EXPERIMENTAL ENGINE

CHARACTERIZATION FOR SPRING DESIGN

OF NOVEL AUTOMOTIVE STARTER

Thesis

Submitted to

The School of Engineering of the

UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

The Degree of

Master of Science in Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

By

Jonathan W. Lauden

UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON

Dayton, Ohio

May, 2013
 EXPERIMENTAL ENGINE CHARACTERIZATION FOR SPRING DESIGN OF

NOVEL AUTOMOTIVE STARTER

Name: Lauden, Jonathan W.

APPROVED BY:

David Myszka, Ph.D. Andrew Murray, Ph.D.

Advisor Committee Chairman Committee Member
Associate Professor, Department of Professor, Department of Mechanical
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering and Aerospace Engineering

Philip Doepker
Committee Member
Professor Emeritus, Department of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

John G. Weber, Ph.D. Tony E. Saliba, Ph.D.

Associate Dean Dean, School of Engineering
School of Engineering & Wilke Distinguished Professor

ii

c Copyright by

Jonathan W. Lauden

All rights reserved

2013
 ABSTRACT

EXPERIMENTAL ENGINE CHARACTERIZATION FOR SPRING DESIGN OF NOVEL

AUTOMOTIVE STARTER

Name: Lauden, Jonathan W.

University of Dayton

Advisor: Dr. David Myszka

Automotive starting systems require substantial amounts of mechanical energy in a short period

of time. Lead-acid batteries have historically provided that energy through a motor. Springs have

been identified as an alternative energy storage medium and are well suited to engine-starting ap-

plications due to a long service life and the ability to rapidly deliver substantial mechanical power.

Spring-based engine starters exist for large commercial diesel engines but are not readily available

for automobiles. A conceptual spring-based engine starter has been developed at the University of

Dayton, including assembly of a proof-of-concept prototype. This research continued the develop-

ment of the spring-starter system, with the objective of determining whether a spring of acceptable

size could provide the required torque and rotational speed to start an automobile engine. Engine

testing was required to determine the torque and engine speed during cranking, followed by predict-

ing engine response for several spring options. A 600 cm3 displacement inline 4-cylinder internal

combustion engine was acquired as a scaled down approximation of an automobile engine. The

starter motor was tested with a Prony brake to determine the torque produced as a function of cur-

rent draw. The engine was then cranked by the starter, and current draw was measured with engine
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position over time. Engine torque over time was determined from current data. The polar moment

of inertia of the rotating mass of the engine was found by observed data, and an equation relating

engine torque, acceleration, and friction was developed to characterize the engine during cranking.

This equation was used with spring design equations to build a Simulink model of predicted engine

response for a spring of given stiffness and initial displacement. Results predict that the test engine

could be started by a torsional spring of steel with diameter and length of approximately 6 in. This

is similar in size to the electrical starting system of the engine, suggesting that a torsional spring of

reasonable size is capable of starting an automobile engine. Work is still required to determine how

such a spring would be mounted, rewound, and controlled in an automotive context.

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For my wife

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This would not have been possible without a significant number of people. Thank you to Josh

Nieman, Travis Schubert, and Andrew Hazlett who all provided assistance in this research at some

point, and to Ali Almandeel, Bingjue Li, Lin Li, and Yuxuan Tong for their company during long

hours at the lab. I am grateful also for the guidance and availability of Drew Murray and Dave

Myszka, whose office doors seem to be perpetually open. Lastly I would like to acknowledge my

family for their support and encouragement in making this a reality.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

I. SPRING ENERGY AND MECHANICAL STARTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Use of Springs for Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Carbon Nanotubes as a Spring Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Background on Mechanical Starters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Basic Spring-Starter Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Automotive Spring Starting . . . . . . . . . . 8

II. ENGINE SELECTION AND VALIDATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.1 Engine Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.2 Engine Condition and Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

III. STARTER MOTOR CHARACTERIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.1 Experiment Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Results and Calculation of Torque Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

IV. ENGINE CHARACTERIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4.1 Experiment Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3 Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4 Engine Model Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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V. SPRING SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.1 Sizing the Starter Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5.2 Simulink Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 3D CAD model of the Proof-of-Concept Prototype (adapted from [7]. . . . . . . . 6

1.2 Diagram of Kineteco spring starter mechanism (adapted from [3]). . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3 Potential locations for a mechanical starter in two General Motors automobile en-
gines (adapted from [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.1 Picture of the Proof-of-Concept Prototype. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.2 The Yamaha XJ600 motorcycle engine chosen for testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.3 Exploded view of the Mitsuba SM-13 starter motor (adapted from [13]). . . . . . . 15

2.4 The Yamaha XJ600S starter system (adapted from [13]). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.5 Engine after removal of fuel system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.6 The timing plate with both proximity sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.1 Diagram of Prony brake experiment setup used in starter motor testing. . . . . . . . 20

3.2 The Prony brake experiment setup to determine the starter motor torque constant. . 21

3.3 The shunt resistor and relay used to measure current during starter motor experi-
mentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.4 Starter motor current vs torque data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4.1 Proximity sensor and mounting bracket used initially to measure crankshaft position
over time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

ix
4.2 Engine test setup for determining starter motor current and crankshaft position while
starting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4.3 Data from proximity sensor depicting crankshaft position over time during startup
exhibits significant resolution scatter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4.4 Crankshaft position vs. time for Configuration 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.5 Proximity sensor data indicating the rising and falling edges corresponding to mea-
surable crank angles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.6 VLC software screenshot displaying one frame that includes four position measure-
ments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.7 Shunt resistor data used to identify voltage spike when starter motor is switched on. 36

4.8 Starter shaft torque vs. time for Configuration 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.9 Regression model curves and crankshaft position data over time. . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.10 Comparison of torque and acceleration vs. time at the crankshaft. . . . . . . . . . . 42

4.11 Polar moment of inertia of the rotational mass of the engine at the crankshaft. . . . 43

4.12 Starter shaft torque vs. time for Configuration 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.13 Estimated torque contributions from friction, throttling, and compression. . . . . . 46

5.1 Simulink model of engine position over time for a spring-start. . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5.2 Simulated engine response for an example spring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

6.1 The test engine and 3D CAD model showing potential starter locations. . . . . . . 55

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 CHAPTER I

SPRING ENERGY AND MECHANICAL STARTERS

Starting a standard gasoline or diesel internal combustion (IC) engine requires cranking by an

outside source. Electric motors are used to do this today, but early vehicle engines were started

with hand cranks which proved to be difficult and dangerous for the operator. If the engine is

cranked with too little force or was at a position of the engine cycle that made it resistant to starting,

it could backfire and cause injury to the hand crank operator [1]. Charles Kettering invented the

device that solved this issue. His electric self-starter was patented in 1915 in Dayton, Ohio, and was

a considerable step forward in the development of automobiles [2]. The power and convenience

provided by electric starters established the dominance of automobiles containing IC engines, as

seen to this day. Electric starters also allowed more powerful engines to be safely implemented,

contributing to the rise of the automobile.

Even though the electric starter is ubiquitous, back-up spring-powered engine starters have been

developed to overcome a dead battery or other electrical issues [3]. These spring-powered starters,

typically mounted on stationary engines in addition to an electric starter, require hand cranking to

charge. The danger from starting an engine by hand-cranking is eliminated to the operator by storing

the energy as strain and then releasing the energy to the engine as a separate step. The extra weight

of the spring starter is not an issue for stationary applications. In vehicles, however, this additional

weight is a significant concern that must be addressed.

