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Evolution over the past century of quantities and units in radiation dosimetry

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J. Radiol. Prot. 27 (2007) 516 doi:10.1088/0952-4746/27/1/R01

REVIEW

Evolution over the past century of quantities and units

in radiation dosimetry
W Alan Jennings1
68 North Road, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 4HQ, UK

Received 1 October 2006, accepted for publication 4 December 2006

Published 6 March 2007
Online at stacks.iop.org/JRP/27/5

Abstract
Following the discovery of x-rays in November 1895, of radioactivity in
February 1896 and of radium in December 1898 a large number of proposals
were made for x-ray units and for radium units. These were based on various
radiation effects, including blackening of photographic film, chemical effects,
fluorescence and skin erythema. Some were also based on the ionisation effect,
and it was this effect which eventually, in 1937, became the basis for all future
radiological units of measurement, without any differentiation between x-rays
and radium gamma-rays. During this period the International Commission on
Radiation Units and Measurement (ICRU) and the International Commission
on Radiological Protection (ICRP) were set up by the International Congress
of Radiology (ICR), as well as some national committees on this topic. This
led to a series of reports in respect of (1) fundamental quantities and units
for general use produced by the ICRU and (2) quantities and units for use
in radiation protection produced by the ICRU and ICRP. In regard to the
latter series, alternating contributions from the two commissions were made
over the years, but these have resulted in a dual approach to the subject:
(a) the ICRPs mean-value quantities for dose-limitation purposes and (b)
the ICRUs point-value quantities for measurement purposes, with conversion
factors between them. This review summarises this historical evolution over the
past century.

1. Introduction

Although the ionisation effect was suggested by Villard [1] in 1908 as the basis for an
x-ray unit, it was not widely used. It was, though, essentially the same as the first definition
of the roentgen, denoted by r, and adopted in 1928 at the second International Congress of
1 Member, Fundamental Quantities and Units Committee of the International Commission on Radiation Units and
Measurements (ICRU), 19672003. Member, British Committee on Radiation Units and Measurements (BCRU),
19671983, Secretary, 19671975.

0952-4746/07/010005+12$30.00 2007 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

6 W A Jennings

Radiology. In the intervening time, units based on other effects, both biological and chemical,
had been used, as well as other ionisation-based units, notably the separate German [2, 3] and
French roentgen units [4] which were both denoted by R. The conversion given in 1927 [5]
was 1 German R = 2.25 French R. This alone demonstrated the need then for international
agreement, and the ICRU and ICRP were not established until the late 1920s.
The original quantities (measured and/or calculated) were initially termed dose, i.e. dose
of radium and dose of x-rays, because they were for radiotherapy treatments. It was only much
later that the quantities exposure and absorbed dose were defined and still later the quantity
kerma. The use of units for the purposes of radiation protection was also not considered to be
important for several more years.
The major developments in quantities and units (although this is probably a matter for
debate!) were the Villard unit for x-rays, the milligram-hour unit for radium, the use of skin
erythema dose for both x-rays and radium, the first definition of the roentgen for x-rays, the
international acceptance of the German roentgen as a unit for both x-rays and radium, the
introduction of the roentgen as a unit for exposure and the rad as a unit of absorbed dose and
relative biological effectiveness (RBE), the rem and SI units the gray, and later the sievert as
the unit for a range of dose equivalent quantities.
National and international organisations played a central role in the establishment of
quantities and units, including the British Committee on Radiation Units and Measurements
(BCRU) in the UK, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP)
in the USA and the Deutsches Institut fur Normung (DIN) in Germany, and centrally the
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurement (ICRU) and the International
Commission Radiological Protection (ICRP). It is the successive reports and publications
of these latter international bodies that have formulated the accepted recommendations in
this field, which comprise the main theme of this review. It presents a summary of the
ICRU recommendations in respect of fundamental dosimetric quantities and units for the
measurement of ionising radiation in general, and the respective roles of the ICRU and ICRP in
regard to quantities for use in radiation protection. Reference is made to the General Conference
on Weights and Measures, which is responsible for the approval of submissions concerning the
adoption of named units with the International System of Units (SI), namely the gray, becquerel
and sievert, for ionising radiation.
The review is essentially restricted to the evolution of the dosimetric quantities in general
use, in particular exposure, absorbed dose, activity and the range of dose-equivalent quantities.
It does not cover radiometric quantities such as fluence, nor interaction coefficients such as mass
stopping power. A brief section on radioactivity is included. Emphasis is given to dosimetry
at protection levels, and the succession of new categories of quantities are introduced, such
as index quantities, operational quantities and dose-limitation quantities. However, it does
not include quantities devised for special purposes such as truncated collective effective dose
equivalent commitment [6], nor ICRUs vectorial energy fluence rate (see section 7.10), for
example.

