Contents
• 1 Introduction
Discrete Mathematics II
Introduction
• Computer programs frequently handle real world
data.
• This data might be financial e.g. processing the
accounts of a company.
• It may be engineering data e.g. from sensors or
actuators in a robotic system.
• It may be scientific data e.g. weather data or
geological data concerning rock strata.
• In all these cases data typically consists of a set of
discrete elements.
• Furthermore there may exist orderings or
relationships among elements or objects.
• It may be meaningful to combine objects in some
way using operators.
• We hope to clarify our concepts of orderings and
relationships among elements or objects
• We look at the idea of formal structures such as
groups , rings and and formal systems such as
lattices and Boolean algebras
• 2 Combinatorics, permutations and
combinations.
• 3 Algebraic Structures and matrices:
Homomorphism, commutative diagrams,
isomorphism, semigroup, monoid, rings
and fields
• 4 Vector Spaces
• 5 Lattice and Boolean algebras
Number Systems
• The set of natural numbers is the infinite set
of the positive integers. It is denoted N and
can have different representations:
{1,2,3,4,........}
{1,10,11,100,101,.....}
are alternative representations of the same
set expressed in different bases. Nm is the set
of the first m positive numbers i.e. {1,2,3,4,
......,m}. N0 is the set of natural numbers
including 0 i.e. {0,1,2,3,5,....}
• Q denotes the set of rational numbers i.e.
signed integers and fractions
{0,1,-2,2,-3,3,-3,....,1/2,-1/2,3/2,-3/2,5/2,
-5/2,....,1/3,-1/3,2/3,-2/3,........}
• R is the set of real numbers i.e. the
coordinates of all the points on a line.
• Z is the set of all integers, both positive and
negative {.....,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,......}
 2 Combinatorics
Combinatorics:: Permutations Composition of Permutations
• If σ :A →A and ρ :A →A are permutations of A
• A permutation of the elements of a set A is then the composition or product ρ.σ of σ and
a bijection from A onto itself. ρ satisfies for all x in A
• If A is finite we can calculate the number of ρ.σ (x)= ρ (σ (x))
different permutations. Suppose Notice that since both σ and ρ are bijections
A={a1,...,an} from A into A so is ρ.σ. In other words ρ.σ is a
permutation of A.
• Example: Let A={1,2,3,4,5,6} then two
n n-1 1 possible permutations are
choices choices choice
 1 2 3 4 5 6  1 2 3 4 5 6
a1 a2 an σ= ρ= 
 5 6 3 1 4 2  3 2 6 1 4 5
total number of ways of filling the n boxes
n x (n-1)x(n-2)x(n-3)..............x1=n! For ρ.σ we have that
1 → 5 → 4,2 → 6 → 5, 3 → 3 → 6
nPn=n! 4 → 1 → 3,5 → 4 → 1, 6 → 2 → 2
eg a possible permutation of {1,2,3,4,5,6} is
1 2 3 4 5 6
 1 2 3 4 5 6 ρ.σ = 
4 5 6 3 1 2
5 6 3 1 4 2

Cyclic Permutations Notice that

1 2 3 4 5 6
σ=
A cyclic permutation on a set A of n elements has = (1 5 4 ) o (2 , 6) o (3)
the form where k ≤ n : 5 6 3 1 4 2

 a1 a 2 L a k-1 ak ak +1 L a n  Other examples are

ρ= 
a 2 a3 L ak a1 ak +1 L a n 
 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5
= = (3 5 1 4 ) o (2 )
For shorthand we often write (a 1 a2 L ak ) 4 2 5 3 1  4 2 5 3 1