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1.1 Use of Springs for Energy Storage

From strictly an energy content perspective, springs are inferior to gasoline and batteries. Gaso-

line has an energy density of 14.8 million ft-lb/lb (43,000 kJ/kg). Even considering the potential

inefficiencies associated with a relatively large, heavy engine that includes a radiator (or similar

system to manage waste heat), an air inlet, and an exhaust pipe, it is clear from an energy stand-

point why gasoline is used as a first choice in comparison to the other options. Lithium-ion polymer

batteries used in conventional hybrid vehicles have an energy density of about 200,000 ft-lb/lb (600

kJ/kg), less than 2% of gasoline. For spring steel, the energy density is in the range of 100 ft-lb/lb

(0.3 kJ/kg) for a band in uniaxial strain. This is about 0.05% versus the battery, and 0.0005% versus

gasoline. Perhaps slightly more promising, hyperelastic materials (e.g., rubber) can produce energy

densities in the range of 4000 ft-lb/lb (12 kJ/kg), about 2% versus batteries and 0.02% of gasoline.

Finally, springs (especially coil springs) typically expose the material to torsion or bending and are

configured to allow very stiff materials to undergo relatively large strains in a small package. The

amount of energy stored in torsion or bending is approximately 2/3 that of a uniaxial band. Thus,

the energy density of a typical steel coil spring is on the order of 70 ft-lb/lb (0.2 kJ/kg). Still, springs

are used for energy storage in mechanical devices, such as lift assist on garage doors.

Where applications require rapid extraction of energy, springs (and other mechanical systems)

have an advantage. Springs store energy as potential mechanical energy, and can release all their

stored energy almost instantaneously (with the upper limit being the speed of sound in the spring

material). Actually, the engineering challenge is to keep them from releasing all their energy at

once. So, even though springs contain barely a fraction of the energy of a battery or a tank of fuel,

the energy can be released rapidly in a useful manner. This is ideal for a starter where a small

amount of energy, but a large amount of power is needed. Thus, materials in strain may provide

2
advances in starters that are of acceptable mechanical complexity, cost-effective, environmentally

benign, safe, and capable of storing and delivering a controlled burst of energy.

1.2 Carbon Nanotubes as a Spring Material

As with battery operated systems, the weight and energy storage capacity of a spring system is

dependent on the energy storage medium. Thus, technological advances in springs would also con-

stitute an advancement for spring-based systems. One such technology, carbon nanotubes (CNTs),

is currently under development and looks especially promising. Current research shows that (CNTs)

have great potential as springs for elastic energy storage [4]. The springs are constructed with a large

number of long, small-diameter, single-wall CNTs, arranged in well-ordered groupings and loaded

in tension. Commonly found spring materials include spring steels and rubber [5, 6], but the CNT

spring differs from these materials in the exceptional mechanical properties that it offers. They are

extremely stiff, with an effective elastic modulus of E = 1.45 108 psi (1000 GPa), lightweight

with a density of = 0.081lb/in3 (2250 kg/m3 ), and demonstrating experimentally verified elastic

strains  = 6% to as high as 20% in the absence of defects. These properties translate to a predicted

energy density of w = 2.7 105 to 16.7 105 lb-ft/lb (800 to 5000 kJ/kg). Given that the energy

density of lithium-ion batteries w = 200, 000 ft-lb/lb (600 kJ/kg), this represents an estimated 60%

to 1000% energy density increase. Currently, CNTs have been grown up to 18 cm in length, and

CNT springs have been constructed to 5 mm lengths. Material processing research, a method to

load many CNT springs evenly, and the effective attachment of end mounts must still be developed.

Yet, if solutions are found to these challenges, the substantial increase in energy density would give

spring-based systems an advantage over those powered by batteries, and adds to the motivation for

development of spring-based energy storage systems.

3
1.3 Background on Mechanical Starters

Three potential uses for a spring-driven mechanical starter have been identified: in high torque

applications such as diesel trucks, in vehicles for low-cost or developing markets, and for a dual

start capacity in strong hybrids. In the first two cases, the design has significant overlap, although

the sizing of the device would be vastly different. A purely spring-driven mechanical starter will

require more time between starts as compared to traditional electric starters, and only those markets

willing to allow for such time can be considered. Hence, their use in diesel trucks or low-cost

markets is ideal. In a strong hybrid, the IC engine is frequently turned off to conserve fuel. As

electric starters for these engines have kilowatt-level power requirements and rapid cycling, the

frequent starts reduce battery life even though the power consumed is a small portion of the battery

capacity. In this application, a spring can be implemented with the electric motor allowing the

engine to be started from either source. This combination is referred to as the dual starter and would

reduce the continual demands on the battery.

1.4 Basic Spring-Starter Operation

For the purpose of the research presented herein, a simple starter system design is proposed.

The spring is a steel torsional type through which a shaft is passed. One end of the spring is rotated

by a worm gear drive, storing energy in the spring. The other end is coupled to an output shaft

via a pair of spur gears. A latching mechanism is placed between the spring and spur gears and is

engaged when necessary to prevent the system from releasing energy. A one-way or overrunning

clutch is mounted to the output shaft such that the system delivers power to the engine when starter

shaft speed is greater than engine speed.

The device is charged by rotating the input shaft of the worm gear drive while the latching

mechanism is engaged. The energy required to charge the spring is provided by connecting a small

4
DC motor to drive the worm gear input shaft. The device is discharged by releasing the latching

mechanism, thus allowing the spring to exert torque on the spur gears. The spur gears are chosen

during the design process to give the output shaft the rotational velocity required to start the engine.

In most vehicles and automobiles in particular, it is preferred to have some electrical energy

available, for instances when the engine is not running but use of the headlights, hazard lights,

radio, or other accessories is still desired. Electrical energy storage in the form of a small battery

is required for these vehicles, and the DC motor can be powered by the battery and recharged after

the engine is running. In a situation where lights and accessories are only required to be operational

when the engine is running, the electrical energy required for the DC motor can be supplied solely

by the vehicles alternator, and the battery is no longer necessary.

The ability to use a hand crank to recharge the system from a depleted state remains a highly

attractive feature, and requires that the input shaft of the worm gear mate with a wrench or other

hand tool. A means by which this could be accomplished involves modifying the worm gear input

shaft and worm gear box. The worm gear input shaft would be lengthened, so that the shaft extended

a short distance beyond the shaft bearings and worm gear box in both directions. Both ends of the

shaft would be exposed, allowing the DC motor to drive one end and a wrench the other. A proof-

of-concept prototype was developed to test the proposed system [7], and a 3D model is shown in

Fig. 1.1. The prototype did not include the dual-input worm gear feature to maintain simplicity, and

was built with a hand crank, rather than a motor, to provide the energy to charge the spring.

Worthy of note is that spring driven starters are already commercially available from several

manufacturers. See, for example, the Kineteco spring starter shown in Fig. 1.2 and Startwell [8]

devices. These starters are designed for large diesel engines in marine and generator applications

where electrical power may not be available. In the Kineteco starter, a user fits a crank to the end of

the input shaft; the other end of the shaft mates with a bevel gear, which then rotates a ball screw.

5
Figure 1.1: 3D CAD model of the Proof-of-Concept Prototype (adapted from [7].

6
 Figure 1.2: Diagram of Kineteco spring starter mechanism (adapted from [3]).

Belleville springs are oriented such that the shaft passes through their centers, and are stacked.

When the ball screw rotates, it forces a ball cage to move along the axis of the screw, exerting a

compressive force on the stack of Belleville springs. Of smaller engines, a spring starter is available

as the Touch-N-Mow Starter found on some Briggs & Stratton lawnmower models [9]. No spring

starters appear to be available for automotive applications. However, the existence of these three

commercially successful starters suggests that spring starters could be adapted for smaller gasoline

engines.

