.....
Ql
0 -30
-50
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Re number- [- ]
Figure 3.11: Deviation between measured and calculated Nl.lsselt number for
film flow. B = Bennett. K = KocamustafaoguJlari.
74 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
20 I I I
dP
o
10 - 0 -
t:
0
+ ~~.... :t-~ 00
ri 0 - .......... -H-+..~..... ~~ .................-
.u
ttl
.....
<f' -,.. 0
> ~ +
Q) -10 i- 0 Pure <:> -
Q 8 Mix. +
-20 ~----~I~----~I------~I----~
o 2000 4000 6000 8000
Re number [-]
The onset point for nucleate boiling must be detected in order to establish a
total heat transfer modeL In the state of nucleate boiling vapour bubbles are
produced over cavities on the hot surface. The bubbles enlarges to a certain
diameter, depart from the surface and rise to the liquid-vapour interface.
The initiation and growth of the bubbles require a superheated surface with
respect to the saturation temperature at a given pressure. The flow around
the tubes has a laminar sublayer near the tube wall, and the heat :flux in this
layer may be expressed using Equation 3.31.
(3.31)
(3.32)
T _ Ru . Tol-. Tsa.t.l [1 0
'T'
J. oh
_
sa.t - "h
!..l. LV
n . + P2rCT] (3.33)
. The two equa.tions are visualized in Figure 3.13. Equation 3.33 represents
the minimum liquid temperature which maintains a bubble with radius r.
The touch point between the two equations may be calculated from (dToh!dr)
= (dTL/dX). The equation gives the necessary cavity radius in order to
maintain a growing bubble. The heat flux for the onset of nucleate boiling
76 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
TSClt
I I
I Bubble equ.librium
It-'"'"
I
(3.35)
(3.36)
Eight ~ries with varied heat ftux ha.ve been ca.rried out in order to estimate
the onset point of n!lcleate boiling. Pure propane has been used as test
fluid. The heat-transfer coefficient varies among the different series due to
78 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
variation in flow rate and vapour quality. The measurements have been
divided into film flow and shear flow, and the results are presented in Table
3_.5 as a function of vapour quality and flow velocity. The measured results
a.re also compared with the :predicted value by use of Equation 3.36. The
measured and predicted results are in good agreement for shear flow, but the
method underestimates the minimum heat flux for film flow. These results
a.re generally in agreement with the theory.
Table 3.5: Measured and calculated onset point for nucleate boiling.
Series x m T q<mo,c 1]-0,,,.
[kg/kg] [kg/m 2s] [0C] [WJ [W]
B1 0.00 70 -10.0 2400 5500 - 6000
B2 0.00 70 -20.0 3500 6500 - 7000
[ B3 0.00 70 -30.G 5200 > 8000
B4 I 0.05 53 -10.0 2300 4500 - 5000
I B5
B6
0.:35
0.38
110
62
i -10.0
-10.0
17700
5900
> 8300
6000 - 6500
B7 0.38 63 10 0 6200 6000 - 6500
B8 0.47 48
1- .
-5.0 3700 3900 - 4200
0.25
~ 0.20 81~
82 -+--
0.15 83 -E}-
c
o
-.-I 0.10
.w
(tl
-; C. 05
(])
o 0.00
-0.05
o 2500 5000 7500 10000
Figure 3_14: \I~u-jation in heat-transfer coefficient for iilm flow with varied
heat flux.
0.4
0.3 S4 ~
B5 -+--
c B6 -EJ--
0
-.-I
0.2 B7 -x---
JJ B8 ~.
~
..... 0.1
:>
(])
0
0.0
Figure 3.15: Variation in hear-transfer coefficient for shear flow with varied
heat flux_
80 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
a given fluid condition. The onset point will aiso increase for decreasing
pressure.
10000
C"l /
E
'- 7500 I
3 I ,,
I ,
x 5000 !
::s 0 C
,,
.-l
, .
-20 C
,,
~
,
.w
..., -40 C
...
ttl 2500 H = 2000
(1.'
::I: E. = 8000
o
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
DT [C]
Figure 3.16: Predicted onset point for nuclea.te boiling for pure propane.
The same method has been used for calculation of onset point for a rnulticom-
ponent mixture used as a refrigerant in an LNG heat exchanger. The results
are given in Figure 3.17 as a function of vapour quality. The probability for
nuc1~te boiling is reduced for increasing vapour quality as the heat transfer
increases, and necessary superheat increases. The method overestimates at
!ow heat transfer. and the conclusion is that the nucleate boiling part ofthe
heat-transfer coefficient is insignifica!'t in an LNG heat exchanger.
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 81
lOOOO
N
E 7500
........
3:
5
.-i
5000 I /x 0.2
-- = 0.5
~ i , x
I
oW
2500 I
x = 0.9
I'll
OJ = 2GOO
:r: 8000
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 LD 5.0
DT [el
Uv3 =--
zm (3.37)
Pv
The Wallis dimensional gas velocity parameter is given in Equation 3.38 [41].
This parameter is a measure of the relative importance on gravity and vapour
shear en the :flow conditions.
xrn (3.38)
iv= JDtu.pv'9'(PL-pV)
The Froude number for the flow at liquid-only conditions is given in Equa.tion
3.39 (33].
...,
m-
.c'rlo = """"-2--- (3.39)
PL' 9 D t 1.J.
Figure :~"'8 shows principal sketches of the now down the heat exchanger.
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 83
c::;rl
.~
),
The energy- and mass transfer between the liquid film and the gas is strongly
affected by the entrainment and deposition rate in the :Bow. The geometry on
t.he shell-side ~th successive contraction and enlargement may also enhance
the entrainment due to vapour velocity accelerating in the contractions.
Ishii et al. [37J proposed start criteria for droplet entrainment in two-phase
concurrent film flow. They reported four different entrainment mechanisms
with respect to concurrent flow. The four types are shown in Figure 3.19,
and described. below.
1. Roll wave, where the tops of large amplitude roll waves are sheared off
from the wave crests by the turbulent gas flow.
2. Wave undercut, where the gas flow undercutting the liquid film and
tears off droplets of liquid.
3. Bubble burst, where fine droplets are generated. when bubbles rise to the
interface where they burst. The bubbles may result from gas injection,
turbulent wavy motions or heavy nucleate boiling.
~he first and second mecb.a.n.isIIis are the most important for concurrent flow,
and the analysis on inceptio~ from Ishii et al. [37j is based on these two
mechanisms. The fourth mechanism ma;~ also be important in film flow on
shell-side where the liquid falls from one tube to the next. The phenomenon
is well known in shell-side condensers as a splashing or inundation effect.
The minimum gap between the tu bes is small, and the successive contraction
and enlargement play an important part in the detection of entrainment and
deposition rate.
. The phenomenon of inception of entrainment was examined. by Ishii et al.
who plotted the critical gas velocity ag?inst the liquid film Reynolds number.
Three different regimes were reported; 3. minimum Reynolds number regime,
a transition regime and a rough turbulent regime. The minimum gas velocity
for the onset of entra.inment decreases as the film Reynolds number increases
for the three regimes. .
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 85
TYPE 1
ROLL WAVE
77>'>'~''';
TYP2
WAVE UNDERCUT
TYPE 3
BUBBLE BURST
TYPE 4
LIQUID IMPINGEMENT
In the tr<tnsition regime between the fully laminar and fully turbulent flow
the film interface becomes very rough. The onset of entrainment in this
region is a function of the film Reynolds number, which indicates that the
momentum exchange between the phases is affected by the liquid flow in the
film. In the rough turbulent regime where the :film Reynolds number exceeds
1500 to 1750, the critical gas velocity becomes constant. This creates a
lower gas velocity limit for :fihr. e.."l.trainment, una.ffected by the film Reynolds
number. The hydrodynamics of the film flow in this region are controlled by
the interf~al conditions between ~he gas and the liquid.