ρ is said to be a k cycle or
 1 2 3 4 5 6 
Example = (1 2 3 ) o (4 5) o (6)
 2 3 1 5 4 6
 6 1 4 2 3 5
or (6 1 4) is a cyclic
1 4 6 2 3 5 Can you spot a product of disjoint cyclic
permutation
permutations equivalent to the following
Two cyclic permutations (a 1 a2 L ak ) permutation ?
and (b1 b2 L bt) are said to be disjoint if 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
{a 1 ,L ,a k }∩ {b 1 ,L, bt }= ∅ 1 7 4 6 2 3 5

e.g. (4 5 2) and (3 1 6) are disjoint

• Theorem: Every permutation of a finite set A Combinations
can be expressed as a combination of disjoint
cycles. • When we think about combinations we do not
allow repeats and unlike permutations we do
Structure underlying permutations
not consider order.
Note that the following hold:
• Combinations look at the number of different
(1) The product of two permutations is a uniquely ways of picking a subset of k elements from a
determined permutation of the same set. set of n elements.
(2) The composition of permutations is • Think of the number of ways of picking a list
associative. of k distinct elements of n
(3) The permutation no. of choices
 a1 a 2 L a n
I=
n n-1 n-k-2 n-k-1
 a1 a 2 L a n places
is called the identity permutation and has the = n(n-1)(n-2) ........... (n-k-1) = n!/(n-k)!
property that I.ρ = ρ.I = ρ
For each possible list there are k! permutations
(4) For every permutation so since we are not interested in order we
 a1 a 2 L an  should divide the above by k!.
ρ= there is an inverse
 b1 b 2 L bn 
 b 1 b 2 L bn  C(n,k) = Cn k = n!/(n-k)!k!
ρ−1 = 
 a 1 a 2 L an  such that
ρ.(ρ )= (ρ ).ρ = I
−1 −1

• Example: Choosing 2 elements from

{a,b,c,d}
{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},
{b,c},{b d},{c,d}
C(4,2)= 4!/(2! 2!) =6
Combinations with Repetitions
We could also consider combinations with
repetitions. With repetitions the number of
distinct combinations of k elements chosen
from n is:
C(n+k-1,k)= (n+k-1)!/k!(n-1)!
Number of different throws of 2 identical
dice
(1 1)(2 2)(3 3)(4 4)(5 5)(6 6)
(1 2)(1 3)(1 4)(1 5)(1 6)
(2 3)(2 4)(2 5)(2 6)
(3 4)(3 5)(3 6)(4 5)(4 6)(5 6)
C(7,2)=21
Algebraic Structures
• When we consider the behaviour of
permutations under the composition operation
we noticed certain underlying structures.
• Permutations are closed under this operation,
they exhibit associativity, an identity element
exists and an inverse exists for each
permutation
• These properties define a general type of
algebraic structure called a group.
• In this section we shall look at groups in more
detail as well as other similar algebraic
structures such as semigroups and monoids.
• Later we will progress to consider more
complex algebraic structures such as rings,
integral domains and fields.
• We will see that many real life situations are
examples of these algebraic structures

Groups
A group G, • or (G, •) is a set G with binary
operation • which satisfies the following properties
1. • is a closed operation i.e. if a ∈ G and
b ∈ G then a • b ∈ G
2. ∀a,b, c ∈ G a • ( b • c ) = (a • b ) • c this is the
associative law
3. G has an element e, called the identity, such that
∀a ∈G a • e = e • a = a
4. ∀a ∈G there corresponds an element
a -1 ∈ G such that a •a -1 = a-1 •a = e
Examples: (1) The set of all permutations of a set A
onto itself is group (called the symmetric group Sn
for n elements).
(2) The set consisting of all (nxn) matrices that have
inverses is a group under ordinary matrix
multiplication( it is called GL(n) ).
Two show that an algebraic system is a group we
must show that it satisfies all the axioms of a group.
Question: Let A,∧ ,∨ , be a Boolean algebra
so that A is a set of propositional elements, ∨ is
like ‘or’, ∧ is like ‘and’ and is like ‘not’. Show
that A,⊕ is an abelian group where
∀a,b ∈ A a ⊕ b = (a ∧ b )∨ (a ∧ b )
Answer:
(1) Associative since (a ⊕ b ) ⊕ c = a ⊕ (b ⊕ c)
prove this ?
(2) Has an identity element 0 (false) since
∀a a ⊕ 0 = (a ∧ 0) ∨ (a ∧ 0 ) = (a ∧ 1) ∨ 0
= a ∨0 = a
(3) Each element is its own inverse
a ⊕ a = (a ∧ a ) ∨ ( a ∧ a ) = 0 ∨ 0 = 0
(4) The operation commutes a ⊕ b = b ⊕ a
prove this ?