For an automotive engine system, the volume and weight to which the system is constrained

is highly important. However, for a spring-driven starter, the elimination of the traditional starter

motor and full scale battery needed to drive it provide an ample space and weight margin for such

a device. Roughly speaking, the traditional electric starter and battery weigh about 55 pounds. The

7
Figure 1.3: Potential locations for a mechanical starter in two General Motors automobile engines
(adapted from [11].

spring-driven starter on its own, with the much smaller battery needed to charge it, is estimated

to weigh about 30 pounds. A quick assessment of the space needed for the dual start option and

the configuration of current engines suggests, however, that the room may be available. Fig. 1.3

indicates potential packaging locations on two current General Motors engines [10].

1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Automotive Spring Starting

A spring powered automotive engine starter would have several unique traits when compared

to electrical starting systems. Of the advantages presented by these systems, the potential for these

systems to be charged by hand is perhaps the most appealing. This could appeal not only to drivers

but to owners of riding lawnmowers, motorcycles, snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, snowblowers

and other medium-sized engines that consumers may own, many of which have lead acid batteries.

A spring starter may be especially attractive to this market because often these vehicles are used

seasonally. Lead acid batteries need to be replaced if left unused for long periods of time, which is

a feature steel springs do not share.

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 Steel springs also have a well defined fatigue life, that can be theoretically infinite with the ap-

propriate design considerations [11]. Lead acid batteries may last many years, but they are certainly

not immortal. Other advantages of springs include a relatively low cost compared to typical electric

starting systems, and springs possess a high power density. Despite having a lower energy density

than other forms of energy storage, springs are able to release their stored power almost instanta-

neously. Ideally, a mechanical starter design would reduce the size and weight of the components

of the starting system and could therefore decrease the use of more valuable and environmentally

harmful heavy metals such as the lead in their large batteries.

Among potential disadvantages is the inability to crank the engine for an extended period of

time, if the engine initially does not start. Rather, in the event of a failed start, a spring powered

starter would need time to be recharged before another starting attempt is possible. This would

lengthen the time required to start the engine, which may be unacceptable to the user. Efficiency

may decline slightly as well, as energy from the battery would pass through a motor to a worm gear,

then into the spring, and lastly through the starter shaft, and to the crankshaft. Each step in this

process includes at least a nominal loss of energy to heat, through friction or electrical resistance,

or temperature increase of the spring material.

In the dual start configuration, a spring starter has several additional features. A dual starter

would allow the engine to be started from the spring or an electric motor and battery. Thus, while

heavier and more expensive than a traditional electric starter, the dual-start system would allow

for immediate restart in the event of a failed start. The benefit to using a dual start system over a

traditional electric starter is that the dual start system would significantly reduce the number of high

amperage cycles on the starting system allowing for greater starter system life. This benefit would

be more pronounced on a micro-hybrid which has a large number of starting cycles compared to a

traditional IC engine vehicle.

9
 In commercial freight trucks, a bulky system is necessary for starting the engine, requiring two

large lead-acid batteries and a similarly large electric starter motor in order to supply the power

to start the diesel engine [12]. Additionally, the majority of truck travel is by highway. Thus,

having a large starting system produces a disproportionate situation where this large system is used

infrequently. Furthermore, diesel engines equipped with a typical starter system require electricity

to start, but not necessarily to run. Therefore, an unexpected loss of electricity produces a situation

where the vehicle is inoperable, even though the engine itself remains functional. These issues can

be solved by implementing a spring-based starter in large commercial freight vehicles. A spring

starter has the potential to be smaller and lighter, increasing fuel and space economy.

Additional research, similar to that presented in this thesis, is required to determine whether a

spring starter would save weight. Battery and electric motor weight would be reduced, but this could

be offset by the increased weight required of the spring for an engine start, due to the springs lower

energy density. Similarly, it is unknown whether efficiency will be acceptable. In terms of cost

however, there may well be an advantage for springs. The benefit that remains the most impressive,

and perhaps also the most marketable in an age of ever-increasing automotive safety requirements,

is a hand-charging ability. If a market segment was found that desired a hand cranking ability, small

concessions in size, weight, or efficiency, may be acceptable.

10
 CHAPTER II

ENGINE SELECTION AND VALIDATION

Preceding the research presented in this thesis, a proof-of-concept prototype for the spring

starter system was developed [7], as outlined in Ch. I. The prototype operated as intended and

was considered a success in demonstrating the viability of the design. However, compromises were

made in the development of the prototype to keep the device appropriately simple. One fundamental

simplification was the substitution of a disc-shaped weight in place of an engine. A photograph of

the prototype is given in Fig. 2.1. Additionally, little consideration was given to minimizing size or

weight of the design.

Due to these compromises, the initial prototype offered limited insight as to how such a device

would work when designed for and paired with a specific IC engine. Thus, the next steps in de-

velopment of the system concept, which are explained in the following pages, were decided. An

engine was to be purchased that included an electric starting system. The engine was required to be

representative of a common configuration of automobile engine, and was to be tested to determine

the torque and velocity required to start, providing design criteria that a spring-based system would

ideally meet or exceed. The engine would then be represented by a mathematical model to find the

response for several different torsional springs. If the spring maintained cranking of the engine over

several revolutions, it would suggest that the concept is feasible, and that further refinement of the

design is worthwhile.
11
 Figure 2.1: Picture of the Proof-of-Concept Prototype.

2.1 Engine Selection

The first step was to obtain an engine which would serve as the basis for testing. The test engine

was required to meet the criteria of being relatively inexpensive, transportable, safe for a laboratory

environment, and in good mechanical condition. The engine was also required to be either an

automobile engine or an engine of similar size and configuration that would closely approximate an

automobile engine.

Of all available options, motorcycle engines were found to have the most attractive and practical

characteristics for testing. Motorcycles are able to fit into a laboratory environment without modifi-

cation, possess exposed engines that are easy to access, and are relatively inexpensive. Motorcycles

also have many similarities to automobile engines: both commonly possess four cylinders in an

inline configuration, and both are available with electric starters. This is important, as it increases

the ability of the test results to predict the behavior of an automobile engine.
12
 Other engine types considered were lawnmower engines and automobile engines. An auto-

mobile engine would be ideal for this research as this is the focus. Obtaining such an engine

was prohibitive however, due to the expense of acquiring an engine in good condition, and diffi-

culty of transportation. A lawnmower engine has the advantages of being inexpensive and readily

transportable, but is are a poor approximation of an automobile engine. These engines are also

substantially smaller than an automobile engine and typically possess only one cylinder.

A 1995 Yamaha XJ600S motorcycle engine was selected and purchased to serve as a platform

for experimentation and is shown in Fig. 2.2. This engine was selected because it is an in-line four-

cylinder, four-stroke IC engine equipped with an electric starter motor, similar to the most common

configuration of automobile engine. The shared features suggest that if a spring starter prototype

were to successfully crank the XJ600S engine, the design could be adapted to automotive engines.

The specifications of the electric starting system on this engine provide a design goal for weight and

size of the spring starter prototype.

The starting system of the Yamaha XJ600S is actuated by a Mitsuba SM-13 brushed DC motor,

with a rated output of 1.07 hp (0.8 kW) [13]. A diagram of the motor is given in Fig. 2.3. According

to these rating point specifications, the motor draws 67 amps of current from a 12-volt lead-acid

battery at peak power output. The 6.0 4.2 3.4 in (151 106 87 mm) CBTX9-BS battery

weighs 5.5 lb (2.5 kg) and is rated for 120 cold-cranking amps and a capacity of 8 amp-hours.