86 3 Heat transfer and presSlU'e drop
Heat-transfer coefficient and pressure drop in shear 'flow have been measured
by use of pure propane. The vapour quality, the flow rate and the pressure
have been varied. The different test. runs were arranged in series, as a function
of the three main parameters mentioned above, in order to visualize and
plot the results. Some of the measurements for TIlm 'flow are also included
in the series. Ali of the measurements are \\ithout nucleate boiling heat
transfer. Test conditions for different series with varied vapour quality are
cited in Table 3.6. The variations in temperature are within 1.0 C and
the variations in mass velocity lie within 4 kg/m 2s, for these series.
Table 3.6: Test conditions for shear flow at constant- pressure and t10w rare.
I Series Temperature I Flow veiocity Heat flux Vapour quality
[0C] I [kg/m 2 s] [kW/m2] [kg/kg]
Xl -9.8 - -Hl.3 47.6- 55.1 3.19 - 7.87 il.05 - 0.74
X2 -9.7 - -10.1 62.i - 65.6 3.19 - 7.87 0;04- 0.89
X3 -9.7 - -11.6 74.6 - 79.9 3.19 - 7.S7 0.07 - 0.91 I
X4 -9.4 - -10.4 88.9 - 93.2 3.97 - 7.87 0.22 - 0.67
XS' I -10.0 - -10.5 102.1- 107.9 7.87 0.24 - 0.48
X6 i -9.6 - -10.7 115.6 - 121.7 7.87 I 0.20 - 0.40
Test conditions for different series with varied mass 'flow rate are listed in Ta-
ble 3.7. The variations in temperature are within 0.5 C and the variations
in vapour quality are within 0.02 kg/kg, for these series.
Test conditions for different series with varied pressure are given in Table 3.8.
The variations in mass velocity are within 1 kg/m 2s a.nd the variations in
vapour qUality a~ within 0.01 kg/kg, for these series.
A total of 107 meas~reILents have been performed for the heat-transfer co-
efficient and 136 measurements have been taken for pressure drop. Some of
the measurements do not fit into the series, but are used in the total analysis
for different models.
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 87
Table ;~.7: Test cO!lditions for film tfow a.t constant- pressure and vapour
quality.
Series Temperature Flow velocity Heat flux Vapour quality
[0C] [kg/mls] [kW/m2J [kg/kg]
M1 -10.0 - -10.7 50.7 - 118.8 3.19 - 7.87 0.24 - 0.28
M2 -9.6 - -IDA 51.2 - i17.9 3.19 - 7.87 0.36 - 0.40
M3 -9.8 - -IDA 47.6 - 104.5 3.97 - 7.87 0.44 - 0.49
M4 -9.7 - -10.6 53.9 - 85.4 6.33 - 7.87 0.60 - 0.65
M5 -9.8 - -10.3 55.1 - 79.0 6.33 -.7.87 0.71- 0.75
Table 3.8: Test conditions for shear tfow at constant- :flow rate and vapour
quality.
Series Pressure Flow velocity Heat flux: Vapour quality
[Bar] [kg/m2s] [kW /m2] [kg/kg]
PI 1.68 - 4.01 46.8 - 48.1 3.96 - 7.87 0.46-0048
P2 1.99 - 4.00 61.7 - 63.7 3.97 - 7.87 0.45 - 0.47
P3 2.86 - 3.94 76.1- 78.2 7.87 0.47 - 0.48
P4 1.63 - 3.40 63.2 - 63.5 3.97 0.32 - 0.34
- .
1.0;) - 3.~41
-~-
--{ -- I
(.~ (8.3
., ,.
~.~o3.-9~'~ (
~~
I
... tl.33 - {l.34
~
I
. 2.41 - 3.39 _ 93.6 - 94.1. ._ 0.33
88 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
';2 12000
N
I I I I
+
~ 10000
3:
;- -
++
l-I
OJ
8000 fo- + -
"-I
til 6000 fo- 0 + $
-
s::
co 8 + ~
$
l-I
4000 f0-
[J + Xl $ -
.l..J G ++ <>
.l..J + $ X3 +
co ~ X5 8 -
OJ
2000 ~ I
$
I I 1
X
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.B 1.0
The variations of heat transfer with respect to mass flow velocity are shown
in Figure 3.22, for four of the series. The gradient for increase in heat transfer
due to increased flow rate is highest for the highest vapour quality.
The variations in heat-transfer coefficient with respect to pressure are gi"~n
in Figure 3.23 for some of the series. The measurements show that the heat-
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 89
~ 10000
('oJ
.....E 8000
3: +
\.l
(l)
"-4
til
6000 e+ *
t::
~
@ ++ 0
\.l :000 E:J +
X2
.u X4 +
.u X6 Ei
~ 1000
(l)
:J:
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 LO
Vapour quality [kg/kg]
:.:: 9000 I I I I
~ XX M1
........
3: 7000 - ~X
G
0
++ MS
M3
M4
+
8 -
\.l E:J X
OJ
"'-l 5000 f- 0 + -
til 0 p+
C
.p- <P
(t!
~ 3000 f-+
0 -
.u
~
~ 1000 I ~ I I
6000 I I I
:.::
N
e P4 <:>
...... X
~ 5000 - +
P2
~-
P5 El
El
+ X P3 X
1-1 X
OJ :f
~ 4000 f-
<> D -
til
s::
IV
~t +.
1-1
~
.u
3000 -
(>
-
IV
OJ
::c I I I
2000
c
1..0 2.0 3..0 4.0 5.0
Pressure [bar]
The model should match the film-flow correlation at low varour quality and
forced convection flow at high vapour quality. Few ccrrelaiions have been
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 91
25
! !
. . .
- ..........;............ j...........+............~.....4>.. -
Of' 20
.. .. ~
.
>.
.u 15 ~ .........+......~... j............~.~~...~... -
~
C
:~: ~<;>
.0-1
ctl
.u 10 ~ ......... l~....~ . ~M..<;> ...
0:
.. *:.~ i:.......... _
. . . . . """'::
l-I
:
Q)
u
c 5
:
-
~~ .........~............ ~.. ........ ~.......... - ..:..........
:::::>
...
j i
o L.-_....L.._--iL........._-'-_
j i
_L-._...J
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Vapour quality [kg/kg]
(3.40)
(3.41)
(3.42)
92 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
25
~ .~ .~
riP 20 I---------~--------------.-+--.--.----------~.--.--------~
: .: - <):
15 1---------~--~.----~-.---~.-4----.-~-.-----------
>.
.u
c a.. '<).'
V(;)<):
~- :
-..... : .A.
~"V .
10 I-~.-----~ -. -----.. ----.----~.--.-----------
<tI
.u .
l-I :<i>: : :
Q)
.: .:
5 1------ ---~
-
u
c :-------- -- -------;------------ --- --~- -- ---- --------
=> - . .
0 i i
3000 6000 9000 12000
The deviation between the measured and the eakulated -v--.:du.es as a function
of vapour quality is given in Figure 3.27. The method tends to overestimate
heat transfer at low vapour quality due to an early influence from the shear
flow correlation. A higher n coefficient in Equation 3.40 may reduce this
problem_ The method tends to underestimate at high vapour quality; but
the uncertainty in :neasured value is also high and the number of points are
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 93
7000
~ Meashred I I ~ I
40
~ ! ! l ~
20
,-t::~t:rl----
ciP
c::
0
.,-j
.l.J
0 -~T~ ~<>i~
It!
