ARTICLE IN PRESS

Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 665–673

www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Marine-current power generation by diffuser-augmented

floating hydro-turbines
F.L. Pontaa,b,, P.M. Jacovkisa,c
a
College of Engineering, University of Buenos Aires, Paseo Colón 850, Buenos Aires C1063ACV, Argentina
b
Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana IL 61801, USA
c
College of Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires (1428), Argentina
Received 20 September 2006; accepted 9 March 2007
Available online 20 June 2007

Abstract

The oceans represent a huge energy reservoir consistent of stored solar and gravitational energy in several forms, causing ceaseless
movements of an enormous volume of water. This energy is generally diffuse but, in many cases, significantly more concentrated than
other forms of renewable energy already being successfully exploited on land. Among the ocean-energy resources, wave and marine-
current energy emerge as the most promising options for massive ocean-energy generation in the immediate future. The main objective of
this paper is to focus on trends that can lead to a feasible massive marine-current-power future scenario, and to introduce a technological
solution which could help to reach that goal. We shall describe the main features of a floating marine-current-power system that
introduces conceptual innovations in order to improve the technical and economical performance.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Marine-current energy; Floating hydro-turbine; Ocean energy; Electricity generation

1. Introduction constructing equipment that could survive long periods in

As the land surface becomes more crowded and its
accessible energetic resources are exhausted, we need to
look increasingly to the sea to provide for our future needs.
In particular, concern to find large, clean, renewable
sources to avoid the environmental problems resulting
from excessive use of fossil fuels makes it timely to start
serious work on developing new methods to extract energy
from the oceans. The oceans represent a huge energy
reservoir consistent of stored solar and gravitational energy
in several forms, causing ceaseless movements of an
enormous volume of water. This energy is generally diffuse
but, in many cases, significantly more concentrated than
other forms of renewable energy already being successfully
exploited on land [1]. In the past, it was technically difficult
to exploit energy from the sea because of the difficulties in
Corresponding author. College of Engineering, University of Buenos
Aires, Paseo Colón 850, Buenos Aires C1063ACV, Argentina.
E-mail address: fponta@fi.uba.ar (F.L. Ponta).
such a harsh and difficult environment. However, recent
developments in offshore engineering (in particular related
to prospection and extraction of hydrocarbons), have
introduced new capabilities. As a matter of fact, many of
these offshore devices have survived so well that a new
problem has arisen, namely how to get rid of them when
the oil has been depleted and their usefulness has expired.
The extended technological experience in design, construc-
tion, and installation of offshore wind farms, gained during
the last decades, may also contribute to the successful
development of ocean-energy technologies.
There are several different oceanic energy forms, which
lend to be exploited in several ways; these were summarized
by Fraenkel and Lewis (see [1, Chapter 2]): wave energy,
marine-current energy, tidal barrages, OTEC (ocean
thermal energy conversion), and osmotic-pressure differ-
ences. Among these ocean-energy resources, wave and
marine-current energy emerge as the most promising
options for massive ocean-energy generation in the
immediate future. The main objective of this article is to