Group of Symmetries of a Let x • y denote transformation y followed by

Triangle transformation x for x and y in {1,p,q,a,b,c}
Consider the triangle l So for example p • a = c
X l l l
X X Y
a p
O O O

O m X Zn
mY Z n mZ Y n
Y Z n
m • 1 p q a b c
We can perform the following transformations 1 1 p q a b c
on the triangle p p q 1 c a b
1=identity mapping from the plane to itself
q q 1 p b c a
p=rotation anticlockwise about O through 120
degrees a a b c 1 p q
q=rotation clockwise about O through 120 degrees b b c a q 1 p
a=reflection in l c c a b p q 1
b=reflection in m
c=reflection in n
Notice the table is not symmetric
 Abelian Groups
If G, • is a group and • is also commutative
then G, • is referred to as an Abelian group
(the name is taken from the 19’th century
mathematician N.H. Abel)
• is commutative means that
∀ a,b ∈ G, a • b = b • a
Examples: R, + , Z ,+ and R - {0},× are
abelian groups.
Why is R,× not a group at all?
If ∀a,b ∈ Z a ⊕ b = a + b if a + b < n
= a + b - n if a + b ≥ n
then Z,⊕ is an abelian group and is usually
referred to as the group of integers modulo n
Monoid
A,• is a monoid if the following conditions
are satisfied:
1.• is a closed operation i.e. if a ∈ A and
b ∈ G then a • b ∈ A
2. • is associative
3. There is an identity element
Examples: Let A be a finite set of heights. Let
• be a binary operation such that a • b
is equal to the taller of a and b. Then A,•
is a monoid where the identity is the shortest
person in A
{true, false } , ∧ is a monoid: ∧ is associative,
true is the identity, but false has no inverse
{true, false } ,∨ is a monoid: ∨ is associative
false is the identity, but true has no inverse
Semigroup
An Abelian group is a strengthening of the notion of
group (i.e. requires more axioms to be satisfied)
We might also look at those algebraic structures
corresponding to a weakening of the group axioms
A, • is a semigroup if the following conditions
are satisfied:
1. • is a closed operation i.e. if a ∈ A and
b ∈G then a • b ∈ A
2. • is associative
Example: The set of positive even integers
{2,4,6,.....} under the operation of ordinary addition
since
• The sum or two even numbers is an even number
• + is associative
The reals or integers are not semigroups under -
why?
Properties of Algebraic
Structures
properties
Semigroup ⊆ monoid ⊆ group ⊆ Abelian Group
Theorem: (unique identity) Suppose that A,•
is a monoid then the identity element is unique
Proof: Suppose there exist two identity elements
e and f. [We shall prove that e=f]
e = e • f (since f is an identity )
= f (since e is an identity )
Theorem: (unique inverse) Suppose that A ,•
is a monoid and the element x in A has an inverse.
Then this inverse is unique.
Proof: ??
 Properties of Groups
Theorem (The cancellation laws): Let G ,• be Theorem (double inverse) :If x is an element of
a group then ∀a, x, y ∈G the group G ,• then
(i) a • x = a • y ⇒ x = y (x )
-1 -1
=x
(ii) x • a = y • a ⇒ x = y Proof:

Proof: (i) Suppose that a • x = a • y then by axiom 3 (x )

-1 -1
((x ) is inverse of x )
•x = e
-1 -1 -1 -1

⇒ ((x ) • x )• x = e • x = x
-1
a has an identity a and we have that -1 -1 -1

a • (a • x ) = a • (a • y )
-1 -1

⇒ (x-1 ) • (x-1 • x )= x (associativity)

-1

⇒ (a • a ) • x = (a • a )• y (associativity )
-1 -1

⇒ (x ) • e = x (x is inverse of x)
-1 -1 -1

⇒ e • x = e • y (a is the inverse )
-1

⇒ (x ) -1 -1
= x (identity)
⇒ x = y (identity )
Theorem (reversal rule)
(ii) is proved similarly
If x and y are elements of the group G ,• then
Theorem (The division laws): Let G ,• be
a group then ∀a, x, y ∈G (x• y)−1 = y-1 •x-1
(i) a • x = b ⇔ x = a -1 • b Proof ??
(ii) x • a = b ⇔ x = b • a -1

Proof ??

