Mathematics Education Forum

January 2006, Vol. 1& 11, Issue 17 & 18. Year 9

Gender Difference in Mathematics Achievement: Review

at a Glance Indra
Kumari Bajracharya*

Introduction.
Two different words have been used that imply beliefs about
causation of differences between females and males, i.e. sex and
gender. Gender difference in learning mathematics continued to
attract researcher in recent days. Women education was started very
late in many countries. Differences in the educational opportunities
available for male and female are clearly illustrated by literacy rates of
different societies. Gender equity in mathematics education is always a
complex issue. Although boys and girls take the same course and
textbooks in mathematics in the school, there is difference in
achievement pattern. The literacy rates clearly show the effect of
gender difference in education. Literacy rate for women is 15% where
as male literacy is 40% in Nepal. This kind of difference shows unequal
access to educational opportunities. Lack of equity in education has
been a serious problem in developing countries like Nepal. Variables
such as social systems, culture customs, economic condition and
traditions effect gender equity. In most cases, the trend of sending
girls to schools has been affected by the notion of making them literate
in the first place whereas boys have special focus in educational
activities in part of the family. They are supposed to carry on the social
tradition and expected to generate livelihood. This situation is
attributed to the fact that boys are invaluable and indispensable assets
in the family and society. However, at the present times, number of

*
Lecturer. Mahendra Ratan Campus, Kathmandu, Nepal
school going girls have analyed context of student achievement
statistically.
The pattern of achievement is one of the significant aspects in
educational researches. Student achievement as such is determined by
various factors. International studies, time and again have analysed
contexts of student achievement statistically.
2. Some International Gender related Studies
Differences between females and males in mathematics have
long been observed and discussed among educators and researchers.
A number of researchers investigated the grade or age trend of gender
differences and similarities in mathematics. A consistent conclusion
over the past two to three decades has been the generally similar
achievement between females and males in mathematics in the early
grades (Zhang, Wilson & Manon, 1999; Wilson and Zhang, 1998;
Willingham and Cole, 1997; Cleary, 1992; Hyde, Fennema & Lamon,
1990).
Begley’s findings that a gender gap exists in math achievement
(Begley, 1988; Fan & Chen, 1997; Holden, 1998; Leahey & Guo,
2001; Manning, 1998; Sadker & Sadker, 1994; Shields, 1991; Yun
Dai, 2001). Findings from the Condition of Education 1997 (1998)
indicate that elementary age students have a very small, if any,
gender gap. Instead, the gap increases around the age of thirteen and
continues to expand through the high school and college ages.
Willingham and Cole (1997), in a summary of recent literature on
gender and performance, indicate a general agreement that there is
little overall gender difference in mathematics test scores in
elementary school, some differences appear in middle school, and
average differences favoring males are more common in high school,
particularly on problem-solving.
Data from Project TALENT in the 1960s and NAEP in the 1980s
support the grade trend that the greater gain by males on problem
solving and reasoning occurred in high school, particularly in grades 11
and 12. With regard to gender gaps in mathematics achievement, two
recent meta-analyses of previous studies on this topic have produced
congruent conclusions (Friedman 1989; Hyde, Fennema & Lamon,
1990).
Gender gaps favouring males in mathematics achievement are
relatively small or negligible in early school years, but increase at
higher grades. In general, gender gaps tend to be larger among the
more able students than among students of average ability. Males also
tend to have an advantage over females on test items that measure
problem-solving skills.
Two quantitative syntheses (Steinkamp & Maehr, 1983, 1984)
found gender gaps favouring males in mathematics were larger in
school level. The differences were also larger among junior high school
students than among those in elementary or high school. Benbow and
Stanley (1980, 1983) believe that females do not perform as well as
males in mathematics because females have inferior innate ability in
spatial visualization. This view is challenged by the socialization
theory, according to which gender differences in academic outcomes
are due to influences of the environment--home, school and
community.
A comprehensive review of research on gender differences in
spatial ability (Linn & Petersen, 1986) found that no conclusive
evidence existed to support either argument. On the other hand,
overwhelming evidence indicates that gender differences in
mathematics and science achievement are decreasing over time
(Frazier-Kouassi et al. 1992; Oakes, 1990; Fennema 1985), which is
consistent with the socialization theory.
Astin (1974) finds that boys are more likely than girls to have
informal, mathematically related experiences such as playing with
scientific toys, participating in mathematical games, and reading
mathematics books. Boys also have more problem-solving experiences
outside the mathematics classroom (Kimball 1989).
In a meta-analysis of gender differences in attitudes about
mathematics, Hyde et al. (1990b) report that the magnitude of these
differences diminished over the previous two decades. However, males
still report more encouragement from their parents and teachers than
do their female peers. In addition, males stereotype mathematics as a
“masculine” domain much more than females, though neither gender
holds strongly stereotypical views.