..-f ~~, ~~ ~
0
> -20
<I) - .. -------~-------:-~-----~-----~---.------.~-----------
-40 ~---~I-----~I:----~I-----~I-----
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Quality [kg/kg]
40 r-----!~~-.--~--~~-----~!:-----T!:~
~: : : :
: 20 ~i~Ii"~~t-,;:r+-
~ 0 e-.<>.~: "-?~i~~::::~---r--
-,-i : ' , ~~~Q7'"
~ -20 ~.- ... -----.~ .. ---...... :.: .. -.. -.... ---~ .......... -.~ .. -.-
o
-40 i i i i
40 60 80 100 120
Mass flow velocity [kg/r02s]
40
! ! ! ! !!o
~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~
<:H> 20 f-__ ...~ ..~... ~ .... ~ ..... ~ ...... ~ .....-
s::
0
'.-i 0 I i ~i ":
~-----+------:: --- ;~o;------~~----"i
.w
<tl
-.-I
::
::
ft :
~o
:~::
> -20
Q) f- .... : ....----:.----.. -: .. ---.. - : ,.: ....... : .. - .. -
Q : : : : : :
: : . : : ~
-40 ~~~___~I__~i___~I__~i___.i:__~
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
40
! 1 ! !
~ ~: . : <
7t;~~:ji:c-r--
<:H> 20
s::
0
.-i
.w
<tl
0 -'....~~ ...- ... -
..-i
> -20 .............-;-- -_.. _.-... : _._- -_ ..._. --.,. --.- .. .. -..... -.-
Q
C!)
.. ... ..
-~
... ..
~
...
-40 ~---~I----~I----~I----'~--~
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Quality [kg/kg]
The pressure drop is measured in the isotheIllJ.al part of the test section and
is not influenced by the heat flux. When the vapour quality is reduced the
pressure drop will approach zero. Measured values of pressure drop at low
vapour quality are rejected from the analysis.
The measured frictional pressure gradients in the series Xl to X6 are given
in Figure 3.31 and Figure 3.32.
E
6000 , , , ,
......
ItS Xl +
c..
X3 +
%
4000 - X5 0 B +++ -
l-I 0
'0 +
r::J +
Q)
l-I
::I
til
2000 - 0
++
+
<:>
<:> -
til + <:>
Q)
0 <:>
l-I
c.. ,<:> I I I
0 -
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 LO
Vapour quality [kg/kg)
The pressure drop increases as the vapour velocity increases, and is produced
both from friction and from drag force. The pressure drop in a two-phase flow
is normally represented by an enhancement factor. The enhancement factor
in Equation 3.44 is preferred in a How where both the single-phase liquid
and vapour phase may be represented, due to the fact t.hat this factor will
appi"oach both single-phase liquid and vapour pressure drop. as the vapour
quality varies from 0 to 1. .'
(3.44)
3 Heat transfer and pressure drop 97
6000 I I I I
E
....... 0
co +X2
0.. X4 +
Q.
4000 - e jr
X6 G
<:>
-
...
0
rI
<:>
'U +
III G ++ <:>
...
:l
2000 .... + <)
<:> -
til
til
+ <> <>
...III <>
0.. I I i I
0
0.0 0.2 -J.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Vapour quality [kg/kg]
(3.45)
(3.46)
98 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
40
! !.~
dP 20
~ ..~...... . ';.:
~ .................. ~.~
~ ~8~
.. ... ~'$>" ....-
: ' . . ~(!j
: . ~ V"
t: <) : :
0
..-1
.LJ
ItS
0 ~iJ .~
....... h .
~ ~.
..............[...................-
.
.: ..:
"
..-1
.............. .................... ..................-
~
..
>
Q) -20 ~ ~ ~
0
..
-40 ~ _________ ____________
~i ~I __________
40 70 100 130
Equation 3.47 is given in Figure 3.37. Most of the dat(!, aTe within 10
%.
The estimated uncertainties in measured frictional pressure drop are given
in Figure 3.38 as a function of the vapour quality....0\11 of the measurements
are within 25 %.
100 3 Heat transfer and pressure drop
100.0
'j
, , ""i ' , ""i
....,
I ~ ~
.w
.u
x
...... 10.0
~ or
p+
<:>
~
.w
.w X2 ~
x
+
.....
X4 +
x6 r::J
LO
10.0 100.0 1000.0
DP_tp/DP_Is [-]
1.4
L2
....,
I
LO
0.8
0.6
0.01 . 0.10 LOO
20.0 r-----~----_T----~r_--~
~ 10.0
.r-i
.LJ
0 _0 .ii~i:~;:,~i~=-;~:~
. .. ~: ~O~ ~ .
ttl
.-1 <:> (>'8 ~ .' ~
>
g-10.0 ..~..".~ ... -....o .. ~.. -............ ;.............
<:> 0 :'J' : : .
;. ~ ~
-20.0 ~.----~----~~----~----~
40 60 80 100 120
Flow velocity [kg/m2s]
30
~ .! !. !.
::::::::::t::::::~l!:::::t:::::::::L:::::::~
<if' 25
-_ .
>. 20 ~.
.LJ
: 0 0 : .0: :
15 r---. -+-.----.-tf>-~-.~ ...-----..-~--.-----.--
t:
.-1
til
.w
l-I
Q)
()
10 ~- ... ~~~.
o<;t~:o~~:
.Q..,j. <)9 ~
........
.
v ..... ~
'.:
,...
. .... - ...
: ~:
:
.
-
t: 5 ~ __ ._m :_ ' . <> ~m __ ~___ ~___ _
~
i i i~ i ~
o
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
[2] DiNapoli, R.N., Evaluation in,!-NG project costs cmd estimation tech-
niques Jor new projects., 8th International Conference on liquefied nat-
ural gas, June 1986.
[4] Newton, C.L., Kinard G.E., Liu, Y.N., C3 -MR processes for baseload
liquefied naturul gas. 8th International Conference on liquefied natural
gas, June 1986.
[5] Newton, C.L., Process fOT liquefying methane. United States Patent no.
4445916, May 1984.
[6] Kreith, F., Black, W.Z., Basic heat transfer. Harper &. Row, Publisher,
New York, 1980.
[7] Bukacek, R.F., Reedings for LNG processing I and II, Course Textbook
for the Gas Engineering Program, University of Indonesia, April 1982.
[9] Crawford, D.B., Heat transfer efJ.uipment for LNG projects., Chem. Eng.
Prcgr., No.9, Sep. 1972.
[10] Owren, G., How to use the results from the SPUNG flow calorimeter in
industrial projects. SPUNG Seminar Oslo, 1992.
[11] Reid, R.C., Pra~snitz, J .M., I-ding, B.E., The properties of gases Sf
liquids, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill BooF Company, 1987.
102
Bibliography 103
[1:3] Abadzic, E.E., Scholz, H.W., Coiled tubular heat exchangers, Adv. in
Cryogenj,.; Eng., vol 18, pp. 42-51, 1972.
[14] Gilli, p_V_, Heat trofl.Sfer and pressure drop for cross flow through banks
of multi....tart helical tubes with uniform inclinations and uniform longi-
tudinal pitches, Nuclear Science and Engineering, Vol 22, pp. 298-314,
1965.
[16] Ely, J.F., Hanley, H.J.M., A Computer programe for the Prediction of
Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity in Hydrocarbon Mi:t:tures, National
Bureau of Standards, NBS Technica.l note 1039, 1981-
[20] Buhner, K., Maurer, G., Bender. E., Pressure-enthalpy diagrams for
methane, ethane, propane, ethylene arul propylene_, Cryogenics, p. 157,
March 1981.
[21] Haynes, W.M., McCarty, R.D., Prediction of liquefied natural gas (LNG)
densities from new experimental dielectric constant data., Cryogenics, p.
421, August 1983.
[24] Abernethy, R.B., et al. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, Thompson, J.W.,
ARO inc., Ha.ndbook: Un.::ertainty in gas turbine measurements, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1980.
[30] DIN 1952, Measurement of fluid flow by means of orifice plates, nozzles
and venturi tubes inserted in circular cross-section conduits running full.
(VDI-rules for m~urement of fluid), October 1980.
[32] Barbe, C., Mordillat, D., Roger, D., Perles de charge en ecoulement
monophasique et diphasique dans 1a calandre des exhangeurs bobins, XII
Journees de l'Hydraulique, Paris 1972.
[33] Grant, l.D.R, Chisholm, D., Two-phase flow on the shellside of a seg-
mentally baffled shell-and-tube heat exchanger, Trans. ASME, Vol. 101,
pp. 38-42, 1979.
