FIG.

13-53
OPERATIONAL CONS IDE RATIONS 1
Vibration Severity Chart
Rotor Dynami cs an d Critical Spe eds
The demand for smooth-running turbomachinery requires careful an
alysis of rotor dynamics ta king into accou nt bear ing perform ance,
flexibility, critical speed, an d rotor response.
Equally importa nt is to an alyze th e dynamic behavior of th e
compressor for sudde n chan ges in load due to start-up, shut- down, or
loss of power supply.
Succes sful rotor design is th e res ult of accu ra te calculation of
critical speeds. A critical speed occu rs a t a condition when th e rotor
speed corr esponds to a resonant frequency of th e ro- tor-bear ing
support system. Un der no circumstan ces should the compressor be
allowed to run at a critical speed for a pro- longed length of time as th
e rotor vibrations amplified by this condition can cause machinery
failure.

Cr itical Spee d Map

A critical speed map is one of various methods used to pre- dict th e
operat ional behavior of th e rotor. First, th e critical speeds for a given
rotor geometry ar e calculated for a ran ge of assumed bearing support
stiffness values. The result is a map like that shown in Fig. 13-54. The
bear ing stiffness char ac- teristics ar e determ ined from th e geometry
of th e bearing sup- port system, and cross-plott ed on th e critical speed
ma p.
The map depicts th e values of th e un dam ped critical speeds
and how they are influenced by bearing stiffness. The inter-
sections of th e bear ing stiffnes s curve and th e critical speed
lines represent the undamped critical speeds. The intersection
points genera lly indicat e ma rgins between th e criticals and
th e operat ing speed ran ge.
However, th e use of th is ma p is very limited becau se it is based FIG. 13-54
on a simplified undamped, circular synchronous analy- sis with no Undamped Critical Speed Map
cross-cou pled or unbalance effects. I t is a good tr ending tool
showing a machines basic dynamic charac- teristics. It may not accu
rat ely depict peak response frequen- cies.
The critical speed map is used extensively because it enables determ
inat ion of bearing or support stiffnes s by corr elating test-sta nd data.

Un ba lanc e Resp onse Analysis

This method predicts rotor-bearing system resonances to great er
accu racy th an th e critical speed map. Here, bear ing support stiffness
an d dam ping ar e considered togeth er with synchronous vibrat ion
behavior for a selected imbalance distribution. A comput er is normally
required to solve th e re- sulting diffe rential equations. Satisfactory
results depend on th e accu ra te input of bear ing stiffness and dam
ping param e- ters.
Severa l ru ns ar e usually ma de with various amounts and locations
of unbalance. The plot of results of a typical unbal- ance response study
is shown in Fig. 13-55. Each curve repre- sents th e rotor behavior at a
part icular station or axial location such as those corr esponding to the
midspan, bear ings, and overhangs.
This is expressed in mils of vibration amplitude per ounce-inch or gra
No rotor can be perfectly balanced and, therefore, it must be m-inch of unbalance.
relatively insensitive to reasonable amount s of unbalance. The peaks of th e response curves represent th e critical speed
The unbalance-response results predict th e actu al ampli- tudes that locations. Fig. 13-56 shows limits of placement of critical speeds as
permit calculations of the unbalance sensitivity. specified in the API Standard 617, Centrifugal Com- pressors for
Genera l Refinery Services.

13-36
 FIG. 13-55 FIG. 13-56
Vibration Levels - mils
Unbalance Response Plot Rotor Response Plot

