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PETE 663
Summer 2010
Shaly Formations
Archies Sw equations assume a
clean formation with a non-conductive
matrix
Mineral Ft^2/ft^3
Quartz 30 65
Feldspar 4 10-15
Carbonate 3 <1
Framework
- Sand- and silt-size detrital grains (load-bearing)
Matrix
- Silt and clay-size detrital material
Cement
- Minerals precipitated post-depositionally,
during burial and diagenesis
- Cements fill pores and may replace
framework grains
Pores
- Voids Among the Above Components
FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
Geologists Classification
PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 mm
SANDSTONE COMPOSITION,
Framework Grains
KF = Potassium
Feldspar
Q PRF = Plutonic Rock
Fragment
Q = Quartz
PRF KF
P = Pore
Potassium feldspar is
stained yellow with a
chemical dye
Photo by R. Kugler
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Grains ~0.25 mm in diameter/length
SHALE / CLAY ORIGINS
IN SANDSTONES
EXPANDED DISCUSSION ON NEXT SLIDES
DETRITAL AUTHIGENIC
e Clay
Minerals
A
3 U
Dispersed Clay T
Detrital Quartz H
Grains
D
e
E
2 Clay Lamination T
R
I
Structural Clay e T
(Rock Fragments,
1 Rip-Up Clasts, A
Clay-Replaced Grains)
L
Order of discussion
HOW DO SHALES/CLAYS OCCUR? - 1
Structural Shale
Replaces matrix (e.g., or feldspar) or occurs
as detrital grains
May not affect por., perm,
Example clast lag in channels deposits
Clay composition may differ from nearby
shales
Structural Clay e
(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay
Clay-Replaced Grains) Detrital Quartz
Grains Minerals
HOW DO SHALES/CLAYS OCCUR? - 2
Laminated Shale
Interlayered with sand
Reduces poro., perm.
Common
Example shale
laminae
Assume composition
similar to nearby shale
e Clay
Minerals
Clay Lamination
Detrital Quartz
Grains
Whole Core
Laminated Ss-Sh
Reservoir Rock
Ayers, 2004 STS084-721-029 Selenga River Delta, Lake Baykal, Russia May 1997
HOW SHALES/CLAYS OCCUR? - 3
Dispersed Clay/Shale
Pore-filling clays
Very common
Forms in situ (authigenic clay - diagenesis)
Mineral composition may differ greatly from
nearby shales
Por. and perm. reduction depend on clay minerals
e Clay
Minerals
Dispersed Clay
Detrital Quartz
Grains
DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis:
Carbonate Post-depositional chemical and
Cemented mechanical changes that occur in
sedimentary rocks
Diagenesis may:
-Enhance or degrade reservoir
quality
Whole core, Misoa Formation, Venezuela
Photo by W. Ayers
POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Porosity in sandstone
Pore
typically is lower than
that of idealized packed
spheres owing to:
Pore throats in
sandstone may
be lined with
a variety of
cement minerals
that affect
petrophysical
properties
Significant permeability
reduction
Migration of fines
problem
Not recognized by
Secondary electron micrograph
gamma ray
Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Chlorite
Iron-rich
varieties react
with acid
Occurs in several
deeply buried
sandstones with
high reservoir
quality
Occurs as thin
coats on detrital
grain surfaces
Electron photomicrograph
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone ~ 10 m
Offshore Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Fibrous, Authigenic Illite
Significant
permeability
reduction
Negligible
Illite porosity
reduction
High irreducible
water saturation
Migration of
fines problem
Permeability (mD)
100
10
Shales affect por.,
1
perm. - Illite 0.1
Reduces porosity 0.01 Illite-free
Illite-affected
Intergranular
Intergranular pores
Pore
contain hydrocarbon
fluids
Quartz
Kaolinite
Detrital
Grain
10ft shale
PHIN = 36 (LS)
PHIN = 40 (SS)
224ft shaly sand
PHIN = 23 (LS)
PHIN = 27 (SS)
Vsh = 19%
Ncorr = 27 0.19(40) = 19
2 2
Dcorr + Ncorr
corr = 2
SHALY SANDS ARE COMPLICATED!
Swt
VSh Vma
Sh Sw Sb
z
SHALY FORMATION ISSUES
LECTURE A
Shales/clays have several origins and forms
Shales/clays affect:
Porosity
Permeability
Vshale
Estimation
Assumptions
Log responses
LECTURE B
Shales conduct electricity
Problems with Archie-based methods
Rwa problem
Sw errors
Shaly sand analysis of Rwa and Sw