As the gender gap is confidence widens, the gap in interest also

widens. In elementary school, boys and girls show the same level of
interest in mathematics and science as they do in literature and
history. By the time the students go to middle school, female
confidence level in mathematics/ science is low and consequently, so is
their interest level (Linn & Hyde, 1989).

David Yun Dai (2001) found similar results when investigating

gender differences in verbal and mathematics skills among Chinese
adolescents. The study involved 208 tenth graders from a regular and
a key school in China. The males at both schools scored higher than
the females at the schools. Although the boys scored higher, those at
the key school did not expect to do so, yet the males at the regular
school rated themselves higher than the females.
Constance Holden discusses a two-year study of mathematically
talented children. This study shows that there is a stable difference in
males and females and mathematical performance. At the beginning
of the research project, the boys tested higher and they continued to
test higher at the end of the project, regardless of any strategies used
to narrow the gap. Dawn Ferguson (2002) reports similar findings.
She reveals that gender, ethnic background, and socioeconomic status
impact students in the mathematics classroom.
Hsiu-Zu Ho (2002) looks at math anxiety among males and
females and its connection to math achievement in various countries;
China, Taiwan, and the United States. His study indicates that
females’ anxiety toward mathematics is higher than the anxiety level
of males. After studying males in females extensively in all three
countries, Ho determines that the affective mathematics anxiety of
Chinese and United States boys and girls differed very little. Yet, girls
from Taiwan seemed to have a higher anxiety level than boys. In
cognitive math anxiety, Chinese boys and girls were similar, while the
girls from Taiwan and the United States had higher levels of anxiety in
cognitive math. Overall, his research indicates females do not have
more anxiety than males when presented a mathematical problem.
These results of various international researches are quite
important in national studies of mathematics achievement at the
national level and thereby, introduce reforms for better mathematics
achievement.
3. Some Nepalese studies.
In Nepal, there is not any evidence related to gender difference
in academic performance, which based on scientific research.
Therefore, it is not possible to claim about gender difference in
mathematics achievement. Below some study was shown sex
difference in achievement. These studies are
CERID (1982) has conducted a study on national achievement
status of those who have completed Primary schools. The research
entitled- Achievement Study Of Primary School Children
concludes that performance of boys is better than the girls.
CERES conducted a study in 1995 entitled- A Study on the
Impact of Grade One New Materials on Learning and Teaching
also shown in boys' students have performed better (57%) than the girl
students (49%).

Another study conducted by Joshi (1997) entitled-

Determinants of Mathematics Achievement of Grade X
Students for Ph.D. In this study, 431 boys’ students and 423girlswere
used to analyzing mean differences between boys and girls in the
mathematics achievement scores. The achievement score of boys was
higher than the average score of girls in all test and subtest level of
mathematics (arithmetic, algebra and geometry). When variability of
scores was compared girls were found to be more variable than boys
on all subtests although the differences were significant for only the
total test and algebra subtest.
Another, EDSC (1999) conducted entitled- National
Assessment Level Of Grade V Students was submitted to the Basic
and primary Education Project also shown boys achievement did better
than the girls.
CERID (1999) conducted a study entitled- Assessment Of
Learning Achievement Of Lower Secondary Children also boys’
achievement score are better than the girls.
Bajracharya (1999) conducted a study entitled- Achievement in
Mathematics Among the Fifth Grade Student in Some Selected
Schools in Lalitpur result does not support sex difference in
mathematics in primary level.
Neupane (2001) studied entitled- Mathematics Achievement
Of Primary School Children Of Various Ethnic Groups In Nepal
for Ph.d. the researcher was selected 250 boys and 250 girls from
ethnic groups of students. The groups of boys and girls of selected
ethnic groups of student differ from each other with respect to
mathematics achievement. The results shown that boys are better
than girls in the area of mathematics.
 Vaidya (2002) conducted a study entitled- An Investigation
into structural relationships between family dynamics and
students’ school achievements for Ph.D . In this study, 330 male
students and 300 females students were used to asses the differences
between the mathematics achievement scores. The result showed that
the males (348.79) had a higher mean score than their female (339.20)
but it is not significant at .05.

