Unit 1 and 3

Unit-: I Learning Process & Transfer of Learning
a. Learning- its nature and types.

MEANING and Nature: Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If
we compare the simple, crude ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the complex
modes of adult behaviour, his skills, habits, thought, sentiments and the like- we will know
what difference learning has made to the individual.
The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment. This
experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively with it.
Therefore, learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour. As stated
above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests and other personality characteristics
are all the result of learning.
Learning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
practice and experience
knowledge acquired through study, experience, or being taught.
Crow and Crow, Learning is acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things and it
operates in an individuals attains to overcome obstacles or to adjust to a new situation. It represents progressive changes
in behaviour; it enables him to satisfy to attain goals.
Gates, Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training.
Travers J.F., Learning is a process that results in the modification of behaviour
Wordsworth, R.S., Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual (in any respect, good or bad) and
makes his behaviour and experience different from what that would otherwise have been.
Skinner: Learning can be viewed as acquisition and retention.
1|Learning and Teaching Ninimol Denny

1. Verbal learning:
This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices
we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in
such activities. We use words for communication.
2. Gathyatmak Adhigam(Motor learning or Dynamic learning)
This is a type of learning which attains perfection through regular practice and
speed. Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The
individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example
walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the
muscular coordination.
3. Concept learning:
It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like
thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood.
For example, when we see a dog and attach the term dog, we learn that the word
dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz.
abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognising,
identifying things.
4. Problem solving:
This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization,
etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.
5. Serial Learning:
In some research on memory for words, the learner is exposed to stimuli to be
remembered and later recalls those stimuli in the same order in which they initially
appeared. This procedure is called serial learning.
eg: Alphabets, Multiplication table, Ordinal states of PM etc.
6. Associative learning is the process by which someone learns an association between two stimuli, or a
behavior and a stimulus. The two forms of associative learning are classical and operant conditioning.
Pavlov and Skinner
Discrimination learning:
Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response
to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of
different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.
Learning of principles:
Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar,
etc. in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the

relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws,
associations, correlations, etc.
Attitude learning:
Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We
develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and
everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon
our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.
Imaginative learning:
Gained by imagination
1Types
o 1.1Non-associative learning
1.1.1Habituation
1.1.2Sensitization
o 1.2Active learning
o 1.3Associative learning
1.3.1Operant conditioning
1.3.2Classical conditioning
1.3.3Imprinting
o 1.4Play
o 1.5Enculturation
o 1.6Episodic learning
o 1.7Multimedia learning
o 1.8E-learning and augmented learning
o 1.9Rote learning
o 1.10Meaningful learning
o 1.11Informal learning
o 1.12Formal learning
o 1.13Nonformal learning
o 1.14Nonformal learning and combined approaches
o 1.15Tangential learning
o 1.16Dialogic learning
o 1.17Incidental learning
b. Laws of learning.
Edward L. Thorndike in the early 1900's postulated several "Laws of Learning," that seemed generally
applicable to the learning process. Since that time, other educational psychologists have found that the
learning process is indeed more complex than the "laws" identified
1. Law of readiness(Primary):
The first law speaks about learners enthusiasm. It is an accepted truth that learning happens only when there is a
will to learn. Generally, an individual learns more efficiently and with more indulgence only when he is ready to
learn. Our learning atmosphere can be diverted by sleep, tiresome, feeling, expectations etc.
2. Law of effect (Primary): This law states that when a connection is accomplished by satisfying
effect, its strength is increased. By this, Thorndike meant that the probability of its occurrence is
greater. In his experiment if the hungry cat succeeded in opening the door, would get its favorable
dish to eat.

3. Law of exercise(Primary): This law is also known as law of frequency. Frequency refers to number
of repetitions of learning. Thorndike believed that repeated exercising of a response strengthens
its connection with stimulus.
4. Law of partial activity(Secondary): This suggest us to break the big problem into pieces. So that
the smaller pieces can easily be resolved. Eg: Lesson plan in micro-teaching.
5. Law of multiple response(Secondary): It means when a response fails to elicit a desired effect, the
learner will try with new responses until the goal is reached
6. Law of set or attitude (Secondary): Mental set or positive attitude is very important in any learning
7. Law of associative shifting(Secondary): This is nothing but shifting of the response to a new
situation which is similar to the earlier one. Because the fundamental notion is that, if a response
can be kept intact through a series of changes in stimulating situation, it may finally be given to a
new situation.
8. Law of prepotency of elements(Secondary): This law states that the learner is able to react in a
selected way, only to the salient elements of the problem and not for other unimportant elements.
9. Law of response by analogy(Secondary): It means comparing a new situation to the previously
learned one and thus giving a response by analogy.
IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING
Some of our learning occurs in formal settings where what we learn is packaged and prepared for
us. But much learning also occurs in nonformal settings, and, informally as well. Information
literacy is crucial in all three types of learning situations.
Becoming information literate will involve a drastic change from the way many students are
accustomed to learning. First of all, it requires students to be more self-directed in their learning. This
kind of independent, active learning prepares students for real-life problem solving (Breivik and Gee
1989). Also, in becoming information literate, students will assume more responsibility for their own
learning either individually or in work groups. As students become more competent with their use of
information resource options, they become aware of their individual styles of learning and preferred
ways of assimilating knowledge (Bleakley and Carrigan 1994).
One successful method for developing information literacy skills is through resource-based learning
which involves having students assume more responsibility for locating the very materials from
which to learn. This approach develops lifelong learning skills because students are learning from
the same sources which they will come to use in their daily lives such as books, newspapers,
televisions, databases, government documents, subject matter experts, and others (ALA 1989).
Moreover, resource-based learning provides an added advantage (i.e., it allows students to choose
materials that match their academic levels and preferred learning styles thus individualizing the
learning process for the individual student).
Educational Implications of Law of Readiness: The law draws the attention of teacher to the motivation of the child. The
teacher must consider the psycho-biological readiness of the students to ensure successful learning experiences.
Curriculum / Learning experiences should be according to the mental level of maturity of the child. If this is not so, there
will be poor comprehension and readiness may vanish.
Educational Implication of law of exercise: Exercise occupies an important place in learning. Teacher must repeat, give
sufficient drill in some subjects like mathematics, drawing, music or vocabulary for fixing material in the minds of the
students. Thorndike later revised this law of exercise and accordingly it is accepted that practice does bring improvement
in learning but it in itself is not sufficient.
Educational Implication of Law of Effect: This law signifies the use of reinforcement or feedback in learning. This implies
that learning trials must be associated with satisfying consequences. The teacher can use rewards to strengthen certain

responses and punishment to weaken others. However, the use of reward is more desirable than the use of punishment
in school learning. The teacher for motivating the students for learning situations can exploit the use of reward.
Definitions of Transfer of Learning:
It is the ability to apply knowledge learned in one context to new contexts.
Sorenson. "Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge, training and habits acquired in one situation to
another".
Peterson: Transfer is a generalization because it opens our thoughts widely.
Thaleen and winsterin: The response of a particular situation is influenced by the learning in another situation
Kolesanik: Learning acquired by the aptitudes, knowledge, skill and other action is been utilized to a different situations.
c. Theories of Learning- Trial and error, Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning,

Insight learning.
E.L Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning:
Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses that are
followed by discomfort are weakened Thorndike
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first American psychologist who put forward the Trial and Error Theory of
learning. According to Thorndike, all learning takes place because of formation of bond or connection between stimulus
and response. He further says that learning takes place through a process of approximation and correction. A person
makes a number of trials, some responses do not give satisfaction to the individual but he goes on making further trials
until he gets satisfactory responses. Thorndike conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain the process of
learning. His most widely quoted experiment is with a cat placed in a puzzle box. Thorndike put a hungry cat in a puzzle
box. The box had one door, which could be opened by manipulating a latch of the door. A fish was placed outside the box.
The cat being hungry had the motivation of eating fish outside the box. However, the obstacle was the latch on the door.
The cat made random movements inside the box indicating trial and error type of behaviour biting at the box, scratching
the box, walking around, pulling and jumping etc. to come out to get the food. Now in the course of her movements, the
latch was manipulated accidently and the cat came out to get the food. Over a series of successive trials, the cat took
shorter and shorter time, committed less number of errors, and was in a position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was
put in the box and learnt the art of opening the door. Thorndike concluded that it was only after many random trials that
the cat was able to hit upon the solutions. He named it as 53 Trial and Error Learning. An analysis of the learning behaviour
of the cat in the box shows that besides trial and error the principles of goal, motivation, explanation and reinforcement
are involved in the process of learning by Trial and Error.
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how information is absorbed, processed and retained during learning.
Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view,
is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.
Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies to a large extent on that he already
knows and understands, and the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.
Transformative learning theory focuses upon the often necessary change that is required in a learner's preconceptions
and world view.
Behaviorism
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)and Operant conditioning(B.F. Skinner)
Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. Eg: The most popular example is Pavlov's
observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically "wired" so
that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response.
Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is
a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes
more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach
pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.
How Behaviorism impacts learning:
Positive and negative reinforcement techniques of Behaviorism can be very effective.

