AMERICWJ SOCIETY f=Ofl TESTING AND MATEftiAlS
I Designation: G 16 - 95
Standard Guide for
Appiying Statistics to Analysis of Corrosin Data1
Tbi) DdHd is issim) undcr Ihc fixsd detisnation O li; ihe numhcr immnlimy foitowmi !he dcsiination indcales the ym of
onginil opcin or, ia Ihe case of revisin. M ycu of la revion. A number m parcnthes indcale! tlw year of UB
supeiscrifK epuln (if indicats n edilarii change since the bst revisin or napproval.
1. Scope
.l This guide presente briefly some generally accepted
tnethods of statistical analyses which are useful in Ihe
interpretation of corrosin test result.
1.2 This guide does not cover detailed calculations and
methods. but rather covers a range of approaches which have
found application in corrosin testing.
1.3 Only ihose statistica! methods that have found wide
acceptance in corrosin testing have been considered in this
gutde.
2. Referenced Docaments
2.1 ASTM Standards;
E 178 Practice for Dealing with Ouying Observatkms*
E 380 Practice for Use of the International System of
Uns (SI) (the Modernizcd Mctric System)2
E 691 Practice forConducting an Interlaboratory Study to
Determine the Precisin of a Test Method2
G46 Guide for Examination and Evaluaon of Pilting
Corrosin3
3. Sienificance and Use
3.1 Corrosin test results often show more scatter than
macy other types of tests because of a variety of factors,
inciuding the fact thal mino: impurties oflen play a dechive
role in controlng corrosin ratcs. Slatisiical analysis can be
voy helpfu! in allowing invesgators to interpret such
results, especially in determiniag hen test results differ from
one anotber signicantly. This can be a dilTicult lask when a
variety of materials are under test, but siatistical methods
provide a rational approach to this probiem.
3.2 Modcrn data reduction programs in combination with
computen have allowed sophisticated statisticat analyses on
data seis with relati ve sase. This capability permite investiga-
tors to determine if associations exist betwecn many vari-
ables and, if so, to devctop quantitative expressions relating
the variables.
3.3 Statistical evaluation is a necessary step in the analysis
of results from any procedure which provides quantimtive
information. This analysis allows condence intervals to be
'TtiEUdeis under Ibejurisdtclianof ASTM OxnmineeG-l i Conosior of
Meuh and is Ihe direct mponsibility of Subecmm|t COI .OS on Laboralory
Correxion TBU.
Curre ediiion ipproved JM. is, 99S. Pxiblished Man* 1995. OriBlly
publiihcd u C 16 - 7], Ua previmo cdriion O 16 - 44.
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estimated from the measured results.
4. Errors
4.1 DistributionsIn the measurement of vales associ-
ated with the corrosin of metis, a variety of factors act to
produce raeasured vales that deviate from expected vales
for the conditions that are presen!. Usually the factors which
contrbute to the error of measured vales act in a more or
less random way so that the average of severa! vales
approximates the expected valu better than a single mea-
surement. The partera in which data are scattered is caiied its
distrbution, and a variety of distributions are seen in
corrosin work.
4.2 HisogromsA bar graph called a histogram may be
used to display the scatter of the data. A histogram is
constructed by dividing the range of data vales into equal
intervals on the abscissa axis and then placing a bar over
each interval of a height equal to the number of data points
wiihin that intervaJ. The number of nlervah should be few
enough so that almost all intervals contain at least threc
points, however thcrc shoud be a sufficient number of
intervals to faciltate visualizaton of the shape and sym-
metry of the bar heights. Twcnty intervals are usually
recommended for a histogram. Because so many paints are
required to constnict a histogram, it is unusual to nd data
sets in corrosin work that lend themselves to this type of
analysis.
4.3 Normal DisiributionMany statisiical techniques are
bsed on ihe normal distribution. This distnbution is bell-
shaped and symmetrcal. Use of analysis techniques devel-
oped for the normal distribution on data distribuid in
another manner can lead to grossly erroneous conclusions.
Thus, befare attempting data analysis, the data should either
be verified as bemg scattered like a normal distribution, or a
transformation should be used to obtan a data sel which is
approximately normally distributed. Transibrraed data may
be analyzed statistically and the results transformed back to
gjve the desired resuits, althoufth the process of transfonning
the dala bock can crale problems in terms of not having
synimetrical confidence intervals.
4.4 Normal Probadiliy Paperl the histogram is not
confirrnatory in terms of the shape of the distribution, the
data may be examined further to see if it is normaiiy
dislributed by constructing a normal probability piot as
described as follows (I)-*
 4.4,! U S easiest to constmct a normal probability plot if
normal probability paper is available. This paper has one
linear axis, and one axis which is arranged to refleci the
shape of the cumulative rea under the normal distribution.
In practico, the "probability" axis has 0.5 or 50% at the
center, a iwmber approachjng O percent at one end, and a
number approaching 1.0 or 100 % at the other end. The
martes are spaced far apart in the center and cise logetber at
the ends. A normal probability plot may be construcied as
follows wiili normal probability paper:
NOTE 1Dala that plot apprOMroaiely on a stiaight line on ihe
probability po! may be considerad to be normay dfetributed. Devia-
tions [rom a normal distribution may be rceognizcd by the presence of
deviaiions from a siraight Une, usuaJly rnosi noiL-eable at the extreme
ends of the data.
4.4.1.1 Number the data points starting at the largest
negative valu and proceedng to tbe largest positive valu.
Tbe numbers of the data points bus obtained are called the
ranks of the points.
4.4.1.2 Plot each point on the normal probability paper
such that when the data are arranged in orden y (1), y (2), y
( 3 ) , . . , , these vales are called the order statistics; the linear
axis reflects the valu of the data, while the probability axis
location is calculated by subtracting 0.5 from the number
(rank) of that point and dividing by the tola! number of
poinu in the data set.
UTE 2ccasianally two or more identical valu! are obtained in a distribution are not the mosi useful. In this case. Cuide
poini may be located at the average of the ploni ag posions for all the
idntica! vales.
4.4.2 If normal probability paper is not available, the
location of each point on the probability plot may be
determined as follows:
4.4.2.1 Mark the probability axis usiig linear grada tions
from 0.0 to 1.0.
4.4.2.2 Por each point, subiraci 0.5 from the rank and
divide the result by the tota! number of points in the data set
This is the rea to the left of that valu under the standard-
ized normal distribution. The cumulative distribution tunc-
tion is the number, aiways berween O and I, that is piotted
on the probability axis.