Critical speeds should not encroach upon operating speed ra

nges, an d th e separa tion margin of encroachment (SM) from all
lateral modes is required to be at least:
1. Twenty (20) percent over th e ma ximum continuous speed
for rigid shaft rotor systems.
2. Fifteen (15) percent below any operat ing speed and If all th ese con ditions were given excep t flow, it would not be
twenty (20) percent above th e ma ximum continuous possible to determine the compressor operating point. The system
speed for flexible shaft rotor system. resistance curve imposed on th e typical perform ance is not always
constan t. Discharge tempera ture of th e compres- sor is a good
Fie ld P erforman ce indication as to the operation of the compressor. However, such items
Once the compressor has been installed, quite often the per- as recycle (internal or extern al), differe nt gas an alysis, differe nt
formance of th e system is to be tested. The same informat ion is suction con ditions, and diffe rent flow can affect th e values. The
required for evaluation as was supplied for the initial selec- tion. This efficiency at part load or overload will norm ally be lower th an a t
information is essential: design con ditions.
1. Inlet conditions Test proced ures should be agreed upon between th e manu- factu
a. Flow (scfm, acfm, or lb/min) rer an d user before a performa nce tes t is ru n. A test point should be
run several times to see if the results can be dupli- cated. Calibrated
b. Gas an alysis instrum ents should be used to improve th e accu racy of th e tes t data.
c. Pr essure, psia
Trou bl es hoo ti ng
d. Temperat ure, F
Operat ional troubles occu rr ing in service may be due to a variety
2. Intermedi a te conditions of causes.
a. Pr essure at intermediate nozzles, psia
If th e trouble cannot be tra ced to adverse gas flow con ditions or
b. Temperat ure at intermediate nozzles, F liquid "slugs" present in the system, Fig. 13-57 can be used as a guide
3. Discharge conditions for troubleshooting frequently encoun tered prob- lems.
a. Pr essure, psia Careless operation and ma intenance needs litt le comm ent. Lack of
b. Temperat ure, F proper care of an y machine is bound to res ult in a succession of minor
t roubles eventually leading to a major breakdown.
4. Compressor speed, rpm
5. Power requirement from driver if available (steam flow,
amperes, etc.)

Turboexpanders
The use of tur boexpan ders in gas processing plants began in Selection of a tu rboexpander process cycle is indicated when one
th e early sixties. By 1970, most new gas processing plan ts for or more of the following conditions exist:
ethane or propan e recovery were being designed to incor- porat
e th e part icular advantages chara cteristic of an ex- pan der 1. "Free" pressure drop in th e gas stream.
producing usable work. The tr end in th e gas processing industry 2. Lean gas.
continues toward increased use of th e tu rboexpan der. 3. High ethane recove ry requirements (i.e., over 30% eth-
ane recove ry).
13-37
 FIG. 13-57
Probable Causes of Centrifugal Compressor Trouble
Troubl e Proba bl e Cause (s)
1. Compressor not up to speed.
2. Excessive compressor inlet
temperat ure.
Lo w Discharge
3. Low inlet pressure.
Press ure
4. Leak in discharge piping.
5. Excessive system demand from
compressor.
1. Ina deq uate flow th rough the
compressor.
2. Change in system resistance
Comp resso r Su rge due to obs truction in the
discharge piping or improper
valve position.
3. Deposit buildup on rotor or
diffu sers restricting gas flow.
1. Faulty lube oil pressure gauge
or switch.
2. Low level in oil reservoir.
3. Oil pum p suction plugged.
4. Leak in oil pump suction piping.
5. Clogged oil strainers or filters.
6. Failur e of both ma in an d
au xiliar y oil pum ps.
Lo w Lube Oil
Press ure 7. Ope rat ion at a low speed
without the auxili ary oil pump
running (if main oil pump is
shaft-driven).
8. Relief valve improperly set or
stuck open.
9. Leaks in the oil system.
10. Incor rect pressure con t rol valve
setting or operation.
11. Bearing lube oil orifices missing
or plugged.
1. Piping strain.
2. Warped bedpl ate, compressor or
driver.
Shaft Misa li gnme nt 3. Warped fou ndation.
4. Loose or broken fou ndat ion
bolts.
5. Defective grouting.
4. Compact plant layout requirement.
5. High utility cos ts.
6. Flexibility of operat ion (i.e., easily adapted to wide vari-
at ion in pressure and products).
There are mu ltiple factors in addition to th e ones listed above
that affect a final process selection. If two or more of the above
con ditions ar e coexis tent, genera lly a tu rboexpan der process
selection will be the best choice.
Fig. 13-58 shows a typical low temperat ure turboexpander process
for recovering ethane an d heavier hydroca rbons from a natu ra l gas
stream .
13-38
Troubl e Proba bl e Cause (s)
1. Inadequate or restricted flow of
lube oil to bearings.
2. Poor conditions of lube oil or
Hi gh Bearing Oil dirt or gummy deposits in bear
Tempe rature ings.
3. Ina deq uate cooli ng water flow
Note: lube oil cooler.
Lube oil temperatur e
4. Fouled lube oil cooler.
leaving bearings should
never be permitted to 5. Wiped bearing.
exceed 180F. 6. High oil viscosity.
7. Excessive vib rat ion.
8. Water in lube oil.
9. Rough journal surface.
1. Improperly assembled par ts.
2. Loose or broken bolting.
3. Piping strain.
4. Shaft misalignment.
5. Worn or dama ged coupling.
Excessiv e Vibra tio n 6. Dry coupling (if continuously
lubricated type is used).
Note: 7. Warped shaft cau sed by uneven
Vibrat ion ma y be heating or cooling.
t ransmitted from the
8. Dama ged rotor or bent shaft.
coupled machine. To
localize vib rat ion, 9. Un balanced rotor or war ped
disconnect cou pling and shaft due to severe rubbing.
operate driver alone.
This should help to 10. Un even build-up of deposits on
indicate whether driver rotor wheels, causing unbalance.
or driven machine is 11. Excessive bear ing clearance.
causing vibration.
12. Loose wheel(s) (rar e case).
13. Ope rat ing at or near critical
speed.
14. Operat ing in surge region.
15. Liquid "slugs" striking wheels.
16. Excessive vib rat ion of adjacent
machinery (sympat hetic
vib rat ion).
1. Condensation in oil reservior.
Wate r In Lube Oil 2. Leak in lube oil coole r tu bes or
tube-sheet.
Fig. 13-59 rep resents th e pressure-temperatu re diagra m for
th is expander process. The solid cur ve represents th e plant
inlet gas. The solid line on the right is th e dew point line. At a
fixed pressure and, if th e temperatur e of th e gas is to th e right
of this dew point line, th e gas is 100 percent vapor. If th e gas is
cooled, liquid star ts to condense when the temperat ure reaches
th e dew point line. As cooling con tinues, more liquid is
condensed until the bubble point line is reached the solid line
on th e left. At this point, all of th e gas is liquid. Additional
cooling results in colder liquid.
Downstream of th e gas tr eating facilities, th e inlet gas is represent
ed by point 1 on both Fig. 13-58 and 13-59. As th e
 FIG. 13-58
Example Expander Process