2. Definition of quantities and units

In ICRU Report 60 (1988) [7] quantities and units are defined as follows: Quantities, where
used for quantitative descriptions of physical phenomena or objects, are generally called
physical quantities. A unit is a selected sample of a quantity with which other quantities of
the same kind are compared. Every quantity may be expressed as the product of a numerical
value and a unit. As a quantity remains unchanged when the unit in which it is expressed
changes, its numerical value is modified accordingly.
Evolution over the past century of quantities and units in radiation dosimetry 7

3. Early units based on effects other than ionisation

3.1. Strength, milligram-hour, millicurie destroyed

Until the first definition of the roentgen as a unit of exposure in 1937, radiation units and
quantities were different for x-rays and for radium. For radium, initially, there was the quantity
strength, intensity or activity, proposed in 1904, which was based on a comparison between the
radiation emitted by the radium source and that emitted by a source of uranium. This approach
was not completely abandoned until the 1920s.
By then, the proposal in 1909 for the milligram-hour as a unit to provide a statement of
dose/exposure for a radium treatment [8] had become the most widely used, even though it did
not take into account the filtration of a radium source or the distribution of radium salts within
an applicator. It also suffered from the disadvantage arising from the use of different radium
saltsbromide, sulfate and chloride. This latter disadvantage was solved in 1912 when the first
International Radium Standard was set up [9].
In 1910 at the Brussels Congress of Radiology the curie (Ci) was first defined as a unit. It
was specifically defined to describe a dose of a radon (not radium) as the quantity of radon in
radioactive equilibrium with 1 g of radium, so that the milligram-hour referred to the weight
of pure radium element. This was extended in 1914 by the proposal for the millicurie destroyed
(mcd) [10], and in 1919 to the mcd per cm2 [11]. In 1930, the rutherford (rd) was defined as
the amount of any radioactive isotope that disintegrated at the rate of 106 disintegrations per
second, which would nowadays be described as a megabecquerel (MBq).

3.2. Skin erythema dose

In the early days the skin erythema dose (SED) was widely used for both radium surface
applicators and for x-rays [12] but the SED was never considered to be equivalent for both types
of electromagnetic radiation. Other units based on biological effect were proposed but never
widely used and the SED passed into history once the roentgen was internationally defined in
1937 for use with both x-rays and gamma-rays.

3.3. Chemical effects, blackening of photographic film, fluorescence

The chemical colour changes subsequent to irradiation led to the pastille dose devised by
Sabouraud and Noire [13] in 1904 using platino-barium-cyanide capsules. The ability of
x-rays to blacken silver bromide film was used by Kienbock [14] in 1905 as the basis for
dose measurement, and in 1907, fluorescence caused by x-rays on platino-cyanide screens was
proposed by Guillemimot [15] as the basis for a unit. Others followed with alternative proposed
units using similar approaches, but only for x-ray measurements not for radium gamma-ray
units. Although continuing in use for other purposes, e.g. film blackening for protection-
level monitoring, these techniques were largely superseded for quantitative measurements by
ionisation techniques.
A full account of all the early units which were based on radiation effects other than
ionisation is given by Mould [16] in his book A Century of X-rays and Radioactivity in
Medicine.