Installed on the motorcycle, the starter motor transmits mechanical power to the crankshaft through

a compound gear train. The shaft of the starter motor has 10 teeth cut into the end, and is in constant

mesh with the starter clutch shaft via an idler gear. The starter clutch shaft is fitted with a one-way

clutch, which in turn drives a chain that rotates the crankshaft. The starter motor shaft can be seen

at the center of the motor armature, identified as item 11 in Fig. 2.3. The starter clutch shaft, idler

gear, one-way clutch, starter chain, and crankshaft are indicated respectively as items 19, 9, 14, 17,

13
 Figure 2.2: The Yamaha XJ600 motorcycle engine chosen for testing.

and 4 in Fig. 2.4. Testing of the system revealed that 27 revolutions of the starter shaft resulted in

1 revolution of the crankshaft. This gear ratio is accomplished through the compound gear train

shown in Fig. 2.4.

2.2 Engine Condition and Configuration

The engine was configured in such a way as to approximate actual starting conditions while

maintaining the safety of the lab in which experimentation took place. The majority of the fuel de-

livery system was removed as the gasoline and vapors in this system posed a health and fire hazard.

The fuel tank, fuel pump, and fuel lines were therefore removed too. The removal of this system

was, for the purposes of this research, assumed to have a negligible effect on engine forces during

engine starting. The fuel system is primarily gravity-fed and the fuel pump requires minimal energy

compared to that needed to turn the crankshaft, so this is believed to be a reasonable assumption.

14
Figure 2.3: Exploded view of the Mitsuba SM-13 starter motor (adapted from [13]).

15
Figure 2.4: The Yamaha XJ600S starter system (adapted from [13]).

16
 Figure 2.5: Engine after removal of fuel system.

The air intake chamber, air filter, carburetors, and intake manifold were all retained, as removal of

any of these components would significant lower engine forces by lessening air restriction [14].

Cylinder compression was measured with a Craftsman compression tester to ensure that the

engine was in satisfactory mechanical condition. The tool includes a hose that connects to a pressure

gauge, and is fitted with threads that match the spark plug socket of each cylinder. To test the

compression of a cylinder, the hose is attached to a cylinder via the spark plug socket, and the engine

is turned over. The pressure created during the compression stroke of the cylinder is measured at its

peak. Testing of the cylinders in this manner demonstrated that each cylinder provided 155-160 psi

during the compression stroke, which is well within the permitted range for an engine in satisfactory

mechanical condition. The stated compression of this engine model is 155 psi [13]. This is required

of the test engine to ensure the validity of the test results.

17
 Figure 2.6: The timing plate with both proximity sensors.

To allow the angular position of the crankshaft to be measured, the timing plate of the motorcy-

cle was exposed by removing the left engine cover. The timing plate is fixed to the crankshaft and

may be used as a gauge of crankshaft position. The plate is circular and can be visualized as having

an inner and outer radius, where the majority of the circumference of the plate is at the inner radius.

Four raised sections form arcs along the outer radius. Adjacent to the timing plate is a proximity

sensor. The rising and falling edges of these outer sections are detected by the proximity sensor,

allowing the engine to trigger a spark at precise crank angles. The timing plate is shown in Fig. 2.6,

with the motorcycle proximity sensor in black on the right. Also shown at left is a proximity sensor

that was mounted to the motorcycle for position measurement, which is explained in further detail

in Ch. IV.

18
 CHAPTER III

STARTER MOTOR CHARACTERIZATION

To develop a dynamic model of the engine and determine a set of design criteria, the torque,

angular velocity, and duration of engine rotation provided by the installed electric system must be

known. Once this information is determined, a dynamic model may be constructed to represent the

engine from the data.

Information on the starter motor was sparse and the starting requirements of the engine were not

readily available. It was arranged to determine them experimentally. The shaft torque of an electric

motor may be found with a Prony brake, a form of dynamometer that is an established method of

motor performance testing [15]. The Prony brake typically uses a slipping collar to exert a frictional

force opposing the rotation of the output shaft. Additionally, it is known that permanent magnet

brushed DC motors, such as the starter motor tested here, exhibit a linear relationship between

applied current I, start-up current I0 and output torque T [16], represented by a torque constant kt .

Therefore, by measuring current draw at various levels of applied torque, data is acquired to

which a linear curve fit may be applied. The slope of the resulting curve provides the observed

torque constant of the motor. Once the torque constant of the motor is known, the current draw

of the motor may be used to determine the torque produced in situations that would otherwise be

difficult to measure. This method allows the torque exerted by the starter motor to be determined

19
 Figure 3.1: Diagram of Prony brake experiment setup used in starter motor testing.

by measuring voltage differential. Other methods are available, such as attaching strain gages, bat-

tery packs, and wireless transmitters directly to the starter shaft [17]. However, such an approach

requires significant modification of the tested system and is cumbersome given the simpler proce-

dures available.

3.1 Experiment Setup

To determine the relationship between current draw and torque produced, the starter motor was

removed from the motorcycle and assembled into a Prony Brake configuration, as represented in

Fig. 3.1 and shown in Fig. 3.2. The motor was fixed with clamps to a flat surface, a pulley with

radius r was fixed to the output shaft of the motor, and a cord was drawn over the top of the pulley.

A weight W was hung from a loop at one end of the cord. The opposite end of the cord was attached

to a Transducer Techniques model MLP-50 load cell fixed to the ground.

20
Figure 3.2: The Prony brake experiment setup to determine the starter motor torque constant.

21
 Tensile force F in the cord was displayed by a Vishay 3800 strain indicator, which received and

conditioned the signal from the load cell. The battery of the motorcycle was removed and charged

to full capacity using a Battery Tender trickle charger. The positive terminal of the battery was

connected to a shunt resistor, calibrated to display a voltage differential of 2 millivolts per ampere

of flowed current. The shunt resistor was connected to a high amperage relay switch which was

in turn connected to the positive terminal of the motor. The negative terminal of the battery was

connected to the housing of the motor. Lastly, a voltmeter was installed to measure the voltage

differential across the shunt resistor. To replicate the motorcycle wiring configuration as much as

possible, multi-strand copper wire was used for all connections, with efforts made to use a similar

wire gauge to that in the starting system wiring on the motorcycle.

3.2 Procedure

The objective of the experiment was to gather data representing the relationship between current

draw and torque exerted by the motor. Each data point required an amount of applied weight to be

chosen, which governed the torque from friction that would oppose rotation of the starter shaft and

pulley. The strain indicator and load cell were then calibrated using the following procedure. The

cord was hung from the load cell without any added weight, and the indicator reading was set to

zero. Then a precise tensile force was exerted on the load cell by hanging calibrated masses from

the cord. The scale of the indicator was adjusted to the value of the hanging mass in grams. This

ensured that the indicator was displaying values in grams. Lastly, the indicator reading was set to

zero by removing the cord from the load sensor and placing it horizontally, so that no forces were

acting along the axis measured by the sensor. This was to correct any potential offset error.

Following the calibration of the strain indicator and load cell, the load cell and cord were re-

assembled in the test configuration. To collect a data point, the relay switch was closed, allowing

current to flow to the motor. The motor was allowed to accelerate to a steady velocity over several

22
Figure 3.3: The shunt resistor and relay used to measure current during starter motor experimenta-
tion.

23
seconds, and the shunt voltage and load cell values became approximately constant as acceleration

of the motor approached zero. Shunt voltage was recorded with strain values, calibrated to indicate

the tensile force. Lastly the relay was thrown to disengage the motor.

Soon after testing of the starter motor began, the measured values of tension and current were

observed becoming less steady over time for large amounts of added weight. When the weight

approached 1 kilogram, the tensile force would level off before beginning to decrease with time.