4.4.2.3 The valu of the data point defines its location on
the other axis of tbe graph.
4.5 Other Probabtlily PaperIf the hislogram is not
syinmetrical and bell-shaped, or if the probability plot shows
nonlinearity, a transformation may be used to obtain a new,
transformeri data set that may be normally distributed.
Aithough it is sometimes possible to guess at the type of
distribuon by looking at the hstogram, and hus determine
the exact transformation to be used, it is usually just as easy
to use a computer to calclate a number of different
transformad ons and to check each for the norrnaiity of the
transformed data- Some transfonnations based on known
non-normal disributions, or that nave been found to work
n some situations, are Usted as follows:
y-lfx
where:
y = transformed dalum.
x = original datura, and
n ==- number of data points,
Time to failure in stress corrosin cracking usually is best
fittcd with a log x transformation (2, 3).
Once a set of transformed data K found that yields an
approximately straight line on a probability plot, the statis-
tical procedures of interest can be carried out on the
transformed data. Resulta, such as predicted data vales or
confidente intervals, most be transformed back using the
reverse transformation.
4.6 Unknown DistributionIf there are insuflicient dala
points, orif for any other reason, the distribution type of the
data cannot be determined, then two possibilities exist for
analysis:
4.6.1 A distribution type may be hypothesiied based on
the behavior of similar types of data. If this distribution is not
normal, a transformatton may be sought which mil nor-
malize that particular distribution. See 4.5 above for sugges-
tions. Analysis may then be conducted on the transformad
data.
4.6.2 Statistical analysis procedures that do not require
any specific data distribution type, known as non-para me trie
mclhods, may be used to analyze the data. Non-parametric
tests do not use the data as efficently.
4.7 Extreme Valu AnalysisIn the case of determining
the probability of perforation by a pitting or cracking
mechanism, the usual descriptive statistics for the normal
G 46 shouid be consulted for the procedure (4).
4.8 Significara Dgtsftactice E 380 shouid be followed
to determine the proper number of significan! dgits when
reporting numrica! results.
4.9 Propagaron of VarianceIf a calculated valu is a
fbnction of severa! independen! variables and those variables
nave errors associated with them, the error of the caicuiated
valu can be estmated by a propagaron of variance tech-
nique. See Refs. (5) and (6) for details.
4.10 Mistakef-~Mistakes either in carrytng out an exper-
iment or in calculations are not a characteristic of the
populadon and can predude Statistical treatrnent of data or
tead to erroneous conclusions if includcd in the analysis.
Sometimes mistakes can be identied by statislical metbods
by recognizing that the probability of obtaining a particular
result is very low.
4.1 [ Oalying ObsenativnsSee Praclice E 178 for pro-
cedtires for dealing with outlying observationg.
5. Central Measures
5.1 It is accepted practiee to employ severa! independen!
(replcate) measurements of any experimental quantity to
improve the estmate of precisin and to reduce the variance
of the average valu. If it is assumed that the processes
operaling lo crate error n the measurement are randera in
nature and are as likely to overestimate the true unknown
valu as to underestimate it, then the average valu is the
best estmate of the unknown valu n question. The averag*
valu is usually indicated by placing a bar over the symbol
represeritng the measured variable.
NOTE 3In this sundn), the ttrm "mean" i> reserved w describe a
central measure of a population. while average refera to a samle,
5.2 If processes oprate to exaggerate the magnitude of the
 <|fi) G16
error either in ovcrestimatng or underestimating the correct
measurement, then the medan valu is usually a better
estmate.
5.3 If the processes operating to crate error affect both
the probability and magniude of the error, then olher
approaches mus be empioyed to fnd the besl estimation
procedure. A qualified statistician shouid be consultcd in this
case.
5.4 In corrosin testing, it is generally observed ihat
average vales are useful in characterizing corrosin rates. In
cases of penetration from pitting and cracking, Mure is
oen defined as the first through penetration and in these
cases, average penetration rates or times are of little valu.
Extreme valu analysis has becn used in these cases, see
GuideG46.
5.5 Whcn the average valu is calcuhted and reponed as
the or.ly rcsult in experiments when several replcate runs
were made, information on the scatter of data is lost.
6. Variablty Measwres
6.1 Severa! measures of distrbution variability are aval-
abie which can be useful in estimaling confidence intervals
and making predictions from the observcd data. In the case
of normal thstribuon, a number of procedures are available
and can be handled with computer programs. These mea-
sures include the foowing: variance, standard deviation,
and cocrcient of variation. The range is a useful non-
parametric estmate of variability and can be used with both
normal and oiher distributions.
6.2 Variarte?Variance. a2, may be estimated for an
experimental data sel of n observations by compung the
sampie estimated variance, S2 assuming all observations are
subject to the same enors:
where:
d -the dSrence between the average and the mea-
sured valu,
n - I = the degrees of freedom available.
Variance is a useful measure because it is additive in systems
that can be described by a normal distribution, however, the
dimensions of variance are square of unils. A procedure
known as analysis of variance {ANOVA) has been de veloped
for data sets involving several factors at dferent levis in
order to estmate the efTects of these factors, (See Section 9.)
6.3 Standard DeviationStandard deviation, o-, is defmed
as the square root of the variance. Ii has the property of
having the same dimensions as tbe average valu and (he
original measurements from which it was calculated and is
gcncrally used to describe the scattcr of the observations.
6.3.1 Standard Deviation of (he AverageThe standard
deviation of an average, SZ, is difieren! from the standard
deviation of a single measured valu, bul the two standard
deviations are related as in Eq (2):
a <2
-T,
where:
n =* the total number of measurements which were used to
calclate the average valu.
When reporting standard deviation calculations, t is impar-
tan! to note dcarty whether the valu reponed is the
standard deviation of the average or of a single valu. In
either case, the number of measurements shouid also be
reported. The sampie estmate of tbe standard deviation is s.
6.4 Coeffkienl of VaationThe pcpulation coefficent
of variation is defined as the standard deviation divided by
the mean. The sampie coefficieru of variation may be
calculated as S/ and is usualy reported in percent. This
measure of variability is particutarly useful in cases where the
size of the errors is proportional to the magnitude of the