Teachers use Behaviorism when they reward or punish student behaviours.
Cognitivism
Jean Piaget authored a theory based on the idea that a developing child builds cognitive structures, mental "maps", for
understanding and responding to physical experiences within their environment. Piaget proposed that a child's cognitive
structure increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to
highly complex mental activities. The four developmental stages of Piaget's model and the processes by which children
progress through them are: The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations.
As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain their physical
experiences. Abstract problem solving is possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with
numbers, not just with objects. By this point, the child's cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include
conceptual reasoning.
Developmental Stage Cognitive Process
Sensorimotor stage (birth The child, through physical interaction with the environment, builds a set of concepts
- 2 years old) about reality and how it works. This is the stage where a child does not know that physical
objects remain in existence even when out of sight.
Preoperational stage
(ages 2 - 7)
Concrete operations (ages
7 - 11)
Formal operations
(beginning at ages 11 - 15)
Piaget proposed that during all development stages, the child experiences their environment using whatever mental maps
they have constructed. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily - or is assimilated - into the child's cognitive
structure so that they maintain mental "equilibrium". If the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and
alters their cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions. In this way, the child constructs increasingly complex
cognitive structures. How Piaget's theory impacts learning: Curriculum - Educators must plan a developmentally
appropriate curriculum that enhances their students' logical and conceptual growth. Instruction - Teachers must
emphasize the critical role that experiences, or interactions with the surrounding environment, play in student learning.
For example, instructors have to take into account the role that fundamental concepts, such as the permanence of objects,
play in establishing cognitive structures.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences we construct our
own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to
make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate
new experiences.
The guiding principles of Constructivism:
Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying
to construct meaning.
Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts and parts must be understood in the context of wholes.
Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.
In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the world and the
assumptions they make to support those models. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own
meaning, not just memorize the "right" answers and repeat someone else's meaning. Since education is inherently
interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make assessment part of the learning process, ensuring
it provides students with information on the quality of their learning.
How Constructivism impacts learning:
Curriculum - Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula
customized to the students' prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.
Instruction - Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering
new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students

to analyze, interpret and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive
dialogue among students.
Assessment - Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes
part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress.
d. Measurement of Learning, Learning Curve.
Learning curve:
A learning curve is a graphical representation of the increase of learning (vertical axis) with experience (horizontal
axis). The term learning curve is used in two main ways: where the same task is repeated in a series of trials, or
where a body of knowledge is learned over time. Several main functions have been used:[12][13][14]
Exponential growth
The proficiency can increase without limit, as in Exponential growth (Fig 4)
Exponential rise or fall to a Limit
Proficiency can exponentially approach a limit in a manner similar to that in which a capacitor charges or
discharges (Exponential decay) through a resistor. (Fig 5)
The increase in skill or retention of information is sharpest during the initial attempts, and then gradually
levels out, meaning that the subject's skill does not improve much with each repetition, or that less new
knowledge is gained over time.
Power law
This is similar in appearance to an Exponential decay function, and is almost always used for a decreasing
performance metric, such as cost. (Fig 6) It also has the property that if you plot the logarithm of proficiency
against the logarithm of experience the result is a straight line, and it is often presented that way. (Fig 8)
The specific case of a plot of Unit Cost versus Total Production with a Power Law was named
the Experience Curve: the mathematical function is sometimes called Henderson's Law.
This form of learning curve is used extensively in industry for cost projections.[15]
S-Curve or Sigmoid function
In this case the improvement of proficiency starts slowly, then increases rapidly, and finally levels off. (Fig 7)
The page on "Experience curve effects" offers more discussion of the mathematical
theory of representing them as deterministic processes, and provides a good group of
empirical examples of how that technique has been applied.
e. Transfer of Learning- definition and their types.

Essay Transfer of Learning: Types and Theories of Transfer of
Learning!
Meaning:
The word transfer is used to describe the effects of past learning upon present acquisition. In the laboratory
and in the outside world, how well and how rapidly we learn anything depends to a large extent upon the kinds
and amount of things we have learned previously.
In simple way transfer may be defined as the partial or total application or carryover of knowledge, skills,
habits, attitudes from one situation to another situation.
Hence, carryover of skills of one learning to other learning is transfer of training or learning. Such transfer
occurs when learning of one set of material influences the learning of another set of material later. For
example, a person who knows to drive a moped can easily learn to drive a scooter.
Types of Transfer of Learning:
There are three types of transfer of learning:
1. Positive transfer:
When learning in one situation facilitates learning in another situation, it is known as positive transfer. For
example, skills in playing violin facilitate learning to play piano. Knowledge of mathematics facilitates to learn
physics in a better way. Driving a scooter facilitates driving a motorbike.
2. Negative transfer:
When learning of one task makes the learning of another task harder- it is known as negative transfer. For
example, speaking Telugu hindering the learning of Malayalam.
Left hand drive vehicles hindering the learning of right hand drive.
3. Neutral transfer:
When learning of one activity neither facilitates nor hinders the learning of another task, it is a case of neutral
transfer. It is also called as zero transfer.
For example, knowledge of history in no way affects learning of driving a car or a scooter.
Theories of Transfer of Learning:
There are two important theories which explain transfer of learning. These are known as modern theories.
1. Theory of identical elements:
This theory has been developed by E.L.Thorndike. According to him most of transfer occurs from one situation
to another in which there are most similar or identical elements.
This theory explains that carrying over from one situation to another is roughly proportional to the degree of
resemblance in situation, in other words- more the similarity, more the transfer.
The degree of transfer increases as the similarity of elements increase. For example, learning to ride moped is
easy after learning to ride a bicycle. Here, transfer is very fast because of identical elements in both vehicles.
Thorndike was convinced that the method used in guiding a pupils learning activities had a great effect upon
the degree of transferability of his learning.
2. Theory of generalization of experience:
This theory was developed by Charles Judd. Theory of generalization assumes that what is learnt in task A
transfers to task B, because in studying A, the learner develops a general principle which applies in part or
completely in both A and B.
Experiences, habits, knowledge gained in one situation help us to the extent to which they can be generalized
and applied to another situation.
Generalization consists of perceiving and understanding what is common to a number of situations. The ability
of individuals to generalize knowledge varies with the degree of their intelligence.
f. Factors influencing learning.