0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2007.04.008
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
666 F.L. Ponta, P.M. Jacovkis / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 665–673
focus on trends that can lead to a feasible massive marine-
current-power future scenario, and to introduce a techno-
logical solution which could help to reach that goal.
1.1. Trends in marine-current energy
Marine currents are caused mainly by the rise and fall of
the tides resulting from the gravitational interactions
between earth, moon, and sun, causing the whole sea to
flow. Other effects such as regional differences in tempera-
ture and salinity and the Coriolis effect due to the rotation
of the earth are also major influences. The kinetic energy of
marine currents can be converted in much the same way
that a wind turbine extracts energy from the wind, using
various types of open-flow rotors [1]. The potential of
electric power generation from marine tidal currents is
enormous. Tidal currents are being recognized as a very
promising resource to be exploited for a future sustainable
scenario of electrical-power generation [2,3]. There are
several factors that make electricity generation from
marine currents very appealing when compared to other
renewables:
 The high load factors resulting from the fluid properties.
 The predictability of the resource, so that, unlike most
of other renewables, the future availability of energy can
be known and planned for [2].
 The potentially large resource that can be exploited with
little environmental impact, thereby offering one of the
least damaging methods for large-scale electricity gen-
eration [4].
 The feasibility of marine-current power installations to
provide also base grid power, especially if two or more
separate arrays with offset peak-flow periods are
interconnected.
Marine-current generation is sometimes confused with
tidal-barrage technology and it also has some common
features with wind-power and low-head hydropower tech-
nology. As a matter of fact, there are many engineering
concepts of the latter two areas which are relevant to marine-
current power (henceforth referred to as MCP). Thus, being
based on well-established technological principles, MCP
systems may be partly conceived and engineered from
existing components originally developed for other purposes.
Hence, there is substantially less uncertainty about MCP
technology than normally applies to totally new generation
methods [1]. As it was stated by Fraenkel and Lewis in [1,
Chapter 2]: the question is not whether it will work or not,
but whether it could be engineered in a feasible way from the
technical–economical point of view.
1.2. Technological challenges to the development of marine-
current turbines
Marine current turbines are relatively new technology
requiring development with specifications that would allow
long term operation at low maintenance whilst submerged
in seawater. Therefore, developmental steps must be
undertaken to investigate the various options for utilizing
appropriate technology which is configured and optimized
to work underwater [2]. The sea environment is substan-
tially harsher than the atmospheric conditions encountered
by wind turbines. Under-water operation would require the
turbine nacelle to be well sealed to prevent damage to the
bearings and other components from the leakage of
pressurized sea water. Corrosion might also constitute a
major problem. Seawater is a saline solution, so any
metallic components will have to be protected from its
chemical action. External surfaces such as blades, tower,
and cases should be galvanized, painted-with or con-
structed-from materials that do not corrode. Debris and
semi-submersible man-made objects carried by the current
may produce severe damage to the blades. Marine growth
as seaweed or other filamentous plants may foul the blades
increasing the drag and hence reducing performance. A
higher blade speed could help to prevent this problem
dislodging these materials at an early stage of their growth.
Repair and routine maintenance of MCP systems will
imply the use of an auxiliary ship and will be more difficult
than for wind turbines. Hence, measures should be taken at
the design stage to reduce the frequency and simplify
maintenance procedures. A design where the mechanisms
are located above the surface or the provision of a device
for raising the turbine unit above the water would allow
servicing to take place on a platform or ocean-going vessel,
simplifying the task substantially. Due to the high density
of seawater, loads exerted on an MCP system will be large.
The structure of the MCP system and its anchoring must
be designed to resist this force in order not to fail.
2. Historical outline of the MCP systems
2.1. Early experiences
The possible use of marine currents as an energy
resource began to draw attention in the mid-1970s after
the first ‘‘oil crisis’’. In 1974 several conceptual designs
were presented at the MacArthur Workshop on Energy,
and in 1976 the British General Electric Co. undertook a
study partially government-founded which concluded that
MCP deserved more detailed research [1]. Soon after, the
ITD-Group in UK implemented a research program
involving a year performance testing of a 3-m hydro-
Darrieus rotor deployed at Juba on the Nile. The 1980s
saw a number of small research projects to evaluate MCP
systems. The main countries where studies were carried out
were the UK, Canada, and Japan. In 1992–1993 the Tidal
Stream Energy Review identified specific sites in UK waters
with suitable current speed to generate up to 58 TWh/year.
It confirmed a total MCP resource capable theoretically of
meeting some 19% of the UK electricity demand.
In 1994–1995 the EU-JOULE CENEX project involved
a resource-assessment compilation of a database of