The measured current increased inversely proportional to force. It is hypothesized that this was

due to increased heat generated at large amounts of added weight. The cord was made from natural

fiber, which is well-suited to this application because it possesses a higher coefficient of friction than

metal cable, and will not melt when heated as would nylon cord. However, it appeared that at high

temperatures the net coefficient of friction changed between the cord and the pulley, such that the

kinetic friction force increased gradually as temperature rose. This phenomenon was not observable

at lower weights, and was assumed to have a negligible impact for small amounts of weight and

brief operation of the motor. To maximize accuracy of measurement, weight was limited to 700

grams, and the pulley and rope were allowed to cool between the collection of data points. Efforts

were also made to take measurements quickly to limit the amount of heat generated from friction.

Angular velocity was measured but was not taken into account for the equation characterizing

the motor. The mean motor speed over the experimental data gathered is roughly equal to the

speed at which the motor operates while starting the engine. It is not necessary to determine the

relationship between current and torque in the motor at either unusually low or unusually high

velocities relative to its normal operating velocity.

24
3.3 Results and Calculation of Torque Constant

When switched on, the motor overcomes the friction between the cord and the pulley by exerting

a torque on the pulley. This torque may be found by summing moments about the shaft, which gives

T = r(F W ) (3.1)

where T is the torque from the motor, r is the radius of the pulley, W is the weight of the hanging

mass, and F is the force measured at the load cell.

A series of tests were conducted with data points gathered for 200, 500, and 700 grams of added

weight. Torque T was the input or dependent variable in the tests and was varied by changing the

added weight. Current I was the measured output or independent variable that resulted from the

input T . Recall that the relationship between T and I is linear. The data can be described with a

linear equation in the slope-intercept form with slope m and intercept b

I = mT + b (3.2)

To determine the constants m and b, a linear regression model was fit to the data in Microsoft Excel.

The data and linear curve are shown in Fig. 3.4. The regression model obtained from the data was

represented by the equation I = 11.1T + 18.9, giving m = 11.1 A/in-lb and b = 18.9 A. The

common form of the equation for the torque of a DC motor [16] is given in Eq. 3.3, and includes the

torque constant kt as the slope, and the start-up current I0 as intercept, or current draw when T = 0.

T = kt (I I0 ) (3.3)

To obtain the torque constant kt the regression model must be rearranged into the form of Eq. 3.3.

Solving Eq. 3.2 for T gives

I b 1
T = = (I b) (3.4)
m m

25
 Figure 3.4: Starter motor current vs torque data.

Substituting the constants given by the model of m = 11.1 A/in-lb and b = 18.9 A into Eq. 3.4

gives
1
T = (I 18.9) = 0.09(I 18.9) (3.5)
11.1

The regression model is now in the form of Eq. 3.3, which is needed to determine torque exerted at

the starter shaft from current draw to the motor. It is observed from Eq. 3.5 that kt = 0.09 in-lb/A

and I0 = 18.9 A.

26
 CHAPTER IV

ENGINE CHARACTERIZATION

After the torque constant kt of the starter motor was determined, the next step in developing

the engine model was to estimate the torque transmitted to the engine by the starter shaft during

a starting cycle. This was accomplished by measuring the current drawn by the starter motor as it

cranked the engine. It was also necessary to record the engine position over time. The timing plate

mentioned in Ch. II provided a convenient way to measure the crank angle, and was paired with a

proximity sensor, but was later replaced with a stroboscope for a greater rate of data collection. Data

was analyzed for both torque opposing rotation of the engine, and engine position. To distinguish

values reflected to the starter shaft from those reflected to the crankshaft, the subscripts c and s will

indicate association with the crankshaft and starter shaft, respectively.

4.1 Experiment Setup

The starter motor and battery were reinstalled to the motorcycle, with the shunt resistor used in

earlier testing connected in series between the battery and starter motor. It was no longer sufficient

to use a voltmeter to measure current, as current was predicted to change as engine forces fluctuated.

The voltage differential across the shunt resistor was therefore measured with a National Instruments

NI USB-6009 data acquisition system and LabVIEW analysis software.

27
Figure 4.1: Proximity sensor and mounting bracket used initially to measure crankshaft position
over time.

The proximity sensor from the timing system of the motorcycle was left in place so as not to

alter the wiring of the motorcycle. and instead a second proximity sensor was installed adjacent to

the timing plate in a mounting bracket. The proximity sensor and bracket are shown in Fig. 4.1.

The sensor was powered by an external DC power source, and was tested to ensure detection of the

rising and falling edges of the timing plate. The sensor was connected to the same data acquisition

system and was configured to collect voltage data at 10kHz. LabVIEW was configured to display

the data and save it to a text file. The engine test setup is shown in Fig. 4.2.

4.2 Procedure

To gather a data set, the data acquisition software was loaded and data collection was initialized.

The ignition switch was then moved to the on position and the starter button pressed, cranking

the engine. The starter motor was kept engaged for several seconds. The data was then saved to a

text file. The battery was recharged in between acquisition of each data set to ensure that the energy

source was constant throughout testing. A trickle charger was used, which recharged the battery

28
Figure 4.2: Engine test setup for determining starter motor current and crankshaft position while
starting.

29
with relatively low amperage, as would be the case during normal engine operation. Each data set

portrays a period of time in which the engine is being driven by the starter motor. Such a data set

is intended to represent the dynamic behavior of the engine during an attempt to start the engine,

referred to here as a starting cycle.

When data from the proximity sensor was reviewed it was found that the starter motor acceler-

ated the engine to a steady-state angular velocity in approximately 0.1 seconds, in which the engine

rotates through 1.5 radians. The data from the proximity sensor and timing plate during t = 0 and

t = 0.1 s consists of 3 data points, which can be observed in Fig. 4.3. To develop a more accurate

engine model, more data points were required during engine acceleration. To increase the resolu-

tion of the data, the experiment was repeated without the proximity sensor; instead a video camera

and stroboscope were used to measure the position of the crankshaft while the starter motor was

engaged. With each pulse of the stroboscope, the nearly instantaneous position of the timing plate

was recorded by the camera. This allowed for a much higher rate of position data collection, as is

evident from the resulting data, plotted in red in Fig. 4.4. The figure also shows a curve that was fit

to the data, which is explained in more detail shortly.

4.3 Data Processing

A MATLAB algorithm was designed to scan the proximity sensor data to determine the rising

and falling edges. The proximity sensor is a binary instrument, meaning that it has boolean true

or false states indicating whether a ferrous metal is close to the sensor or not. In the false state,

the voltage differential in the sensor is 0.3 V, and in the true state this rises sharply to 0.7 V. The

algorithm scanned the data to detect the moments at which the sensor switched states. An example

of the proximity sensor data, with state changes marked, is given in Fig. 4.5. Each time the state of

the sensor changed, the change in crank angle could be determined by measuring the timing plate.

30
Figure 4.3: Data from proximity sensor depicting crankshaft position over time during startup ex-
hibits significant resolution scatter.

31
Figure 4.4: Crankshaft position vs. time for Configuration 1.

32
Figure 4.5: Proximity sensor data indicating the rising and falling edges corresponding to measur-
able crank angles.

33
 Upon replacing the proximity sensor with a stroboscope and video camera due to the low res-

olution of the proximity sensor method, it became necessary to enter the angular position data by

hand. The video was opened in VLC media software, where it was enlarged for clarity and reviewed

one frame at a time. The first frame to contain crankshaft movement was taken to be when t = 0.

A mark on the timing plate was determined to indicate crank angle, and the change in angular po-

sition of this mark was measured. The positions were measured with a protractor that was digitally

superimposed over the timing plate. A screenshot of the VLC program displaying one video frame

and the superimposed protractor is shown in Fig. 4.6; each red line demonstrates the position of a

point on the timing plate for one stroboscope pulse. Therefore the frame shown gives four angular

position data points measured relative to the protractor.