Motivation: ...
Readiness and will power: ...
Ability of the learner: ...
Level of aspiration and achievement: ...
Attention: ...
General health condition of the learner: ...
10 | L e a r n i n g a n d T e a c h i n g Ninimol Denny
Maturation of the learner: ...
Factors related to learning material etc
1. Intellectual factor:
2. Learning factors:
Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of work or study, and narrowness of experimental
background may affect the learning process of any pupil. If the school proceeds too rapidly and does not constantly check up
on the extent to which the pupil is mastering what is being taught, the pupil accumulates a number of deficiencies that
interfere with successful progress.
3. Physical factors:
Under this group are included such factors as health, physical development, nutrition, visual and physical defects, and glandular
abnormality. It is generally recognized that ill health retards physical and motor development, and malnutrition interferes with learning
and physical growth.
4. Mental factors:
Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of organic and kinesthetic elements. They are not to be confused with
emotions that are characterized by internal visceral disturbances. Attitudes are more or less of definite sort. They play a large part in the
mental organization and general behavior of the individual.
5. Emotional and social factors:
Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex
psychology of motivation. It is a recognized fact that the various responses of the individual to various kinds of stimuli are determined by
a wide variety of tendencies.
6.Teachers Personality:
The teacher as an individual personality is an important element in the learning environment or in the failures and success of the
learner. The way in which his personality interacts with the personalities of the pupils being taught helps to determine the kind of
behavior which emerges from the learning situation.
7. Environmental factor:
Physical conditions needed for learning is under environmental factor. One of the factors that affect the efficiency of learning is the
condition in which learning takes place. This includes the classrooms, textbooks, equipment, school supplies, and other instructional
materials.
Unit-II: Motivation of the learner
a. Concept of motivation, Types of motivation
Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behaviour. It gives the reason for people's actions, desires, and
needs. Motivation can also be defined as one's direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior and vice
versa.
Koontz and O Donnell
Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, needs, wishes and similar
forces.
P.V Young
Blaire, Jones, Simson
Woodworth
Types of motivation:
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from within. The
individual has the desire to perform a specific task, because its results are in accordance with his
belief system or fulfills a desire and therefore importance is attached to it.
Our deep-rooted desires have the highest motivational power. Below are some examples:
Acceptance: We all need to feel that we, as well as our decisions, are accepted by our co-
workers.
Curiosity: We all have the desire to be in the know.
Honor: We all need to respect the rules and to be ethical.
Independence: We all need to feel we are unique.
Order: We all need to be organized.
Power: We all have the desire to be able to have influence.
Social contact: We all need to have some social interactions.
Social Status: We all have the desire to feel important.
Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from outside. In
other words, our desires to perform a task are controlled by an outside source. Note that even
though the stimuli are coming from outside, the result of performing the task will still be rewarding
for the individual performing the task.
Extrinsic motivation is external in nature. The most well-known and the most debated motivation
is money. Below are some other examples:
Employee of the month award
Benefit package
Bonuses
Organized activities
b. Importance of motivation in class room.
Importance of Motivation
c. Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a description of the needs that motivate human behavior. In 1943, Abraham Maslow
proposed five different kinds of human needs. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental
psychology, some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. Maslow used the terms
"physiological", "safety", "belonging" and "love", "esteem", "self-actualization", and "self-transcendence" to describe
the pattern that human motivations generally move through.
Physiological needs[edit]
Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human
body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail. Physiological needs are thought to be the most important; they
should be met first.
Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans. Clothing and shelter
provide necessary protection from the elements. While maintaining an adequate birth rate shapes the intensity of
the human sexual instinct, sexual competition may also shape said instinct.[2]
Safety needs[edit]
Once a person's physiological needs are relatively satisfied, their safety needs take precedence and dominate
behavior. In the absence of physical safety due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, etc.
people may (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder or transgenerational trauma. In the absence of economic
safety due to economic crisis and lack of work opportunities these safety needs manifest themselves in ways
such as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority,
savings accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. This level is more likely to be found in children
as they generally have a greater need to feel safe.
Safety and Security needs include:
Personal security
Financial security
Health and well-being
Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
Love and belonging[edit]
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves
feelings of belongingness. This need is especially strong in childhood and it can override the need for safety as
witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies within this level of Maslow's hierarchy due
to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. can adversely affect the individual's ability to form and maintain
emotionally significant relationships in general, such as:
Friendship
Intimacy
Family
According to Maslow, humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance among their social groups,
regardless whether these groups are large or small. For example, some large social groups may include clubs, co-
workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, and gangs. Some examples of small social
connections include family members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans need to love
and be loved both sexually and non-sexually by others.[2] Many people become susceptible to loneliness, social
anxiety, and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element. This need for belonging may
overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure.
Esteem[edit]
All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem
presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People often engage in a profession or
hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the person a sense of contribution or value. Low self-esteem or
an inferiority complex may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy. People with low self-esteem
often need respect from others; they may feel the need to seek fame or glory. However, fame or glory will not help
the person to build their self-esteem until they accept who they are internally. Psychological imbalances such
as depression can hinder the person from obtaining a higher level of self-esteem or self-respect.
Most people have a need for stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs: a
"lower" version and a "higher" version. The "lower" version of esteem is the need for respect from others. This may
include a need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The "higher" version manifests itself as the
need for self-respect. For example, the person may have a need for strength, competence, mastery, self-
confidence, independence, and freedom. This "higher" version takes precedence over the "lower" version because it
relies on an inner competence established through experience. Deprivation of these needs may lead to an inferiority
complex, weakness, and helplessness.
Maslow states that while he originally thought the needs of humans had strict guidelines, the "hierarchies are
interrelated rather than sharply separated".[3] This means that esteem and the subsequent levels are not strictly
separated; instead, the levels are closely related.
Self-actualization[edit]
Main article: Self-actualization
"What a man can be, he must be."[3]:91 This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization.
This level of need refers to what a person's full potential is and the realization of that potential. Maslow describes
this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.[3]:92 Individuals
may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have the strong desire to
become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For others, it may be expressed in
paintings, pictures, or inventions.[3]:93 As previously mentioned, Maslow believed that to understand this level of need,
the person must not only achieve the previous needs, but master them.
Self-transcendence[edit]
In his later years, Maslow explored a further dimension of needs, while criticizing his own vision on self-
actualization.[8] The self only finds its actualization in giving itself to some higher goal outside oneself, in altruism and
spirituality.[9] "Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human
consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human beings
in general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos" (Farther Reaches of Human Nature, New York 1971, p.
269).
d. Factors affecting- maturation, attention, interest and fatigue
Maturation of the learner:
Maturation and learning go hand in hand. We learn things only according to maturity of our body. For
example, a child of 6 months cannot learn to ride a bicycle even after vigorous training, because it
requires muscular or physical maturity.
Attention:
Learner must learn to concentrate his attention on learning. Attentiveness helps to grasp learning
material. Distraction of attention affects learning.
Readiness and will power:

This is just like motivation. If the learner is ready to learn, he will develop motivation to learn. Along
with readiness a strong willpower is also essential to overcome hurdles and problems. Readiness will
help to develop a positive attitude in learner.
General health condition of the learner:

The general health includes the physical and mental health of the learner. The learner should have
good physical health. Organic defects like blindness, myopia, hypermetropia, deafness, paralysis,
mutism, severe handicappedness, etc., will affect learning. Problem in sense organs will lead to
improper perception. Chronic illnesses may lead to fatigue and lack of interest.
In addition to physical health, the mental health of learner is also important. Adjustmental problems,
minor mental problems like worry, anxiety, stress, and inferiority complexes will affect learning.
Level of aspiration and achievement:

Learning depends upon the level of aspiration to achieve. If the aspiration level is high, the learner
will work hard and achieve more. However, the aspiration level should be in accordance with the
ability of the learner.
Otherwise, it may affect negatively leading to feelings of inferiority. At times the learner may not
realize his ability and keep low level of aspiration resulting in low achievement, which is also a
tendency to be rectified.
Motivation:
It is the most important factor influencing the learner. If the learner has no motivation to learn, any
amount of force will be futile. More the motivation better will be the learning. In addition to
motivation, the learner should have a definite goal. It will direct the individual appropriately and help
him to achieve the goal.
Factors Related to Learning Process:
1. Methods of learning:
Effective learning depends upon the methods of study also. There are certain methods which save the energy and
time of the learner. These are called economic methods of learning. They are:
a. Part v/s whole method:
Smaller and shorter lessons may be learnt at a stretch-called whole method. If the material is too lengthy, it must be
divided into parts, so that it will be easy for learning. After reading in parts the learnt material should be connected or
associated with each other.
b. Spaced v/s un-spaced method:
Learning continuously without gap leads to interference in memory called inhibition. Hence, it is always advisable to
keep small interval between each reading.
c. Recitation v/s repetition:
Just repetition of lessons becomes rote learning in which chances of forgetting are more. In recitation the learner will
check the weak points which may be forgotten and put more emphasis on those points. This process will help to
overcome missing of points from the memory.
2. Over learning:
It is experimentally proved that over learning helps better learning and memory.
3. Knowledge of results as feedback:
It is essential to know the amount of material grasped, so that changes may be made in process of learning.
Knowledge of results refers to getting feedback by means of testing, examination, interview, etc.
4. Good physical atmosphere:
Sufficient light and ventilation, calm and clean place, normal temperature, some minimum furniture will help learning
processes.
e. Memory & Forgetting- meaning, Importance, methods& characteristics of a good
Memory.
Memory: Meaning
To memorize or to remember is one of the most important mental processes of a human being. It is a process through
which a person brings to his mind any past information to facilitate his learning at present thereby improving his
adjustment with the environment. H.J. Eysenck defined memory as the ability of an organism to store information from
earlier learning processes (experience retention) and reproduce that information in answer to specific stimuli.
Characteristics
When a person can easily and rapidly learn a material it definitely shows a good memory as he is relating it to a material
learnt earlier. Half learned material cannot be retained or reproduced properly in the mind.
An individual with good memory means that he can retain the maximum amount of learnt material in his mind.
Another sign of good memory is easy recall. The capacity to bring forth the image or language for use in the present
situation, or in other words, easy reproduction of a learnt material to achieve a purpose is a mark of good memory.
Clear and quick recognition is a sure sign of good memory.
Utility or service ability is a sign of good memory. Remembering the past situations and also trying to forget the irrelevant
things point towards good memory.
Methods:
Meaningful content: The material learnt should be meaningful to the learner. The subject matter which is
relevant to the learner is easily retained in the mind.
Previous knowledge: The principle of known to unknown, easy to difficult should be followed. Previous
knowledge of a material related to the new subject matter is essential to remember the new lesson learnt.
Good Health of the learner: To remember an experience, good health of the learner is necessary. On the other
hand, if the learner is sick or tired, retention of the subject matter learnt is not difficult.
Interest: Interest increases the attention of the learner and as a result the content of the material learnt is
retained better. A person focuses his attention on those things in which he is interested. Therefore, a very
important condition which facilitates memory is the interest of the learner.
Will-power to learn: A learner must have the determination to learn a particular thing if he is to achieve his goal.
Strong will power of the learner will automatically lead to better memorization.
Practice of the learnt material: Repetition or practice of the material or subject learnt results in better retention.
Better understanding will follow from the repetition of the subject matter and as a result it is remembered by the
learner.
Learning by doing: Theoretical learning should be associated with learning by doing. It means that students
should be involved actively in the learning process. Certain activities related to the learnt material must be given
to the learners so that they can understand the material clearly. Proper knowledge of the students will lead to
quick retention of the subject matter.
Rest: Over learning does not facilitate memory. On the other hand, rest between learning different materials is
necessary to refresh the body and mind as it removes fatigue and boredom.
Forgeting
Adams said, True learning is judicious forgetting.
According to Nunn, Forgetting is failing to retain or able to recall what has been
acquired.
Characteristics of Forgetting: The process of forgetting has the following characteristics:
It is the inability of retaining an impression in the mind.
Just like memory, forgetting is also a mental process.
When there is memory, there is bound to be forgetting.
Forgetting usually occurs in the initial stage of a learning process. Once understanding of the subject
matter develops, forgetting decreases.
1.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING
Learning is influenced by various factors. The figure below depicts two broad factors that determine learning namely
internal or personal factors and external or environmental factors.
Fig.1 Factors influencing Learning
1. MATURATION
Maturation is a developmental process that may be ascribed to heredity or constitutes species-specific behaviour. It is
a natural process. Maturation is the growth which takes place in the individual. The changes on account of maturation
are the results of unfolding and ripening of inherited traits. They are relatively independent of activity, experience and
practice
Maturation involves changes that are associated with normal growth. Learning, on the other hand, is a change in the
individual which is not on account of genetic inheritance. It is a process which takes place as a result of stimuli from
without. Activity, experience and training lead to changes in the behaviour in the process of learning.
Learning and maturation are closely interrelated. Sometimes it becomes difficult to say definitely as to which behavioural
changes are the results of learning and which are the consequences of maturation.
Thus,
a) Maturation makes learning possible Learning takes place only if the stage for that type of learning has
been achieved through a process of maturation.
b) Maturation sets limit to what a person can be or become Because of limitations in the hereditary
endowment of the child, development cannot go beyond a certain point even when learning is encouraged
c) Variations in patterns of development The different environmental influences children experience affect
the pattern of development. Were human development due to maturation alone as in some animal species,
individuality would be reduced to a minimum
d) Deprivation of learning opportunities limits development When the environment limits opportunities for
learning, children will be unable to reach their hereditary potentials.
e) Effectiveness of learning depends upon proper timing Regardless of how much effort children put into
learning, they cannot learn until they are developmentally ready to learn.
f) Modification of behaviour For both learning and maturation the purpose is modification of behaviour.
However, learned behaviour differs from behavioural attributed to maturation.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF MATURATION
1. An understanding of stages and levels of maturation helps the teachers to know what and when to begin
training. If too much is expected from a child at a given age, children are likely to develop feelings of
inadequacy. On the other hand, if too little is expected of them then they are deprived of incentives to develop
their potential.
2. If learning precedes maturation there is more wastage of time and energy. Knowledge of maturation and
developmental stages of a child also suggest whether the child is mature and old enough to profit by teaching.
In case a concept is taught before the appropriate age the teaching will go waste..
3. The understanding of complexity of changes that take place as a result of learning and maturation would make
a teacher and his/her teaching effective
4. Maturation levels have implications on the curriculum selection. Curriculum should be chosen according to the
level of learning and maturation. For example, demonstration method for six to twelfth, play way method for
little children, lecture method for graduates and post graduates.
. ATTENTION
We use the term attention frequently in our day-to-day conversation. During lectures in the classroom, a teacher calls
for the students attention. At a railway station or airport announcements start with your attention please. In the
beginning of information processing, attention is the process of consciously focusing on a stimulus. At each and every
moment that we are awake, we are receiving sense stimuli and are experiencing perceptions, thoughts, images and
emotions of many kinds but out of these only a few remain in our consciousness, this selective activity of mind has been
called Attention.
Sharma R.N. Attention can be defined as a process which compels the individual to select some particular stimulus
according to his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment.
Dumville (1938), Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one subject rather than upon another.
Morgan and Gilliland Attention is being keenly alive to some specific factor in our environment. It is preparatory
adjustment for response
Ross Attention is getting an object of thought clearly before the mind.
3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTENTION
1. Attention in focusing of consciousness on a particular object: We see a number of things of the environment at a
particular time and are aware or conscious of many of them. For example, while perceiving the black board writing
in the classroom, student is aware of the presence of the chart changing on the walls, the teacher, his activities and
the activities of the student sitting beside him. But he is not aware of all these very clearly. At one moment he can
be clearly only of this or that object or activity. He is clearly aware of the words and sentences written on the black-
board because his consciousness is focused on them.
2. Attention is constantly shifting: Consciousness at a particular moment may be divided into two parts, central and
marginal. At the time when our attention is on the black board and consciousness is focused on it. The other objects
and activities in the classroom remain within in reach of marginal consciousness. This helps us in becoming partly
conscious and aware of them. Both these field of perception or consciousness are interchangeable. The object which
is at a moment within the focus of consciousness can in another moment go under the marginal consciousness and
even beyond that.
3. Attention is selective: At any moment, there are various stimuli in the environment of and individual which try to
affect him. For example there may be music coming from radio, someone taking and noises coming from the street.
Instead of these stimuli affecting the same sense organ, there may be stimuli affection us from other sense organs.
We may have the headache or feel extremely cold or hot. All these things make a bid for our attention. We do not
attend to all of them at a time and also do not respond indiscriminately to each of them. Our reaction is selective.
Only those stimuli which suit our interest and attitude are able to attract attention, others are ignored. The stimulus
which is more important and useful than the other is attended at once whereas the less important and significant
ones are attended later on. In this way attention represents a narrow field and is always selective.
4. Attention is a state of preparedness or alertness: As pointed out earlier in the definition given by Morgan and
Gilliland, Attention is considered as a process involving a preparatory adjustment of response during this process,