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F.L. Ponta, P.M. Jacovkis / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 665–673
European locations in which over 100 sites ranging from 2
to 200 km2 of sea-bed area were identified, many with
power densities above 10 MW=km2 .
Both the UK Government and the EU have committed
themselves to internationally negotiated agreements de-
signed to combat global warming. In order to comply with
such agreements, an increase in large-scale electricity
generation from renewable resources will be required.
Marine currents have the potential to supply a substantial
shear of future EU electricity needs [3,5]. The study of 106
possible sites for tidal turbines in the EU showed a total
potential for power generation of about 60 TWh/year. If
this resource is to be successfully utilized, the technology
required could form the basis of a major new industry to
produce clean power for the 21st century [2].
2.2. Alternative technologies in marine-current-power
applications
There are several types of open-flow devices that can be
used in marine-current-power applications; many of them
are modern descendants of the old concept of the water-
wheel or similar. However, the more technically sophisti-
cated designs derived from wind-power rotors are the most
likely to achieve enough cost-effectiveness and reliability to
be practical in a massive marine-current-power future
scenario. Even though there is no generally accepted term
for these open-flow hydro-turbines, some sources refer to
them as water-current turbines (WCT) and we shall adopt
this term henceforth.
There are two main types of WCTs that might be
considered: axial-flow horizontal-axis propellers (with both
variable-pitch or fixed-pitch), and cross-flow vertical-axis
Darrieus rotors. Both rotor types may be combined with
Fig. 1. Conceptual designs of WCT mounted on a monopile as used in the CENEX Technology-Assessment study [3] (taken from [1]).
667
any of the three main methods for supporting WCTs:
floating moored systems, sea-bed mounted systems, and
intermediate (i.e., tension buoy) systems [1].
Sea-bed-mounted monopile structures constitute the
first-generation MCP systems (see Fig. 1). They have the
advantage of using existing (and reliable) engineering
know-how, but they are limited to relatively shallow waters
(about 20 to 40 m depth).
In June 2003, a consortium led by Marine Current
Turbines (MCT) Ltd and IT-Power successfully installed
the world’s first commercial-scale marine-current turbine
1.1 km off the coast of north Devon. With an 11 m rotor
diameter, this is the most powerful device of its kind so far
installed with a 300 kW rated power (see Fig. 2). This pile-
mounted turbine is part of the ‘‘Seaflow’’ project, a 3.5
million project that is being conducted by an industrial
consortium of UK and German companies and supported
by the UK Department of Trade and Industry, the Joule
Programme of the European Commission, and the German
Government. The project is aimed at testing the prototype
turbine, and demonstrating technology, which will be
further developed to a commercially viable stage by MCT
Ltd over the course of the next few years. The technology
under development by MCT Ltd consists of twin-axial flow
rotors with 15–20 m diameter (see Fig. 3), each driving a
generator via a gearbox much like a hydroelectric turbine
or a wind turbine. The twin power units of each system are
mounted on wing-like extensions either side of a tubular
steel monopile with a 3 m diameter, which is set into a hole
drilled into the seabed from a jack-up barge (source: http://
www.marineturbines.com).
Floating systems and totally-submerged systems for use
in deeper waters would constitute the next generation.
Totally submerged systems have the disadvantage of being
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
668 F.L. Ponta, P.M. Jacovkis / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 665–673
Fig. 2. Prototype of the 300 kW pile-mounted turbine being tested in the
Bristol Channel at Lynmouth, North Devon, England (source: MCT Ltd).
Fig. 3. Artist’s impression of a row of tidal current turbines, one of them
raised for maintenance (source: MCT Ltd).
more difficult to mount and maintain and of a greater
exposition to the harsh marine environment due to the
higher pressure under which they would operate. On the
other hand, floating systems present several advantages for
deep-water operation:
 They may be easily installed. Essentially, they are
towed-to and then moored-in position;
 They are easier to remove if a major repair task is
needed or if relocation is necessary;
 Routine maintenance is substantially simpler because it
is mostly carried on close-to or over the surface.
Floating systems have been successfully tested in recent
years. Besides the above mentioned ITD-Group’s one-year
Fig. 4. The 10 kW tidal stream turbine tested in Loch Linnhe, Scotland,
1994. (O. Paish, IT Power. Taken from [1]).
experience in Juba with a floating Darrieus WCT, a
consortium formed by Scottish Nuclear Ltd, IT-Power and
NEL developed an experimental MCP–WCT with a 3.5-m
axial-flow rotor suspended below a floating catamaran
pontoon (see Fig. 4). It developed 15 kW in a 2.25 m/s
current in Loch Linnhe, Scotland, in May 1994 [1].
In the following sections we shall describe the main
features of a floating-WCT concept which uses a channel-
ing device integrated into the flotation system. In this
design, a vertical-axis straight-bladed Darrieus rotor is
used, and the mechanical components are located in a
protected case over the surface.
3. The diffuser-augmented floating hydroturbine
In the ISEP Research Lab at the College of Engineering
of the University of Buenos Aires (henceforth referred to as
FIUBA), we developed a floating WCT that introduces
conceptual innovations to improve its performance [6]. The