measured valu so that the cocfficient of variation is approx-
imatcly constan! over a wide range of vales.
6.5 RangeThe range is defined as ie difference bc-
tween the mximum and mnimum vales in a set of
replcate data vales. The range is non-parametric in nature,
that is, iis ealcuiation makes no assumption about the
distribution of error. In cases when smalj numbers of
replcate vales are in volved and the data are normally
dstributed, the range, w, can be used to estmate the
standard deviation by the relationship:
s !2
(3)
where:
S = the estimated sampie standard deviation,
w = the range, and
n = the number of observations.
The range has the same dimensions as standard deviation. A
labulation of the relationship between a and w is given in
Ref, (7).
6.6 PrecisinPrecisin is closeness of agreement be-
tween randomly selected individual measurements or test
results. The standard deviation of the error of measurement
may be used as a measure of imprecisin.
6.6.1 One aspect of precisin concern* the ability of one
investigator or laboratory to reproduce a measurement
previously made at the same Eocation with the same method.
This aspect is sometimes calied repeaubihty,
6.6.2 Another aspect of precisin concems the abiiily of
rfifTerent in vesiigators and laboratories to reproduce a mea-
surement. This aspect is sometimes calied reproducibility.
6.7 BioBias is the doseness of agreement between an
observed valu and an acceped reference valu. When
applied to individual observations, bias includes a combina*
don of a random componen! and a componen! due to
systematic error. Under these circumstances, accuracy con-
tains elements of both precisin and bias. Bias refere to the
tendency ufa measurement technique to consisten t)y under-
or overestimate. In cases where a specic quantity such as
corrosin rale is being estimated, a quantitatve bias may be
determino!
6.7.1 Corrosin test methods which are intended to sim-
late service conditions, for example, natural environments,
often are more se ver on some material s than others, as com-
pared to the conditions which the test is smulating. This is
> particular!:, truc for test procedures which produce damage
rapdly as compared to the service experience. In such cases,
t is importan! to establtsh the coirespondence between re-
sults from the service environment and test results Cor the
class of material in question, Bias in this case refere to the
 G16
vanation in the accderatton of corrosin or differeni mate-
rials.
6.7.2 Another type of corrosin test method measurcs a
characteristic that s related to thc tendency of a material to
sufter a form of corrosin damage, for example, pitting po
tential. Bias in this type of test refera to the nability of the
test to properly rank the malcriis to which the test applies as
compared o service results. Ranking may also be used as a
qualitative estmate of bias in the test method types described
in6.7.l.
7. Statistlcal Tests
7.1 ut Hypoihesis Staislica! Tests are usuatly carried
out by postuladng a hypohesis of the form: the distribution
of data under test is not significantly different from some
postulated distnbuticn, It is necessary to establish a proba-
biiity that wll be accepiable for rejeciing the nuil hypothesis
In experimental work it is conventional to use probabiliries
of 0.05 or 0.01 to reject the nuil hypothesis.
7.1.1 Type ! errors occur when the nuil hypothesis is
rejected talsely. The probability of rejecting the nuil hypoth-
esis falsely is described as the signicance level and is ofien
7.1.2 Type II errors occur when thc nuil hypothesis is
accepted falsciy, If the signiicance level is set too low, the
probability of a Type II error, ft becornes larger. When a
valu of a is set, the valu of 0 is also set, With a fixed valu
of a, it is possible to decrease ft only by increasing the sample
size assuming no other factors can be changed to improve
the test.
7.2 Degrees cf Freedom^fbe degrees of freedom of a
statisical test refer to thc number of independen! measure-
ments that are available for thc calculador..
7.3 ( TesTbe t statistic may be written in the fonn:
\X-
wbere:
A- is the sample average,
li is thc populaton mean, and
S(x) is the estimated standard deviation of the sample
average.
The / distribution is usually tabulated in terms of significa nce
levis and degrees of freedom.
7.3.1 The t test may be used to test the nuil hypothesis:
m -n (5)
For example the valu m is not signficantly different than (i,
the populaton mean. The t test is trien:
su-> v^
The calculated valu of may be compared lo the valu of /
for the degrecs of freedom, n, and the signifcance leve!,
7.3.2 The statistic may be used to obtain a confidence
interval for an unknown valu, for example, z corrosin rate
valu calculaled from several independen! measurement&
(X - t T)) < u < (x + t S(x)) (7)
where:
t S(x) representa the one half width confidence interval
associated with the signifcance level chosen.
7.3.3 The i test is often used to test whether there is a
significant difference between two sample averages. In this
case, the expression becomes:
-S, !
t (8)
where:
Xi and Jc2 are the sample averages,
n, and ti are the number of measurements used in calcu-
lating r and xi respectiveiy, and
S(x} is the pooled estmate of the standard deviation from
both seis of data.
2 -1 )
7.3.4 One sided test. The function is symmetrical and
can nave negative as well as positivo vales. In the above
examples, only absolute vales of the differences were
discussed. In some cases, a nuil hypothesis of the form:
li>m
or (10)
<m
may be desired. This is known as a one sided : test and the
signifcance level associated with this valu is haif of that for
a lwo sided i.
7.4 F TestThe /"test is used to test whether the variance
associated with a variable, je,, is significan!ly different from a
variance associated with variable x,_. The F statistic is then:
The F test is an important componen! in the analysis of
variance used in experimental designs. Vales of F are
tabulated for signifcance levis, and degrees of freedom for
both variables. In cases where the data are not normally
distributed, the F test approacb may falsely show a signifi-
car.! effect because of the non-normal distribution rather
than an actual difference in variances being compared.
7.5 Correlation CotfiidenThe correlation coefficient, r,
is a measure of a linear associaon between two random
variables. Correlation coefficients vary between -1 and +1
and the closer to either -1 or 4-1, the better the correlation.
The sign of the correlation coefficient simpiy indcales
whether the correlation is positivo (y increases with x) or
negative (y decreases as x increases). The correlation coefTi-
cient, r, is given by:
I2
[zft - ZMyt - y)}* B? - t^X^,-3 as: < >
x, = ohserved vales of random variable x,
y, * observed vales of random variable y,
x = average valu ofjc,
y = average valu of y, and
Generally, r2 vales are 2preferred because they avoid thc
problem of sign and the i vales relate directly to variance.
Vales of r or r3 have been tabulated for different signifi-
cance levis and degrees of freedom. In general, it is desirable