Bibliography 105
[34] Bennett, D.L., Hertzler, B.L., Kalb, C.E., Down-flow shell-side forced
convective boiling, AIChE Journal, VoL 32, No. 12, pp. 1963 - 1970,
1986.
[35] Ganic, E.N., Roppo, M.N., An experimental study ()f failing liquid film
breakdown on a horizontal =ylinder during heat transfer, Trans. ASME,
VoL 102, pp. 342 - 346, Ma.y 1980.
[:36] Young, D., Lorenz, J.J., Ga.nic, E.N., Vapour/Liquid i~teraction and
entrainment in fallinp film evaporators, Trans. ASME, VoL 102, pp. 20
- 25, February 1980.
[37J Ishii, M., Grolmes, M_.<\., Inception criteria fo~ droplet entrainment in
two-phase concurrent film flow, AIChE Journal, Vol. 21, No.2, pp. 308
- 318, 1975.
[38J Davis, E.J., Anderson, G.H., The incipient boiling of nucleate boiling in
forced convection flow, AIChE Journal, VoL 12, No.4, pp. 774 - 780,
1966.
[39J Frost, W., Dz:a.kowic, G.S., An extension on the method of predicting
incipient boiling on commercially finished S'1Jrfaces, ASME/AIChE Heat
Transfer Conf., Paper 67-HT-61, 1967.
[40] Heo.t Exchanger D~ign Handbook, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation,
1983.
[41J Marto, P.J., Fundamentals of condensation, Two-phase flow heat ex-
changer. Thermal-hydraulic fundamentals and design. PI'. 221 - 291,
1987.
[42] Chun, K.R., Heat transfer to evaporating liquid films, J. of Heat Transfer,
Nov., pp. 391 - 395, 1971.
[43] SeDa.n, R.A., Transport to falling film, 6.th Int. Heat Transfer Confer-
ence, vol. 6 , pp. 417 - 428, Toronto 1978.
[44] Kocamustafaogullari, G., Chen, LY., Falling film heat transfer analysis
on a bank of horizontal tube evaporator, AIChE Journal, VoL 34, No.9,
pp. 1539 - 1549, September 1988.
[45] Kocamustafaogullari, G., Chen, LY., Horizontal tube evaporators. Part
I : Theoretically based correlations, Int. Com. Heat Mass Transf., Vol.
16, No.4, pp. 487 - 499, 1989.
106 Bibliography
Figure A.I shows the location of the tube center.for two neighboring layers
as a function of peripherica.I angle 9, between 0 and 360 degrees. Tubes with
coiling direction to the right assume a positi~e inclination. The two layers
have four and five parallel tubes, indicated with solid lines. The dotted lines
indicate the same tubes in different coils. The crossing of two lines indicates
in-line configuration. Staggered configuration is obtained at angles between
two crossings. The minimum radial distance between two neighboring tubes
will vary as a function of 9.
The longitudinal distance between each occurrence ofa given tube in a layer,
at a constant peripherical angle, may be calculated from Equation A.I, where
i denotes the layer number.
The location of each tube may be described by a spiral line in cylindrical co-
ordinates. Figure A.2 shows a spiral line for a tube center viewed. in cartesian
coordinates. The Hne is drawn for a layer with four parallel tubes.
The diameter on a general layer i may be calculated from Equation A.2. The
layer number starn. from one, but only the layers with diameters greater than
Dco are active.
D/a.y,i = 2 . Pr . i (A.2)
The first active layer is numbered n and the last layer is numbered m, n >
107
108 A Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
~ 100
(l)
(J
I:: 80
III
oW
Ul
--I 60
"0
.-I
III 40
c:
--I
'0 20
::l
.u
..-I
01 0
c:
a 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
...:I
peripherical angle
Figure A_I: Location of tube center for two layers as a fun ction of peripherical
angle..
~ 250
:-
I I ~ I
! I I
::
(l)
(J
I:: 200
III
oW
to
--I
'0
150 -
.-I
100 r- :::>-
ttl
I:: c:::
--I
"0 50 r- >-
::l
oW
-01....
0
c:::::::
-'
,
c:
a -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
...:I
X projection
Figure A_2: Spiral line for a tube center viewed in cartesian coordina.tes.
A Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers 109
The difference in number of parallel tubes from one layer to the next, LlNT,
is normally equal to 1. The inclination is constant for all of the tubes in the
different layers, and may be calculated from Equation AA. The inclinatioil.
is set up as the ratio between longitudinal and peripherical displacement for
a tube in a coil.
Nt':!. i . PI l!J.NT . PI
tan <}
Ct = .
7r Dlr:zy,;
= ----
2 . 7r Pr
(AA)
The longitudinal and radial tube pitches a!ld the tube inclination cc.nnot be
chosen independently, as indicated in Equation A.4. The distances between
the core and the first tube layer, and the outward jacket and the last tube
layer are normally chosen to be Pr/2 in order to a.void bypass flow. The core
and the jacket diameters are calculated by Equation A.5 and A.6, whe:-e n
and m are the layer numbers for the first and the last la.yers.
Dsh = (2 m+ 1) Pr (A.6)
The total number of tubes and layers may be ca.lc111ated by use of Equation
A.7 and A.8.
'"
1Vt" -
_ N-
lay
. (N
t..,n
_.Ll N-T)
- +....."NT. Nl ay - (Nlay
2
+ 1) (A.7)
9.DIa.lI,i=~ (A.I0)
2 tan(a)
= =
() is given in radians and z 0.0 when (} 0.0. Equations A.4 and A.I0 may
be combined to give Equation A.ll for calculation of longitudinal displace-
ment for a layer i as a function of 9. The angle is converted to degrees in the
equation.
Ntu.,i . PI . ()
Zi = 360 (A.ll)
The tubes in la.yer i will incline a longitudinal distance az.; and th~ tubes
in layer i + 1 will decline a longitudinal distance LlZi+1 between two in-line
conngurations, as shown in Figure A.1. The total displacement is equal to
PI. Equation A.l1 may be used to calculate this displacement as described
in Equation A.12 to A.14.
dz;
I -dB I Lll)+ I -dZO+1 I .6.8 = Pl (A.12)
dB
d(}i gives the peripherical angle between two identical configurations for layer
i a.nd i + I. If the configuration is in-line at e = 0, the in-line configuration
will be repeated at angles j . 6.9i and the staggered configuration at :angles
j. flBi/2 where j goes from 1 to (2 Ntu.,i + 6.NT).
The minimum distanCE between tubes in two la.yers will vary with fJ. The
path for minimum distance between two neighboring layers is located along
lines through the points of tube-crossing shown in Figure A.1. These lines
are in the following called tube-crossing lines. The geometrical layouts for
A Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers 111
1\ ~
..z,.,..in I .+ .;)
= 2 '';'-"<. "::.9 - J 0-) (A.I5)
The tube-crossing lines incline or decline and the inclination mz.y be calcu-
lated from Equation A.I6. This equation gives a constant, longitudinal dis-
placement for all of the minimum path lines and for all of the tube-crossing
lines.
(A.I6)
Fig-<.lre A.5 shows the minimam distance between two tube centers as a func-
tion of 0, along the tube-crossing line. The distance is drawn for two crossing
tlnes, and the path for minimum distance follows the minimum. of the two
lines. The layer dia.meter may vary from 2 to 5 meters in a CWHX and the
inclination of the pa!h line for miniIllum distance may be neglected. The
minimum and the maximum points in the curves are located for in-line con-
figuration, and the crossing point for the two curves is located for sta.ggered
configaration. The tu!:le disknce varies from maximum to minimum for a
constant angle 0, and the minimum distance path, shown in Fi!;Ure AA, a.l-
ters locatiO:l_ The fluid flow will be forced by this change in restrictions, and
the flow velocity will change in radia.! direction.
112 A Thermal design of LNG heat exchanger~
40 degrees 60 d.~grees
i:::
.....0
0000 OG\~)O 6
0000 00
o0~8
J.J
0
(])
....lo<
'U
......