purpose is to obtain an autonomous, self-regulated, low-
cost, and long-lifetime device. The principal innovation is
the introduction of a channeling device integrated into the
flotation system. This is the first WCT design that employs
channeling of the current as a means to improve
performance.
3.1. Conceptual statement of the new design
The proposed design for this diffuser-augmented floating
hydro-turbine consisted of two pontoons set side-by-side
(see Fig. 5), with a vertical-axis Darrieus rotor set between
them. The interior of the pontoons is shaped in such a way
as to form a variable section open channel that helps to
increase flow speed in the neighborhood of the rotor. The
introduction of a channeling device as a fixed element
allows the power output of a rotor of a given size to be
amplified, or the same power output to be obtained from a
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F.L. Ponta, P.M. Jacovkis / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 665–673
Fig. 5. Perspective view of the FIUBA’s diffuser-augmented floating
WCT.
smaller rotor. Reduction of the size of moving parts
simplifies the design process and reduces initial cost of the
unit. The introduction of a channeling device also produces
two effects:
(1) For a rotor of a given geometrical design (i.e., of a
given tip-speed ratio at normal operational conditions),
a smaller rotor size translates into a higher rotational
speed for the same flow speed.
(2) The flow speed in the neighborhood of the rotor is
higher than the current speed, which also contributes to
increase the rotational speed of a machine of a given
power.
If the rotational speed of the turbine shaft must be
geared up to reach the operational speed of a standard
electric generator (e.g., 1500 RPM for a four-pole ma-
chine), the flow speed increment produced by the channel-
ing device allows the elimination of the low-speed stages of
the gear box. These low-speed stages are the most
expensive, since they are the largest and strongest due to
the high torques they have to transmit. Their elimination,
then, greatly reduces the transmission-system cost. Even if
a multi-pole generator is installed in order to avoid the use
of a gear box, the use of a channeling device is still
convenient, because it helps to reduce the size and cost of
the multi-pole machine.
The channeling device also acts as a flow speed amplifier
with a high gain at low current velocities and with a
progressive reduction of gain when the current speed
increases. Thus, the channeling device acts as a regulator,
stabilizing flow speed in the neighborhood of the rotor.
This regulation effect would eliminate the need of a control
system, or at least allow for its substantial simplification,
depending on the quality-of-power demanded. Moreover,
similarly as it happens with wind turbines, output power
669
depends on the cube of flow speed; then, small variations of
flow speed produce very significant fluctuations of mechan-
ical power. The electric generator is usually designed for
normal operation at medium-speed flow regimes, and some
mechanism is incorporated to limit mechanical power in
high-speed periods. There are several strategies to regulate
the mechanical output power in order to avoid damage to
the electrical generator after its rated power is attained. In
high-power applications practically all those strategies
involve the use of aerodynamic control devices (with their
associated actuator mechanisms), or high-power electro-
nics, or a combination of both. The introduction of a
channeling device would reduce (or even eliminate) the
need for these devices. The total or partial absence of a
control system implies a lower cost per installed kW,
because control is one of the main components of the total
initial investments and the maintenance expenses. Besides,
the operational speed range of the machine would be
extended, significantly improving load factor. Output
power would be kept within a narrower range, so that
generation of the same amount of energy would require a
smaller installed power capacity, reducing investments in
equipment.
3.2. Design and optimization of the channeling device
The behavior of the channeling device depends on the
geometry of the hydrodynamic profile of the pontoons.
Internal channeling consists of three essential parts:
Nozzle, which accelerates the flow so that the velocity in
the neighborhood of the rotor is higher than the current
speed;
Straight channel, which contains the rotor and maintains
(as far as possible) flow uniformity in the rotor zone;
Diffuser, which adjusts the flow to the outlet conditions
after passing through the rotor zone.
In a zone projected upstream of the bow, the flow divides
itself into a part that flows between the pontoons (internal
flow) and another part that flows outside (external flow).
To control the external flow, we added two other parts to
our analysis:
Bow, responsible for a smooth development of the flow
upstream of the nozzle inlet (reducing, as far as possible,
energy dissipation through wave formation);
Deflectors, intended for transferring energy from
external-flow layers to the internal ones by creating a
suction zone downstream of the machine which accelerates
the internal flow and compensates for the energy extracted
by the rotor.
Our initial design was based on results of a theoretical
model of the internal flow (see [6, Appendix A]).
Subsequently, we implemented an experimental program
with the purpose of optimizing the performance of the
channeling device. To this end, we built a series of scale
models with different combinations of bows, deflectors,
nozzles and diffusers (see some examples in Fig. 6).
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670 F.L. Ponta, P.M. Jacovkis / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 665–673