gas is cooled by th e gas/gas exchan gers an d demeth an izer side THE RMODYNAMIC S
exchanger, its temperat ure moves along the dotted line to point 2 (Fig.
13-59). At 2, th e gas enters th e expander inlet separat or where th e
condensed liquid is separa ted from th e vapor. This vapor now has its A tu rboexpan der recovers useful work from th e exp ansion of a
own pressure-temperatu re dia- gra m, as rep resented by the dashed gas stream. The process operates isentropically in th e ideal case and
curve. At th e expan der inlet, the gas is on its dew point line. produces something less tha n th e th eoretical work in th e real case.
In th e process of producing work, th e expander lowers th e bulk str
As the gas flows th rough th e exp ander, its pressure-tem- pera tur e eam temperatur e which can re-
path is shown by the dashed line from point 2 to point 3. Point 3
represents the outlet of the expander. The im- portan ce of using th e
exp ander as a driver for a compressor can be seen in Fig. 13-59. If FIG. 13-59
the gas had been expanded with- out doing any driver work, th e Pressure-Temperature Diagram for Expander Process
expansion path would be from point 2 to point 4. This is called a Joule-
Thomson, or con sta nt enthalpy expansion. The outlet temperat ure
and pressure would be higher than that accomplished in the expander
(nearly isentropic) expansion process.

Note th a t the pressure at Point 4 is not as low as th a t at- tained by

flow thr ough th e expander (Point 3). This is because it has been
assumed for this example th a t, without th e ex- pander ru nning (th
erefore th e bra ke compressor also not ru n- ning), the process cannot
restore the demethanizer overhead vapor to th e residue gas pressure
using th e separat e recom- pressor alone.

Also, because th e path to Point 4 is adiabatic without th e gas

doing work, th e gas does not cool to as low a temperatu re as th
e path to Point 3. Tha t is, th e path (2) to (3) is isentropic expan
sion producing work and th ereby cooling th e gas more tha n th
e simple isentr opic expansion path.

The higher temperatu re res ults in a reduction of product recove ry.

The use of th e expan der brake compressor to boost the residue gas
pressure will allow a lower expansion pressure without the use of more
residue compression.