For a an arbitrary element of a group G ,• we Cosets

can define functions σ a : G → G and ρ a : G → G
Consider a set A with a subset H. Let a ∈ A .
such that Then the left coset of H with respect to a is
∀x ∈ G σ a ( x ) = a • x and ρ a (x ) = x • a
the set of elements:
Theorem: σ a : G → G and ρ a : G → G
{a • x x ∈ H }
are permutations of G
Proof: Consider σa This is denoted by a • H

[prove 1-1] suppose for x,y in G Similarly the right coset of H with respect to a is
σ a (x) = σ a (y) {x • a x ∈ H }
⇒ a • x = a • y ⇒ x = y (cancellation laws) and is denoted by H • a
[Prove onto] For any y in G Example: Let A be the set of rotations
σ a (a • y ) = a • (a •y ) {0 o ,60o ,120o ,180 o , 240o , 300o } and
-1 -1

= (a • a -1 )• y (associativity) H = {60o ,120o , 240o }. Let a = 60 then

o

{x • a x ∈ H } = {60 o ,180 o , 300o }

= e • y (a -1 is inverse of a)
which is the right coset with respect to
= y (identity)
60o
Corollary: In every row or column of the
multiplication table of G each element of G appears
exactly once.
 Homomorphisms
Isomorphism The idea of isomorphic algebraic structures
can be readily generalised by dropping the
• Two groups are isomorphic if there is a
requirement that the functional mapping be
bijection of one onto the other which preserves
a bijection.
the group operations i.e.
if G 1 ,• and G2 ,∗ are groups then a bijection Let A,• and B, ∗ be two algebraic systems
f : G 1 → G 2 is an isomorphism provided then a homomorphism from A, • to B, ∗
is a functional mapping f : A → B
∀ x, y ∈ G 1 f (x • y ) = f (x )∗ f (y )
such that
Example: Consider the group of matrices ∀x, y ∈A f (x • y ) = f ( x ) ∗ f (y )
of the form 1 t where t ∈R under matrix Example: consider the two structures
0 1
• α β γ δ ε ζ ∗ 1 0 −1
multiplication. This is isomorphic to the group
α α β α α γ δ 1 1 1 0
R, +
β β α γ β γ ε 0 1 0 −1
1 t
The mapping is 0 1 → t γ α γ α β γ ε −1 0 −1 −1
δ α β β δ ε ζ
An isomorphism from a group onto itself is ε γ γ γ ε ε ζ
called an automorphism. ζ δ ε ε ζ ζ ζ