4. Ionisation-based units before the 1928 roentgen

In 1908 Villard [1] suggested a unit based on the ionisation effect of x-rays, though the idea
was first mentioned by Belot in 1906 [17], but without the definition of a unit. The Villard unit
8 W A Jennings

was defined as that quantity of X-radiation which liberates by ionisation one esu of electricity
per cm3 of air at NTP, which is very similar to the first definition of the roentgen unit in 1928
(section 6). The Villard unit was largely unused until adopted by Kronig and Friedrich [18]
in 1918 as the e unit, and later modified by Behnken [2] in 1924 to become the R unit or
German roentgen. There was also a French roentgen, suggested by Solomon [4], which
was also called an R unit, which was based on the ionisation produced at 2 cm from a 1 g
radium source. The conversion between them was given by Beclere [5] as 1 German R = 2.25
French R.
As regards units for gamma-rays, in 1911 Eve [19] made measurements of ionisation, and
the number of ion pairs per cm3 at 1 cm from a point source of radium which yielded a factor
K or Eves constant. As an amended definition, this later became the specific gamma-ray
constant [20]. Other units were proposed including the intensitymillicurie-hour unit by
Sievert in 1932 [21]. This was the intensity at 1 cm from a 1 mg point source of radium, in
equilibrium with its breakdown products, filtered by 0.5 mmPt.

5. Radiology Committees and Commissions

In the UK, a Committee on Roentgen Measurement and Dosage was set up in 1913 which,
with representatives from the Physical Society, became the British X-ray Units Committee in
1923, and in 1967, British Committee on Radiation Units and Measurements (BCRU).
At the first International Congress of Radiology (ICR) in 1925, an International X-ray
Units Committee was set up, which later became the ICRU. In 1928, the ICR set up the
International X-ray and Radium Committee which later became the ICRP [22].

6. The International Congress of Radiology and the roentgen

At the first ICR in London, in 1925, the proposal to define the unit roentgen was deferred until
the second ICR, held in 1928 in Stockholm, when the roentgen was defined for x-rays only as
follows:

That this international unit (the roentgen) be the quantity of X radiation which, when
the secondary electrons are fully utilised and the wall effect of the chamber is avoided,
produce in 1 cubic cm of atmospheric air at 0 C and 76 cm mercury pressure, such a
degree of conductivity that one electrostatic unit of charge is measured at saturation
current.

Following this definition, free-air chambers were developed in the UK, USA and
Germany to constitute measurement standards for x-rays, and international comparisons were
made between them in 1931 [9]. Cavity ionisation chambers were later developed as standards
for higher energies.
At the third ICR, held in 1931 in Paris, the definition of the roentgen was unchanged, but
at the fourth ICR, in 1934 in Zurich, the need to include gamma-rays in the definition was
recognised. This was achieved at the fifth ICR, held in 1937 in Chicago, the revised definition
being as follows:

The roentgen shall be the quantity of X or gamma radiation such that the associated
corpuscular emission per 0.001 293 gram of air produces in air, ions carrying 1 esu of
quantity of electricity of either sign.
Evolution over the past century of quantities and units in radiation dosimetry 9