the organism tries to prepare himself or adjust himself to the stimulus situation. In other words he goes into a process
of physical, mental and emotional alertness or preparedness.
3.2 RELATIONSHIP WITH LEARNING
1. Effective teaching-learning process: Attention helps in bringing about mental alertness and preparedness. As a
result, one tries to apply ones mental powers as effectively as possible. When children concentrate their attention
on what is being taught the learning is more effective. Thus, it helps in effective teaching learning process
2. Aids to Memory: If a child does not pay attention to what is being said or taught, the messages go only into his/her
sensory memory and get eliminated before getting transferred to long term memory. Hence, attention facilitates
memory.
3. Acquisition of skill: Learning or acquiring any skill is possible only when an individual is attentive while it is being
taught. In addition, attention provides strength and ability to continue the task of cognitive functioning despite the
obstacles presented by the forces of distraction.
4. Aids to interest: Attending to objects or instruction leads to greater understanding and thus builds ones interest in
the given subject.
5. Speed to learning: When one focuses ones attention on the given topic, it saves time and energy of the teacher or
trainer, speeding up the learning process.
6. Success and achievement: To be successful, one needs to be attentive and focused in the given or chosen direction.
Attention, therefore, leads to success and achievement.
3.3. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF ATTENTION:
A learners attention is guided and controlled by external as well as internal factors. External factors present in ones
environment are: nature of the stimulus, intensity and size of the stimulus, contrast, change and variety, repetition of
stimulus, movement of stimulus, etc. Internal factors represent the factors lying within the person himself like interest,
motives and mind set. To obtain better results in learning the teacher has to maintain hold the learners attention,
maintain it for a desirable period and eliminate or reduce the forces of distraction. Some ways to hold and sustain
attention in the students are as follows.
1. Use of Audio-visual aids: Audio-visual aids create attention and interest in a learner which makes teaching learning
process more effective.
2. Gestures and Movements: Eye-catching action, facial expression, modulation and intonation make learning more
attractive.
3. Use of signals: Teacher may develop some signals calling for childrens attention. While using signals, it is important
to avoid any behaviour that would interfere with both signal and attention to learning. Teacher should introduce the
signals and give short, clear instruction before lesson starts not during transitions.
4. Statement of the aim of the lesson or assignment: Teacher must ensure that she writes the goal or objectives on
the board and discuss them with the students before starting the lesson. She should explain the reason of their
learning and how can they apply their knowledge in the daily life
5. Teacher should follow the maxims of teaching i.e. simple to complex, known to unknown, concrete to abstract,
while designing instructions on a given topic.
6. Incorporation of variety: To focus the attention of children teacher may arouse curiosity with questions like what
would you do if?; she may create shock by staging an unexpected event just before the lesson or communication
and she should use variety of movements, gestures and voice inflection. Different teaching methods should be used
to make learner attentive.
7. Teachers personality play a great role to draw attention of a learner
8. Curriculum should be develop in such a way that would not feel overburdened and feel lazy and sleepy
9. Time table should be designed in such a way that one hard subject should be followed by some easy subject
I
4. NTEREST
The word interest owes its origin to the Latin word intersee, meaning making a difference or it matters. We may,
therefore, say that whatever matters to us is of interest to us. Interest is the central force that drives the whole machinery
in the teaching learning process. All our attempts are made at making our students interested in the learning experiences
given to them. Interest as a driving force not only helps the children in acquiring certain learning experiences, but also
colour and fashion their attitudes, aptitudes and other personality traits. It thus directs the course of their growth and
development and individualizes their personalities.
Crow and Crow, Interest may refer to the motivating force that impels us to attend to a person, a thing or an activity or
it may be the effective experience that has been stimulated by the activity itself. In other words, interest can be the
cause of an activity and the result of participation in the activity.
Mc Dougall, Interest is latent attention and attention is interest in action.
Ross, A thing that interests us is just something that concerns us or matters to us
Bhatia, Interest means making a difference. We are interested in objects because they make a difference to us,
because they concern us
James Drever, An interest is a disposition in its dynamic aspect
James M. Sawhrey and Charles W. Telford define interest as, Favourable attitude towards an object
B.N.Jha, Interest is that mental system which sustains, contains and continues the activity called attention
Thus interest may be referred to as the key factor and a driving force that helps us in paying attention as well as remaining
engaged in our so attended activities.
4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEREST
1. There is an intimate link between interests, wants, drives, motives and basic needs.
2. Interest is a great motivating force and it persuades us to engage in a cognitive, affective or conative behaviour.
3. There is a close relationship between interest and attention. Commenting on their relationship, Mc Dougall
writes Interest is latent attention and attention is interest in action. This observation is true. Interest is the
mother of attention. We attend to objects we are interested in and thus interest prepares us mentally to pay
attention to an object, person or a thing.
4. Some interests are inborn and some are acquired
5. Interest is the personal meaning that a thing has for us. This meaning colours all the aspects of our vision. When
interested in a thing, we interpret everything in line with the interest
6. Interests help us in overcoming unusual or early arrival or frequent repetition of plateaus in learning. They also
give enough strength to an individual to resist fatigue and avoid failure.
7. Our interests lead to action and generally yield satisfying results.
4.2 RELATIONSHIP WITH LEARNING
1) Effective teaching-learning process: Interest helps in motivating a person to learn thus facilitating the teaching-
learning process. When a teacher is able to generate interest in a subject, children feel more motivated to learn
thereby concentrating their attention on what is being taught making the learning more effective.
2) Aids to Memory: If a child does not have interest in what is being said or taught, the messages go only into his/her
sensory memory and get eliminated before getting transferred to long term memory. Hence, interest facilitates
memory.
3) Acquisition of skill: Learning or acquiring any skill is possible only when an individual is interested in it. In addition,
interest provides motivation, strength and ability to continue the tasks despite the obstacles presented.
4) Aids to Attention: When a student is interested in what is being taught he automatically focuses his attention to it.
Attending to objects or instruction leads to greater understanding.
5) Speed to learning: One learns faster when one is interested in a certain topic. This saves time and energy of the
teacher or trainer, speeding up the learning process.
6) Success and achievement: To be successful, one needs to be interested, motivated and attentive in the given or
chosen direction. Interest, therefore, leads to success and achievement.
4.3 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF INTEREST
The success of a teacher lies in his arousing and maintaining interest of his pupils. Therefore, most of their strenuous
efforts are always directed in making their students interested in some or the other learning activities. All the factors
involved in teaching-learning process, namely the learner, learning material, learning environment, learning methods
and teacher, have to be controlled and designed in such a way that all of them may contribute significantly towards the
maintenance of proper interest in a learning activity. Therefore the task requires a multidimensional attack. Some ways
to generate and sustain interest in the students are as follows.
1. Setting proper aims and objectives: Before teaching a lesson or engaging in a learning activity, they should be
told about the need and importance of learning that activity. The aims and objectives of teaching a particular
lesson or unit should be clearly defined and the students should be made to set definite goals and purposes.
2. Arranging proper learning situations and environment
Learning situation or environment plays a great role in making children interested or bored and tired. Therefore
the teacher should take care of the suitability of the learning environment. The classroom furniture, seating
arrangement, lighting and ventilation, the schedules time-table for learning a particular subject or activity,
general atmosphere, physical and mental state of the pupils as well as the teacher, etc. should all be properly
considered while making attempts for arousing and maintaining interest.
Proper selection and organization of learning experiences: The unsuitability of the content makes children
disinterested in a particular lesson. Therefore the teacher should select and organize the contents to be
taught or the matter to be delivered in a suitable way by keeping in view all psychological principles.
Use of appropriate methods and teaching aids: Most of the times, it is the teaching method that makes a
particular learning interested or distasteful. The teacher should adopt efficient and effective methods of
teaching lesson and use suitable audio-visual aids.
3. Teachers personality and determination: Teachers personality and his/her determined bid to make the
students interested in his/her teaching count much more in this direction. A good teacher with his appropriate
behaviour and personality traits can motivate, inspire and make the students almost lost in his/her teaching.
4. Knowledge about the pupil: In order to interest a child in a subject, a teacher must know a lot about the student
and the subject. He must understand the pupils wants, problems, tendencies, goals and interests at their current
stage of development. He should share responsibility with them. Participation of a teacher in a football game
has a great value than being a mere spectator. Interest inventories may be used to find out the interests of the
students and accordingly steps taken to develop these.
5. Encouraging class participation: One of the ways of arousing interest in class room activities is to make students
participants rather than spectators or members of audience.
6. Co-curricular activities: A variety of co-curricular activities should be organized so that students can choose
activities in which they are interested.
7. Exploitation of various instincts of children: The interests of children are controlled and guided by their instincts.
Therefore a wise teacher is the one who tries to exploit their basic drives such as curiosity, constructiveness,
acquisition, self assertion for making his students interested in a learning activity.
8. Make Proper use of sentiments and ideals: Sentiments and ideals also control and direct childrens interests.
Therefore they should be harnessed for creating and maintaining interest.
CONCLUSION
Learning is one of the most important and pervasive activity of human life. It begins at birth and covers our entire life
span. It is influenced by the individuals psychological and physiological states, his environment and methods of learning.
Children learn best when they are mature enough and ready to learn, when they are attentive and interested in learning.
Thus, in a classroom situation, it is important for a teacher to take into account all these determinants in order to make
the teaching process more effective and efficient.
Unit-II: Motivation of the learner
a. Concept of motivation,
Concept of Motivation:
The term motivation is derived from the word motive. The word motive as a noun means
an objective, as a verb this word means moving into action. Therefore, motives are forces
which induce people to act in a way, so as to ensure the fulfillment of a particular human
need at a time. Behind every human action there is a motive. Therefore, management
must provide motives to people to make them work for the organization.
Motivation may be defined as a planned managerial process, which stimulates people to