to neport vales of r or r2 when presenting correlatjons and
regression analyses.
NOTE 4tThe procedure for calculatng ^orrelation coeficier.t does
noi require ihat the x and y variables be random and consequeniiy,
some investigaofs lave used the correlatio coefficien as an indication
of goodness of fit of dala in a regiesuon analysis. However, the
significance test uiing coirelatioa coefficient requires Ihal the x and y
valu be independen: variables of a popuiation measured on randomly
setected samples.
7.6 Sgn TestThe sign test is 8 non-parametric test used
in seis of paired data to determine if one component of the
pair is consistently larger than the other (8). In this test
method, the vales of the data pairs are compared, and if the
first entry is larger than the second, a plus sign is recorded. If
the second trro is larger, then a minus sign is recorded. If
both are equal, then no sign is recorded. The total number of
plus signs, P, and minus signs, N, is compuled. Significance
is determined by the following test
| P- N\ >kS7Tff (13)
where k = a function of significance level as follows:
The sign test does not depend on the magnitude of the
difference and so can be used in cases where normal statistcs
would be inapproprate or impossible to apply.
7.7 Outside CounThc outside count test is a usefil
non-pararnetnc technique to evalate whether the magni-
tude of one of two data sets of approximately the same
number of vales is signicanily larger than the other. The
derails of the procediere may be found dsewhere (8),
7.8 Crner CountThe comer count test is a non-
parametric graphical technique for determming whether
there is correiatkm between two variables. U is simpler to
apply that the correlation coeffident, but requires a graphical
presentation of the data, The detaifcd procedure may be
found elsewhere (8).
8. Curve FittingMethod of Uast Squares
8.1 It is often desirable to determine the best algebraic
expression to t a data set with the assumption that a
nonnally distribuid random error is operating. In this case,
the best fit will be obtained when the condition of mnimum
variance between the measured valu and the calculated
valu is obtained for the data set. The procedures used to
determine equations of best t are based on this concept.
Software is available for computer calculation of regression
equations, including linear, polynomial and mltiple vari-
able regression equations.
8.2 Linear Regression2 VariablesLinear regression is
used to t data to a linear relationship of the following form:
y = mx + t> (14)
in this case, the best t is given by:
m = (nSjcy - SxSy)/[nx* - (te)2] (t S)
b^-tLx-mZy} (16)
where:
y the dependen! variable
I G16
x = the independent variable,
m = the slope of the estimated une,
A = the y intercept of the estimated Une,
2x = the sum of je vales etc., and
n = the number of observations of x and y.
This standard deviation of m and the standard error of the
expression are often of inters! and may be calculated easily
(5, 7, 9). One problem wih linear regression is that all the
error; are assumed to be associated with the dependen!
variable, y, and this may not be a reasonabte assumption. A
variation of the linear regression approach is available,
assuming the fitting equation passes through the origin. In
this case, only one adjustable parameter will result from the
t. It is possible to use slatistical tests, such as the F test, to
compare the goodness of fit between this approach and the
two adjustable parameter fits described above.
8.3 Polynomial RegressionPolynomial regression anal-
ysis is used to t data to a polynomial equation of the
foliowing fbrm:
y " a + bx + ex1 + dx3 etc. (17)
wbere:
a, b,c,d = adjustable constants to be used to fit the data
sel,
= the observed independent variable, and
= the observed dependen! variable.
Tncc6 equations required to carry out the calculation of the
best t constante are complex and best handled by a
computer. U is usualiy desirable to run a seres of exprcssions
and compute the residual variance for each expression lo
find the simples! expression fitting he data.
8.4 Muitipie RegressionMltiple regression anaysis is
used when data sets involving more than one independent
variable are encountered An expression of the following
form is desired in a mltiple linear regression:
y - + 6,jt, -t fijjrj + *,*, etc. (18)
where:
a, b,, blt 3, etc. = adjustable constants used to obtain the
best t of the data set
*i. x3, *j! etc. = the observed independent variables
y = the observed dependent variable.
Because of ihe comptexily of this problem, it is generally
handled with the help of a computer. One slrategy is to
compute the valu of ali the "b's," togcther with standard
deviation for each "b." It is usually necessary to run several
regression analysis, droppng variables, to establish the rea
tive importance of the independent variables under consid-
eration.
9. Compulsan of EffectsAnalysis of Variance
9.1 Analysis of variance is usefui to determine the effect of
a number of variables on a measured valu when a small
number of discrete levis of each independent variable is
studied (S, 7, 9, 10, 11). This is best handled by usng a
factorial or similar experimental design to establish the
magnitude of the effects associated with each variable and
the magnitude of the interactions between the. variables.
9.2 The two-Jevel factorial design experimem is an excel-
lent method for determming which variables havc an eTect
on the outcome.
9.2.1 Each time an additiona! variable is to be studied,
 fll 016
twice as many experimente mus be performed lo complete informatio n be obtained from the experment is also
ihe two-4evel factorial design. When many variables are reduced.
invoved, the number of experiments becomes prohibitive. 9.3 In the design and analysis of interlaboratory test
9.2.2 Fractional reptication can he used to reduce the programs. Practice E 691 should be consulted.
amount of testing. When this is done, the amount of