0000
lIS
....'U
i:::
:I
J.J
o degrees 20 degrees
.....
8~~8
ljl
i:::
0
..J 0000
0000
0000 00 0
Radial direction
~
~ 60
OJ
() 50
s::
<0
.L> 40
rfJ
.,-i
~
30
.-j
<0
s::
.,-i
20
't:l
....='
.I...l
10
0'1
s::
0
:J
50 1.00 1.50 200 .250 300 350
Peripherical angle
Figure A.4: Path for minimum distance between two neighboring layers.
24
22
20
18
16
14
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Different methods have been proposed for calculation of the shell-side flow
area in a CWHX. The cross-flow area may be calcul~.ted by use of Equation
1.11, where SreJ is calculated from one of the different methods reviewed in
this chapter. .
The simplest methods involve using the minimum or maximum radial dis-
tance between two neighboring tubes as the reference length. The minimum
distance is located for the in-line configuration, as given in Figure A.3 at 8
= 0.0, and ma.y be calculated from Equa.tion A.17. The in-line conngura-
tion is only obtained for a small part of the exchanger and is located at the
minimum points of the curves in Figure A.5.
(A.I8)
Glaser proposed a method for calculation of the net cross-flow area based on
a mean gap width Sg!a.s as given.in Equation A.19 [13].
PI
X equals the longitudinal distance between the tube centers in two neighbor-
ing layers. The configuration varies from in-line at X = 0 to staggered at X =
~l. The gap widt!! is integrated between these two configurations in order to
calculate a mean gap width. The equation integrates th.e minimum-distance
path line froc a minimum point to a cross point, and this gives the refer-
enC2 distance for the minimum path line. Th2 minimum p.ath line consists of
A Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers 115
many equal curve elements, as identified by the Glaser equation. The result
is given in Equation A.20 [13].
Sgla.$ =
.or Pl
(1+--)2+
2 Pr
Pi
(1 + 2. Pr)2} - Dt", (A.20)
GilIi proposed a similar methoo for calculation of the net cross-ilow area
[14], but he used both the sma!lest and largest diagonal distance between
tube centers in two neighbori!l!S iayens in the integration. ':fhe reduction in
free space due to the tube inclination was also taken into account. The result
is given in Equation A.21 [14]. a, b , Q and P are defined in Equation A.22.
a=-,
pr _cos{a).PI
b_ , p_R~2
- a + , Q- ~
- va + OM M
(A.22)
D tu D tu 2
0.5 I I I I
Boiling-point
u 0.4 I- Dew-point ---- -
oC 0.3 1-------------------------------
.-1
JJ
<0
.-1
0.2 I- -
:>
(J)
Q 0.1 tr__- - - - - - - - - l
I I I I 1
0.0
-40 -30 -20 -10 o 10 20
Temperature [C]
Figure A.6: Deviation between saturation temperature for pure propane and
bubble- and dew-point temperature for contaminated propane, calculated by
use of the PR-EOS.
U8 A Thermal design of LNG heat exchangers
The corresponding state method, as given by Ely et al. [16], relates the
compressibility for a fluid to the corresponding compressibility for a pure
:fluid, and is claimed to be very accurate. Methane is used as a pure reference
fluid in the model.
Calculated density is compared to reference data for pure methane vapour
and liquid in Figure A.7. The reference data are given by Buhner et al. [20]
and Younglove et aI. [19]. Both sources claim to have data accur-...cy within
0.5 % for reduced temperature below 1.0.
Calculated density is also compared to reference data for pure ethane in
Figure A.8, and for pure propane in Figure A.g. All of the data are given by
references [20] and [19].
-
s:: 0.0
.,.,o
.l.J
.,.,tIS-1.0 f-
+ Liq-Bubner
>
Q) Liq-Younglove
o -2.0 I- Vap-Bubner
+ vap-Younglove
-3.0 ~~I--~I~--~I----~I--~I--~
100 120 140 160 180 200
TemperaturE [K]
6.0 r-~I-~.--+r-~.---~.--~r-X-~~X--~
+ XX X
Of' 3.0 ~ +X -
c ~
x+ +++++:.
~
o
.-1
.w
0.0 f-~-9-@~~~-@~6a"frg~-
cd x. G
.-1 X . Liq-Bubner ~ 0
~ -3. a .... Liq-Youngl. + -
Q
Vap-Bulmer \3
I VfP-Y~ungf ~ I
- 6 . 0 '--""--.....".--........- -....--~-""--.........-~
160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Temperature [K]
6. 0 '---L-i-q"T_.Buhn.--er-...,.r---.-~-T'""
.---,.r--"1
Liq-Younglove + +
<1P 3. 0 ~ Vap- Bulmer D -
Vap- Younglove X
c: ++
.....o O. 0 f-ce~~~g"tlG~-
x
w
.....cd xX
:>- xX ~
(!) -3 _ 0 ~
Cl
Temperature [K]
and liquids.
2.0 I I I I
aP
s::
1.5
.....0 1.0
.I.J
Ii3
.....
>
QJ 0.5
-
-
--
~
, 8
-
-
-
.~~
Q
I I I ~
0.0
17 18 19 20 21 22
Molecular weight.
The corresponding state method given in Section A.4 is also used to calculate
physical properties as dynamic viscosity ond thermal conductivity. Dynamic
viscosity data for methane, ethane and propane given by Younglove et al.
[19] are compared to calculated data in Figure A.11, Figure A.12 and Figure
A.11. Data accuracy is claimed to be within 2 % for reduced temperatures
below 1.0.
2. 0 r - - r - -........--.,...,.~oft--.....,~-...,
~
<>
dP 1.0 ~+
+++ <> ++t++++
++ <> ++
c:
o
0.0 =F ............ -.............-.-..... ---
..-j ++ <>
<0-1.0 Liquid data <>
..-j
<>
:>-
OJ
r:l -2.0
-3.0 ~~_o_~_~__~__~___~
Vapour data +
1
100 120 140 160 180 200
Temperature [K]
+ ++
tiP 4.0 + +
0 +
+
s:: 2.0 + 0 <:>
.....o <:> O<:>
J,.l +
.....,f..................................................
III
-rl
0.0
:>
~ -2.0 + Liquid data
Vapour data +
-4.0 L...._L-.....J'----'_--L_--L_--L.....
180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Temperature (K]
~ -2.0 -
..... ++ -
o
~ -3.0 - +
Liquid data <:>
-
-4.0 - VaI:-our data + -
-5.0 ,--_ _-,I_ _ _L-I_ _-,'_ _- - ,
200 240 280 320 360
Temperature [X]
The outside tube diameter, D t .. , was measured to be 12.00 0.05 mm. The
diameter was not affected by the coiling. The length for each tube in the
heated part of the test section was measured after coiling. The results are
given in Table B.l, together with a mean tube l-ength for each tube and a total
mean tube length. The mean value is regarded equal to th~ length along the
center line. The estimated accuracy is a maximum limit for the combined bias
and random errors. The error propagation to the total length is calculated
by use of Equation B.17 without dependency between the variables.
(B.1)
The mean radial distance between the tubes is calculated from measurements
of the coiling diameter on the inner and the oute. half-tube layers. The
123
124 B Test facility for heat E:xceanger
diameter at the tube top on the inner half-tube layer, Di, was measured
to be 108.0 0.05 mm. The inner-layer diaIileter on the outer half-tubes
~as measured at nine different places around the heated part of the test
section. The accuracy for each value may be regarded as a bias limit due
to uncertainty in the measurements. The layer diameter varies from tube to
tube, and each of the measurements represents a ....'3lue for the diameter. The
results are given in Table B.2.
