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Standard under-relaxation
Equation to be solved: af = b (1)
Under-relaxation: f = f f new + (1- f ) f old (2)
Apply under-relaxation before solving:
f 1 f old
b
(3)
a
b 1 f old
Equation solved is: a a (4)
f f
f is the implicit under-relaxation factor.
Diagonal dominant is enhanced by dividing a by f , hence enhancing stability of solution.

A small f can give stable but slow convergence, so we want to use the largest possible value.
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Page 2 Siemens PLM Software
Explicit under-relaxation
A larger implicit under-relaxation gives faster but could be unstable convergence, so after solving (4) we
apply a 2nd under-relaxation (to top up!):
new 1 old
(5)
w is the explicit under-relaxation factor.
f 1 f old
b
Substituting (3)
a
into (5) one can show that:
f 1 f old
b
(6)
a
Comparing with standard under-relaxation in (3), the total under-relaxation applied is therefore the
product of the implicit and explicit under-relaxation factors, f .

Implicit and Explicit under-relaxation
Simple explanation:
Under-relaxation factor f is divided into two parts: f = fimp x fexp .
fimp implicit under-relaxation is applied before the equations are solved.
fexp explicit under-relaxation is applied after the equations are solved.
Identical to standard under-relaxation when fexp =1. So standard is all implicit under-relaxation.
Recommendation:
Aim for larger fimp , say larger than 0.5, for faster convergence.
After setting fimp set fexp so that fimp x fexp gives approximately the standard under-relaxation value.
Be aware the combined total under-relaxation is not too small.

Precision
Run in double precision, especially for boiling calculations.
Leave minimum volume fraction to the default. User input value is usually inconsistent to the internal
treatment of minimum volume fraction and cause unexpected spikes in the results.
2nd order scheme is now used by default for momentum and volume fraction. Dropping to 1st order for
volume fraction could help convergence in some cases. Also deactivate secondary gradients.
For mass-transfer problems the pressure-correction may need tighter convergence criteria: lower the AMG
tolerance to 1.E-04 and allow for more cycles. You may have to activate verbosity (low) to get a felling of
how the problem is converging.

Turbulence
Good idea to start with a simple model:

Solve k-epsilon for the continuous phase.
Use turbulence response model for dispersed phase.
Switch on turbulent dispersion force. This is a part of the turbulence model and it helps convergence (due
to its diffusion effect).
Near wall cells should not be too small. Aim for high y+ type cells (i.e. greater than 30).
However, when you need to resolve near wall profiles and gradient, you should use small near wall cells,
say y+ around 5.
All y+ treatment can be used.

Mesh
Cells should not be too small. Ideally, much larger than the particle diameter.
Even for LES, the recommendation is that the cells should be at least 2 times larger than the particle
diameter.
Consequently, over-refinement can have adverse effect on the convergence.
Identify the problem; use thresholds, cell-sets, etc. to pin point the location where residuals (or variable such
as velocity) get to unreasonably high levels. Usually these locations coincide with irregular/degenerated
cells. Improve those cells.

Small volume fraction
When a volume fraction becomes very small convergence can becomes very difficult.
Improve convergence by reducing the interaction length scale, this will increase the drag force such that
both phases have nearly the same velocity (becoming single phase!).
In order not to affect the results, this is done only when the dispersed phase volume fraction is lower
than a certain threshold. For example:
${VolumeFractionAir}>0.01?
0.002:
max(1e-6,0.001*(1-cos(3.1415926*${VolumeFractionAir}/0.01)))

Phase interaction forces
Activate drag forces. Use Tomiyama for bubbles, Schiller-Naumann for droplets. Particles in fluidised
beds have their own set of drag laws.
For turbulence flows, turbulent dispersion force should be on. It is part of the turbulence model and it
generally helps convergence.
Virtual mass force is important for bubbly flows only, it can be neglected for droplets and solid particles.
The lift force in EMP was derived for bubbly flows. Lift force often cause convergence problems, so use
it with care. It can be neglected for droplets and solid particles.
In boiling flows, vapour bubbles are generated at the heated wall and this can lead to very high volume
fraction in the near wall cells. A small lift force with a negative coefficient (say CL=-0.01) can help to
push the bubbles off the wall. This can help convergence.

Phase interaction forces
The phases usually have different densities, so buoyancy force is needed in almost all cases. The
recommendation is to set the reference density to the continuous phase density. In doing so, the
hydrostatic pressure is subtracted from the pressure, so remember this point when examining the
pressure plots.
Find out which phase interaction force cause convergence problems by taking them out one at a time.

Solid particles
Solid particles can not be packed to 100% volume. The maximum packing
density is the maximum volume fraction can be achieved physically.
For spherical particles the maximum packing density is about 0.63.
At an inlet where only particles are dropped in, the maximum solid volume
fraction still can not exceed maximum packing, the rest of the volume is occupied
by the background fluid.
In fact, at maximum packing the particles are jam packed and can not move, this
phenomenon is called jamming.

Steady or transient
For a closed system, transient approach is more appropriate.

A stirred tank with liquid and solid particles. We might think this can be modelled in
steady state, but in fact transient should be used. Why?
The only way to define the particle volume fraction is via the initial condition. Through
the transient term the particle volume fraction is maintained.
In steady state, the initial particle volume fraction is an initial guess which is lost
quickly during the iteration process. Since the volume fraction has not be set as a
condition that must be satisfied, the code can give any particle volume fraction as a
valid solution. So you have an infinite number of possible solutions.
You may get away with steady state with heavy under-relaxation and by correcting the
particle volume fraction externally at the end of each iteration.
The same argument applies when you have a free surface in the geometry. The liquid
level in the tank is set by the initial condition and maintained by the transient term.


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EMP Tips

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017 Realize innovation.

Equation to be solved: af = b (1)

Under-relaxation: f = f f new + (1- f ) f old (2)

Apply under-relaxation before solving:

f is the implicit under-relaxation factor.

Diagonal dominant is enhanced by dividing a by f , hence enhancing stability of solution.

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

Run in double precision, especially for boiling calculations.

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

Good idea to start with a simple model:

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

Consequently, over-refinement can have adverse effect on the convergence.

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

For spherical particles the maximum packing density is about 0.63.

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

For a closed system, transient approach is more appropriate.

Unrestricted Siemens AG 2017

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