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Grsphic Piws, Cheihirc, CT, 1983.
(1) Booth. F. F., and Tucker, O. E. G,, "Sascal Distribulion o
Endurance in Elearochemical Streo-Corrosion Tests," Corrosin,
CORSA, Vol 21, 1965, pp. 173-177.
(3) Haynie, F. H,, Vu(haa. D. A., Phaten, D. I.. Boyd, w. K., and
Frort, P. D., A Fundomaaa! Investigation of the Notare of
Stress-Corrosion Cracking in Ahmtnum Atoys, ARML-TR-66-
267, June 1966.
(4) Anz, P. M,, "Application of Siatistio Theory of Extreme Vales
to the Analysis of Mximum Pit Deplh Dala for Aluminum,"
Comaion, CORRA, Vol 12,1956, pp. 49i-S06t
(5) Volt. W., Applied Slteles for Engiaetrs* 2nd cd-, Roten E.
Krieger Pablishing Corapany, Hunngicn, NY, 1980.
{() Mkldcy, H. S.. Sherwood, T. K-, and Reed, C. K., Editora, Apptfd
Mathfmaiia in Chemieal Engineertng, 2nd cd., McGraw-Hill,
New York, NY, 19S7, pp. 46-99.
(7) Snedecor, G. W., Slatistieal Methods App!ed o Expenmenis in
Agriculture and Biology, 4th Edition, lowa State Cdlege Crea,
Ames, 1A, 194.
(8) Brown, B. S., "6 Quick Ways Statistics Can Help You," Ctetnicat
Engineen Calculaiion and Shortau Deskbook, X2S4, McGraw.
Hill, New York. NY, 1968, pp. 37-43.
(9) Freeman, H. A., Industrial Satlnics, John Witey & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY, IM2.
(10) Davics, O. L., ed., Design and Analysis of Industrial Experimertu,
Hafcer PubUstng Co., New York, NY, 1934.
(11) Box, G. E P., Huoter, W. G., and Hunter, J. S. Siataiia for
Experimeners. Witey, New York, NY, 1978.