13-39
sult in partial liquefaction of the bulk stream. A simple sche- matic of FIG. 13-61
an exp ander is given in Fig. 13-60. Expander Example Calculation
An example calculat ion of an expander operating in a natu-
ral gas plan t follows. The GPSA method is a hand calculation Flo w: 60 MMsc fd t1 = 60F
process which relies on various K-value and th ermodynamic
propert y charts available in th e GPSA Data Book. Due to th e P1 = 900 psia
limits of accu racy in reading these charts, it is impossible to P2 = 300 psia
duplicate all of the numbers in the example problem in spite of mols/hr
using each time the same step-by-step method. For all in- tent
Methan e 6,185 .8
an d purposes, th e exam ple calculation can be regarded as
sufficie ntly corr ect with a discrepancy of less th an 3% for th e Et hane 263 .5
final result of th e exp ander horsepower. Propan e 138.3

A simplified 3-component mixtur e will be used, as the exam- ple is Tota l mols/hr 6,587 .6
genera l for all mixtu res. The exam ple involves th e use of the K- Tota l lbs/hr 113,261 .0
value char ts (see Section 25) and the calculat ion of stream enthalpies
and entropies. Inlet Conditions:
Thermodynamic properties ar e ta ken from Section 24. K- values All enth alpies (h) ar e calculated from Figs. 24-3, 24-6, an d 24-7, an d all
are calculat ed from th e data on th e binary systems methane-ethane, entropies (s) from Figs. 24-18, 24-19, an d 24-20. See Fig. 24-17 for exam
and methane-propane, and the infinite dilu- tion tern ary system. ple calculation of h an d Fig. 24-2 for exam ple cal- culation of s.
Inlet En th alpy, (h) 118.134 Btu/lb
Inlet En tropy, (s) 32.58 Btu/(mol R)
FIG. 13-60 Outlet Conditions
Simple Expander
-150F -140F -130F
300 psia 300 psia 300 psia
K-value for meth an e 1.1589 1.3680 1.6023
K-value for eth ane 0.0813 0.0948 0.1127
K-value for propan e 0.00974 0.01022 0.01235
Outlet liq uid, lbs/hr 48,380 23,958 15,720
Outlet vapor, lbs/hr 64,882 89,303 97,541
Outlet liquid enthalpy (h)
Btu/lb 53 .202 68 .675 77 .500
Outlet vapor enthalpy (h)
Btu/lb 120 .702 127 .901 134 .301
Outlet liquid entropy (s)
Btu/(mol R) 25.557 25.916 26.220
Outlet vapor entropy (s)
Gas inlet conditions (t1, P1) to the exp ander are genera lly set by Btu/(mol R) 33.172 33.688 34.147
process balances. The outlet pressure P 2 from the expander is set by
process and recom pressor power con sidera tions. Fig. 13-61 gives Mixture h, Btu/lb 46.419 86.319 104 .904
stream conditions with an exam ple calculation. Mixture s, Btu/(mol R) 30.198 32.383 33.366
Out let conditions for th e expander must be determined by tr ial- h inlet h outlet = h, Btu/lb 71.715 31.815 13.230
an d-error calculations. Assume th ree diffe rent outlet temperat ures,
See Fig. 13-62
t, t, t a t th e set out let pressure of P2 (300 psia), from th e exp
ander. At each assumed temperatur e and P2, calculat e the equilibrium h ideal = 27.688 Btu/lb
conditions of the bulk stream from the expander, and determine the h actu al = 0.8 efficiency x 27.688 = 22.150 Btu/lb
stream bulk enthalpy t2 at 80% expan der efficiency = 135 .2F @ 300 psia.
(h) and entropy (s). Flash @ Act ual Outlet Conditions:
For most natu ra l gas applications, including th is exam ple, K at 135 .2F
Liquid Vapor
a limiting boundary value for th e outlet temperatu re can be 300 psia
obta ined from th e meth ane P-H diagra m. From this chart, de- Meth an e 1.4726 567 5,619
termine the ideal out let tempera ture t2 by isentropic expan- Ethan e 0.1019 156 107
sion from inlet t1, P 1 to outlet P 2. In most real gas mixtures, t2 Propan e 0.0104 129 9
will be somewhat war mer than this. In the example case, t2 for
pure methane is 159F. Therefore, assume t = 150F, t = Total mols/hr 852 5,735
140F, t = 130F. Total lbs/hr 19,477 93,784

Dra w a plot of h(ht1P1 ht2P2) versus temperat ure at P2, and s Work produced = 22.150 Btu/lb x 113,261 lb/hr = 2,509 ,000
versus outlet temperat ure at P2, using stream bulk proper- ties as Btu/hr
calculated in Fig. 13-61. This plot is illustrated in Fig. 13-62.
Horsepower = 2,509,000 2,545 = 986 hp