1 9
Do= '9 ~Do.i (B-2)
=1
Do - Di 1 D
Pr = 4 + 2' tu
(E.3)
PI = L-Dtu (BA)
p N-1-
The results are given in Table B.3. The error limit for each L represents a
bias error due to uncertainty in measurements, and not a random error due
to actual variatic..n in tube distance. The uncertainty in Pip is estimated
as a random error from the eight measurements by use of Equation 8.5 to
Equation 8.8. The longitudinal distance is corrected due to inclination by
the relation PI = Plp!cos{et), where 7.928 0 is used as inclination angle. The
mean value for PI is estima.ted to be 13.94 0.09 mm. The longitudinal
tube distance oX! the inner and the outer half-tube layers is measured to be
14.0 0.05 mm. The center diameters for the three layers are given in Ta.ble
B.4. The tube inclina.tion has been estimated by use of Equation A.4 to be
Ct = 7.938 0.06 o. Cross-flow area, estimated from the different methods
described in Chapter lA, is given in Table B.5. The area is corrected for
longi!:udinal spacers and tubes used for temperature instrumentation. The
total correction is estimated to be 109.0 0.2 mm 2
Random errors a.re alwa.ys estima.ted from replicated measurements a.nd the
errors will show up as a scatter around the mea.n value for the measurements.
The data points are assumed to deviate from the mean in accordance with
the laws of chance in such a way that the distribution approaches the normal
distributio!l when the number of replicated measurements is increased. The
scattp.r may be caused by cha.racteristics of the measuring system and by
changes or instability in the quantity being measured. The random uncer-
tainty is derived by statistical analysis of repeated measurements as described
in ref~rences [23J, [25], [26].
The best value for a. property, x, in a series with N replicated measurements
is the average value x calculated by Equation B.5.
(B.5~
The uncertainty from random erroiS is quantified by the estimator for the
standard deviation, S, often called the precision index. For a single set of
measurements with a small N, S may calculated by Equation B.6.
"N (.
-'-'j=l X, - x-)2
s= N-l
(B.6)
s- = vN
sr;;;r (B.7)
128 B Test facility for heat exchanger
The vclue tv,P . 5 gives an uncertainty interval arounci. the estimated mtan
value, x, which includes the true mean value, f.L, with a given probability. The
best interval which contains the true average is th~n given from Equation B.B.
The degree of freedom is given by v = N - 1.
_ 5
xtv, p .--
.IN (B.8)
= _
~M
L.Jj=l
N j ' Xj
- _
~M -
L.Jj=l Xj _
~MN
L.Ji=l Xi
X- M - - (B.9)
2:j=1 Nj M !vi . N
The precISIOn index, or the estimator for the standard devia.tion in the
multiple-set experiment, may be calculated from Equation B.IO.
,\,M
L.Jj=l N j ' (=x - -)2
Xj
,\,M (=
L.Jj=l X -
- .)2
x]
(B.IO)
Ef=,l Nj M
The estimated standard deviation for mean value from multiple set experi-
ments is given by Equation B.Il.
-=- Sm. 5
5 = -.jM- = --:.JM=.N=- (B.ll)
(B.I2)
B Test facility for heat exchanger 129
Tl!<! best interval which contains the true average with a given probability
for a mUltiple set experiment is now given from Equation B.13. The de,~ee
offreedom is v = MN - M.
(B.13)
Systematic errors are fixed errors and give a measured result which either are
constant-to-high or constant-to-low with respect to the true value. System-
atic errors may be constant or variable, and can be of unknown sign and mag-
nitude, known sign but unknown magnitude, or known sign and magnitude.
Systematic errors may be reduced by calibration r such as for thermocouple
element wire. Systematic errors are estimated by non-statistical methods as
described in references [23], [25] and [26]. Uncertainties from systematic er-
rors may be quantified by maximum limits or by the 95 % confidence level.
These limits may be distributed symmetrically or non-symmetrically around
the true value of the measurement.
The treatment of systematic errors depend on the nature of the error itself
and may be classified into four different groups;
(B.14)
(B.15)
(B.16)
B Test facility for heat exchanger' 131
The covariance is zero for independent variables. The function R and its
derivatives with respect to the different varia.bles have to be continuous
around the given values .. The sensitivity ~~ may be estimated analytically
or numerically. Propagation of systematic errors is treated in the same way,
as given in Equation B.l7. The covariance between variables is neglected.
B:&j is the estimated uncertainty due to systema.tic errors for the variable Xi.
(B.17)
(B. IS)
(B.19)
(B.20)
132 B Test facility for heat exchanger
The Dixon test is used in order to detect outliers in the measurements [26].
The test may only be used for normally distributed populations. The obser-
vations are ranked and function values for each observations are calculated.
The function depends on the sample size. The function value is compared to
a critica.l value and the data point is rejected if the calculated value is higher
than the critical value. The test function and the critical values are given
in Table B.6 and Table B.7. The measured data are ranked by increasing
values when high values are tested and by decreasing values when low values
are tested.
The values for the Student's-t statistics are given in Table B.8 as a function
of degree of freedom and confidence level for a normal distribution. The 95
% confidence level is used in this thesis.
HEATED iUSE
tt----
+r-
.12
,
~~- t\
t=- 107.6:0.~ 216.1
~-~
=r ~a--
~
98.4:0.7~
r-~---------422.11.4 -------~---!
uPPER PA!lT LOWER PART
Figure B.l: Tube in the heated part of test section, before and after bending.
B.9. The points are located about one-fourth of the total tubelength from
the upper and lower end. The mean value is calculated both for each tube
and for all of the tubes. The uncertainty in the mean value is estimated from
the bias error only. The distance between the mean value for the upper and
the lower points is 216.1 mm.
The reference table for the E-type thermocouple wire is given as a power
series equation, based on IPTS-68 [28]. The equation represents the defined
true temperature. Equa.tion B.21 gives a. relation between the temperature
in C and the EMF in /LV.
13
E.rlClna. = 2: aj . Tj (B.21)
i=l
The constants aj are given in Table B.I0 for a temperature range from -270
to 0 ae.
Table B.IO: Constants for type-E thermocouple in Equa.tion B.21.
j a; j a;
1 5.8695857799E+01 8 -9.1784535039E-13
2 5.1667517705~02 9 -5.2575158521E-15
3 -4.4652683347E-04 10 -2.0169601996E-17
4 -1.7346270905E-05 11 -4.9502138782E-20
5 -4.8719368427E-07 12 -7.0177980633E-23
6 -8.8896550447E-09 13 -4.3671808488E-26
7 -1.0930767375E-1O
The numerical representation is very accurate due to the degree and the
number of significant figures in the constants for Equation B.21. The number
of significant figures in the calculated temperature is therefore higher than
the actual accuracy in IPTS-68. The equation is used because it gives a
smooth representation for the temperature-E:M:F relation, and because it is
recommended as a standard reference [28].
B Test facility for heat exchanger 137
(B.22)
The uncertainty for the calibration is caused by errors in the measured tem-
perature and errors in the measured voltage. The result from the calibration
is given in Table B.ll. 1'r ef = 0.0 C has not been measured, and this point
will not re:fl.ect the uncertainty in the calibration loop.
The uncertainties for the measured E and T ref are divided into bias error
and precision error. The precision errors are affected by temperature insta-
bilities in the copper block, and by random errors in the measuring chains
for temperature and voltage. The measurement have not been repeated for
every calibration point, and the uncertainty is therefore estimated asa bias
limit. The uncertainty interval is dependent on the temperature and the total
uncertainty is estimated by use of Equation 8.17.
138 B Test f <lcility for heat exchanger
The polynomial equation for Ec<>iib is generated hy using the least Squar~s
technique, from the sets of calibration points given in Table B.11. The de-
gree for the equation is chosen in such a way that the number of distiact
calibration points available is greater or equal to 2 . ( degree + 1 ) [28]. All
of the experimental data points must also be held within theunc~-tainty in-
terval when the interval is centered around the most probable interpolation
equation. Ecalib is given by Equation B.23, with values for b o, b l and h:!
given in Table B.13. All of the calibration points are within the estimated
uncertainty interval.