APPENDIX

(Nonmandatory Information)

XI. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

X1.1 Calculacin of Variante and Stantard Deviaton average corrosin rate of 27 panels, *:
XI.1.1 DataThe 27 vales shown in Tatde X I , I are 54.43
calculated mass ioss based corrosin rales for copper panels = -= 2.016
27
in a one year rural atmospheric exposure,
XI.1.2 Catcaiation ofSttaistcs: The variance estmate based on this sample, s2(x):
XI.1.2.1 Le x, = corrosin rate of the i'h panel. The

TA5LE xi.l Copper Con-oww Rt Omt-YMr EKpo*ure

Pmd _ CRjnwyfyi)"" Ra* PtotUngPosponK)
1!1 Z.16 25 90.74 110.085 - 27 x (2.016)2 _ 0.350
=
S 2.21
2.15
27
24
96.15
87.04
26
The standard deviation is:
26

1667
60.00 The coefflcient of variaton is:
66.52
44.44
6652 --
22.22
75.93 Tbe standard deviation of the average is:
69.26 0.116
(*) =- - = 0.0223 (Xl.5)

The rangc, w, is the diference between the 1 est and

smatiest vales:
w-2.21 - (.70-0.41 (XI.6)
The mid-range valu

PC 1.7)

FtG. X1.1 PrtjtoabWy Ptat for Cotrwtai Wat of Coppar Pirarii In 1-Yer Rural MmosphMic Expotura
X1.Z Calculacin of Rank and Phming Points for Probabillty
Paper Plots
X \2. \ The lowest corrosin rate valu (1.70) is assigned a
rantc, r, of 1 and the remaning vales are arranged in
ascending order. Mltiple vales are assigned a rank of the
average rank. For example, both he third and fourth panels
have corrosin rales of 1.88 so that the rank is 3.5. See the
third colurnn in Table X I . 1 .
XI.2.2 The plotting postions for probability paper plois
are expressed in percentages in Table X 1 . 1 . They are derved
from the rank by the following euprcssion:
Plotting position = 100 (r - :/)/n expressed as perecn! (XI.8)
See Table X1.1, Fourth column, for plotting positions for this
data set.
NOTEFor extreme valu staiistics the plotting position formula is
]00r/n - i (see Guide G 46). The median is the coiro&on rale al the
SO % plultini poiion and is 2.03 for panel 142.
XI3 Probability Paper Ploiof Data: See Table XI.1
X I . 3 . 1 The corrosin rate is plotted versus piotting posi-
tion on probability paper, see Fig. XI. 1.
XI.3.2 Normal Distribuon PlOling Position Reference:
Xt.3.2.1 In order to compare the dala points shown in
Fig. Xl.l to what woutd be peded for a normal distribu-
tion, a straight line on the plot may be constracted to show a
normal dtstribution.
s Q.I O.K> aai
XL3.2.1 (I) Ptot the avcragc valu at S0%, 2.016 at
50%.
XI.3.2.1 (2) Plot the average + 1 standard deviation al
84.13 %, i.e-, 2.06 + 0.116 = 2.136 at 84.13 %.
XI.3.2.1 (J) Plot the average - 1 standar deviation at
15.87 %, .e., 2.016 - 0.116 = 1.900 at 15.87 %.
XI.3.2.1 (4) Connect these three points with a straight
line.
X1.4 Evaluaton of Outlier
Xl.4.1 DataSee X l . l , Table X l . l , and Fig. X l . l .
X1.4.2 Is the 1.70 result (panel 411} an outlier? Note that
this point appears to be out of Une in Fig. X l . l .
XI.4.3 Reference Pracce E i78 (Dixon's Test)Wc
choose a = 0.05 for this example, that is, the probaoility that
this point could be this far out of Une based on normal
probability s 5 % or less.
X1.4.4 Nurnber of data points is 27:
8 - 1.70
-0.391 (XI.9)
* n _ 3 -*i 2.16-1.70
The Dixon Criterion at - 0.05, n - 27 s 0.393 (see
PracticeE178,Tabte2).
Xi.4.4.1 The r32 valu does not exceed the Dixon Crite-
rion for the valu of n and the valu of a chosen so that the
1.70 valu is not an outlier by this test.
 4G16
X1.4.4.2 Practice E 178 recommends using a T test as the
best test in this case;
^.2.0.6-1.70.^
i 0.116
Critica! valu T for a = 0.05 and n = 27 is 2.698 (Practice
E 178, Table 1). Therefbre, by this criterion the 1.70 valu is
an outlier because the calculated Tt valu exceeds the critical
r valu.
Xt.4.5 Discussion:
Xf.4.5.1 The 1.70 valu for panel 411 does appear to be
out of line as compared to the other vales in this data set.
Tbe 7 test confirms this conclusin if we choose a = 0.05.
The next step shouid be to review the calcuiations that lead
to the determinaton of a 1.70 valu for this panel The
original and final mass vales and panel sizc measurements
should be checked and compared to the vales obtained
from the other panels.
X.4.5.2 If no errors are found, then the panel itself
should be retreved and examined to determine if there is any
evidence of corrosin producs or other extraneous material
that would cause its final mass to be greater than it should
nave been. If a reason can be found to explain the loss mass
loss valu, then the result can be exduded from the data set
without escrvation. If this potnl is excluded, the stastics for
this distribution become:
JE - 2.028
(x) = 0.0102
4*)- 0.101
._.
Median = 2.035
w-2.2 - 1.86 = 0.35
2.2
Miel range = - 2.035
The average, median, and mid range are closer together
excluding the 1.70 valu, as expecied, altbough the changes
are relattvely small. In cases where deviations occur on botb
eods of the distrbuton a different procedure is used to check
for ouliers. Picase refer to Practice E 1 78 for a discussion of
this procedure.
XI .5 Cofidence Interval for Corrosin Rale
X1.5.I DflMSee XI. 1, Table XI. 1, and XI.4.1, ex-
cluding the panel 41 1 result.
Signifieance leve! a = 0.05
CooTidenoe interval calculacin:
Confidence interval = i (JE) ,v . ...
/ for a = 0.05, DF= 25; is 2.060
95 % confidencc interval for the average coirosian rale.
JE (2.060X0-0198) ~Z 0.041 or 1.987 t 2.069
Nole that this interval refere to the average corrosin rale. If
one is intcrested in the interval in which 95 % of measure-
raents of the corrosin ratc of a copper panel exposed under
thosc idntica! conditons will M, it may be calculated as
follows:
(XI. 13)
X1.6 Difference Betw Average Vales
XI. 6,1 Aia Triplcale zinc fla panels and wire hlices
were exposed for a one year period at the 250 m loi at Kure
Beach, NC. The corrosin rales were calculated from the loss
in mass after deaning the specimens, The corrosin rate
vales are gi ven in Table X I . 2.
X I . 6.2 Statittlcs:
Pand Average i - 2.24
Panel Standard Deviaiion - 0.18
Helix Average: t = 2.55
Hdx Standard Deviaion = 0.065
Xl.6.3 QuestionAre the hlices corroding significantly
faster than the panels? The nuil hypothesis is therefbre that
the panels and hlices are corroding at the same or ower
rate. We wil! choose a - 0.05, that is, the probabity of
erroneously rejecting the nuil hypothesis is one chance in
twenty,
XI. 6.4 Calculaions:
X t 6.4. 1 Note that the standard deviations for the panels
and hlices are different. If they are not significantly different
then they may be pooled to yield a larger data set to test the
hypothesis. The F test may be used for this purpose.
The critical f for a = 0.05 and both numerator and
denominaior degrees of freedom of 2 is 9.00. The calculated
F is less than the crtica! F valu so that the hypothesis that
the two standard deviations are not signficantly difieren!
may be accepted. As a consequence the standard deviations
may be pooled.
XI. 6.4.2 Cakutation of pooled variance, j^jc):
^]
{XI.15)
substuting:
Xl.6.4.3 Caiculaionofslalisfic:
DF - 2 + 2 = 4
Xl.6.5 ConclusinThe critical valu of t for a = 0.05
and DF - 4 i s 2.13 2. The calculated valu for exceeds the
critical valu and therefore the nuil hypothesis can be
rejccted, that is, tbe hlices are corroding at a significantly
higher rate than the panels. Note that the critical valu
 TABLE X1.2 Comion Rale Vales k = is the mass loss coefficient and b is the time exponen!.
The data in Table XI. 3 may be handied in severa! ways.
Linear regression can be applied to yiet a valu of A, that
minimizes the variance for the constant rate espression
above, or any linear exprrssion sucb as:

above is listed for a = 0.1 most tables. This is because thc
tables are set up for a two-sidcd' test, and this cxamplc is for
a cr.e-sided test, that is, is Jfj, > xj
Xl.6.6 DiscussonUsually the a level for ihe F test
shown in XI.6.4.1 should be canied out at a more stringent
agnificance level than in the t test, for example, 0.01 rather
than 0,05. In the event that the F test did show a significant
difieren; then a difftrent procedure mus be used to carry
out thc t test. It is also desirable to consider the power of the
l test, Details on these procedures are beyond the scope of
this appendix bul are covered in Ref. (10).
X1.7 Die FirtlagRegression Analysis Example
Xl.7.1 The mass loss per unit rea of zinc is usually
assumed to be linear with exposure time in atmospheric
exposures. However, most other metis are better fitted with
power ftmcton kinetics in atmospheric exposures. An expo-
sure program was carried out with a commercial purity
rolled zinc alloy for 20 yeais n an industrial site. How can
the mass loss results be convcrted to an expreson that
describes the results?
Xt.7.2 ExperimentalForty paneb of 16 gage rolled zinc
strips were cut to approxiraately 4 n. to6 in. in sze(lOOby
150 m). Thc panels were ckaned, weighed, and exposed at
thc same time. Five paneb were removed after 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6,
10, 15, and 20 years exposure. The panels were then deaned
and reweighed. The mass loss vales were calculaied and
con verted to mass loss per unit rea. The results are shown in
TableXUbelow:
XI.7.3 AnaysisCorrosin of zinc in the atmosphere is
usually assumed to be a constan! rale proce-ss, This would
imply that the mass loss per unit rea m is relaed to
exposure time ?by:
where:
a = is a constant.
Alternatively, a nonlinear regression analysis may be used
that yiets vales for k and b that miriimize tbe variance
from the measured vales to the calculated valu for m at
any time usjng the power ftmction above. All of these
approaches a&sume that the variance observed at shorl
exposure times is comparable to variances at long exposure
mcs. However, the data in Table X1.3 shows standard
deviations that are roughly proportional lo trie avcrage valu
at each time, and so the assumption of comparable variance
is not justified by the data at hand.
Another approach to bate this problem is to employ a
logarithmic ansformation of the data. A transformed data
set is shown in Table X 1 .4 where x = log T and y - log m.
These data may be handied in a linear regression analysis.
Such an analysis is equivalen! to the power fimction fit with
the k and b vales minimiziiig the variance of the trans-
formed variable, y.
The logaritbmic transformation bccomes:
log m - log k + b log T
Note that the standard deviation vales, s(yi), in Table X 1 .4
are approximately constant for both short and long exposure
times.
XI.7.4 CatcuiaionsThe vales in Table X1.4 were
used to calclate the foliowing:
x -23.11056 y -20.92232 n -39
2x3 = 24.742305 Sy2 = 24.159116 Ssy = 24.341352
5 = 0.592758 = 0.536470

where;
k= is the corrosin rate. = 24.742305 - '"''^^ = 11.047485
Most other metis are better fitted by a power function such
(2Q.92232)3 _
S'y* =24.159116-^^=12.934924

( 2 3
Z'xy = 24.341352- '11Q2232)-

* Losa pw Unit Ana, Zine tn Ure Atnoiphere (AH valas in mg/cm*}

Exposure DwWW Panet DesignMon
visa 1 2 a i 5 a SOLD*
O.SB7 0.392 0.362 0413 0.319 0.376S o.oaaa
0.8? 0.759 0.30; 0.738 0.780 0.7814 0.0355
un 1,64? 1.5828 0.0800
un 3.406 3.237 3.260 3.297 3.3933 0.1720
6 5.325 S.2S7 S.391 5.280 5.333 5.41TZ 0.2336
10 10759 9.7T2 9,553 9966 9935 9.3970 0.4407
II 15.4*0 14,557 15.102 14.910 LOSt 15.0022 0.3689
K 20.700 19.507 18.963 19.336 ta.esB 19.4326 0.7S12
 TABLE X1J Log of Dte fnm T
2 yi StdDav