4. Conclusion

The above review researches on gender difference in

mathematics achievement supports the fact that there is a gender gap
in the area of mathematics. Yet reasons behind the context are still in
debate. It seems that males, in general, continued to score better in
mathematics than female students in mathematics. In analyzing the
achievement trends on grades basis generally, similar achievement
trends between male and female students in mathematics in the
primary grades were noticed. However some differences appear in
middle grades too. The average difference favoring male students is
more common in high schools as shown in various international
studies. Some of the gender related studies reveals that different
variables gender, ethnic background, and socioeconomic status has
impact students on learning mathematics. No specific study on gender
related to mathematics learning and achievement in Nepal has yet
carried out. However, some achievement studies have included sex as
a variable among other variable to study achievement in Nepal. But
those studies did not cover gender difference with particular focus. The
results of the reviewed studies justified that gender difference in
learning mathematics is a complex phenomenon of achievement
studies. However, it is needed in the context of Nepalese education to
see how gender works in mathematics achievement in order to imitate
the reform movement in mathematics education for the 21st century
Nepal.

5. References

1. Astin, H. (1974). "Sex differences in mathematical and scientific

precocity", in Julian Stanley, Daniel Keating and Lynn Fox (Eds.),
Mathematical Talent: Discovery, Description, and Development,
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hpkins University Press.
2. Begley, S. (1988). Closing the gender gap. Newsweek, 111 (15),
73. Retrieved May 10, 2002 from KYVL database on the World
Wide Web.
3. Benbow, C.P. & Stanely, J.C. (1980). " Sex differences in
mathematical reasoning ability: More facts, " Science, No.222,
pp. 1029-1031.
4. Benbow, C.P. & Stanely, J.C. (1983). " Sex differences in
mathematical reasoning ability: fact or artifact?" Science,
No.210, pp. 1262-1264.
5. Bajracharya, Indra K., (1999). Achievement in Mathematics
Among The Fifth Grade Student in Some Selected Schools in
Lalitpur, Journal of the Mathematics Education Forum, 11: 5.
Kathmandu.
6. Clark, C. & Gorski, P. (2002) Multicultural education and the
digital divide: Focus on Gender. Multicultural Perspectives, 4
(1), 30-40.
7. CERID, (1999). Assessment of Learning Achievement of Lower-
Secondary Children, Kathmandu: CERID.
8. EDSC, (1999). National Assessment Level of Grade Five
Students, Kathmandu: ESDC.
9. Fan, X. & Chen, M. (1997). Gender differences in mathematics
achievement: Findings from the national education longitudinal
 study of 1988. Journal of Experimental Education, 65 (3), 229-
242.
10. Hsiu-Zu, H. (2000). The affective and cognitive
dimensions of math anxiety: a cross-national study. Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education, 31 (3) 362-380.
11. Joshi, Hemant. (1997). Determinants of Mathematics
Achievement Using Structural Equation Modeling, Ph. D.
Dissertation, University of Alberta. Published (Pub No: NQ23000).
12. Neupane, Shiva Ram. (2001)."Mathematics Achievement of
Primary School Children of Various Ethnic Groups in Nepal",
Unpublished Ph. D Dissertation, Banarasi: FOE, B.H.U.
13. Yun Dai, D. (2000). A comparison of gender differences in
academic self-concept and motivation between high-ability
students. Journal of Secondary Gifted Students, 13 (1) 22-33.