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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 - Basics
Metric System
Prefixes
Conversions
Definitions
Methods of Separating Mixtures
Chapter 2 - Nomenclature/History
Nomenclature
Binary
Greek (Molecular)
Roman
Latin
Acidic
Basic
Hydrates
Dead Guys
John Dalton
Guy-Lussac
Avagadro
J.J. Thompson
Rutherford
Robert Millikan
Origins of Radioactivity
Definitions
Chapter 3 - Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry
Empirical Formula
Molecular Formula
Gravimetric Analysis
Determining the Limiting Reactant
Percent Yield/Percent Error
Chapter 6 - Thermochemistry
Basics of Thermodynamics
General Picture
Direction of Energy
Heat and Work (Basics)
The Laws of Thermodynamics
The Kinds of Energies
Entropy Changes
Spontaneity
Systems at Equilibrium
Putting =H>, =S>, and =G> Together
Heat and Work (Detailed)
Hess' Law
In-Depth Look at Hess' Law
Common Exothermic/Endothermic Reactions
Enthalpy of Hydration Hhyd
Definitions
Chapter 8 - Bonding
Ions
Calculating Lattice Energy
Partial Ionic Character
Ionic Bonds
Energy of Ionic Attraction or Repulsion
Covalent Bonding
Dipole Moments
How It's Drawn
Covalent Bond Energies
Exceptions to Octet Rule
Resonance/Formal Charge
VSEPR
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Chapter 9 - Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals
Sigma and Pi Bonds
Bond Order
Pi Bonds
Hybridization
Magnetism
The Molecular Orbital Model
Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
Let's Screw With Our Brains...
Chapter 17 - Electrochemistry
Basics
Galvanic Cells (Cell Diagram)
Standard Reduction Potential (SRP) Chart
Calculating Voltage From a Picture
Spontaneity Table
Nernst Equation
Application
Batteries
Dry Cell or Leclanch Cell
Mercury Batteries
Lead Storage Batteries
Fuel Cell
Solid State Lithium
Electrolysis
Application
Chapter 19-
19-21 Aren't Important
Miscellaneous
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Chapter 1 - Basics
Metric System
Mass - kilograms (kg) Temperature - Kelvin (K) or Celsius (>C)
Length - centimeters (cm) Electric Current - ampere (amp, A)
Time - seconds (s) Amount of a Substance - (mole)
Volume (L)
Prefixes
Tera (T) 1,000,000,000,000 1012
Giga (G) 1,000,000,000 109
Mega (M) 1,000,000 106
Kilo (k) 1,000 103
Deci (d) .1 10-1
Centi (c) .01 10-2
Milli (m) .001 10-3
Micro () .000001 10-6
Nano (n) .000000001 10-9
Conversions
Volume Mass Other Important Conversions
1mL = 1cm3 454g = 1lb 1Latm = 101.3J
1L = 1dm3 1kg = 2.205lbs 1J = kg P m2/s2
22.4L = 1 mole (at STP)
1L = 1.06qt Pressure Length (English-Metric)
28.32L = 1ft3 1atm = 760 torr 1 in = 2.54cm
1atm = 760mmHg 1m= 1.094yd
Energy 1atm = 101.325 kPa 1m = 3.28ft
1J = 1Nm (Newton-meter) 1 atm = 14.7psi 1.6km = 1mi
4.184 J= 1cal 5280ft = 1mi
4.184 kJ = 1Kcal Temperature 1 Angstrom (A0) = 1 P 10-10m
K = >C + 273
> C = K - 273
R
>C = (>F T 32) Speed
S
S
>F = >C + 32 Warp Factor 1.71= 15.00 x 108 m/s
R
Definitions
Precise - How repeatable something is
Accurate - How close/correct to the actual value
Mass - Resistance to change in motion
Weight - Force of gravity
Random Error - Results fluctuate each time
Systematic Error - Same thing wrong every time
Theory - Changeable. Explains how things behave the same in different systems
Law - Unchangeable. Summary of observations
Law of Conservation of Mass - The mass on the left is equal to the mass on the right
Homogeneous Mixture - A mixture that can be separated through chemical means only (filtration, etc.)