The data representing crankshaft angles c were then imported to a MATLAB file. The length

of time between data points was determined using the operating frequency of the stroboscope in

cycles per minute, which was read from a digital display on the stroboscope. In verification of the

displayed frequency, the video showed 4 strobe pulses per frame at a recorded frame-rate of 24

frames per second, for a data collection rate of 96 Hz. This agrees with the indicated operating

frequency of the stroboscope, 5760 pulses/min = 96 Hz.

Software routines were developed in MATLAB to analyze and process the torque data collected

from LabVIEW as well, which was saved as a tab-delimited text file with time, voltage from the

shunt resistor, and voltage from the proximity sensor in columns. The algorithm read the data file

and scanned the shunt resistor data to locate the time and voltage corresponding to operation of the

starter relay, indicated by a voltage spike in the data. A plot of the shunt resistor voltage data is

shown in Fig. 4.7, with the voltage at t0 indicated in red. Before continuing with the analysis, the

time and voltage selected by the algorithm were checked by the user to verify accuracy. The shunt

resistor data was then converted from voltage to current draw of the starter motor in amps, using

34
Figure 4.6: VLC software screenshot displaying one frame that includes four position measure-
ments.

35
 Figure 4.7: Shunt resistor data used to identify voltage spike when starter motor is switched on.

the given conversion ratio of 50 millivolts to 25 amps for this particular shunt resistor. Current was

then converted to inch-pounds of torque at the starter motor shaft using Eq. 3.3.

4.4 Engine Model Development

Data sets were collected for several initial configurations of the engine to allow a model of

the rotational dynamics of the engine to be developed. Such a model was desired to construct

simulations that can predict the torsional spring behavior of the starter used to rotate the engine.

The dynamic model chosen to represent the torque T opposing rotation of the engine is of the

36
general form

T = J + Tp + Tf + TT (4.1)

where J is the effective polar moment of inertia of the rotational mass of the engine, Tf is friction

torque, TT is the torque required to draw in and expel gases from the engine (referred to as throttling

torque), and Tp is the torque required to overcome pressure buildup in the cylinder during a com-

pression stroke. It is noted that the engine is being approximated as a purely rotating mass. That

is, for starter spring selection the linear motion of the pistons is being ignored. Recalling that the

subscripts c and s correspond to variables reflected to the crankshaft and starter shaft, Eq. 4.1 can

be written at each shaft giving

Tc = Jc c + Tpc + Tf c + TT c (4.2)

and

Ts = Js s + Tps + Tf s + TT s . (4.3)

Equations 4.2 and 4.3 are related through the gear ratio Rv = 27 from the starter shaft to the engine,

which provides the conversion equations

s = Rv c , (4.4)

s = Rv c , (4.5)

s = Rv c , (4.6)

Tc
Ts = , (4.7)
Rv
Tpc
Tps = , (4.8)
Rv
TT c
TT s = , (4.9)
Rv
Tf c
Tf s = , (4.10)
Rv

37
 Jc
Js = . (4.11)
Rv2

Engine forces can be roughly divided into those that are dependent on engine position and

those that are not. In normal engine operation the torque Tp required for cylinder compression is

a function of the crank angle c . The Suzuki engine used in this research operates on a 4-stroke

cycle with 2 strokes per crankshaft revolution, so a compression stroke occurs every 2 crankshaft

revolutions. The engine has 4 cylinders and compression strokes are staggered so that in two full

crankshaft revolutions, each cylinder has has one compression stroke. This causes fluctuations in

the torque required to turn the crankshaft. Additionally, the increased normal forces that result from

compression strokes increase the friction forces in the engine. To determine the individual terms of

the model given in Eq. 4.1, a method was required to isolate the terms so they may be solved. This

was accomplished by varying the mechanical configuration of the engine.

The first engine configuration called Configuration 1, involved the removal of the spark plugs

from each cylinder of the engine. This significantly reduces the work required to rotate the crankshaft

by preventing compression within the cylinder. Additionally, gases are allowed to enter and exit the

cylinder through both the spark plug ports and the intake and exhaust systems. The flow of the

gases is less restricted as a result, and torque required at the crankshaft is reduced further still.

Thus, Tps 0 and TT s 0, and Eq. 4.3 simplifies to

Ts = Js s + Tf s (4.12)

Ts is known from data collected, and Tf s can be estimated from taking the median of the steady-

state subset of torque data, when Js s 0. It was found that Tf s 0.84 in-lb, as is shown in

Fig. 4.8. Using Eq. 4.7, with Rv = 27, results in Tf c = 22.7 in-lb.

The position data was then imported to MATLAB, and processed to reflect the total angular

displacement of the crankshaft c . The time scale of the data set was shifted to provide initial

38
 Figure 4.8: Starter shaft torque vs. time for Configuration 1.

conditions of angular position and time values set equal to 0. The time increment dt was calculated

using the operating frequency of the stroboscope.

A regression model was desired to fit the position data, so that continuous curves could be

evaluated instead of finite data. An acceptable fit for the 2nd derivative of the numerical data was

found to be of the form

c = AeBt . (4.13)

This expression was integrated to give

A A
c = eBt (4.14)
B B

39
 Figure 4.9: Regression model curves and crankshaft position data over time.

where the constant of integration C = A/B was determined by assigning the initial condition of

c = 0 when t = 0 and solving. Equation 4.14 was then integrated to give an expression for c as

A Bt A A
c = 2
e t 2 (4.15)
B B B

where the constant of integration was again solved for by assigning an initial condition of c = 0

when t = 0. Upon arriving at this representation of c , the equation form was entered manually into

the Curve Fit Toolbox, which provided A = 540 and B = 17.7. The regression model is shown

in the form of thetac plotted against the data collected for c in Fig. 4.9, and the regression model

curves for c and c are shown as well. Substituting Eqs. 4.13, 4.14, and 4.15 into Eqs. 4.6, 4.5,

and 4.4 respectively, and with Rv = 27, the time response of the starter shaft position, velocity, and

acceleration is readily obtained.

40
 From Configuration 1 data, with Tpc 0, TT c 0, and Tf c 22.7 lb-in, the indicated engine

polar moment of inertia may now be calculated as

Tc 22.7
Jc = (4.16)
c

The linear relationship in Eq. 4.16 between [Tc (Tf c + TT c )] and c from Eq. 4.13 can be seen in

Fig. 4.10, which shows the clear resemblance between the two curves. A plot of Eq. 4.16 is given

in Fig. 4.11, providing an approximate value of 0.8 in-lb-s2 . An upward trend is observed over

time, which is assumed to be due to small fluctuations in friction, which will increase very slightly

as engine velocity increases [14]. Also, c rapidly becomes smaller between t = 0 and t = 0.1,

and approaches zero at around t = 0.12 seconds. When this happens the indicated values of 4.16

become highly erratic, as the denominator c 0. Equation 4.11, with Rv = 27, indicates that

Js = 0.0011 in-lb-s2 .

Observing the plot of (Tc 22.7)/c at the beginning of engine acceleration, shown in Fig. 4.11,

a slight upward slope over time can be seen. Rather than use the mean value over the period of

acceleration, Jc is taken from the very beginning of engine acceleration, when it is observed to be

constant at approximately 0.8 in-lb-s2 .

