Lump Ore Characteristics and their Impact on Blast Furnace

Operation
L Lu1, R J Holmes2, J R Manuel3, A Edenton4, M Adam4, R Smyth4 and S Hapugoda5

ABSTRACT THE BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING PROCESS

Lump ore is one of the key ferrous feeds used in the blast furnace AND ITS QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
ironmaking process, normally accounting for ten to 20 per cent of the FERROUS BURDEN MATERIAL
blast furnace burden. Like other feeds, the characteristics of lump ore
have an important impact on the stable operation and productivity of the The blast furnace is a counter current reactor with the solid
blast furnace. Lump ore is usually assessed chemically, physically and burden, including ferrous feeds and coke, charged from the top of
mineralogically to establish its likely blast furnace performance. The the furnace and oxygen enriched hot air and auxiliary fuel
physical characteristics of lump ore are strongly related to the chemistry, injected through the tuyeres located in the lower part of the
mineralogy and texture of the ore involved. In this paper, the blast furnace furnace. As they descend through the blast furnace, the iron
ironmaking process is reviewed, with particular emphasis on the key oxide agglomerates are dried, heated and reduced by the
quality requirements for the ferrous burden material. A variety of key ascending reducing gas. The counter current principle of the
physical characteristics of lump ore measured using standard and
furnace makes it very efficient in transferring the heat and mass
non-standard methods are then described and subsequently correlated
with the chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the ore wherever required to drive the reduction reactions. However, this does
possible. Finally, the impact of these physical characteristics on blast impose a stringent requirement on the permeability of burden
furnace operation is assessed. material in the furnace shaft, ie the stability and productivity of
the blast furnace is heavily dependent on the permeability of the
burden material. To achieve good permeability, the burden
INTRODUCTION material needs to meet specific criteria.
Lump iron ore is cheaper than iron ore pellets, but there have The chemical processes occurring in the blast furnace are very
been long standing concerns about its decrepitation and high complex. From the studies conducted on quenched blast furnaces
temperature properties, which have limited the usage of lump in Japan, five distinct zones have been identified from top to
ore in the blast furnace in the past (Wu, Xu and Tian, 2009). At bottom in the furnace, ie the lumpy zone, the cohesive zone, the
the same time, the gangue minerals in iron ore fines are active zone, the raceway and the hearth and deadman, as shown
increasing, due to the depletion of high-grade iron ore in Figure 1 (Kanbara et al, 1976; Kojima et al, 1976; Sasaki
resources, and this has resulted in a considerable change in
sinter chemistry, in particular, alumina content and basicity (Lu,
Holmes and Manuel, 2007).
Since lump ore usually contains much less alumina than iron
ore fines and is cheaper to prepare compared with iron ore
pellets, its usage is tending to increase to help balance slag
chemistry and contain raw material costs for the blast furnace. A
typical modern blast furnace burden contains about ten to 20 per
cent lump ore. Like other feeds, the characteristics of lump ore
are therefore expected to impact on the stable operation and
productivity of the blast furnace.
In this paper, the blast furnace ironmaking process is first
analysed in terms of its key quality requirements of the ferrous
burden material. The key physical characteristics of lump ore,
measured using standard and non-standard methods are then
reviewed and related to the chemical and mineralogical
characteristics of the ore. Finally, the impact of these physical
characteristics on blast furnace operation is discussed.

1. Stream Leader and Principal Scientist in Iron Ore Agglomeration,

CSIRO Minerals, PO Box 883, Kenmore Qld 4069.
Email: Liming.Lu@csiro.au
2. FAusIMM(CP), Theme Leader, Iron Ore Maximising Export
Marketability, CSIRO Minerals, PO Box 883, Kenmore Qld 4069.
Email: Ralph.Holmes@csiro.au
3. Stream Leader and Senior Scientist in Iron Ore Characterisation,
CSIRO Minerals, PO Box 883, Kenmore Qld 4069.
Email: James.Manuel@csiro.au
4. Project Officers, Mineral Processing and Agglomeration, CSIRO
Minerals, PO Box 883, Kenmore Qld 4069.
5. Project Scientist, Mineral Processing and Agglomeration, CSIRO
Minerals, PO Box 883, Kenmore Qld 4069. FIG 1 - Cross-section of a blast furnace (Loo and Bristow, 1998a).

Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 27 - 29 July 2009 365

L LU et al

et al, 1976; Shimomura et al, 1976). The conditions the burden
material is subjected to, such as temperature, gas composition
and compressive load, vary widely both vertically and radially.
Different quality requirements therefore need to be imposed on
the burden material, such as lump ore, in different zones of the
furnace. Table 1 summarises the key reactions occurring in the
lumpy and cohesive zones of the furnace and the corresponding
operational requirements for these two zones, which largely
determine the quality requirements for the burden material.
Below the cohesive zone, the lump ore loses its identity due to
the softening and melting process resulting from heating and
reduction, and therefore will not have significant impact on the
processes occurring in the zones below the cohesive zone,
although the gangue minerals from the lump ore will partition to
the slag phase and are expected to change the slag chemistry
slightly.
First of all, lump ore needs to be strong enough to resist any
significant size degradation during the charging operation. Then,
the resistance to decrepitation and disintegration due to release of
combined moisture (LOI), thermal shock and reduction in the
upper part of the lumpy zone, and the reducibility of lump ore in
the lower part of the lumpy zone become important
characteristics for stable blast furnace operation. Finally, in the
cohesive zone of the furnace the softening and melting character-
istics of lump ore become important.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LUMP ORE
Standard physical characteristics
Tumble and abrasion indices (TI and AI)
Ore degradation in transit can significantly reduce the amount of
lump ore available for charging into the blast furnace and can
have an adverse impact on blast furnace operation if degradation
occurs during the charging operation. To assess the resistance to
degradation of lump ore during charging, handling and
transportation, the tumble (TI) and abrasion (AI) indices are
often determined in accordance with ISO 3271. While both
indices are measured in the tumble test, usually only the tumble
index is reported in the literature. Basically the tumble index
demonstrates the resistance of lump ore to mechanical
degradation, while the abrasion index gives an indication of the
degree of fines generation.
Unlike sinter, which is always produced on site, lump ore often
has a higher tumble index, which is needed to resist mechanical
degradation during transportation. The resistance of lump ore to
mechanical degradation is believed to be mainly influenced by
the mineralogy and texture of the ore involved. After measuring
the toughness of three lump ores using a combination of macro-
and microfracture tests, Dukino et al (1995) concluded that
tough lump ores with strong grain boundaries are resistant to
degradation, and therefore generate a low proportion of fines.
Two mechanisms may be responsible for the mechanical
degradation of individual lump particles in the blast furnace, ie
impact and abrasion. If an individual lump particle is incapable
of accommodating the energy due to impact during charging as
well as the abrasion between particles and between the particles
and the furnace wall, this individual particle is likely to break
down to generate fines. These fines fill the voids in the packed
burden material and reduce the permeability in the furnace shaft.
Decrepitation index (DI)
As the cold burden lands on the top of the hot burden in the
furnace and descends, it is subject to thermal shock, which may
also cause breakdown of the lump particles. To assess this
behaviour of lump ore, the ISO decrepitation index (DI) is usually
measured in accordance with ISO 8371. The decrepitation index
quantifies the resistance of lump ore to thermal degradation.
The presence of hydrated and carbonate minerals as well as
combined moisture are closely linked to the decrepitation of lump
ore (Tenuta de Azevedo and Cardoso, 1983; Da Silva and Muniz,
2008). It is therefore not surprising that thermally processed ores,
such as fired sinter and pellets, do not decrepitate. Previous
experience has also suggested that ore texture has an important
impact on the degree of decrepitation. As shown in Figure 2,
porous ore does not decrepitate as much as dense ore even though
it has a higher LOI content. A high decrepitation index results in
more iron loss through dust generation and has a negative impact
on blast furnace permeability.
Low temperature reduction disintegration index
(RDI)
As the burden material descends further in the furnace shaft,
reduction of haematite (Fe2O3) to magnetite (Fe3O4) commences
with the increase in temperature and decrease in oxygen

TABLE 1
Key reactions, operational and quality requirements of the blast furnace lumpy and cohesive zones.