Heterogeneous Mixture - A mixture that can be separated by physical means
Substance - Something with constant composition (uncontaminated)
Physical Change - A change in the state of matter (solid - gas...Still contains same compounds)
Chemical Change - A change in the composition of the molecules (New compounds formed)
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Methods of Separating Mixtures
Distillation - Vaporizes a liquid (based on volatility*), condenses the most volatile vapors, that then condenses
goes through a condenser to change it back into a liquid.
*Volatility - How readily substances become gases
(The lower the temperature when the substance becomes gaseous, the more
volatile that substance is)
Filtration - Used to separate a mixture containing a solid and a liquid. Pour the mixture on a mesh (usually
filter paper) and the liquid will filter through, while the solid stays on the mesh.
Chromatography - Separates a system with 2 phases (mobile and stationary). Phases are based on the
affinities of the components (They move throughout the system at different rates).
- High affinity for mobile phase moves quickly through chromatography system, high affinity
for solid phase moves slowly though chromatography system.
Paper Chromatography - Uses a strip of porous paper (such as filter paper) for the stationary phase. Then a
drop of the mixture that needs to be separated is placed on the paper, and dipped in
liquid of the mobile phase which will travel up the paper.
- The components with the weakest attraction to the paper will travel up
faster than those that cling to the paper.
Chapter 2 - Nomenclature/History
Nomenclature
Binary IA, IIA, IIIA attached to VA, VIA, VIIA
Greek (Molecular) IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA attached to IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA
Roman Transition Metals
Latin Transition Metals
Acid Aqueous
Base Aqueous
Hydrates Any compound with water attached
Binary
Metal name stay same and goes first
Nonmetal ending --> -ide
If Nonmetal is polyatomic ion, keep name the same
Greek (Molecular)
Prefixes: Mono, Di, Tri, Tetra, Penta, Hexa, Hepta, Octa, Nona, Deca (1-10)
Metal is placed first. If there is only 1 of the metal, prefix is not placed.
Nonmetal placed after, and always contains a prefix.
Roman
First find oxidation charge of the transition metal.
Name the metal
Place the charge (in Roman Numerals) in parenthesis after the metal
Place the nonmetal after, using binary rules.
Latin
Cu+1 Cuprous Co+2 Cobaltous
Cu +2 Cupric Co+3 Cobaltic
Pb+2 Plumbous Sn+2 Stannous
Pb+4 Plumbic Sn+4 Stannic
Fe+2 Ferrous Fe+3 Ferric
Metal is named first, followed by nonmetal using Binary rules
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Acidic
MUST be aqueous
Acidic if the H+1 ion is at the beginning of the compound
If the acid does not contain oxygen add the prefix hydro-
Name the nonmetal by using Binary rules and changing -ide --> -ic
If the nonmetal is polyatomic and ends in -ate, change -ate --> -ic
If the nonmetal is polyatomic and ends in -ite, change -ite --> -ous
Basic
MUST be aqueous
Basic if an (OH)-1 ion is attached to the compound
Name the metal using Binary rules, or if transition metal Roman rules
Add hydroxide at the end
Hydrates
Used to account for water attached to some compounds
Name the compound and then select the Greek prefix that corresponds to the number of moles of water
attached and add -hydrate.
Dead Guys
John Dalton
Atomic theory stated:
All elements are made of atoms
Atoms of each element are identical
Chemical compounds are formed when atoms combine
Atoms are not changed in chemical reactions
Guy-Lussac
Under constant temperature and pressure, compounds react in whole number ratios by volume
Avagadro
Under constant temperature and pressure, volumes of a gas contain the same number of particles
J.J. Thomson
Cathode-Ray experiment, discovered electron
Rutherford
Gold foil experiment, discovered atom is mostly empty and contains a small, dense nucleus
Robert Millikan
Oil drop experiment, found exact mass of electron
Origins of Radioactivity
Discovered by Bequerel (accidently)
Alpha - Helium Nucleus, Beta - High-speed electron, Gamma - High energy light
Definitions
Law of Definite Proportions - Compounds have a constant composition by mass (Mass is proportional on both
sides)
Law of Multiple Proportions- 2 elements that form more than 1 compound can be reduced to a small whole
number ratio by combining the masses of the second element with 1 gram of the
first element.