work to the best of their capabilities, by providing them with motives, which are based on
their unfulfilled needs.
Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goods.
William G. Scott
Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the
possibility of gain or reward. Flippo
Motivation is, in fact, pressing the right button to get the desired human behaviour.
Motivation is no doubt an essential ingredient of any Organisation. It is the psychological

technique which really executes the plans and policies through the efforts of others.
Following are the outstanding Features of the concept of motivation:

1. Motivation is a personal and internal feeling:
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates within an individual.
2. Motivation is need based:

If there are no needs of an individual, the process of motivation fails. It is a behavioural
concept that directs human behaviour towards certain goals.
3. Motivation is a continuous process:

Because human wants are unlimited, therefore motivation is an ongoing process.
4. Motivation may be positive or negative:

A positive motivation promotes incentives to people while a negative motivation threatens
the enforcement of disincentives.
5. Motivation is a planned process:

People differ in their approach, to respond to the process of motivation; as no two
individuals could be motivated in an exactly similar manner. Accordingly, motivation is a
psychological concept and a complex process.
6. Motivation is different from job satisfaction:
The process of motivation is illustrated in the figure given below:
Figure 15.1 shows an employee has a need or urge for promotion to a higher position. If
this need is strong, the employee will fix his goal and find alternatives to reach the goal.
The might have two alternatives, namely, (i) hard work and (ii) enhancement of
qualification (e.g., getting MBA) and hard work.
He might choose the second alternative and succeed in getting promotion (goal
achievement) thus, his need for promotion would be satisfied and he would start again for
the satisfaction of a new need.
Significance/Importance of Motivation:
Motivation is an integral part of the process of direction.
While directing his subordinate, a manager must create and sustain in them the
desire to work for the specified objectives:
1. High Efficiency:
A good motivational system releases the immense untapped reservoirs of physical and
mental capabilities. A number of studies have shown that motivation plays a crucial role in
determining the level of performance. Poorly motivated people can nullify the soundest
organisation. said Allen.
By satisfying human needs motivation helps in increasing productivity. Better utilisation of

resources lowers cost of operations. Motivation is always goal directed. Therefore, higher
the level of motivation, greater is the degree of goal accomplishment.
2. Better Image:
A firm that provides opportunities for financial and personal advancement has a better
image in the employment market. People prefer to work for an enterprise because of
opportunity for development, and sympathetic outlook. This helps in attracting qualified
personnel and simplifies the staffing function.
3. Facilitates Change:
Effective motivation helps to overcome resistance to change and negative attitude on the
part of employees like restriction of output. Satisfied workers take interest in new
organisational goals and are more receptive to changes that management wants to
introduce in order to improve efficiency of operations.
4. Human Relations:
Effective motivation creates job satisfaction which results in cordial relations between
employer and employees. Industrial disputes, labour absenteeism and turnover are
reduced with consequent benefits. Motivation helps to solve the central problem of
management, i.e., effective use of human resources. Without motivation the workers may
not put their best efforts and may seek satisfaction of their needs outside the organisation.
The success of any organisation depends upon the optimum utilisation of resources. The
utilisation of physical resources depends upon the ability to work and the willingness to
work of the employees. In practice, ability is not the problem but necessary will to work is
lacking. Motivation is the main tool for building such a will. It is for this reason that Rensis
Likert said, Motivation is the core of management. It is the key to management in action
b. Types of motivation
Types of Motivation - Extrinsic
There are two primary types of motivation... Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Motivation. Extrinsic Motivation is geared toward external rewards and
reinforcer's.
Some examples of external rewards are money, praise, awards, etc. Some examples of
external reinforcer's are policy and procedures, disciplinary action, speeding tickets,
boundary-setting, etc.
Extrinsic Motivation is said to be less effective because it comes from outside the person.
External reinforcer's, for instance, are usually in the form of control.
Laws are there for social control...Policies and procedures are there for internal controls
and regulations... household rules are in place to provide limits and consequence for
stepping over the line.
People don't usually like to feel controlled. It's an invitation to rebel, or dig in our heels, or
become defiant. Most of use prefer to use our own map of the world...not have to conform
to someone else's ideas about how it should be.
According to Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory many external rewards (e.g, salary, job
security, benefits) don't really motivate but if they're not there the person can become de-
motivated. Herzberg calls these "hygiene factors".
Types of Motivation - Intrinsic
Intrinsic Motivation is geared toward internal rewards and reinforcer's.

We can celebrate our success when we do well and we can beat
ourselves up when we don't. Some examples of internal rewards are
enjoyment, achievement, a sense of competence. Some examples of
internal reinforcer's are "Shoulds", "Musts", & "Oughts", a guilty
conscience, and Toxic Shame.
Internal rewards are associated with high academic and occupational achievement. It
seems motivation is strongest when we do it for the fun of it...or for the feeling of
accomplishment. Maybe it's a hobby, or a career path, or our purpose in life.
Types of Motivation - Addiction
When it's something we really like we can even feel driven to do it. Or get addicted to it,
whatever "it" is... In other words, motivation does not always lead in a positive direction.
Remember that an addiction is an unhealthy "love-and-trust" relationship with an object
or an activity. Love and trust are very strong intrinsic rewards that are tied into our neural
networks for survival.
Survival needs, such as the need to eat, is an internal reinforcer because it causes pain in
the form of hunger when we don't eat. We get a internal reward when we enjoy what we
are eating.
The same is true when we resist something we are addicted to. The pain is in the form of
cravings or withdrawal symptoms and the reward is in the feeling we get when we engage.
However, in the late stages of addiction we no longer get the reward but the reinforcer gets
stronger.
Types of Motivation - Subconscious Motivations
Addiction is an example of subconscious motivation...we may not know "why we do it" or

"how that could happen" when we find ourselves in trouble again.
This is because it would be too uncomfortable for us to know that we are dependent on an
object or activity so our faithful servant - the subconscious mind - "protects us" from that
reality with a system of defense mechanisms we refer to as denial.
Other subconscious types of motivations might include various neural networks created
early in life which are now part of Implicit Memory - such as...
An accident-prone person may have a subconscious desire to hurt or punish himself

for guilt over some long-past misdeed or mistake.
A person who uses food for comfort may have a subconscious "part" of
themselves...a neural network...that learned early in life to substitute food for the
nurturing that wasn't available.
Someone who pushes others away may have a part of themselves that sabotages
opportunities for intimacy in order to protect from abandonment.
It has long been known that the subconscious mind uses defense mechanisms to ward off
pain and anxiety. These defensive strategies are learned programs that run automatically
from neural networks that we intuitively refer to as "parts".
All of us can remember explaining that "one part of me wants to do X... but another part of
me holds me back". These "parts" are programs installed on conflicting neural networks.
There are various forms of therapy for "integrating" these parts to resolve subconscious
conflicts.
Types of Motivation - "Toward" or "Away From" Orientation
Most of us have heard of the "Carrot-or-Stick" types of motivation.