A check of the value of Jc was conducted by performing an energy balance. Energy into the

system is that consumed by the starter motor to accelerate the engine, some of which being converted

to kinetic energy observed at the crankshaft. The electrical energy consumed by the starter motor

Es is given as
Z t
Es = (I I0 If )V dt (4.17)
t0

where I0 is the startup current of the starter motor, If is the current required to overcome engine

friction, V is the battery voltage, and t is the time to achieve steady-state speed. Using shunt resistor

data converted to current I, I0 + If = 28.2 A from measuring current at steady state, V = 12 Volts,

41
Figure 4.10: Comparison of torque and acceleration vs. time at the crankshaft.

42
Figure 4.11: Polar moment of inertia of the rotational mass of the engine at the crankshaft.

43
and tf = 0.25 s, Eq. 4.17 gives

Z 0.25
Es = (I 28.2)12dt = 136.0 (4.18)
0

The kinetic energy in the crankshaft and rotational mass of the engine after acceleration is

1
Kc = Jc (c )2 (4.19)
2

Using c = 30.5 rad/s, a mechanical efficiency of 80%, moment of inertia Jc = 0.8 in-lb-s2 and

setting Eqs. 4.18 and 4.19 to be equal gives

1
Jc (30.5)2 = (0.8)136.0 (4.20)
2

solving for Jc ,
(0.8)136.0
Jc = = 0.23. (4.21)
0.5(30.5)2

Converting, Jc = 0.23 J-s2 = 2.04 in-lb-s2 , which is on the order of Jc from Eq. 4.16. Discrepan-

cies between the value of Jc found in the energy balance and that from experimental data in Eq. 4.16

may exist for several reasons. The energy required for acceleration in Eq. 4.18 is dependent on cur-

rent I and the voltage V , which was assumed to be 12 Volts. Due to the magnitude of current drawn

when the starter circuit closes however, which is significantly larger than the steady state current,

a large voltage drop is expected to occur in the battery [18]. This voltage drop over the period of

acceleration would reduce energy required for acceleration, so the estimate shown in Eq. 4.21 is

expected to be overstated. The steady-state current term was also assumed to be constant during

acceleration, so that I If represents only that current required for acceleration. If I If does not

exactly match the current required for acceleration, the energy required for acceleration in Eq. 4.18

would be misstated, and error in Jc from Eq. 4.21 would be introduced here as well.

In the second engine configuration called Configuration 2, the spark plugs were reinstalled and

the choke was engaged. The purpose of this was to account for all engine forces encountered during
44
 Figure 4.12: Starter shaft torque vs. time for Configuration 2.

operation of the starter motor. This configuration also provides the estimated maximum steady-state

torque that the starting system must provide to maintain engine velocity. The additional torque Tps

required from the starter shaft to overcome cylinder compression forces is evidenced in Fig. 4.12

by the roughly triangular waveform in the torque curve. Each peak occurs at the point of maximum

pressure in the cylinder, and each dip occurs at the point of least pressure in the cylinder [13].

In Configuration 2, the torque is observed to fluctuate as each piston compresses the air within

the cylinder. Since the crankshaft can be at any angle during the start, there is no need to determine

the torque due to cylinder pressure and crank angle. A peak-to-peak fluctuation of Tps 2.9 in-lb

is noted and shown in Fig. 4.13. Also note that the mean torque at steady state for Configuration 2 is

45
 Figure 4.13: Estimated torque contributions from friction, throttling, and compression.

greater than steady-state torque in Configuration 1. This is due to throttling torque TT s 1.1 in-lb,

attributed to the engine gas flow restrictions imposed by the air filter, carburetor and throttle plates,

and intake valves, as well as exhaust valves and piping.

In both configurations, friction and the work required to drive engine accessories, such as the

oil pump, are assumed to be roughly constant over the engine speeds involved in this testing. As

the starter motor accelerates the engine to steady-state velocity, both torque curves approach a con-

stant value about which there are local fluctuations. The torque from friction Tf c is assumed to be

approximately constant between the engine configurations tested, and the throttling torque TT s is

assumed to be constant for Configuration 2.

46
 CHAPTER V

SPRING SELECTION

Upon determining the characteristics of the engine (Jc , Tf c , TT c , and Tpc ), the engine response

to cranking by a spring starter can be simulated. The characteristics of a torsional spring must be

determined to simulate the input torque at the starter shaft for a given spring. An equation relating

the dynamics of the spring starter and the engine can be developed, from which the engine response

can be written as a function of the spring design variables. First, Eq. 4.7 is rearranged to give

Tc = Ts Rv , which is then substituted for Tc in Eq. 4.2, giving

Ts Rv = Jc c + Tpc + Tf c + TT c . (5.1)

From engine testing results in Ch. IV, we can also substitute Jc = 0.8 in-lb-s2 , Tf c = 22.7 in-lb,

TT c = 31.3 in-lb, and Tpc = 32.4 in-lb.

Ts Rv = (0.8)c + 86.2. (5.2)

For a torsional spring with stiffness k in a spring starter, with the spring wound to an initial dis-

placement s0 , the torque Ts exerted by the spring to the starter shaft is

Ts = k s0 . (5.3)

We can express the spring starter torque in terms of the spring variables s0 and k by substituting

Eq. 5.3 for Ts in Eq. 5.2. Rearranging to collect all variables on the left hand side, we have

0.8c + k s Rv = 86.2 (5.4)

47
which is a dynamic model of the spring started engine. This particular form is convenient for

investigating the effects of spring starter design modifications. By selecting inputs of spring starter

gear ratio Rv , spring stiffness k , and initial displacement s0 , the engine response can be estimated

for the spring starter having those design parameters. Initial conditions include c = 0 and c =

s0 /Rv , where s0 is the initial displacement of the spring.

5.1 Sizing the Starter Spring

The effect of the starter spring on the crankshaft is characterized by Eq. 5.4. The spring stiffness

k and initial displacement s are determined by employing spring design equations, as outlined

below. For a torsional spring, the spring constant is [11]

T d4 E
k = = (5.5)
64DNa

where d is the spring wire diameter, E is the modulus of elasticity of the spring material, D is the

mean coil diameter, and Na is the number of active coils. The maximum bending stress in the spring

wire will occur with the initial wind s0

32T 32k s0
= Ki = Ki (5.6)
d3 d3

where Ki is a stress concentration factor,

4C 2 C 1
Ki = (5.7)
4C(C 1)

and C is the spring index,

D
C= . (5.8)
d

For spring steel, E = 30 106 psi (206 GPa). To avoid fatigue failure, the bending stress will

be conservatively limited to one-half of the ultimate strength [11] so that < 62 ksi. For feasible

48
manufacturing, a spring index C > 5 is required. Thus, the design task involves selecting appropri-

ate d, D, and Na to satisfy Eq.s 5.6-5.8 that produces an acceptable start event as determined by the

spring/engine model of Eq. 5.4.

In an ideal case, a spring would fit in a compact volume and provide sufficient energy and power

density to meet or exceed the standard set by the electric starting system. One major difference

between a spring-starter and an electric starter is the operating speed. Springs excel at high torque,

low velocity tasks, while electric motors such as the Mitsuba model tested operate at extremely high

velocity and low torque. This is evident by the previously mentioned Rv =27:1 gear reduction from

the starter motor to the crankshaft. This may appear to reduce the viability of replacing an electrical

starting system with a spring-based equivalent. However; this could be an advantage, as springs

are far more capable of matching the required torque and velocity of the crankshaft without a gear

reduction. The elimination of the large 27:1 gear ratio in the test engine, for example, would be of

large benefit as the extra volume could be used to increase spring size and overall system efficacy.