Zones Description Key reactions Operational Quality requirements Physical properties

requirements
Lumpy From stockline to the Preheating and drying Gas permeable Proper size distribution Size distribution and
zone surface of the cohesive Indirect reduction of iron Resistance to breakdown mean particle size
zone ores during charging as well Tumble index
Carbon solution reaction as due to compression in Decrepitation index
the furnace Low-temperature
Resistance to reduction disintegration
decrepitation due to index
thermal shock Reducibility index
Resistance to
disintegration due to low
temperature reduction
High reducibility
Cohesive Starts when the materials Indirect reduction of As narrow as High softening Softening temperature
zone become softened and FeO possible, and the root temperature Melting temperature
deformed, and finishes Carburisation of Fe by of the cohesive zone Low dripping Width of cohesive zone
when liquid starts CO needs to be as low as temperature S value
dripping (softened mass) Carbon solution reaction possible

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 LUMP ORE CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR IMPACT ON BLAST FURNACE OPERATION

5.255 g/cm3, while Fe3O4 has an octahedral spinel structure with

a theoretical density of 5.2 g/cm3. Solid state reduction of
haematite is therefore accompanied both by change in crystal
structure and volume expansion, generating strain. Cracks,
believed to form initially at grain boundaries, then led to
disintegration of ore particles.

Reducibility index (RI)

FIG 2 - Effect of ore mineralogy and texture on the decrepitation
index; -25 + 20 mm lump ore particles of highly microporous,
ochreous goethite (left), microporous martite-goethite (centre)
and dense martite-goethite (right), before (top row) and after
decrepitation test (bottom row). Images before and after test are
of the same particles.
potential. To assess the performance of lump ore in this zone of
the blast furnace, the low-temperature reduction disintegration
index (RDI) is determined using a thermogravimetric method in
accordance with ISO 4696-2. The RDI value is designed to
evaluate the degree of fine particle (-2.8 mm) generation from
lump ore when reduced under conditions similar to those
prevailing in the low temperature reduction zone of a blast
furnace. Low temperature reduction disintegration is a serious
problem for sinter due to the negative effect of increasing
alumina content of iron ore sinter fines (Lu, Holmes and Manuel,
2007) and has therefore attracted much attention and extensive
research in recent times. Compared with sinter, lump ore is
generally much less affected by reduction degradation.
Detailed mechanisms responsible for this behaviour have been
reviewed (Dawson, 1993; Loo and Bristow, 1998b, Lu, Holmes
and Manuel, 2007). Disintegration of lump ore is generally
believed to be associated with the volume change due to the
reduction of haematite to magnetite and the inability of the
haematite grains to accommodate the strains resulting from
changes in volume and crystal structure. Fe2O3 belongs to
the hexagonal crystal system and has a calculated density of
Two different types of reduction reactions occur in the blast
furnace. Above the cohesive zone, the iron oxides are reduced
mainly by the reducing gases, including CO and H2, to wstite
(FeO), while further reduction to iron occurs in contact with
solid fuel or coke in and below the cohesive zone. The former is
called an indirect reaction, while the latter is termed a direct
reaction. The reducibility index (RI) is designed to quantify the
extent to which oxygen can be removed from iron ore within a
fixed period when reduced under conditions resembling those
prevailing in the indirect reduction zone of a blast furnace. The
RI value of lump ore is determined in accordance with ISO 7215,
ISO 4695 and ISO 7992, which use distinct reducing gas
compositions and reduction temperatures without (ISO 7215,
ISO 4695) or with compression load (ISO 7992).
High reducibility encourages indirect reduction in the blast
furnace, reducing fuel consumption. High reducibility is
also expected to decrease the quantity of melt formed during
the reduction, resulting in improved softening and melting
characteristics. Lump ore with high reducibility is therefore
desirable for blast furnace operation.
During indirect reduction, iron oxides are reduced through a
solid/gas reaction mechanism. At intermediate temperatures, the
reduction rate is likely to be controlled by mixed gas diffusion and
chemical reaction on the pore surface of the solid. The porosity of
the solid phase is therefore expected to affect the reaction kinetics,
as it changes the surface area available for chemical reaction.
Figure 3 shows the macro- and micro- structure of typical lump
ores. It is clear that lump ore is often less porous, and therefore
lower in reducibility than sinter and most pellets. Comparing the
two lump ores in Figure 3, Lump A is more porous than Lump B.
However, it is worth mentioning that Lump B has a higher LOI
due to the presence of more goethite (FeOOH), which will
generate more secondary porosity upon heating prior to indirection
reduction. When reduced, Lump B had a better reducibility of
84.5 per cent compared with 77.8 per cent for Lump A.