2
ECtllib =L bj . Ti (B.23)
j=O
B Test facility for beat e..xchaPgcr IZ9
Element bo b1 b2
Tl -7.30.10- 1 4.83 .10- 1 -3.59.10-1
T2 -5.1:~ .10- 1 5.12.10- 1 -2.03.10-4\
T3 -9.23.10- 1 6.06.10- 1 2.57 10-4
T4 -6.47 -10-1 6.03 lO-l 1.22 lO-4
Ts -7.24 -10- 1 5.97 lO-l 2.42 10-4
T6 -7.05.10- 1 5.25 lO-1 1.40 lO-5
Wire -4.67.10- 1 9.76 lO-2 3.3610-
140 B Test facility for heat exchaDg~
All of the thermocouple elements were delivered at the same time and it
is assumed that all of the elements come from the same reel. 7 of the 23
elements were calibrated individually. 6 of the calibrated elements are used
in the test facility_ The results from the individual calibratio:l are used to
estimate a mean calibration curve. This curve represents the 16 elements
used for measurements of wall temperatures. The !Dean deviation from the
standard curve is calculated from the results in Appendix B.7. The standard
deviation for the mean value is also calculated. The results are given in Table
B.14.
TreJ Estc.nd. ~E S
0.0
-37.85
! 0.0
-2138.11
0.0
-22.77
0.0
0.66
-62.61 -3438.78 -36.32 0.90
-89.00 -4730.16 48.56 1.09
-124.11 -6277.26 -68.75 1.21
-141.07 -6947.47 -80.00 1.23
The uncertainty in the mean value depends on the total bias uncertainty in
each point and the random uncertainty due to variation from element to ele-
ment. Most of the different error sources in Table B.12 are not independent,
because the elements are calibrated at the sar::J.e time. A common bias error
is therefore used for the mean value. The total random uncertaiety is esti-
mated from the standard deviation for the mean value. The total uncertainty
interval is estimated to be within 0.1 C at -140.0 0 C.
The equation Ecalib for the mean value is generated by the procedure de-
scribed in Appendix R7. The constants for Equation B.23 are given in
Table B.15.
Isothermal checks have been performed with propane as the test fluid in two-
phase flow. The r::lea.n fluid temperature and the deviation from the mean
were calculated for each point in the test section. The results are given in
Figure B.2. Point numbers 1 to 4 represent the fluid temperatures prior to
B Test facility for heat exchanger 141
Table B.15: Constants in Equation B.23 for the mean calibration curve.
1 bo
15.55~\0 -3.2~~ 10 61
the test section, point numbers 5 to 12 represent the waIl teClperatures in the
upper part, point numbers 13 to 20 represent the wall temperatures in the
lower part and point numbers 21 to 24 correspond to the fluid temperature
after the mixing chamber. The deviation from the mean reflects all of the
different error sources in the. temperature measurements.
CJ
0.20
c:: 0.15 series
a
.,-i series ~
..
.&.J 0.10
...,ttl ~ ~
? 0.05
III $
.~ ' ..... " ...x.:L:t!....................... .
'd 0.00
~ ~ ~
~-O.05
~
+
<) (>
t~
~ -0.10
~ -0.15
p.
al -0.20
Eo< 0 5 10 15 20 25
Point
Figure B.2: Deviation from mean temperature for each point in the test
section at isothermal conditions.
The different pressure transmitters are described in Table B.16. The cali
brated span is the initial range set by the manufacturer. The accuracy is
142 B Test facility for heat exchanger
Two different reference pressu.res are used for calibration of the transmitters.
For pressures or differential pressures greater than 0.01 bar a dead weight cell
is used. For lower pressures a static water column is applied. The signal from
the trar.smitter is measured by use of a precision resistance and a voltmeter.
The Jp.w. weight cell has a accuracy of 0.03 % of reading and the water column
u.., accuracy of about 0.5 mm or 5 Pa. The accuracy for the voltmeter is high
a.nd will not be regarded in the total uncertainty.
The upper range value ( URV ) is adjusted in order to obtain a given range.
The zero point or the lower range value ( LRV ) is adjusted on the transmit-
ters during calibration. The linearity may also be adjusted for some of the
transmitters in order to obtain the specified accuracy. The reference chara.;:-
teristic, given by Equation 2.2, is estimated from an end peint 4.<ijustr.:lent
based on the linear cha.racteristic. The constants are only dependent on the
lower and upper range value and their signals; and will not be changed by
re-calibration. The residual for each calibration point is checked against the
reference characteristic.
Equation B.25 c:.::!Q Equation B.24 are used to estimate the cc.nstants a and
b in Equation 2.2. The equations are used both for absolute pressure and
differential pressure.
b = PURV - PLRV
(8.24)
JURV - hRV
The accuracy for a and b depends on the accuracy for the calibration equip-
ment, and on the ra.ndom pa.rt of the accuracy for the transmitter itself. The
adjusted end points may. therefore drift due to hysteresis and repeatabilil;y
error in the transmitter.
The accuracy for a and b due to calibration may be estimated from Equa-
tion B.17 without dependency between the variables, where the sensitivity is
estimated from Equation B.25 anu B.24. The accuracy for a and b dua to
ra.ndom transmitter error is not estimated, but included in the data reduc-
tion; by the specified accuracy for the transmitters. This accuracy involves
combined effects of linearity, hysteresis and repeata.bility.
The constants in Equa~ion 2.2 are given in Table B.17. The lower range value
is zero for a.l.l of the differential transmitters, and 1 bar for the other two.
The specified. transmitter accuracy is also given in the table.
The maximum deviations for DP"r, DP 51 and DP s2 are well within the spec-
ified 2.ccuracy. It has been observed that the zero point for these two trans-
mitters may drift within 10 Pa due to variations in line pressure on one or
both sides. Such drift ma.y be observed. directly after a re-calibration. The
specified accuracy is used in order to establish an upper maximum limit. The
maximum deviations for P sec and P or fall within the specified accuracies.
144 B Test facility for heat exchanger
Geometrical data for the three ori~lce meters and the orifice tubes are cited
in Table B.18. The tube diameters are measured at four points in the large
orifice and at eight points in each of the other two orifices. The uncertainty
in the mean tube diameter is estimated from a combination of estimated
standard deviation from the mean value and bias deviation for each mea-
surement. The bias deviations for all of the measurements are regarded to
be independent. The rest of the geometrical data for the orifice meters lie
within the recommended values in DIN1952 [30].
Table B.18: Geometrical data for orifice meters and orifice tubes [mm].
The tube and the orifice diameters are corrected with respect to temperature
by use of Equation B.26.
Both the orifice plates and the orifice tubes are made of stainless steeL The
reference temperature, Trej, is 20.0 C, and the expansion coefficient, 1', is
15.10- 6 iPC
B Test facility for heat exchanger
The liquid flow rate is measured. with a turbine meter from manufactorer
Flow Technology, inc. type FT-16W50-LB. The meter and the pulse-rate
converter were calibrated. in factory by use of a liquid with specific gravity of
0.761 and viscosity of 1.2 cSt. The calibration was performed at 20C. The
bearings in the turbine had to be replaced after a few hours of operation,
and an on-site recalibration was carried out in order to check drift and on-
rite ir.stallation effects. Water ';Vjth a specific gravity of 1.0 and viscosity of
about 1.5 cSt was used. The re-calibration was performed a.t a temperature
of about 6C. A drift of approximately 2 % was observed, over the whole
range, between the two calibrations, and the data from the recaIibration have
been used. for calculation of :Bow rate. The total measuring chain. was used
for the onsite calibration. The 4 - 20 mA signal is transfe:-red to a voltage
signal by use of a 400.5 0.1 n resistance.