13-41
 From the plot of the calculated s versus outlet temperatur e at P 2 (300
psia), determ ine th e isentr opic out let tempera ture, using s1 (32.58)
from th e inlet con ditions. From this out let tem- peratu re, read th e
corr esponding h ideal, which is the ideal work available from a 100%
efficient isentropic process. Since the expander operat es at something
less than ideal conditions, an efficiency must be used to determine
actual expander outlet conditions. If an expander efficiency of 80% is
used, the actual
h = 0.8 x h ideal = hA. Using hA from the plot, read an outlet
temperatur e of t2 (135.2F). Now ma ke an equilibrium flash calculat
ion a t conditions t2, P2 (135.2F, 300 psia) to find th e real outlet con
ditions for th e exp ander, operating a t 80% efficiency.
The tota l work produced by th e expander based on th e as- sumed
efficie ncy can be calculated as shown in Fig. 13-61.
A schematic P-H diagra m path for th e example expander
calculation is shown in Fig. 13-63.
In many applications th e loading device for th e tu rboexpan- der is
a centrifugal compressor and its perform ance can be
FIG. 13-62
T-h and T-s Diagram
calculat ed as shown in this section. Shaft and bearing losses in
the order of 2% are usually deducted to calculat e net power
input to th e driven end from th e expander.
So li ds Fo rmati on
In addition to th e obvious need for water removal from th e
gas stream to protect th e expan der in low tempera ture service,
considerat ion must be given to th e possible forma tion of oth er
solids or semi-solids in th e gas stream. Amines, glycols, and
compressor lube oils in th e gas stream can form blocka ges in
13-40
th e system. Genera lly these con tam inan ts will form a block- age
upstream of th e expander, in th e lower tempera tur e ex- chan ge
circuit, or on th e screen ah ead of th e exp ander.
Carbon dioxide can also form as a solid in the system, par- ticularly
a t the lower tempera tures of th e exp ander out let. Fig. 13-64 will
provide a quick estimate for the possibility of form a tion of solid CO2.
If operating conditions ar e in the meth- ane liquid region as shown
by th e insert gra ph, th e dashed
FIG. 13-63
Schematic P-H Diagram for Expander
solid-liquid phase equilibrium line is used. For other condi- tions the
solid isobars define the approximate CO2 vapor con- centra tion limits.
For example, consider a pressure of 300 psia. At 170F, the insert
gra ph (Fig. 13-64) shows th e opera ting conditions to be in the liquid
pha se region. The dashed solid-liquid pha se equi- librium line
indicates that 2.1 mol percent CO2 in the liquid phase would be likely
to form solids. However, at the same pressure and 150F, con ditions
ar e in th e vapor phase, and
1.28 mole percent CO2 in th e vapor could lead to solids form a- tion.
This chart rep resents an app roximation of CO2 solid forma tion. Deta
iled calculations should be carr ied out if Fig. 13-64 indicates operation
in a marginal range.
If the exp ander liquid is fed to th e top tra y of a demeth an- izer, th
e CO2 will concentra te in th e top equilibrium stages. This means that
the most probable condition for solid CO2 format ion may be several t
rays below the top of the tower ra th er tha n a t exp ander out let con
ditions. Again, if Fig. 13-64 indicat es marginal safety from solids
forma tion, deta iled cal- culations must be carried out.
MECHANICAL
Mechan ical design of th e tu rboexpan der is th e business of severa
l manufactu rers. Any specific inform at ion must come from such
supplier.
Of th e various genera l tu rbine types available, th e ra dial reaction
tu rbine design is dominant in cryogenic tu rboexpan- der natur al gas
plan t applications. These units operat e over wide ranges of inlet flow
and pressure conditions, by ut ilizing variable inlet guide vanes. They
operat e at very high rotat ing
 FIG. 13-64
Approximate Solid CO2 Formation Conditions