A B

FIG 3 - Reflected optical micrographs showing mineralogical characteristics of two different lump samples (-2 +1 mm fraction of crushed
lump samples): (A) sample A and (B) sample B; H haematite, M martite, G goethite, HY hydrohaematite, S shale, Q quartz.

Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 27 - 29 July 2009 367

L LU et al
Non-standard physical characteristics (softening
and melting characteristics)
The softening and melting (SAM) test is aimed at simulating the
physical and chemical changes occurring in a small volume of
sample as it descends in a blast furnace, particularly in the
cohesive zone. During the test, the sample is sandwiched
between two layers of graphite or coke particles and subjected to
a programmed time-dependent variation of temperature, gas
composition and loading conditions. The physical and chemical
changes occurring in the sample during the test are monitored
continuously by measuring and recording the changes in bed
height, pressure drop across the sample bed and sample and melt
collector temperatures. As different blast furnaces operate under
distinct working conditions, and given the complexity of this test,
there is no standard procedure for the softening and melting test.
A fully computerised testing facility has been developed at
CSIRO to characterise the softening and melting characteristics
of ferrous burden material under realistic conditions similar to
those encountered in the blast furnace. Figure 4 presents a
schematic diagram of the CSIRO softening and melting test
facility. It consists of an induction furnace, a gas distribution
system, a loading system and a data acquisition system. The
induction furnace is capable of heating the test sample at
required heating rates up to the temperature of 1550C. The gas
distribution system enables simulation of the compositions of
gaseous mixtures of N2, CO, CO2 and H2 that are typically found
in blast furnaces. The loading system applies a fixed or variable
load to the surface of the sample bed via an air cylinder and
monitors the compaction of the sample bed. The data acquisition
system is used to preset the initial values and ramping rates of
the sample load and gas flow rates, and records the changes in
bed height and pressure drop across the sample bed, as well as
sample and melt collector temperatures for analysis. Table 2
summarises the typical testing conditions used in the CSIRO
SAM test.
FIG 4 - Schematic diagram of the softening and melting testing facility at CSIRO.
368 Perth, WA, 27 - 29 July 2009
Figure 5 shows the softening and melting curves measured for
an Australian lump iron ore sample under typical SAM testing
conditions by CSIRO. The softening, melting and dripping
temperatures, as well as the cohesive zone temperature range, are
defined below and illustrated in Figure 5:
Softening temperature (C), TS the sample temperature at
50 per cent bed compaction. Above this temperature, the
pressure drop across the bed starts to increase rapidly. This
temperature usually coincides with the temperature at which
direct reduction starts and is defined here as the start of the
cohesive zone.
Melting temperature ( C), Tm the temperature at which the
pressure drop across the sample bed returns to that at TS or
1550C, whichever is lower. This indicates the end of
meltdown and compaction of the bed.
Cohesive zone temperature range (C), T the temperature
interval between the softening and melting temperatures. It is
important to ensure the temperature difference between
softening and melting of the burden is not too great. A thick
cohesive zone will result in poor permeability in the furnace
burden.
Dripping temperature (C), Td the temperature at which the
first drop of molten material is recorded. This is detected by
a thermocouple positioned in the melt collector.
S value (kPa C), the area under the pressure drop curve,
above the pressure drop at TS and bordered by the softening
and melting temperatures. This is often referred to as the S
value in Japan. The S value indicates the pressure accumulated
in the cohesive zone. As shown in the insert in Figure 5, the S
value is calculated using the following equation:
Tm
S = (P P )dT
Ts
Ts
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 LUMP ORE CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR IMPACT ON BLAST FURNACE OPERATION