Fig. 6. Four examples of hydrodynamic profiles tested: Panel (a), E1A6; Panel (b), D1B3; Panel (c), E1A3; and Panel (d), A0A1.

We built 24 models, each one identified by a four-
character alphanumeric code (see Fig. 7). These models
have been tested (see Fig. 8) in the towing-tank facilities of
the Department of Naval Engineering at FIUBA. Experi-
mental results confirmed the inherent advantages of using a
channeling device: the flow speed in the neighborhood of
the rotor increases with respect to a classic WCT that lacks
this device (see Fig. 9). Besides, the flow speed in the
neighborhood of the rotor becomes steadier, i.e., less
dependent on current speed.
Fig. 10 shows the same results as percentage of flow
speed increment in the rotor zone with respect to current
speed. Through the development of a series of profiles we
were able to improve the flow-speed increment and to shift
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F.L. Ponta, P.M. Jacovkis / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 665–673 671

Fig. 7. Construction of a model of the channeling-device for hydrodynamic test. Left plate: undergrad students C. Ponce Arnouil and M. Acevedo riveting
the internal reticulated structure of a pontoon. Right plate: Dr. F. Ponta tracing the profile of the bottom flat-plate on the rough aluminum sheet.

Fig. 8. Towing-tank test of a hydrodynamic profile for the channeling-device. Left plate: Prof. C. Luna Pont and undergrad student H. Domı́nguez
introducing the model into the towing tank. Right plate: mounting the model on the towing unit.

3.6 combination of characteristics: high speed gain at low to

3.4 medium current speeds and adequate attenuation at high
3.2 speeds. Subsequently, we continued working on evolutions
3 of the E1A6 profile.
2.8
Fig. 11 shows the estimated power output as a function
Flow Speed (m /s)

2.6
of current speed for a classic WCT and for a WCT
provided with an E1A6-profiled channeling device. Calcu-
2.4
lations were computed for a small 5 kW prototype turbine.
2.2
Note that the performance of the classic WCT decays
2 Profile A0A1
notably at low speeds, which is avoided in the E1A6-WCT
1.8 Profile E1A6
Classic WCT
case because of the self-regulating effect introduced by the
1.6 channeling device.
Profile D1A1
1.4 Profile D1B3
1.2 Profile E1A3 4. Concluding remarks and outlook for further work
1
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
We have presented an overview of the general issues
Current Speed (m /s)
associated to MCP generation, analyzing the actual techno-
Fig. 9. Flow speed in the neighborhood of the rotor as a function of the logical alternatives and proposing a new design intended as a
current speed for different profiles of the channeling device. prototype for future second-generation MCP systems.
We want to point out two particular aspects:
the peak of the increment towards the low-speed zone,
which implies that flow stabilization occurs earlier. As may (1) The fact that in our design all the mechanical
be observed, the E1A6 profile shows the most interesting components are located in a protected case over the
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672 F.L. Ponta, P.M. Jacovkis / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 665–673