13-42
speeds and thu s are subject to th e design and operating cau- tions Lubri ca t ion System The lubricat ion system circu- lates
com mon to similar sophisticated rota ting equipment. cooled and filtered lube oils to th e tur boexpander bear- ings as shown
on Fig. 13-65. The principle components of th e system are monitored
The most com mon configu rat ion is a tu rboexpan der-com- pressor on th e lube console an d norm ally con sist of two electric motor-driven
where th e expan der power is used to com press gas in th e process. In lube oil pumps, an oil cooler, a dual filter valve, a bladde r type with
this case, th e com pressor wheel operat es on th e same shaft as the switching coastdown accu mu- lator, an d a pressurized reservoir with
expander wheel. Other applicat ions of the power recove ry ar e exp mist eliminator.
ander-pum p or exp ander-genera tor drives. These norm ally require
gearing to reduce th e expan der speed to tha t required for th e driven The lube oil pumps (one stand-by) must maintain a con stant flow to
unit. th e ra dial and th ru st bearings. Absence of oil, or im- proper filtra
tion, can cau se bear ing dama ge. Most ma nufac- tur ers recomm end
Since power recove ry and refrigera tion effect are primar y benefits a light tu rbine oil (315 SSU at 100F) for best machine performance.
of exp ander applications, rota ting speeds are set to optimize the
expander efficiency. This will usually result in a compromise in th e The lube oil cooler is an integra l part of th e system to reject heat th
com pressor end design an d lower compres- sor efficie ncies. Usual at is generat ed across th e bearings. I t can be of a fan air cooled type
efficiencies quoted for ra dial type units are 75 to 85% for the expander or shell and tube design, water cooled. If the cooling water is scale
an d 65 to 80% for the compres- sor. form ing, duplicate coolers (one stan d-by) are recomm ended.
Some areas requiring extra at tent ion in the installation of Lube oil filt ration is extremely important due to close toler- ances
turboexpanders are listed below. The list is by no means com- between bearing surfaces.
prehensive, but th ese items require more tha n th e norm al amount of
concern in designing the installation of a turboex- pander unit for The lube-oil reservoir serves as a surge ta nk to enhance pump
cryogenic operat ion. suction as well as to serve as a degassing dru m perm it- ting process
1. The expander inlet gas stream mu st be free of solid or seal gas to be released from the oil. If necessar y, the reservoir should
liquid entrainment. Liquids are removed in a high pres- be equipped with a heater to bring the oil up to temperat ure for a
sure separat or vessel. An inlet screen of fine mesh is usu- "cold" start .
ally required for solids removal. Monitoring of th e pres-
sure drop across this screen is recom mended. Forma tion S eal Gas Sy stem The seal gas system prevents loss of process
of solids (ice, carbon dioxide, am ines, heavy oils) will often gas and assures protection against entry of lube oil into process gas
occu r here first and can be detected by an increase in areas. To accomplish this, a stream of "seal gas" is injected into each
pressure drop across th e screen. labyrinth shaft seal at a pressure higher th an tha t of th e process gas.
The leaking seal gas is collected in th e oil reservoir, then retu rn ed
2. Source of the seal gas, particularly dur ing start-up, is an th rough a mist
importan t con sidera tion. The stream mu st be clean, dry,
sweet, and of sufficie nt pressure to meet th e system re- FIG. 13-65
quirements.
3. Normally a quick closur e shutoff valve is required on the Lube Oil Schematic
expander inlet. Selection of this valve and actuator type
must ta ke into accou nt start-up, operating, and shut-
down conditions.
4. Vibration detection instrument a tion is useful but not
mandatory. I ts application is normally an owner and ven-
dor option and influenced by operat ing economics.
5. Loading of the flanges by the process piping system must
be within prescribed limits to avoid distortion of th ecase,
resulting in bearing or wheel ru bbing problems.
6. Fa ilures due to mechan ical resonance have occu rr ed in
tu rboexpanders. Even though th e ma nufactu rer will ex-
ert his best efforts at the manufactur ing stage to avoid
this problem, in-plant operation may uncover an un de-
sirable resonance. This must be solved in conjunction with
th e manufactu rer and ma y involve a redesign of th e
wheels, bear ing modificat ions, vane or diffuser redesign,
etc.
The installation of a turboexpander-compressor unit also re-
quires th e proper design of a lube system, instru mentation,
etc., in com mon with other industrial rota ting equipment. It is
common practice to install a tu rboexpan der-compressor with
no special anti-surge instru mentat ion for th e compressor unit.
This is accepta ble if it can be determ ined th at th e gas flow th
rough th e compressor is balanced with flow thr ough th e
expander an d th e two will vary simu lta neously.
Auxi li ary Sys tems
Both lubricated and non-lubricat ed turboexpander designs ar e
available.