-0,30103 -0.413C9 -0.40671 -0.441 -0.3736 -0.49621 -O.2e03 0.04GOO

-O144 -0.11976 -0.09637 -0.13194 -0.107BO -O.J0748 0.01969
3 0.30103 0.2535S 023194 0.20003 0.23729 0.21537 0.2S6X 0.02056
0.56679 0.53224 <J.B1fl1! O.B1687 0.5181? 0.53023 0.09144
S 0.77H1S 0.76530 073074 0.73187 0.72SB3 0.72B97 0.73346 0.01 626

s 1.00000 1.03177 0.98998 0.9B466 0.99852 0.99277 0.96954 0.01870

1 17609 ! 18865 1.16307 1.17903 1 17346 tm 0.01069
U1597 1. 2M19 1.27791 1,28637 1.Z7W6 1 28826 0.01721
8 1.30103

in which the unknown mean mass loss val wil! be located

uniess a 1 in 20 chance has occurred in tbe sampling of this
cxperment. On dw other hand, a confidenoe interva! calcu-
V -0.017810 lated from the regressioo results represents an interval that

a
- y - b - O.S3647 - !,08108(0.59278) = -0.10416
k = 0.7868
Xl.7.5 Analysis of Vanante One approach 10 test the
adequacy of the anaysis is to compare tbe residual variance
from the regression to the error variance as estimated by the
variance found in replication. Thc nuil hypothesis in this
case is that the residual variance from the calculatcd regres-
sion expression is not sigiuficantly greater than the replica-
tion variance.
Xl.7.6 Comparsoa of Power Pualn o Linear Kinet-
csIs the expression found better than a linear expression?
A linear kinctics function would nave a slope of one after
iiansformation to a log function. Therctbrc, this question
can be reformulated to: Is the b valu significantly diTerent
from one? The nuil hypothesis is thercfore that the b valu s
not difieren! from 1.000 with a = 0.05. A test will be used:
b = 1.08108
- 0.0000829
(6)11.04749
will cover the unknown regreasion line uniess a 1 in 20
chance has occurred in the sampting of this experiment.
X1.7.7.2 The confidcnce interval for each exposure time
is equally spaccd around the average of the log vales. This
will also be truc for the regression confidence intervaJ.
Howevcr, when these intcrvals are plotted on linear coordi-
nates the interval will appear to be unsymmetrica. An
example of a confidence interval calculation is shcwn as
follows:
Calculation of the confidence interval, CI, for the average
valu:
Exposure time, T-yeara, 0.03, DF = 4. t = 2.78
y, * 0.73346 s(ys) = 0.01829
a ,?iyi2iiM,s.Q2274
Cl = .71072to.75S20
Coiiverting y to m; CI x 5.137 to 5.704 mg/cra2
CaiculatiuQ of Ihe conidence interval for the regression
expression at exposure time T = 6, a = 0.05, DF = 6, t =

= 1.08108-1.00000
- = 8.90 %* = 11.0475
0.00911
The crtica! t at 6 egrecs of freedom and a * 0.05 is 2.45, = ^ = P^p = 0.000<M6
m
which b smalter than the calculated t valu above. Therefore
the nuil hypothesis may be rejected, and the slope is Note thai a poolcd esiniate of this variance cout have been \atd.
significantly difieren! from one. H " 0.59258 xs - log 6 - .77815
XI.7.7 Confidence Interval for Regression:
XI.7.7.1 A confidcncc nterval calculated from the repl-
cate information at each exposure time represents an interval

TABLE X1.S Analyi o

ReaMual from xy ira

SOS - tan o squeras valu

DF = deQ<es of freedom
US - mean squvas uto

F-iest on hypoih=:s ir X1.7.

OjODOSTfi '*
a nk of 0.05 and 6/31 oearees of Iiaeoar, e 2.41. Tlwrefw*, the resldu.1 .arlante from \h
vanare* wtnn testad rt the 5 X tevei. Ttus, the iegresion m

10

s(ys) - 0.01247
Vi - -0.10416 + 1.08108 x s - -0.10416 + 1,08108 (.77815) =
.73708
Cly, = y, &) = .73708 * 2AS{.012A1) = .70653 to .76763
Ct - 5.088 lo 5.856
Note tbat the confidence interval calculated from he regres-
son is slightly larger than that calculated from the replcate
vales at that exposure time.
Xl.7.7.3 Figure X1.2 is a iog-tog plot showing thc regres-
sion equaton with the 95 % confidence interval for the
regression shown as dashed Unes and the averages and
corresponding confdence intervalo shown es bars. Figure
X 1.3 shows the same nformatkm on linear coordnales.
X I . 7.8 Other Statistic from he RegressionStandard
error of estmate, s(y) for the logarthmic expression.
s(y) - vC0009T6 = .03026
Correlation Coefficient, R, for the logarithmic expressioa.
(11.943236)'
u?
1 range of data availabie. This type of calculation is generally
" i.047485 x 12.934924
R - .9991
Note that R or R3 is oftcn quoted as a measure of the quality
offit ofa regression expression, However, it shouldbe noted
I G16
that the correlation coefficient calculated for the logarithmic
expression is not comparable to a correlalion cocfficient
calculated for a nontransformed rcgression.
Xl.7.9 Discussion:
Xl.7.9.1 The use of a log transformation to obtain a
power jnctioa fit is convenient and simple but has some
limitaions. The log transformation tends to depress the
calculated vales to the low side of the linear average. It also
produces a aonlinear error function. In the example above
the use ofa log transfrmation produces an almost constant
standard deviation ovcr the rangs of exposure times.
XI.7.9.2 A linear regression analysis also may be used
with these raass loss results, and the corresponding expres-
sion may be a reasonabe estimate of mass loss performance
for rolled zinc in this atmospbere. However, neither the
linear or a nonlinear power function regression analysis will
yieid a confidence interval that matches as dosely the
replcate data confidente intervals as the logarishmic trans-
ottnation shown above.
X1.7.9.3 The regression expression can be uscd to projec!
future results by estrapolation of the results beyond ie
not advisable unless there is good informaton indicating that
the procedure is valid. that is, that no changes have occurred
in any of the environmental and surface conditions that
govern the knetics of the corrosin reaction.
 1
tfi!
8

Z^l
r=|

Mlrf

FM. X1.3 Un,,, PM o M.,, Lo, versu. Eipoiure Tlm. lor n.pioii, RoM zinc Pmel. m u IndunM Almo.prme
ffll G16