-Water has 8g of oxygen per 1g of hydrogen
-Hydrogen peroxide has 16g of oxygen per 8g of hydrogen
-16:8----2:1
X YZ[\ ]^ X YZ[\ c Xd.``a c
H2O: 1g H2 W bW bW b=8g O
_.`_a ]^ X YZ[\ ]^ X YZ[\ c
Chapter 3 - Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry
Mole - 6.022 x 1023 of anything Gravimetric Analysis
- Number of atoms in exactly 12g of C-12 Basically, just a fancy phrase for using
Molar Mass - Add up mass of all elements on periodic table stoichiometry to find the mass of a ppt
Percent Composition - Percent of each element in a compound
fghh Zi j[\Y\kl Must write Net Ionic Equations to do these
q 100
fghh Zi mZYnZokp problems
Empirical Formula
Based on mole ratios Example:
Given: Percents of elements What mass of Fe(OH)3 would be produced by
Assume: 100%=100g reacting 75.0 mL of .105M Fe(NO3)3 with 125 mL
1.) Find the moles of each element of .150M NaOH?
2.) Divide by lowest moles
- If given a .5 after dividing, multiply all moles by 2 Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) --> 3NaNO3(aq) +
- If given a .333 or .666 after dividing, multiply all moles by 3 Fe(OH)3(ppt)
- If given a .25 after dividing, multiply all moles by 4 NaOH is limiting reactant because it has higher
Finds the lowest ratio mole ratio
Find moles of NaOH by multiplying molarity and
Molecular Formula volume (in liters)
Finds the formula for actual molecule Use mole to mole stoich to find out how many
Given: Molar mass of the molecule moles of Fe(OH)2 there are
1.) Find Empirical Formula Use mole to mass stoich to find out how many
2.) Find molar mass of Empirical Formula grams of Fe(OH)2 there are
3.) Molar Mass/Empirical Formula molar mass=ratio
4.) Multiply all elements in Empirical Formula by ratio found
Hydration
The process of breaking ions of salts apart with water molecules
-Water is good solvent because it has polar molecules
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Three Types of Solutions
Strong electrolytes - Completely breaks apart into ions. Conducts electricity well.
Weak electrolytes - Partially breaks into ions. Conducts slight electricity.
Non-electrolytes - Does not fall apart. Does not conduct.
Measuring Solutions
Concentration - How much is dissolved
fZ[\h Zi hZ[ol\
Molarity - =
l\h Zi hZ[olZk
fZ[\h Zi hZ[ol\
- =
fZ[gl
- = q
Making Solutions
Describe how to make 250. mL of a 2.0M copper (II) sulfate dihydrate solution
uvwx XRS.d}_~ y P _{^
2.0M = .50mole CuSO4 P 2H2OW b= 98g CuSO4 P H2O
._S` X uvwx y P_{^
Weigh out 98g of CuSO4 dissolved in 250. mL of H2O to obtain a 2.0M CuSO4 solution
Dilution
The process of adding more solvent to a known solution
M1V1 = M2V2 (Moles are the same)
Stock solution is a solution of known concentration used to make more dilute solutions
18.5mL of 2.3M HCl is added to 250 mL of water. What is the concentration?