Also worth consideration are requirements for engine speed during starting and the time duration

of engine cranking. Increasing the length of time that the engine is cranked is assumed to make it

easier for the engine to start. Each compression stroke that occurs as the engine is turned by the

starter increases the chance of the engine starting, so the assumption is valid if engine velocity is

held constant, as more cranking time means more compression strokes. If several engine speeds

are considered for cranking however, this is no longer the case. It is the number of compression

strokes provided by the starter, not the rate at which they occur, that determines the likelihood of a

successful engine start.

5.2 Simulink Model

The dynamic models developed for the engine and spring starter were used to simulate the effec-

tiveness of several potential springs for engine starting in MATLAB Simulink software. Simulink
49
features a block-diagram interface to represent mathematical models. The diagram representing the

engine and spring starter model is shown in Fig 5.1.

The interface uses each block in the diagram as an operator; a block with multiple inputs and

one output could represent a sum operator for example, with the single output representing the sum

of the inputs. The general purpose of the model was to simulate the engine velocity over time using

Eq. 5.4. To configure the model before running a simulated start, values were entered for variables

of the engine and the spring starter at the starter shaft. For the engine, these included the steady-state

torques Tf s + Tps + TT s = 3.2 in-lb, and polar moment of inertia Js = 0.0011 in-lb-s2 . Design

parameters entered for the spring starter were initial wind s0 of the starter shaft, spring stiffness kt

and gear ratio Rv . The gear ratio was not taken necessarily to be 27 as in the electric starter, but

rather was considered a variable. Unusually stiff springs have low displacements and high torque

for a given stress, while very flexible springs have high displacement and low torque for a given

stress. Thus the gear ratio allows the very stiff spring to multiply displacement and divide torque,

and allows the very flexible spring to multiply torque and divide displacement. Thus a variable gear

ratio allows these springs to be considered that could otherwise be impractical.

A broad range of values were tested in the Simulink model to determine spring parameters that

maximized the revolutions of the simulated engine. When an acceptable displacement of the engine

was produced by a simulated spring, the parameters k and s0 were entered into a Microsoft Excel

spreadsheet designed as a calculator for additional parameters of the spring. Specifically, Eq. 5.5

was utilized to determine what values of the spring wire diameter d, mean coil diameter D and

number of active coils Na could be used to maintain the desired value of k from the Simulink

model. Additional inputs were modulus of elasticity E, and ultimate strength Su of the spring

material, but these values remained largely constant as only spring steel was considered. The outputs

50
 Figure 5.1: Simulink model of engine position over time for a spring-start.

of the Excel model included the maximum torque exerted by the spring, number of active turns,

outside coil diameter, length of spring, and factors of safety for fatigue, and yield strength.

As an example, a spring having a stiffness k = 9 in-lb/rad and a gear ratio Rv = 0.5, and

initial displacement s0 = 17.25 rad was entered into the Simulink model. Running the model for a

length of 1 second gave the predicted velocity curve shown in Fig. 5.2, which shows that the engine

would be accelerated to a speed of approximately 380 rpm which surpasses the target velocity of

300 rpm at which the electric starter cranks the engine. Displacement is a more telling factor, and

with s0 = 17.25 rad and Rv = 0.5, the total resulting displacement of the crankshaft would be

c = s Rv = 34.5 rad, or 34.5/2 = 5.5 rev.

51
Figure 5.2: Simulated engine response for an example spring.

52
 CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

This research focused on predicting whether or not a steel torsional spring would be capable of

starting a four cylinder IC engine, similar to a common automobile engine. A motorcycle engine

was selected that was determined to be in adequate mechanical condition and suitable to represent an

automobile engine for the purpose of this testing. The starter motor of the acquired engine was tested

using a Prony brake and shunt resistor to measure torque output and current draw respectively, and

determine the relationship between them. Subsequently both the torque opposing engine rotation

and the position over time of the engine were measured. An equation characterizing the engine

included the steady state torque represented by several components. By varying the configuration

of the engine, the components of friction were isolated and determined. The torque due to the initial

angular acceleration of the engine was then determined. A regression model was fit to the position

data and used in conjunction with the torque data to estimate the polar moment of inertia of the

rotational mass of the engine.

Spring equations were combined with the engine equations to predict whether an acceptably

small and light spring could crank the engine. The variables chosen initially were the spring stiff-

ness and initial displacement of the spring. These were tested in a Simulink model utilizing the en-

gine equations to predict the dynamic response of the engine to cranking from a designated spring.

Suitable values of spring stiffness and displacement were then evaluated further in Excel.
53
6.1 Conclusions

The engine equations in conjunction with the Simulink model predict that a spring with a length

of 6 in, outer diameter of 5.25 in, and initial displacement of 17.5 rad could crank the engine for

5 - 7 revolutions. An engine can theoretically start after merely one revolution, as air/fuel mixture,

compression, and a spark that coincide in one of the four cylinders is all the engine requires to start.

Combustion events within engines are highly variable [13], so the number of compression strokes

that occur before an engine starts surely varies even for the same engine over several different starts.

For a situation in which failed starts were unacceptable, a spring starter could be combined with

an electrical starting system in a dual-starter configuration. Alternatively, the size of the auxiliary

battery and motor that winds the spring could be increased to provide a more rapid recharging of

the spring.

6.2 Future Work

Having determined that it is possible to start an engine with a torsional spring, the mechanical

design of the second generation prototype is likely the next major step in the development of this

technology. The challenges in this process will include designing a starter housing, gear ratio, and

mounting bracket in as compact a space as possible. The ideal packaging location for the test engine

is shown in Fig. 6.1. Once these design decisions have been made, a worm gear needs to be sized

and integrated to the design, and a small electric motor fitted to it that is capable of charging the

spring. For a small motor and a stiff spring, this will require a very large gear reduction in the worm

gear. The motor needs to be of adequate size to charge the spring to the appropriate level.

A mechanism or control system also needs to be developed to ensure that the spring is not over-

wound. Displacing the spring beyond its design specifications would increase the risk of fatigue

failure, and could cause the spring to fail catastrophically if wound enough. The control system

54
 Figure 6.1: The test engine and 3D CAD model showing potential starter locations.

must also be triggered to rewind the spring after a starting attempt. For a thorough analysis of

weight and possible reduction in battery size, it would be necessary to select a battery to pair with

the system too. This would require a decision to be made regarding how many times the battery can

rewind the spring before it is discharged, that is how many failed starts the system is designed to

permit. A means of attaching a hand crank to the system should be devised as well.

Several unavoidable factors detracted slightly from the power of this research to make pre-

dictions regarding an automobile engine, and would be worth investigating further. For any later

research into this matter, and where possible, testing an actual automobile engine would produce

a more conclusive result as to whether or not spring starting technology is practical in that setting.

Additionally, Due to the laboratory in which this research was conducted, it was not possible to vary

temperatures during testing. One variable that was unable to be tested is the increase in viscosity

that will occur as temperatures fall. This inevitably would increase the torque required to start an

engine, and should be considered to ensure reliability of the system in varying weather.

55
 Steel torsional springs were the sole spring type considered for the present research, yet Belleville

springs and power springs both offer intriguing features for engine starters and warrant closer in-

vestigation. As discussed in Ch. I, Belleville springs are currently being used for spring starters for

large diesel engines, and can store a large amount of energy in a reasonably small volume. They are

also easily stacked in series. Research may reveal that these are a more practical spring type than

torsional springs.

Power springs are commonly used for applications that require a spring to turn a shaft, and

should also be considered as a potential replacement for a torsional spring. These require a small

volume and could potentially be suitable for automotive applications. They are easily placed side

by side to operate a shaft in parallel. In contrast with Belleville springs, power springs typically

provide low levels of torque but offer a large angular displacement. Power springs are not typically

found in the size that would be required for a spring starter however, so sourcing these parts may

prove difficult.

56
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