Conventional wisdom suggests that some people are motivated more by the
stick and others by the carrot.
"Stick People" respond better to external and internal reinforcer's while

"Carrot People" respond better to external and internal rewards.
Another way to look at this is the "Toward or Away From" orientation. Stick
people are oriented to move away from pain. Carrot people
move toward pleasure.
There are times when each orientation is necessary. For example, if your goal is to manage
your weight it's more effective to adopt a "toward pleasure" orientation because the closer
you get to your goal (e.g.,a healthy lifestyle), the stronger your motivation becomes.
If you take the "away from" orientation...the further you get away from a weight you don't
like, The weaker your motivation becomes.
In the case of Risk Management in a hospital it's better to have "Away From" pain people
running the show because they are better at identifying potential hazards. Carrot People
tend to be idealists who can set the course, but Stick People are good at seeing the bumps
in the road.
c. Importance of motivation in class room.
Learning Objectives
1. Gain an understanding of the importance of motivation in instruction.
2. Identify differences between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation.
Overview
Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of
behavior, especially goal-directed behavior (Maehr & Meyer, 1997). Motivation is essentially the force that drives
one to act. This force can come from within or from an outside source. Regardless of its origin, motivation plays a
key role in our deciding if and why we do things. Motivation comes from one of two places: within our ourselves
(intrinsi ) or from an outside source (extrinsic). According to Pintrich & Schunk, "intrinsic motivation refers to
motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake. People who are intrinsically motivated work on tasks because
they find them enjoyable." Intrinsic motivation can be influenced by the level of difficulty, curiosity of the learner, or a
need for control. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, comes from an outside source such as money, grades,
praise, etc. When extrinsically motivated one will complete a task in order to receive the reward regardless of
personal interest.
Motivation is of particular interest in the field of education because of it's strong impact on student learning.
Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and their behavior towards subject matter
(Ormrod, 2003). It can:
Provide direction
Increased energy and overall effort
Increased initiative and drive
Enhanced cognitive processing abilities
Highlight reinforcing consequences
Overall improved performance
d. Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a popular motivation theory that is widely referred to in educational circles. In
this theory, Abraham Maslow suggested that before individuals meet their full potential, they need to satisfy a
series of needs. It's important to note that Maslow based his theory more on philosophy than on scientific
evidence. If interested, you can find limitations of this theory here. However, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
can provide teachers a reminder and framework that our students are less likely to perform at their full potential
if their basic needs are unmet.
At times it can be confusing to apply theory into the practical realities of a classroom. So let's talk
specifics. We may have a limited influence on the home lives of our students. Though once they enter our
school, we have the opportunity to assess student needs and then work to adapt our instruction to meet their
needs. Below are the general stages in order and descriptions of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
Are any students entering our classroom without their Physiological needs met? Is this student getting all of
their basic physical needs met? These basic needs include food, water, sleep, oxygen, and warmth. If all
students have these needs met, the next stage is Safety. How safe and secure does this student feel in their
home? What about in our school, and specifically in our classroom?
Do all students have a feeling of Love & Belonging in our classroom? Does each student feel that they belong
to a group? Do they have strong relationships with their peers? The next stage is Esteem. Do all students feel
good about themselves? Are we giving powerful verbal feedback to support their self-esteem? Do they believe
that their peers think positively about them?
Maslow's final stage is Self-Actualization. In theory, if students have all of the previous stages met, they can
achieve and create at their full potential. Do we automatically assume that all students should be achieving at
their full potential once they enter the classroom? We know that this is not a reality, we just need to look at
ourselves when we're impacted by any of the characteristics noted above.
try this:
To support our students' physiological needs, we can ensure that all students have access to water in their
rooms. Water bottles are a simple solution and research shows the many benefits of hydrated students.
To support our students physiological needs, we can ensure that we have nutritious snacks available. Foods
with slow-burning complex carbohydrates (such as granola bars) can help students sustain energy levels
throughout the morning or afternoon.
To support our students physiological needs, we can ensure that if a student is in desperate need of sleep, they
are allowed to take a short nap at school. If not, research indicates that sleep-deprived students learn less and
may even disrupt the learning of others.
To support our students' safety needs, we can continuously equip students and monitor the climate of our
classroom to decrease bullying.
To support our students' love and belonging needs, would all students feel like our classroom has a family or
close-knit feel? Are we actively making sitting arrangements and putting students in groups where they feel
supported?
To support our students' esteem needs, we need to provide affirmative, concrete, and transparent feedback so
that students know their specific strengths and can articulate when they've used them to succeed in our
classrooms. Do we create opportunity for peers to share specific positive feedback with each other?
In theory, when we support students in all of those stages noted, students can perform at their fullest potential,
which is the self-actualization stage. Do we always expect students to perform at their best, even if they are
in need of support in lower stages?
e. Factors affecting- maturation, attention, interest and fatigue

Unit-III: Learning Experiences & Teaching Process
a. Concept of learning experiences, A learning experience meant to increase understanding of
culture, collective human s, and indigenous rights and demonstrate how humans and the earth are interconnected.
Learning experiences are thus pupil activities planned with the specific purpose of producing the desired behaviour
changes in them. Learning experiences are provided in an effort to satisfy established educational objectives. Much
of the effective learning depends upon careful planning of learning experiences. Planning of learning experiences is
intimately connected with educational objectives which these experiences propose to achieve. True learning is not
merely acquiring certain facts or skills; it is a change in behaviour brought about by training or experience. In any
course of instruction, the learner experiences changes to behaviour in terms of the established goals. The changes
that the learner experiences are the direct outcome of the interaction between the learner and his environment, that
is, learning situation. In framing learning situations to which the child is expected to react, the teacher has to keep in
mind pupil activities because pupil participation is a vital factor in planning learning experiences. While the teacher is
ever thinking of new situations to engage the child the learner is actively engaged in purposeful activities to learn.
Characteristics of good learning experiences. Characteristics of a Good Learning
Experience by Teacher Training: Learning experiences may be direct or indirect. But it should be selected by the
teacher taking into consideration the following characteristics
(1) Learning experiences should be directly related to behavioural objectives.
(2) Learning experiences should be meaningful.
(3) Learning experiences should satisfy the psychological need of the learner.
(4) Learning experiences should be appropriate to the maturity level of the learner.
(5) Learning experiences should be related to life situations.
(6) Learning experiences should be intensive.
(7) Learning experiences should be varied, rich in content and novel.
(8) Learning experiences should be related to the availability of material and time.
A learning experience is a credit-bearing activity comprising specific combinations of learning resources, tools, and
activities guided by pedagogical models through which one can identify, to a certain extent, what one has learned.
While the majority of learning experiences are courses, other learning experiences occur outside the typical
classroom, foster growth and development of the student, have a deliverable academic outcome, and are overseen
by a faculty member of the institution supervising the students work.
b. Types and sources of learning experiences, Types of Learning Experiences Learning

experiences are classified into the following two categories.
1. Direct Experiences : Direct Experiences means first hand experiences. Experiences gained through the sense
organs are first hand experiences. These experiences are expressed by symbolic words. For example when the
teacher teaches the p flowers if he shows the sample of a flower and shows its parts then the students get the
experiences are called as direct experiences. The teacher may teach the same lesson through a diagram and
picture of a flower and its parts. But this is called as indirect experience. Some of the examples of direct
experiences are: Consisting models or charts, Experimenting with physical and chemical materials and Drawing
figures, painting models etc.
2. Indirect Experiences: Indirect experiences are second hand experiences. Here also we get experiences through
our sense organs, but here we do not get direct experience of the objects or events. For Examples: a teacher
cannot able to give the direct experience of earthquake while teaching. But he can create the thrill among students
by describing his own experience. Some more examples are (a) Reading accounts or descriptions on the
magazines, journals, newspapers etc. (b) Observing pictures, maps, charts, models etc. And (c) Listening to
lectures, talks etc.
We may not completely separate the activities as direct or indirect. Some experiences are also combinations of both
direct and indirect experiences. For example preparing a chart gives direct experience of doing skill, observing a
chart though coming under indirect experiences but it needs direct observation.
various situations and activities through which they can be provided.