13-43
eliminator to th e fuel gas system, or put back into th e com- pressor
suction end.
The system for seal gas injection con sists of a liquid collector,
electric heat er (if required), twin filters, and differential pres- sure
regulators.
If recom pression is necessary for th e gas processing plan t, sales
gas is ideal for use as seal gas. If no recompression is provided, a
stream can be taken from the expander inlet sepa- rator, warmed and
used as seal gas. A minimum seal gas tem- pera tur e (about 70F) is
required to prevent oil th ickening.
Seal gas fil trat ion is essential because of close cleara nces provided
between the shaft and seals.
Seal gas flow requirements ar e determ ined by th e expander
manufactu rers as a part of th eir perform ance rat ing.
Control Syste ms
Proce ss Control of the process streams begins with proper
dehydrat ion an d filtering. Generally a final protective screen
upstream of th e expander is designed into th e piping system to form
a protective barrier against car bon dioxide or wat er freezing.
As a furth er protection against water freezing, meth anol in- jection
con nections are incorpor at ed into the system upstream of th e exp
ander.
Machin e The exp ander speed is es ta blished by th e manufactu
rer, given th e process conditions. For ma ximum ef- ficiency, the
expander manufactur er determines the wheel di- ameter and specific
speed.
As plan t opera ting con ditions chan ge, th e exp ander speed may
chan ge. Fig. 13-66 shows th e chan ge in efficiency as a function of
chan ge in design flow ra te.
Gas entering the expander is directed by adjustable nozzles into th e
impeller. About one-half of th e pressure drop across the expander
takes place in the nozzles, imparting kinetic en- ergy to the gas which
is convert ed to shaft horsepower by th e expander wheel. Pressure
reductions are norm ally limited to 3-4 rat ios. Greater rat ios reduce
expan der efficie ncy to th e extent that 2-stage expansion may be
advisable.
The adjustable nozzles function as pressure control valves. A pneum
a tic opera tor ta kes a split ra nge signal (3 to 9 psi) to stroke th e
nozzles. On increasing flow beyond th e full open nozzle position, a 9
to 15 psi signal from a pressure con t roller opens a byp ass con t rol
valve. This valve is called th e J-T (Joule-Thomson) valve.
Thru st bearing force imbalance is caused by diffe rence in
pressures between th e expan der discharge and compressor
suction. With a differe ntial of the order of 20 psi, th e th ru st
loads are usually within th e capabilities of th e th ru st bearings.
At higher pressure differentials, it is essential that steps be
ta ken to contr ol th e th ru st loads against each other, th ereby
th e net thru st load will not exceed th e thru st bearing capacity.
This is done by providing a force-measuring load-meter on each th
ru st bearing, Fig. 13-67, and a th ru st con t rol valve which controls
th e th ru st by con t rol of pressure behind th e thrust balancing drums
or behind one of the seals. These two load-meters indicate thrust
bearing oil film pressure (propor- tional to bearing load) and th e th ird
shows th e pressure behind th e balancing dru m as con t rolled by the
valve in its vent as a means of adjusting the thrust load.
13-44
FIG. 13-66
Example Change in Efficiency with Flow Rate
Vibrat ion comes from an unbalanced force on one of th e ro- ta ting
com ponents, or it could come from an outside source such as pipe
vibrat ion or gas pulsation.
Most expanders ar e supplied with monitoring and shutdown devices
for shaft vib rat ion. These devices are set to shut down th e exp ander
before dam age occu rs.
Lube Oil The lube oil must be filtered. Most systems use
a primary and secon dar y fil tering system. Controls are
provided to ensure oil flow to bear ings at proper pressure and
temperat ure. Two (2) lube oil pumps are furn ished, the second
pump serving as a stan dby. The standby oil pump is controlled
automatically to cut in to provide oil pressure upon failure of th
e ma in pump or red uction in pressure for other reasons.
Generally an oil flow bypass valve is included to permit ex- cess
flow to bypass the exp ander bearings and retu rn to th e reservoir.
For temperatu re con t rol, th e oil must be cooled to prohibit heat