7. Development after the Second World War

7.1. From dose to absorbed dose and exposure

In 1948, Parker proposed that the quantity dose should be defined for general use as the
energy absorbed in irradiated material, with the unit roentgen equivalent physical, rep. This
equalled 84 erg cm3 in air, or 93 erg cm3 in tissue [23].
At the sixth ICR, held in 1950 in London, absorbed dose was defined as the quantity
of energy absorbed per unit mass of irradiated material at the point of interest expressed in
erg g1 .
At the seventh ICR, held in 1953 in Copenhagen, absorbed dose was re-defined as the
amount of energy imparted by ionising particles per unit mass of irradiated material at the
point of interest, and the unit rad introduced as the acronym for radiation absorbed dose equal
to 100 erg g1 .
At the eighth ICR, held in 1956 in Mexico City, exposure dose was defined as the ability
of X or gamma rays to produce ionisation, measured in roentgens.
In 1958, Roesh [24] proposed the quantity KERM, the energy released per unit mass,
expressed in erg g1 .
In 1962, in ICRU Report 10a [20], absorbed dose D was defined as D = E D /m where
E D is the energy imparted by ionising radiation to the matter in a volume element, and m is
the mass in that volume element. The special unit of absorbed dose is the rad = 100 erg g1 .
A new quantity, kerma, K , was introduced, K = E K /m , where E K is the sum of the
initial kinetic energies of all the charged particles liberated by indirectly ionising particles in
a volume element of the specified material, and m is the mass in that volume element. The
unit being erg g1 . Exposure, X , replacing exposure dose, is defined as X = Q/m , where
Q is the sum of the electric charges on all ions of one sign produced in air when all the
electrons liberated by photons in a volume element of air of mass m are completely stopped
in air.
These definitions were essentially unchanged in ICRU Report 11 (1968) [25], but in ICRU
Report 19 (1971) [26] the concept of stochastic quantities was introduced to take account of
statistical fluctuations in the interaction of radiation and matter.
 This  entailed the
 introduction
of a stochastic quantity of energy imparted, , where = in out + Q (see [26]
and later [7]) expressed in terms of energy deposit for a single interaction (section 7.10). This
leads to a definition of absorbed dose, D = d/dm , where d is the mean energy imparted
by ionising radiation in the matter in a volume element, and dm is the mass of matter in that
volume element, the unit being 1 rad = 102 J kg1 . The definition of exposure in ICRU
Report 19 [26] is essentially the same as in the previous ICRU Report 11 [25] but now expressed
as X = d Q/dm (unit roentgen), where 1 R = 2.58 104 C kg1 (exactly).
In ICRU Report 33 (1980) [27], the definitions of absorbed dose, D , kerma, K , and
exposure, X , remained unchanged, but the SI units were recommended for use, namely the
gray (Gy) = 1 J kg1 for both absorbed dose and for kerma, and the C kg1 for exposure
(see section 7.5). The corresponding special units, rad and roentgen, were included for use
temporarily. The use of the unit J kg1 , or rad, for both quantities D and K emphasises the
need to specify the quantity each time a unit is used.

7.2. Radioactivity
Following the earlier definitions of the units for radioactivity (section 3.1), curie (1910) [16],
milligram-hour 1909 [7], millicurie destroyed (1915) [16] and rutherford (1930) [16], ICRU
Report 10a (1962) [20] defined activity A = N/t , where N is the number of nuclear
10 W A Jennings

transformations which occur in a quantity of radioactive nuclide in a time t , the unit being 1
curie (Ci) = 3.7 1010 s1 (exactly). There was no change in ICRU Report 11 (1968) [25],
but in ICRU Report 19 (1971) [26] activity was expressed as d N/dt , and in ICRU Report
33 (1980) [27] activity was defined for a radionuclide in a particular energy state at a given
time as given by d N/dt , where d N is the expectation value of the number of spontaneous
transitions from that energy state in a time interval dt . The SI unit, the becquerel (Bq) = s1
was recommended (see section 7.5).
A detailed discussion of the evolution of quantities and units for radioactivity was
published in 1998 by the author [44] on the occasion of the centenary of the discovery of
radium.

7.3. ICRU/ICRPbiological doses and dose equivalent quantities

In 1945, monitoring at protection levels was based on field quantities, dose being expressed
in roentgens. In 1945, Parker proposed that biological dose = physical dose the relative
biological effectiveness (RBE). When the physical dose is expressed in rads, the RBE dose is
in rems (roentgen equivalent man).
In the 1950s and 1960s, a series of reports relating to the biological effects of radiation
were published [2830]. The RBE was related to linear energy transfer (LET) and RBE
dose expressed as the sum of absorbed dose in rads RBE with RBELET relationships
established for reference radiations. Next, RBE was replaced by the term quality factor (QF),
and the quantity dose equivalent (DE) introduced, where DE = absorbed dose D (QF)(DF),
and DF is the dose distribution factor expressed in rems, QFLET relationships being
provided.
In ICRU Report 19 (1971) [26], with its supplement on dose equivalent (1973) [26], dose
equivalent, H , is defined as H = D Q N at the point of interest where D is the absorbed dose,
Q is the quality factor, and N the product of any other modifying factors. It had a special unit,
the rem, when D is in rads. As H and D have the same dimensions, it is necessary to refer to
the quantities as well as to the unit.
In ICRU Report 33 (1980) [27], the definition of dose equivalent, H , remained unchanged,
but the SI unit was recommended for use, namely the sievert (Sv) = 1 J kg1 (see section 7.5).
Later, in 1986, N was dropped from the definition by both the ICRU and ICRP [35] as no
practical application has been identified.