TABLE 2 IMPACT OF LUMP ORE PHYSICAL

Summary of typical CSIRO softening and melting testing CHARACTERISTICS ON THE BLAST FURNACE
conditions. OPERATION
Parameter Unit Variation range Typical conditions
of key variables Standard versus non-standard physical properties
Sample mass g - About 500 The phase diagram of the Fe-C-O system (Figure 6) shows the
Sample size mm - -12.5+10 stability fields of Fe and various iron oxides (Ricketts, 2000). On
the same figure, the conditions of various ISO standard physical
Sample bed mm - 65 tests and the working conditions measured for Japanese and
height German blast furnaces are also shown. It is clear that the
Graphite layer mm - 45 bottom relationship between the gas composition and temperature inside
depth the blast furnace does not follow the equilibrium curves for
mm - 40 top
either iron oxides or carbon. The simple standardised tests are
Graphite size mm - -12.5+10 generally conducted at fixed conditions, which often represent
Gas flow l/min Programmable 11.3 the extreme situations encountered by the burden material in the
N2: 0 - 20 furnace. Therefore, the standard physical tests do not provide
CO: 0 - 15 information on the behaviour of the burden material in the blast
CO2: 0 - 10 furnace, particularly in the cohesive zone of the furnace. For this
H2: 0 - 3 purpose, more sophisticated, non-standard physical testing
Gas Vol% Programmable: 30% CO + 70% N2 methods are needed to simulate the working conditions that the
composition four gas mixture of burden material encounters on its descent down the furnace.
varying compositions
Heating rate C/min Programmable ~10 at temperatures
below 1000C
~5 at temperatures
higher than 1000C
Load kN/m2 Programmable 98
0 - 250

where:
P and PT s are the pressure drops across the sample bed at any
instantaneous temperature and at TS, respectively
While many factors, such as composition, pore structure and
mineralogy, can affect the softening and melting characteristics
of the burden material, it is thought that the reducibility of the
material determines the amount of FeO in the sample during high
temperature reduction and therefore the softening characteristics FIG 6 - Phase stability fields of iron and various iron oxides, blast
of the material. On the other hand, the liquidus temperature and furnace working conditions and the conditions of different standard
the amount of slag formed from the burden material determine ISO physical tests: (1) ISO 4696-2, (2) ISO 7215, (3) ISO 4695,
the dripping temperature of the material (Lu et al, 2009). and (4) ISO 7992 (Ricketts, 2000).
400 10
10
Pr essure Dr op , kpa

S Value
9
350 8
Pressure drop
6 8
300
Bed compaction (x10,%) and

4
Dripping Temp ( C)

TS Tm 7
o

2
Pressure Drop (kPa)

250 0 6
1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350
o
Sample Temp, C
200 5

4
150
Bed compaction 3
TS
100
2
Dripping Temp
50
1
Td Tm
0 0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

o
Sample Temp, C

FIG 5 - Softening and melting curves measured for an Australian lump iron ore under typical CSIRO softening and
melting testing conditions. T = Tm Ts .