(2.3M)(.0185L) = (.250L)(X)
.04255 mole = .250X
M=.17M
Take 18.5 mL of 2.3M solution of HCl to 250. mL of H2O to obtain a 0.17M solution
Types of Reactions
Precipitation Reactions - 2 aqueous solutions of ionic compounds poured together to form a solid (ppt)
-Molecular: 3NaOH(aq) + FeCl3(aq) ---> 3NaCl(aq) + Fe(OH)3(s)
-Ionic: 3Na+1(aq) + 3(OH)-(aq) + Fe+3(aq) + 3Cl-1(aq) ---> 3Na+1(aq) + 3Cl-1(aq) + Fe(OH)3(s)
-Net Ionic: Fe+3(aq) + 3(OH)-(aq) ---> Fe(OH)3(s)
- All other ions are known as spectator ions
Acid-Base Reactions: Acid - proton donor; Base - proton acceptor (Transfer of H+ ions)
-Strong acid + Strong Base ----> Salt + water
Titration - A reaction where the indicator changes color = endpoint
# of H+ P MAVA = # of OH- P MBVB
Redox Reactions - The transfer of electrons
- Oxidation states
Element 0
VA, VIA, VIIA ion -3, -2, -1 respectively
Oxygen -2 (Peroxide -1)
Hydrogen +1, -1 only when attached to alkali metal
VIIA -1 up to +7 (Fluorine ALWAYS -1)
Total charge of compound 0
Total charge of ion Charge of ion
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Titration
Volumetric analysis - Technique used for determining the amount of a certain substance through titration.
Titrant - The solution of a known concentration
Analyte - The solution containing the substance being analyzed
Equivalence point - The point where enough titrant has been added to react exactly with the analyte.
- Also known as the stoichiometric point
Indicator - A substance added before titration, which changes the color of the analyte at (or very near) the
equivalence point
Endpoint - The point where the indicator changes color
Equivalence point Endpoint
Redox Reactions
Acidic Medium: 1.) Write skeletal equation with oxidation numbers
2.) Write the Oxidation/Reduction half reaction
3.) Balance atoms that are NOT oxygen in each half reaction
4.) Balance the O2 atoms by adding H2O to the side that needs it
5.) Balance the Hydrogen's by adding H+ ions to the side that needs it
6.) Balance the charges by adding electrons
7.) Put the half reactions together and cancel
Definitions
Aqueous solution - A solution where water is the solvent
Hydration - The process of using water to dissolve a salt into its ions
]^ c()
NH4NO3(s) NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Solubility - The capability of a substance to be dissolved
Electrical conductivity - A solutions ability to conduct an electric current
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Note that the compounds are not in solution, so they are gases Root Mean Square
Velocity
Diffusion vs. Effusion R = 8.3145 J/Kmole
Diffusion - The process of gas molecules spreading throughout a room (cooking scents) M = mass in kilograms
Units: J/kg
Effusion - The process of gas molecules escaping a narrow exit into a room (aerosol)
What's the Difference?
How can "R" be 2 different
values?
If we are working with
Boyles, Charles, Guy Lussac, and Avagadro's Law gases, we will use the
P = Pressure (atm) .0821 Latm/Kmole
V = Volume (L) If we are working with
T = Temperature (K) Energy, we will use the
n = Moles (mole) 8.31 J/moleK
Dalton's Law
Either have to find PTotal when given the partial pressures, or find a partial pressure when given PTotal and
some of the partial pressures
PTotal can be found by altering ideal gas law equation:
( Zlg[ )
Zlg[ =
Mole Fraction
Gives us the ration of moles of the substance to the total number of moles
Units will cancel out
Chapter 6 - Thermochemistry
Basics of Thermodynamics
Energy - The ability to do work
- Made of heat and work
Heat - Energy transferred between objects because of temperature differences
Work - A force acting over a distance
Exothermic Process - Releases heat/energy
Endothermic Process - Absorbs heat/energy
General Picture
The universe is divided into 2 halves: The system and the surroundings
System - Part of the world we want to study
Surroundings - Everything outside the system
Open system - Exchanges both matter and energy with surroundings
- Open flask - Chemicals (matter) capable of escaping, Temperature (heat - A kind of energy) of
reaction can affect be affected by stuff outside the flask
Closed system - Exchanges only energy with surroundings
- Sealed flask - Chemicals (matter) cannot escape, Temperature (heat - A kind of energy) of
reaction can affect or be affected by stuff outside flask
Isolated system - Exchanges neither matter or energy with surroundings
- Thermos flask - Chemicals (matter) cannot escape, Temperature (heat - A kind of energy) of
reaction cannot affect or be affected by stuff outside the thermos flask
Direction of Energy
Measured in Joules or calories
Number tells how many Joules or calories there are
Sign tell the direction
- Negative sign means the reaction is exothermic
- Positive sign mean the reaction is endothermic
REACTANTS - PRODUCTS
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Internal Energy (U/E) - Energy that enters/leaves a system
- Some energy can return to surroundings as expansion work
- =U <
Enthalpy (H) - A state function: H = E + PV
- E = Energy, P = Pressure, V = Volume
- =H>i = Heat of formation
- =H = q
- Measured in kJ/mole
Entropy (S) - Measured in J/K mole
- If =S > 0 then disorder is increasing, becoming less organized, and more random
- Thermodynamically favorable
- If =S < 0 then disorder is decreasing, becoming more organized, and less random
=]
=hoZokpkah =
(Remember to convert to Joules)
-Depends directly on heat flow (=H) and inversely on temperature (T)
-If heat flows to the surroundings, Kinetic Energy is increased in the surroundings
and the entropy will increase. Entropy will decrease in the system.