7.4. ICRUambient radiation levels and index quantities

To characterise ambient radiation levels at any location for the purposes of radiation protection,
the ICRU in their Report 19 (1971) [26] also introduced two new quantities, absorbed dose
index, D I , and dose equivalent index, H I . They indicate the maximum absorbed dose and
dose equivalent respectively in a human body represented by a 30 cm diameter sphere of tissue-
equivalent material. These quantities were refined in 1980 [27] by dividing the sphere into
two outer shells and a core. The outermost shell (70 m thick) can be ignored, whereas the
maximum dose in the second shell (1 cm thick) is termed the shallow dose equivalent index,
H I,s , and that in the core, the deep dose equivalent index H I,d .
In 1976, in ICRU Report 25 [31], the conceptual basis for the determination of dose
equivalent was discussed in detail, and the calibration of instruments in terms of index
quantities presented. Later, further studies led to the formulation of the operational quantities
(ICRU Report 39 (1985) [32]) (section 7.7), which superseded the index quantities, as a
problem had arisen in respect of the location of the maximum dose in certain instances.
Evolution over the past century of quantities and units in radiation dosimetry 11

7.5. Approval of SI units

Since 1980, the ICRU has listed SI units alongside special units for radiation measurement,
e.g. for absorbed dose, J kg1 and rad. In 1975, the 15th General Conference on Weights and
Measures (CGPM) approved the ICRU submission for two named units:

becquerel (Bq) for the quantity activity, = s1 ;

gray (Gy) for the quantities absorbed dose and kerma = 1 J kg1 (= 100 rad).

No request was made for a named unit for the quantity exposure, which in SI was 1 C kg1 , as
it was thought it would be superseded by the quantity kerma, as indeed it was.
In 1979 the 16th CGPM approved a submission by the ICRU and ICRP for a named unit
for the quantity dose equivalent, the sievert (Sv) = 1 J kg1 . In ICRU Report 33 (1980) [27],
the ICRU recommended the general use of these named units, including the sievert for the dose
equivalent quantities.

7.6. ICRPsubsidiary and dose-limitation quantities

In 1977, ICRP Publication 26 [33] referred to the relationship D = D Q N , (section 7.3), and
to the index quantities (section 7.4) plus a new Q L relationship. Subsidiary dose equivalent
quantities included
 committed dose equivalent, and for populations, collective dose equivalent
given by S = H N(H )d H where N(H )d H is the number of individuals receiving a dose
equivalent between H and H + d H , all expressed in rems.
In 1978, ICRP Publication 28 [34] introduced two new dose-limitation quantities, organ
dose equivalent, HT , and effective dose equivalent, HE . The mean dose equivalent, HT,
in a specified tissue or organ is given by HT = DT Q T , where DT and Q T are mean
values of
 the absorbed dose  and quality factor respectively. The effective dose equivalent
HE = wT DT Q T , with wT = 1, where wT is the tissue weighting factor.
In 1984, ICRP Publication 42 [6] constituted a compilation of all the major concepts and
quantities in use by the ICRP, including all those listed above.
In 1986, ICRU Report 40 [35] constituted a report from a joint ICRU/ICRP task group set
up to study quality factor in radiation protection.