then f such that f (α) = 1, f(β ) = 1, f (γ ) = 1, f (δ ) = 0

f (ε ) = 0, f (ζ) = −1 is a homomorphism between

{α ,β, γ ,δ , ε, ζ}, • and {1, 0 , −1}, ∗

Subgroups Normal Subgroups

H, • is a subgroup of the group G, • if H ⊆ G
Let H,• be a subgroup of G, • . Then H,•
and H,• is also a group
is a normal subgroup if, for any a ∈ G , the left
Examples: Q - {0},× is a subgroup of R - {0},×
coset a • H is equal to the right coset H • a
{1,−1, i,-i},× is a subgroup of C - {0},×
• α β γ δ ε ζ
Test for a subgroup
α α β γ δ ε ζ
Let H be a subset of G. Then H, • is a subgroup
β β γ α ε ζ δ
of G, • iff the following conditions all hold:
γ γ α β ζ δ ε
(1) H ≠ ∅ δ δ ζ ε α γ β
(2) H is closed under multiplication ε ε δ ζ β α γ
(3) x ∈ H ⇒ x ∈ H
-1
ζ ζ ε δ γ β α
For every group G, • , G, • and {e},• are
H, • is a normal subgroup where H = {α,β , γ }
subgroups
{e},• is called the trivial subgroup of G, • e.g. δ • H = {δ • α , δ • β, δ • γ } = {δ ,ζ , ε}
a proper subgroup of G, • is a subgroup H • δ = {α • δ , β • δ , γ • δ } = {δ , ε, ζ}
different from G
Theorem: In an Abelian group, every subgroup
A non-trivial proper subgroup is a subgroup is a normal subgroup
equal neither to G, • or to {e},•
 Algebraic Structures with two
Operations
• So far we have studied algebraic systems with
one binary operation. We now consider systems
with two binary operations.
• In such a system a natural way in which two
operations can be related is through the property
of distributivity;
Let A,•,∗ be an algebraic system with two
binary operations • and ∗ . Then the operation
∗ is said to distribute over the operation • if
∀x, y,z ∈A x ∗ (y • z) = (x ∗ y ) • (x ∗ z)
and
(y • z )∗ x = (y ∗ x )• (z ∗ x)
Example: × distributes over +
∧ distributes over ∨
∨ distributes over ∧
Integral Domains and Fields
A, ⊕ ,• is an integral domain if it is a commutative
ring with unity that also satisfies the following
property;
∀x, y ∈A x • y = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or y = 0
Z, +, × is also an integral domain
A, ⊕ ,• is a field if:
(1) A,⊕ is an Abelian group
(2) A - {0}, • is an Abelian group
(3) The operation • is distributive over the
operation ⊕
Example:The set of real numbers with respect to
+ and × is a field.
Z, +, × is not a field. Why?
Ring
An algebraic system A,⊕ ,• is called a ring if
the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) A,⊕ is an Abelian group
(2) A, • is a semigroup
(3) The operation • is distributive over the
operation ⊕
Example: Z, +, × is a ring since
Z, + is an Abelian group
Z,× is a semigroup
× distributes over +
A commutative ring is a ring in which • is
commutative
A ring with unity contains an element 1 such
that ∀x ∈ A x •1 = 1• x = x where 1 ≠ 0
(0 is the identity of A, ⊕ )
Example: the ring of 2x2 matrices under matrix
addition and multiplication is a ring with unity.
The element 1=I= 0 1
1 0
 
A Field is an Integral Domain
Let A, ⊕,• be a field then certainly A, ⊕ ,•
is a commutative ring with unity. Hence, it only
remains to prove that
∀x, y ∈A x • y = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or y = 0
Now suppose x • y = 0 then if x=0 the above
holds. Consider the case then where x ≠ 0
Since A - {0}, • is an Abelian group then it
-1
must contain an inverse to x, x , for which the
following holds
y = 1• y = (x -1 • x)• y = x -1 • (x • y) = x -1 • 0
Now
a • (0 ⊕ 0) = a • 0
⇒ a • 0 ⊕ a • 0 = a • 0 (distributivity)
⇒ a • 0 ⊕ a • 0 = a • 0 ⊕ 0 (0 is identity )
⇒ a • 0 = 0 (cancellation laws for ⊕ )
Therefore y=0 as required
 Properties (ii) (-x) • (-y) = − (x • (-y )) (part(i))
Theorem: if A, ⊕,• is a ring. Then ( )
= -(-(x • y )) (part(i))
∀x ∈ A 0 • x = x • 0 = 0 = x • y (double inverse)
Proof: as for previous argument for both (i) and (ii) the symmetric cases are
Let -x denote the inverse of x under ⊕ proved similarly

Theorem: if A, ⊕ ,• is a ring then the following Theorem: suppose that elements a,b and c of
an integer domain satisfy a • b = a • c and a ≠ 0
hold
(i) (-x ) • y = x • (-y ) = - (x • y) then b=c.

(ii) (-x) • (-y ) = x • y

Proof: (i)
(x ⊕ (-x)) • y = 0 • y (additive inverse)
= 0 (by above theorem)
⇒ x • y ⊕ (-x) • y = 0 (distributivity)
⇒ (-x )• y = -(x • y )⊕ 0 (division laws for ⊕ )
= -( x • y) (additive identity)
Proof:
a • b ⊕-(a • c ) = a • c ⊕ -(a • c ) = 0 (additive inverse)
Now - (a • c ) = a • (-c) (prev. theorem)
∴a • (b ⊕ −c ) = 0 (distributivity)
 by defn. of integer domain 
⇒ ( b ⊕ −c) = 0 
 since a ≠ 0 
⇒ b = 0 ⊕ (-(-c )) (by devision law for ⊕)
⇒ b = c (double inverse)