- A constant heat flow at different temperatures will have a different impact
dependent upon a low or high temperature.
- High temperature will cause a lower entropy change on surroundings
-Low temperature will cause a higher entropy change on surroundings
- Entropy will increase if: Volume increases Temperature increases, Kinetic Energy increases,
particles dissolve, or solid --->liquid--->gas
Gibbs Free Energy - Energy free to do useful work
=G = =H - T=S
- If =G> = negative number, reaction is spontaneous
- If =G> = positive number, reaction is non-spontaneous
- If =G> = 0, reaction is at equilibrium
Bond Disassociation Energy - The enthalpy change required to break a particular bond
- 2 useful things to remember: Draw the molecular structure for the compounds
REACTANTS - PRODUCTS
Spontaneity
A chemical reaction is spontaneous if there is an increase in the total entropy of the system and surroundings
Spontaneous change - A change that occurs without being driven by an external influence
Non-spontaneous change - A change that occurs only when driven by an external influence
Spontaneous exothermic reactions are common because they release heat, increasing entropy of
surroundings
Spontaneous endothermic reactions occur only when entropy of the system increases enough to overcome
the decrease in entropy of the surroundings
Systems at Equilibrium
A+BHC+D
No overall change in disorder
=S 0 (No entropy change)
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Enthalpy of Hydration =
The enthalpy change involving the hydration of gas-phase ions
Gas--->Aqueous
If ions dissolve and solution heats - Exothermic
If ions dissolve and solution cools - Endothermic
Definitions
Definitions
Potential Energy - Energy due to position and composition (water behind a dam)
Kinetic Energy - Energy due to motion of the object (dependent upon mass and velocity)
Pathway - The specific conditions in which energy is divided between work and heat
State function - Property of a system that depends only on the present state (Also known as state property)
Internal Energy - The sum of the Potential and Kinetic energies (represented as U or E)
Calorimetry - The science of measuring heat (Based on temperature change observations)
Calorimeter - Device used to measure the heat associated with a chemical reaction (Fancy word for 2
Styrofoam cups nestled within each other)
Heat capacity (C) - The energy required to raise a substance by 1 (measured in J/)
Specific heat capacity (c, s) - The energy required to raise 1g of a substance by 1 (measured in J/g)
Molar heat capacity - The energy required to raise 1 mole of a substance by 1 (measured in J/mole)
Constant-pressure calorimetry - The process of measuring heat using a calorimeter under constant pressure
Constant-volume calorimetry - The process of measuring heat using a calorimeter under constant volume
Equations
= Constants
Related. Plug 1st equation into 2nd
= / c = 3.0 x 108 m/s
equation to get the 3rd equation
= h = 6.626 x 10-34 J P s
=
= /()
= /* * in this case is velocity, not
2.178 q 10X _
= wavelength
i _ T _ **Energy required to remove 1
= P =() > /4 mole of electrons
= T(6.02 10_e /)(2.18 10X )( _ )**
_
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
Electromagnetic Waves
Gamma raysX raysUV raysvisibleInfrared raysmicrowavesradio waves (Strongest - weakest)
-Visible Light Spectrum: Red 650-700nm
Orange 600-650nm
Yellow 580-600nm
Green 490-580nm
Blue 490-450nm
Indigo 450-410nm
Violet 410-400nm
Hydrogen Spectrum
Can only give off certain energies
Electrons attracted to the nucleus because of opposite charges, but didn't fall in because they were moving
Putting energy into the atom moved the electron away, when it returned it emitted light
Electron Configuration
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p.
s-2, p-6, d-10, f-14
Aufbu Principle - As the protons are added by 1, the electrons fill up hydrogen-like orbitals in order of
energy level.