7.7. ICRUoperational quantities

In parallel to the work of the above task group, the ICRU set up a committee in 1979
on the practical determination of dose equivalent which developed a methodology for
such determinations and compiled supporting data. This was published as ICRU Report
39 [32] in 1985, and introduced new quantities to determine the effective dose equivalents
for environmental and individual monitoring.
To this end, the ICRU sphere previously introduced for the index quantities (section 7.4)
was retained for environmental monitoring, and two new conventions were introduced,
expanded and aligned fields. These are expressed in terms of the quantity fluence, the
fluence of the particles being given by d N/da , where d N is the number of particles which
enter a sphere of cross-sectional area da . In an expanded field the fluence and its angular and
energy distribution have the same values throughout the volume of interest as the actual field at
the point of reference. In an aligned and expanded field, the fluence and its energy distribution
are the same as in the expanded field, but the fluence is unidirectional.
Based on these concepts, two new quantities were introduced for environmental monitoring
linking the external field to the effective dose equivalent, namely ambient dose equivalent,
12 W A Jennings

H (d)1 , and directional dose equivalent, H (d), for strongly and weakly penetrating radiation,
respectively. Thus, H (d) at a point in a radiation field is the dose equivalent that would be
produced by the corresponding expanded and aligned field in the ICRU sphere at a depth d on
the radius opposing the direction of the aligned field. Similarly, H (d) is the dose equivalent
at a point that would be produced by the corresponding expanded field in the sphere at a depth
d on a radius in a specified direction.
For individual monitoring, two other quantities were introduced, namely individual dose
equivalent penetrating, Hp (d), for deep organs irradiated by strongly penetrating radiation, and
individual dose equivalent superficial, Hs (d), for shallow organs irradiated by both weakly and
strongly penetrating radiation.
These quantities were devised as predictors for the ICRP quantity dose equivalent, HE.
Values of Hp(d) were based on ICRP Publication 26 [33] values of Q L and wT (section 7.6).
In 1998, ICRU Report 43 [36] discussed the application of operational quantities, including
the practical determination of dose equivalent, instrument characteristics and calibration, and
the relationship between environmental (area) and individual monitoring quantities and the
ICRP dose limitation quantities.

7.8. ICRPintroduction of equivalent dose and effective dose

In 1991, ICRP Publication 60 [38] introduced two new quantities for dose limitation purposes,
namely (organ) equivalent dose, HT , and effective dose, E . In addition, quality factors were
replaced by radiation weighting factors, wR , and updated human evidence provided new tissue
weighting factors wT .
 organ dose equivalent was given by HT = Q T DT , and effective dose equivalent
Hitherto,
by HE = wT Q T D
T (section 7.6). Following ICRP Publication
 60 [37] equivalent dose
was given by HT = wR DT,R and effective dose by E = wT HT, where HT is the mean
absorbed dose in each tissue or organ T due to radiation R, and wR the corresponding radiation
weighting factor.

7.9. ICRUrespective quantities for measurement and for dose-limitation purposes

In 1993, ICRU Report 51 [38] discussed quantities and units for protections-level dosimetry in
two categories as follows.

7.9.1. Quantities for measurement and calculation purposes. Based on the dose equivalent
H = Q D , in units of J kg1 , the operational quantities (section 7.1) ambient dose equivalent,
H (d), and directional dose equivalent, H (d), were recommended for ambient (area)
monitoring. For personal monitoring, the new quantity personal dose equivalent, Hp (d),
replaced the two former quantities of individual dose equivalent penetrating, Hp (d), and
individual dose equivalent shallow, Hs(d), now for both strongly and weakly penetrating
radiation.

7.9.2. Quantities based on mean values used for dose-limitation purposes. Mean-value
quantities were discussed, as such values are often sufficient for protection purposes. However,
both absorbed dose, D , and quality factor, Q , depend on location in the body and on its
orientation in the radiation field, and hence mean-value quantities need to be formulated as
integrals.
The ICRPs dose limitation quantities
 of
equivalent dose, H E , and effective dose, E
D T, R
(section 7.8), can be written E = wT DT DT wR . Here Q T is replaced by the sum of
Evolution over the past century of quantities and units in radiation dosimetry 13