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L LU et al
After reviewing the burden testing methods available, Chaigneau
et al (2001) suggested that standard physical tests are useful tools
for quality control to ensure consistent quality of the raw
materials, while non-standard physical tests give better
predictions when unfamiliar burden materials are used.
Effect of fines generation from blast furnace
burden material
In a packed bed like the shaft of a blast furnace, fines tend to
occupy the voids between large particles, thereby reducing the
overall void fraction and permeability of the packed bed.
Figure 7 shows the relationship of the TI and RDI indices of
burden material with blast furnace permeability. Lower furnace
permeability is expected for a burden material with lower TI and
higher RDI, as this type of burden material generates more fines
as it descends. This can affect the gas distribution and volume, as
well as the flue dust generation inside the furnace, and
consequently the productivity and stability of furnace operation.
Effect of reducibility of blast furnace burden
material
Reducibility is important to the blast furnace, particularly in the
lower part of the lumpy zone. It can affect utilisation of the
reducing potential of CO and H2 in the furnace shaft and therefore
coke consumption of the furnace, as evidenced in Figure 8. A
highly reducible ore will also result in less FeO in the burden as it
descends into the high temperature zone and, therefore, will
improve the softening property of the burden material.
Effect of high temperature properties of blast
furnace burden material
The behaviour of blast furnace ferrous burden during reduction at
high temperatures, or the softening and dripping temperatures, is
believed to determine the configuration and location of the
cohesive zone (Dawson, 1987; Higuchi et al, 2004), which has a
profound impact on hot metal productivity as well as quality, fuel
consumption, operational stability and the lining life of the blast
furnace due to its effects on total gas flow and distribution of gas
in the furnace burden (Dawson, 1987).
As mentioned earlier, there have been long standing concerns
about the high temperature characteristics of lump ore. As shown
in Figure 5, the lump clearly started to shrink at approximately
710C. However, the sample underwent only slow linear shrinkage
at sample temperatures below 1000C, and no pressure drop was
detected across the sample bed. Therefore the bed shrinkage
observed at 710C is not due to softening of the sample, but
instead is due to the volume change of the lump ore as a result of
FIG 7 - Effect of burden tumble index and reduction disintegration index on blast furnace permeability (V/P) (Ranade, 2000).
370 Perth, WA, 27 - 29 July 2009
FIG 8 - Effect of burden reducibility on blast furnace coke rate
(Ranade, 2000).
dehydroxylation of goethite. Subsequent brittle deformation
causes reorientation of the ore particles under load and high
temperature. It is believed that the sample has still retained its
particle identity, since the reaction gases could still readily flow
through the remaining gaps between ore particles without causing
a significant pressure drop. The pressure drop across the sample
only started to increase rapidly when the sample bed reached
50 per cent compaction at around 1155C, due to collapse of the
void space between ore particles resulting from plastic
deformation and partial fusion of ore particles at the higher
temperature. Therefore it is likely that the softening temperature of
some lump ores has been underestimated, and consequently the
width of their cohesive zones overestimated. In fact, it has been
reported that some of the blast furnaces in China have been
running efficiently at 20 per cent of lump ore in their burden (Wu,
Xu and Tian, 2009).
CONCLUSIONS
The blast furnace ironmaking process is analysed and the key
quality requirements for the ferrous burden material are proposed.
The key physical characteristics of lump ore measured using
standard and non-standard methods, including tumble index,
decrepitation index, low temperature reduction disintegration
index, reducibility as well as the softening and melting
properties, are described and subsequently correlated with the
chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the ore. While the
mineralogical characteristics of ore have significant impacts on
the physical properties of lump ore, chemical composition is also
important to the softening and melting properties of lump ore.
The impact of the physical characteristics on blast furnace
operation is assessed. By influencing the fines generation and
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 LUMP ORE CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR IMPACT ON BLAST FURNACE OPERATION
reducibility as well as the softening and melting properties of
lump ore, the physical characteristics play an important role to
stable blast furnace operation.
The conditions used for standard physical tests are compared
with the working conditions of typical modern blast furnaces.
This is important when interpreting the data from standard
physical tests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank CSIRO for its financial support
and permission to publish this work.
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