100 (2) There still remains to be considered the question of

Profile A0A1 rotor’s materials and construction techniques. The
90
Profile E1A6 11 m-diameter rotor used in the above-mentioned
80 Profile D1A1 Seaflow project (see Fig. 2) has two blades, primarily
Profile E1C3 of glass fiber but with carbon-fiber reinforced main
Speed Increment (%)

70
Profile E1A3 spars. Steel blades were considered initially, but the
60 models tested proved to be heavy [7]. On the other
Profile D1B3
50 hand, in our design, power concentration associated
with the reduction in the size of the rotor would
40
increase the structural stresses on the blades and shaft.
30 At first sight, this would appear as a disadvantage.
20
Nevertheless, the fact that we were dealing with a
smaller rotor would allow us to change the philosophy
10 of design: instead of thinking in a set of relatively light
0 long blades sweeping the entire cross-section of the
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 open-flow device as in a wind turbine, we are now
Current Speed (m/s) focusing on a heavier rotor where the channeled-
Fig. 10. Speed increment in the neighborhood of the rotor as a function of
concentrated power is exerted on; a concept perhaps
the current speed for different profiles of the channeling device. more similar (at least in materials and construction) to
a naval propeller or to the runner of a classical
hydroelectric turbine.
10
We intend to continue our work with a more detailed
9 E1A6 -WCT analysis of the structure and mechanisms of our design. A
particular point to consider in the future is the fact that a
8 Classic WCT
good share of the internal volume of the pontoons is
empty. That is to say, this space (created by enclosing
7
surfaces which play a hydrodynamical role in the channel-
Output Power (kW)

6 ing device) should be open to the sea in order not to exceed

the buoyancy necessary to keep the machine afloat. We are
5 thinking now that these empty spaces might be used as air
chambers to operate as oscillating-water-column systems
4 driving a Wells self-rectifying turbine as in a typical
floating system of wave-energy conversion. This will
3 provide an extra source of power helping to repay the
investment in materials to manufacture the channeling
2
device. Moreover, it will also contribute to reduce the
oscillations of the system due to wave action by damping
1
the wave energy, which will improve the performance of
0 the channeling device in rough weather.
1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
Current Speed (m/s) Acknowledgments
Fig. 11. Comparison of output-power curves for a classic WCT and for a
WCT provided with an E1A6-profiled channeling device.
We would like to acknowledge the valuable collabora-
tion of H. Domı́nguez, C. Ponce Arnouil and M. Acevedo.
surface minimizes (or virtually eliminates) the problem We are very grateful for the financial support made
of sealing the shaft to protect the bearings and other available by the University of Buenos Aires through
components from the leakage of pressurized sea water. Grants UBACyT-Pr.2001/04(I-17) and Pr.2004/07(I-56),
This layout also presents the advantage that all the by the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research through
mechanical and electrical gear may be quite accessible Grant FA9550-06-1-0516, and by Fundación Antorchas.
to easy on-deck maintenance or could even be F.L.P. would also like to acknowledge the hospitality of
completely replaced by a new set located in a container the Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering of
shipped to the site by the auxiliary vessel. The damaged the University of Illinois.
set would be uncoupled from the supporting structure, We want to dedicate this work to the memory of Prof.
replaced by the new one and sent to an on-shore Carlos Luna Pont, who was in life deeply involved in this
reparation facility, which would substantially simplify project and many more that we developed together at the
the repair task and reduce the out-of-service time. ISEP research-lab in FIUBA.
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