Hund's Rule - The lowest energy configuration for an atom is the one that has the max number of unpaired
electrons in the orbital.
Valence electrons - The outermost energy levels, not including the d orbital
Noble gases have filled energy levels
Left side of Periodic Table fills the s orbital
Right side of Periodic Table fills the p orbital
Transition metals fill the d orbital
Lanthanide or actinide series fills the f orbital
Elements in the same column have the same order shell electron configuration
65.) Give the maximum number of electrons in an atom that can have these quantum numbers
a.) n = 4
b.) n = 5, m = +1
X
c.) n = 5, ms = +
_
d.) n = 3, = 2
e.) n = 2, = 1
a.) n = 4. Because it doesn't give a specific value, we use the n-1 = to find that = 3. With this
we can see that there is a total of 16 orbitals when n = 4 (1 from 4s, 3 from 4p, 5 from 4d,
and 7 from 4f). And we also know through the Pauli exclusion principle that one orbital
can only carry a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spins. So 16 x 2 = 32 electrons.
b.) n = 5, m = +1. This problem goes into the imaginary orbital g. We also know that the m value
ranges from + to - . And when n = 5, it will have all the previous and m
values along with an additional row which will be:
n Subshell m Orbitals in Orbitals in
Subshell Shell
5 0 4s 0 1
1 4p 1, 0, -1 3
2 4f 2, 1, 0 , -1, -2 5
3 4d 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3 7
4 4g 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4 9 25
We were also given that m = +1. From this we can say that there are only 4
subshells capable of containing that specific m value (4p, 4d, 4f, and 4g). 4 x 2= 8
electrons.
X
c.) n = 5, ms = + . Again, we go back to the imaginary g orbital. This time, we are not given any
_
specific value, so we again use n -1 = to find that = 4, With this we see that
there is a total of 25 orbitals when n = 5. So 25 x 2 = 50 electrons. However, it
X
told us ms = + which means to account for only the electrons spinning in a
_
positive direction. So we divide 50 by 2 to get a total of 25 electrons.
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)
d.) n = 3, = 2. Following the chart, we see that this takes us to the 3d row. And there is a total of 5 orbitals in
that subshell. 5 x 2 = 10 electrons.
e.) n = 2, = 1. Following the chart, we see that this takes us to the 2p row. And there is a total of 3 orbitals in
that subshell. 3 x 2 = 6 electrons.
_.X qX`| ^
= k ^ k ^
Find energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from a substance
= T(6.02 10_e /)(2.18 10X )( _ )
_
Quantum Energy
Discovered by Max Planck who said E came in chunks with a size h
Use equation:
=
-n is an integer
-h is Planck's Constant
Einstein
Stated Electromagnetic radiation is quantized in particles called photons
Equation to find mass of photon:
= /()
Equation to find Energy of photon:
= /
=
Periodic Trends
Ionization Energy: Across a row - Increases; Down a column - Decreases
-Need to take into account the effective nuclear charge and when you are removing electrons form
half-filled or full orbitals (will be harder to remove)
Atomic Size: Across a row - Decreases; Down a group - Increases
-Measured in angstroms (1 x 10-10 meters). Influenced by shielding and charge on nucleus.
Electron Affinity: Across a row - More negative; Down a group - More positive
Ionic Size: Across a row - Decreases; Down a group - Increases
Electronegativity: Across a row - Increases; Down a group - Decreases
-The tendency for an atom to attract electrons to itself when chemically combined with another
element. Corresponds directly with electron affinity.
Metals: Low ionization energy, low effective nuclear charge, low electronegativity.
Nonmetals: More negative electron affinity, high electronegativity (except noble gases)
AP Chemistry Study Guide (Part 1 of 3)