buildup which occu rs th rough th e bearings. Also, a temperatu re
con t rol bypass is included in th e circuit for an extra measure of
control to keep the oil from getting too cool.
S eal Gas Use a suitable gas stream with filtering and pressure
con t rol to mainta in proper gas pressure a t th e shaft seals.
If th e seal gas is delivered from a cold supply point (ex- pander inlet
separator) then a means of heat ing the gas is necessary.
The seal gas should be introduced before the lube oil system is start
ed becau se there might be a pressure upset which would put enough
oil into the process to cause a problem.
Each of th e main rota ting compone nts (ra dial bearings, thrust
bearings, and shaft seals) can be damaged or eroded by improper oil
filt ration, lack of oil flow, improper gas dehydra- tion, an d improper
seal gas filtrat ion.
S hu tdo w n A number of conditions during the opera- tion of
expanders justify prompt shut down to avoid serious dam age.
Some of th ese conditions are:
High Vibrat ion
Low Lube Oil Flow
High Inlet Sep arat or Level
 FIG. 13-67
Typical Expander/Compressor Cross-Section with Thrust Balancing Schematic
High Inlet Screen Pr essure Drops
High Thru st
High Lube Oil Temperat ure
Low Lube Oil Pr essure
High Speed
Two primary actions of a shutdown signal ar e to block gas flow to
the expander and the compressor. This is accomplished by actuating
quick acting shutdown valves at the expander inlet and outlet and the
compressor inlet. Simultaneously, a pressurized bladde r supplies oil to
th e bearings during th e expander coast down. The expander bypass
valve (J-T) opens automatically and is positioned by th e split-ra nge
pressure con t rolled to keep th e plant on-line in th e J-T mode.
Fie ld Pe rformance Field measurements can be made to
check efficiencies an d horsepower of th e expander. The process of
calculat ions is just th e reve rse of selecting a machine perfor ma nce.
Knowing th e gas composition, ma ss flow (lbs/hr), inlet and outlet
conditions (press ur e, temperatur e) for the expander, the actu al differe
nce in enth alpy can be determ ined for each unit.
Thu s: h actual ht2 P2 h t1P 1
h actual
h ideal
h actual lbshr
HP actual
2,545
The above power calculat ed for th e expander is th en recon- ciled
to th e calculat ed power con sumed by th e brak e compres- sor. The
brake compressor horsepower is calculat ed from its
13-45
flow, suction an d discha rge conditions, gas composition, and an
assumed efficiency. In practice th e application of this tech-
nique is usually difficult due to lack of precise data . Process
calculat ions based upon overall plant balance data may yield
informat ion to aid in the an alysis of equipment efficiencies.
RE FER ENCE
1. ISR MECHANALYSIS, INC., 6150 Huntley Road, Colum bus, Ohio
43229 .
BIBLIOG RAPHY
1. American Petroleum Institute Stan dar ds:
API 614 - "Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing an d Cont rol Oil Systems
for Special-Purpose Applications".
API 617 - "Centrifugal Compressors for General Refinery Serv- ices".
API 618 - "Reciprocating Compressors for General Refinery Serv- ices".
API 670 - "Non-Cont acting Vibrat ion an d Axial Position Monitor- ing
System".
API 678 - "Accelerometer Based Vibrat ion Monitoring Systems".
2. Bergman n, D./Mafi, S., "Selection Guide for Expan sion Tur-
bines," Hydrocar bon Proces sing, Aug. 1979 .
3. Brown, R. N., "Control Systems for Centrifugal Gas Compres-
sors," Chemical Engineering, Feb. 1964 .
4. Criqui, A. F., "Rotor Dynamics of Centrifugal Compressors," So-
lar Turbines Internat ional, San Jose, Califor nia.
5. Gibbs , C. W., "Compressed Air an d Gas Dat a," Ingersoll Ran d Co.
6. Neerken, R. F. "Compressor Selection for the Pr oces s Industries,"
Chemical Engineering, J an. 1975 .
7. Perry, R. H./Chilton, C. H., "Chemical Engineers Han dbook," Fifth
Edition, Section 6, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New Yor k, New 10.
York .
13-46
8. Reid, C. P., "App licat ion of Tran sd ucers to Rotat ing Machinery
Monitoring an d Ana lysis," Noise Control an d Vibration Red uc-
tion, J an. 1975 .
9. Scheel, L. F., "Gas an d Air Compression Machinery," McGraw- Hill
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Swearingen, J. S., "Turboexpan ders an d Expan sion Pr oces ses for
Industrial Gas," Rotoflow Corp., Los Angeles, Califor nia.