The turbine meter is regarded to have a linear correspondence between vol-
ume :Bow rate and signal within the 10:100 % range of the maximum-designed
:BoWTate. The characteristic tends to be nonlinear at lower :Bow rate. The
change in characteristic correspond to change between laminar and turbu-
lent :Bow pattern and is therefore a function of Reynolds number. The :Bow
starts to get turbulent at a Reynolds number of about 2300. As the rate in-
creases the :Bow becomes more and more turbulent, and the How is regarded
to be fully turbulent for a Reynolds number greater than 10,000. The fully-
developed turbulent :Bow corresponds to a :Bow rate of about 0.3 Ijs or a signal
of 2.12 V or 5.3 mA for the recalibration. The :Bow rate may be calculated
by use of Equation 8.27.
Two linear characteristics Ci.re estimated, one for :Bow rate up to O.3ljs and
one for flow rate higher than 0.3 lIs. The least squares technique is used to
estimate the constants a and b. The constants a.re given in Table 8.19.
The hydrocarbon fluid has a kinematic viscosity in the range of 0.25 to 0.4
cSt. A viscosity of 0.4 cSt a.nd a Reynolds number of 10,000 correspond to
a :Bow rate of about 0.07 lis in the test facility. The fiow will therefore be
turbulent at a much lower How rate during operation than during calibration.
The high-range equation is therefore extrapolated to be used for the whole
146 B Test facility for heat exchanger
Range a b
Low -0.934291 0.581332
High -0.922246 0.576161
turbulent regime, even though the constants are estimated for higher flow
ra.tes. The test fa.cility is not operated in regions where the flow through the
turbine meter tends to be laminar.
The volume How rate was calculated by use of Equation B.28 during reca.li-
bration, where G is the measured weight of water, t is the time and PL is the
water density.
G
v=-- (B.28)
t PL
The different error sources for ;:he reca.libration are given in Table B.20. The
error sources for the volume flow rate are given by judgement. The time used
is about 300 seconds for ea.ch measurement, and the total measured weight
va.ries from a.bout 20 kg for the lower How rate to about 400 kg for the higher
flow rate. Each error source is rEogarded to be independent. The uncertainty
interval is estimated to be 0.5 %"
B Test facility for heat exchanger 147
The heating elements are connected in series, and the voltage is measured
by use of precision resistances parallel to the heating elements as shown in
Figure 2.7. The voltage between A and B may be calculated from Equation
R29, where El is the measured voltage. The resistance w1.ain is used in order
to adjust the output voltage to the range for the data logger.
(B.29)
The values for the different resistances are given in Table B.2!. Ru" is the
resistance for the wires between A and B. Ru4 is the resistance for the wires to
the wattmeter. The uncertainty is estimated from measurement of resistances
and from judgement of installation errors.
Identifier Resistance
Ru, 999.2 0.2
RU2 999.6O.2
RUJ 2.2O.4
Total between A a.nd B 2001.00 0.5
Ru. 2.50.2
The resistance for the heating elements are measured at two different tem-
peratures. The results are given in Table B.22. The resistance is assumed to
be linear between the two temperatures. The accuracy for the temperatures
is assumed to be within 2 ac.
The resistance for an intermedia.te temperature T is calculated by interpola-
tion. The total heat input in the elements ma.y be calculated from Equation
B.:30 and B.31 .
(B.30)
(B.31)
B Test facility for heat exchanger 14:9
150
C Examples of measured data. 151
Measured .me. combined variabe1es Siglld1 M<IX Min Mean RAndcm Bias
P sect-ion P4_ 5.4615 907128. 905U4. 906071. 186. 5305.
? orifice p .... 5.5135916387. 915404. 915453. 103. 1517.
DP se~ion Pa_ 2.8832 302. 29B. 300. l.. 25.
OP se~ion P,,-
Pa_
2.8979
5.03BB
304.
8226.
302.
7919.
303.
8042.
C!. 25.
DP erifice 33. 38.
O_vol:: seCl:icn v_ 24.7624 49.598 49.588 49.589 .0014 .0185
T_fluic::! be~ore sec:tioD-C_ -.7994 -13 .90 -13.94 -l3.93 .01 .16
'1'_fluid befe= s~io,,-c_ -.7996 -13.93 -13.97 -13.94 .01 .16
'1'_~luid before s~io,,-C_ -.7982 -13.92 -13.96 -13.94 .01 _!.6
'1'_fcuid befere sectio,,-c_ -.7978 -13.91 -1.3.95 -l3.93 .01 .16
'1'.:... 11 tube 1 Opper-outside_C_ -.4511 -7.81 -7.84 -'l.B3 .00 .17
':~_11 t:ube 1 ~per-Inside__C_ -.4585 -7.93 -7.98 -7 .~Z .00 .17
T_wal1 cube 2 Upper-OUtside_c_ -.4424 -7.65 -7.69 . ; .6~ .01 .17
'1'_",al~ tube 2 Opper-Inside--,-_ -.4434 -7.67 -7'.72 ';7.69 .01 .17
T_wall tube :3 Opper-OUtside_C_ -.4343 -7.51 -7.55 -1.53 .01 .17
'1'_101411 tube 3 ~per-Inside__C_ -.4350 -7.53 -7.56 -7,55 .00 .17
T_wa11 tube 4 Opper-OUtside_C_ -.4323 -1.47 -7.53 -7.50 .01 .17
T_:.:all eube 4 Opper-Inside__C_ -.4416 -7.65 -7.69 -7.66 .01 .17
'1'_101411 tul:>e 1 Lower-OUtside_c_ -.4051 -7.00 -7.04 -1.02 .01 .11
'1'_"",11 tube 1 Lower-Inside__C_ -.4014 -6.94 -6.97 -6.96 .01 .17
'1'_wall tube 2 Lower-OUtside_C_ -.4001 -6.92 -6.96 -6.94 .01 .17
~_wa11 tul:>e 2 LOwer-Inside__c_ -.3948 -6.83 -6.a7 -6.85 .01 .17
'1'_101..11 cube 3 Lower~t.side_C_ -.4107 -7.11 -7.14 -7.12 .01 .17
'1'_wal1 eube 3 !,.ower-~ide_C_ -.4056 -7.00 -7.06 -7.03 .01 .17
T_wal1 eube 4 Lcwer-outside_C_ -.3~53 -6.83 -6.B7 -6.85 .01 .17
'1'_10...11 cube <- Lower-Inside__C_ .3856 -6.67 -6.71 -6.69 .01 .17
T_~luid after seetio,,-C_ .-.7466 -13.01 -13.03 -13.02 .00 .16
T_fluid ~~~er sec~io~c_ -.7476 -13.01 -13.03 -13.02 .:0 .16
T_!luid after se~io~c_ -.7513 -12.98 -13.00 -12.99 .00 .1C
T_f1uid after seetiOl1_______C_ -.7561 -13.07 -1!.09 -13.08 .00 .26-
T_vap af~er seper4~or_______C_ -.7388 -12.76 -12.79 -12.77 .00 .16
T_vap before o:rifice C_ -.4843 -8.33 -8.34 -S,34 .00 .16
T_V4P af:er coole: C_ .8227 -1'.23 -14.27 -14.24 .01 .:'i
'1'_~...p before mixer C_ -.81a7 -14.14 -14.19 -14.17 .01 .16
DP..;oean in sect-ion Pa_ 301.64 .35 17.6B
T~an before sec~io,,-C_ -13.94 .02 .10
'1'-="ea;, in sect.ion C_ -13,48 .01 .09
'1'..,:;Ie= Aft.e= seccion C_ -13.03 .01 .10
T.:",a11 eo~ect.ion C_ .04 .00 .01
Tto:_"",an upper C_ -7.71 .02 .12
Tto:..;oeal1 [ce=ect:ed) C_ -7.34 .01 .11
'iW~an lower C_ -6.97 .02 .12
OT' :neasu.::-ed C_ 6.14 .01 .12
Q calcula.ted
Q lOeasured w_
C_
"'- lS7,71
158.69
.1S
.00
1.61
.68
'1' l&borate:y 17.87 .50 2.00
COMPOSI'1'!ON W1~ N2 Cl (;2 C3 NC4 IC4
'1'ot:al 1.00000 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00000 .00000
152 C Examples of measured data.
P:\GE: 2
va.riabo!l