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F = q (E + v B)
d
(qi L(qi , qi )) qi L(qi , qi ) = 0
dt
mq 2
e.g. for a particle in a potential V (q), L(q, q) = V (q) and
2
from Euler-Lagrange equations, mq = q V (q)
Analytical dynamics: a short primer
"
H(qi , pi ) = pi qi L(qi , qi )
i
mq 2
e.g. for L(q, q) = 2 V (q), p = q L = mq, and
p2 p2
H = p q L = p mp ( 2m V (q)) = 2m + V (q).
In Hamiltonian
# formulation, minimization
$ of classical action
! "
S = dt pi qi H(qi , pi ) , leads to Hamiltons equations:
i
qi = pi H, pi = qi H
1 2
L= mv q + qv A
2
" ) *
1 2 1 2
H= (mvi + qAi ) vi mv q + qv A = mv + q
% &' ( 2 2
i
= pi % &' (
= L(qi , qi )
1
H= (p qA(x, t))2 + q(x, t)
2m
Then, from classical equations of motion xi = pi H and
pi = xi H, and a little algebra, we recover Lorentz force law
mx = F = q (E + v B)
Lessons from classical dynamics
1
H= (p qA(x, t))2 + q(x, t)
2m
This is all that you need to recall its first principles derivation
from the Lagrangian formulation is not formally examinable!
1
H = (p qA(x, t))2 + q(x, t)
2m
A & A! = A + , & ! = t
1
H = (p qA(x, t))2 + q(x, t)
2m
q iq! iq!
(p A + A p) = ( A + A ) = A
2m 2m m
where equality follows from Coulomb gauge condition, ( A) = 0.
q2 2
And the diagonal term (known as the diamagnetic term) A .
2m
Together, they lead to the expansion
!2 2 iq! q2 2
H = + A+ A + q
2m m 2m
Quantum mechanics of particle in a uniform field
!2 2 iq! q2 2
H = + A+ A + q
2m m 2m
!2 2 qB q2B 2 2
H = Lz + (x + y 2 ) + q
2m 2m 8m
1 e2
V (r ) = q(r) =
4%0 r
2 Free electrons: where the electron is unbound, = 0.
In the first case, we will see that the diamagnetic term has a
negligible role whereas, in the second, both terms contribute
significantly to the dynamics.
Atomic hydrogen in uniform field
!2 2 eB e 2B 2 2 2 1 e2
H = + Lz + (x + y )
2m 2m 8m 4%0 r
!2 2 e 1 e2
H ) + B L
2m 2m 4%0 r
e p2 1 e2
H = H0 + B Lz , H0 =
2m 2m 4%0 r
1
En#m = 2 Ry + !L m
n
eB
where L = denotes the Larmor frequency.
2m
(Without spin contribution) uniform magnetic field ! splitting of
(2* + 1)-fold degeneracy with multiplets separated by !L .
Normal Zeeman effect: experiment
1
H = (p qA(x, t))2 + q(x, t)
2m
!
q
= B d 2x
! A
q
= magnetic flux through area
!
1 2
L= mv q + qv A
2
1
H= (p qA(x, t))2 + q(x, t)
2m
!2 2 iq! q2 2
H = + A+ A + q
2m m 2m
Summary: charged particle in a field
1
En#m = 2
Ry + B Bm
n
i.e. for = 2n
expect constructive
interference n1 he
oscillations.
Lecture 5: continuedFree electrons in a magnetic
field: Landau levels
1
H = (p qA(x, t))2 + q(x, t), q = e
2m
1 5 2 2 2
6
H = (px eBy ) + py + pz
2m
Free electrons in a magnetic field: Landau levels
1 5 2 2 2
6
H(x) = (px eBy ) + py + pz (x) = E (x)
2m
px eB
where y0 = and = is classical cyclotron frequency
eB m
px defines centre of harmonic oscillator in y with frequency , i.e.
pz2
En,pz = (n + 1/2)! +
2m
pz2
En,pz = (n + 1/2)! +
2m
F = q(E + v B)
Ey E B
xy = = =
jx nev en
Quantum Hall Effect
1
jx (y ) = (px (px eBy ) + px ((px eBy ) ))
2m 9
m 1 px eBy m (y y0 )2
= e !
! Lx % &' m (
eB
m (y0 y )
px mE
but now centered around y0 = eB + eB 2 .
! Ly
eE
Ix = dy jx (y ) =
0 BLx
Quantum Hall Effect
! Ly
eE
Ix = dy jx (y ) =
0 BLx
Itot e2
xy = =n
V h
Since no current flow in direction of applied field, longitudinal
conductivity yy vanishes.
Quantum Hall Effect
1 h
yx =
n e2