Figure 1. Preparation of ICRU Report 60 (1998) [7] by the Fundamental Quantities and Units
Committee of the ICRU at a meeting held at the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST), USA, in the late 1990s (H H Rossi, J W Muller, S M Seltzer, A M Kellerer and A Allisy).
Photograph taken by the author, the sixth member of the committee.
(This figure is in colour only in the electronic version)

wR factors of the component radiations, R, weighted according to their relative contribution

DT,R /DT , to the organ dose DT . The quantity DT,R cannot be evaluated experimentally, and
hence these equations cannot be used as a basis for measurement. Hence the operational
quantities are needed for measurement purposes.
ICRU Report 57 (1998) [39] provides conversion factors between operational and dose
limitation quantities.

7.10. ICRUrevised publication on fundamental quantities and units

Updating ICRU Report 33 (1980) [27] a new comprehensive presentation was made in ICRU
Report 60 (1998) [7] following the publication of a series of drafts of the main sections
in ICRU News for comment from individuals and national bodies such as the BCRU
(figure 1).
The final report is divided into five major sections:

(1) Terms and mathematical conventions.

(2) Radiometryterms for the specification of radiation fields, including both scalar and
vector quantities.
(3) Interaction coefficients.
(4) Dosimetric quantities.
(5) Radioactivity.

Definitions of dosimetric quantities, the most widely used being the subject of this review,
are presented in two partsconversion of energy and deposition of energy. New quantities are
introduced including cema for charged particles, paralleling kerma for uncharged particles, and
energy deposit for a single interaction. In all some 39 quantities are presented.
14 W A Jennings

8. Recent developments

8.1. ICRPcontrollable dose

In 1999, Roger Clarke [40], then Chairman of the ICRP, proposed for discussion a new concept,
controllable dose. This is an individual-based as against a population-based philosophy, and
includes the abandonment of the concept of collective dose on the grounds that it aggregates
information excessively. Detailed dose limits for different categories of persons in relation to
risk are tabulated. Further discussion regarding the significance of these proposals in relation
to collective dose, threshold dose and the LNT assumption have taken place both at meetings
and in the literature.

8.2. ICRPcurrent general review of recommendations

Roger Clarkes proposals [40] led to a major review by the ICRP entailing a thorough
examination of the ICRP principles and their application in regulatory systems and in operation.
In a memorandum published by the ICRP in 2001 [41] as a progress report, it was proposed
that the term weighted average absorbed dose be used instead of equivalent dose to avoid
confusion with dose equivalent.
Extensive consultations by the ICRP, including at congresses of the International Radiation
Protection Association (IRPA) in 2000 and 2004, and on the internet in 2004 and 2006 [42], as
well as in the literature, have continued and it is hoped to publish the new recommendations in
2007.
Dosimetry is only one facet of this major review, the objective here being to develop a
system that is compatible with the needs of the known biological effects of radiation and yet
is simple and meaningful [43]. The ICRPs protection mean-value quantities are appropriate
for many dose-limiting purposes, but are not subject to measurement, whereas the ICRUs
operational point-value quantities are needed for metrology, but may introduce unwarranted
complexity. Conversion factors have been developed between these two approaches, and when
one considers the range of energies and intensities as well as different types of radiation, or
unknown radiations, and the different tissues and organs at risk, the present dual approach is a
major achievement, but hopefully not the end of the road.

9. Access to ICRU reports and ICRP publications

Lists of currently available ICRU reports and ICRP publications can be seen at http://www.
icru.org and http://www.icrp.org, respectively. These lists include recommendations in respect
of such topics as dosimetry for electrons, beta-rays, neutrons and protons, which have not been
referred to above.
Also, copies of three charts prepared by the author for the Centenary Congress of
Radiology in 1995, entitled The History of Radiation Dosimetry, can be seen at http://www.
npl.co.uk/ionrad/features/history/history.html.

Acknowledgment

The author wishes to express his thanks to Dr R F Mould for his help in respect of the pre-
Second World War sections of this survey.
Evolution over the past century of quantities and units in radiation dosimetry 15

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16 W A Jennings

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