LEARNERS AND LEARNING
Development and Learning Competencies

Children are born with certain biological capacities for learning. They can recognize human
sounds; can distinguish animate from inanimate objects; and have an inherent sense of
space, motion, number, and causality. These raw capacities of the human infant are
actualized by the environment surrounding a newborn. The environment supplies information,
and equally important, provides structure to the information, as when parents draw an infants
attention to the sounds of her or his native language.
Thus, developmental processes involve interactions between childrens early competencies

and their environmental and interpersonal supports. These supports serve to strengthen the
capacities that are relevant to a childs surroundings and to prune those that are not. Learning
is promoted and regulated by the childrens biology and their environments. The brain of a
developing child is a product, at the molecular level, of interactions between biological and
ecological factors. Mind is created in this process.
The term development is critical to understanding the changes in childrens conceptual

growth. Cognitive changes do not result from mere accretion of information, but are due to
processes involved in conceptual reorganization. Research from many fields has supplied the
key findings about how early cognitive abilities relate to learning. These include the following:
Privileged domains: Young children actively engage in making sense of their worlds.
In some domains, most obviously language, but also for biological and physical
causality and number, they seem predisposed to learn.
Children are ignorant but not stupid: Young children lack knowledge, but they do have
abilities to reason with the knowledge they understand.
Children are problem solvers and, through curiosity, generate questions and problems:
Children attempt to solve problems presented to them, and they also seek novel
challenges. They persist because success and understanding are motivating in their
own right.
Children develop knowledge of their own learning capacities metacognitionvery
early. This metacognitive capacity gives them the ability to plan and monitor their
success and to correct errors when necessary.
Children natural capabilities require assistance for learning: Childrens early capacities
are dependent on catalysts and mediation. Adults play a critical role in promoting
childrens curiosity and persistence by directing childrens attention, structuring their
experiences, supporting their
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Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies
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learning attempts, and regulating the complexity and difficulty of levels of information
for them.
Neurocognitive research has contributed evidence that both the developing and the mature
brain are structurally altered during learning. For example, the weight and thickness of the
cerebral cortex of rats is altered when they have direct contact with a stimulating physical
environment and an interactive social group. The structure of the nerve cells themselves is
correspondingly altered: under some conditions, both the cells that provide support to the
neurons and the capillaries that supply blood to the nerve cells may be altered as well.
Learning specific tasks appears to alter the specific regions of the brain appropriate to the
task. In humans, for example, brain reorganization has been demonstrated in the language
functions of deaf individuals, in rehabilitated stroke patients, and in the visual cortex of people
who are blind from birth. These findings suggest that the brain is a dynamic organ, shaped to
a great extent by experience and by what a living being does.
Transfer of Learning
A major goal of schooling is to prepare students for flexible adaptation to new problems and
settings. Students abilities to transfer what they have learned to new situations provides an
important index of adaptive, flexible learning; seeing how well they do this can help educators
evaluate and improve their instruction. Many approaches to instruction look equivalent when
the only measure of learning is memory for facts that were specifically presented. Instructional
differences become more apparent when evaluated from the perspective of how well the
learning transfers to new problems and settings. Transfer can be explored at a variety of
levels, including transfer from one set of concepts to another, one school subject to another,
one year of school to another, and across school and everyday, nonschool activities.
Peoples abilitiy to transfer what they have learned depends upon a number of factors:
People must achieve a threshold of initial learning that is sufficient to support transfer.
This obvious point is often overlooked and can lead to erroneous conclusions about the
effectiveness of various instructional approaches. It takes time to learn complex subject
matter, and assessments of transfer must take into account the degree to which original
learning with understanding was accomplished.
Spending a lot of time (time on task) in and of itself is not sufficient to ensure effective
learning. Practice and getting familiar with subject matter take time, but most important
is how people use their time while
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learning. Concepts such as deliberate practice emphasize the importance of helping
students monitor their learning so that they seek feedback and actively evaluate their
strategies and current levels of understanding. Such activities are very different from
simply reading and rereading a text.
Learning with understanding is more likely to promote transfer than simply memorizing
information from a text or a lecture. Many classroom activities stress the importance of
memorization over learning with understanding. Many, as well, focus on facts and
details rather than larger themes of causes and consequences of events. The shortfalls
of these approaches are not apparent if the only test of learning involves tests of
memory, but when the transfer of learning is measured, the advantages of learning with
understanding are likely to be revealed.
Knowledge that is taught in a variety of contexts is more likely to support flexible
transfer than knowledge that is taught in a single context. Information can become
context-bound when taught with context-specific examples. When material is taught in
multiple contexts, people are more likely to extract the relevant features of the concepts
and develop a more flexible representation of knowledge that can be used more
generally.
Students develop flexible understanding of when, where, why, and how to use their
knowledge to solve new problems if they learn how to extract underlying themes and
principles from their learning exercises. Understanding how and when to put knowledge
to useknown as conditions of applicabilityis an important characteristic of expertise.
Learning in multiple contexts most likely affects this aspect of transfer.
Transfer of learning is an active process. Learning and transfer should not be evaluated
by one-shot tests of transfer. An alternative assessment approach is to consider how
learning affects subsequent learning, such as increased speed of learning in a new
domain. Often, evidence for positive transfer does not appear until people have had a
chance to learn about the new domainand then transfer occurs and is evident in the
learners ability to grasp the new information more quickly.
All learning involves transfer from previous experiences. Even initial learning involves
transfer that is based on previous experiences and prior knowledge. Transfer is not
simply something that may or may not appear after initial learning has occurred. For
example, knowledge relevant to a particular task may not automatically be activated by
learners and may not serve as a source of positive transfer for learning new
information. Effective teachers attempt to support positive transfer by actively
identifying the strengths that students bring to a learning situation and building on them,
thereby building bridges between students knowledge and the learning objectives set
out by the teacher.
Sometimes the knowledge that people bring to a new situation impedes subsequent
learning because it guides thinking in wrong directions.
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For example, young childrens knowledge of everyday counting-based arithmetic can
make it difficult for them to deal with rational numbers (a larger number in the
numerator of a fraction does not mean the same thing as a larger number in the
denominator); assumptions based on everyday physical experiences can make it
difficult for students to understand physics concepts (they think a rock falls faster than a
leaf because everyday experiences include other variables, such as resistance, that are
not present in the vacuum conditions that physicists study), and so forth. In these kinds
of situations, teachers must help students change their original conceptions rather than
simply use the misconceptions as a basis for further understanding or leaving new
material unconnected to current understanding.
Competent and Expert Performance
Cognitive science research has helped us understand how learners develop a knowledge
base as they learn. An individual moves from being a novice in a subject area toward
developing competency in that area through a series of learning processes. An understanding
of the structure of knowledge provides guidelines for ways to assist learners acquire a
knowledge base effectively and efficiently. Eight factors affect the development of expertise
and competent performance:
Relevant knowledge helps people organize information in ways that support their
abilities to remember.
Learners do not always relate the knowledge they possess to new tasks, despite its
potential relevance. This disconnect has important implications for understanding
differences between usable knowledge (which is the kind of knowledge that experts
have developed) and less-organized knowledge, which tends to remain inert.
Relevant knowledge helps people to go beyond the information given and to think in
problem representations, to engage in the mental work of making inferences, and to
relate various kinds of information for the purpose of drawing conclusions.
An important way that knowledge affects performances is through its influences on
peoples representations of problems and situations. Different representations of the
same problem can make it easy, difficult, or impossible to solve.
The sophisticated problem representations of experts are the result of well-organized
knowledge structures. Experts know the conditions of applicability of their knowledge,
and they are able to access the relevant knowledge with considerable ease.
Different domains of knowledge, such as science, mathematics, and history, have
different organizing properties. It follows, therefore, that to
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have an in-depth grasp of an area requires knowledge about both the content of the
subject and the broader structural organization of the subject.
Competent learners and problem solvers monitor and regulate their own processing
and change their strategies as necessary. They are able to make estimates and
educated guesses.
The study of ordinary people under everyday cognition provides valuable information
about competent cognitive performances in routine settings. Like the work of experts,
everyday competencies are supported by sets of tools and social norms that allow
people to perform tasks in specific contexts that they often cannot perform elsewhere.
Conclusions
Everyone has understanding, resources, and interests on which to build. Learning a topic
does not begin from knowing nothing to learning that is based on entirely new information.
Many kinds of learning require transforming existing understanding, especially when ones
understanding needs to be applied in new situations. Teachers have a critical role in assisting
learners to engage their understanding, building on learners understandings, correcting
misconceptions, and observing and engaging with learners during the processes of learning.
This view of the interactions of learners with one another and with teachers derives from
generalizations about learning mechanisms and the conditions that promote understanding. It
begins with the obvious: learning is embedded in many contexts. The most effective learning
occurs when learners transport what they have learned to various and diverse new situations.
This view of learning also includes the not so obvious: young learners arrive at school with
prior knowledge that can facilitate or impede learning. The implications for schooling are
many, not the least of which is that teachers must address the multiple levels of knowledge
and perspectives of childrens prior knowledge, with all of its inaccuracies and
misconceptions.
Effective comprehension and thinking require a coherent understanding of the

organizing principles in any subject matter; understanding the essential features of the
problems of various school subjects will lead to better reasoning and problem solving;
early competencies are foundational to later complex learning; self-regulatory
processes enable self-monitoring and control of learning processes by learners
themselves.
Transfer and wide application of learning are most likely to occur when learners
achieve an organized and coherent understanding of the material; when the situations
for transfer share the structure of the original
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learning; when the subject matter has been mastered and practiced; when subject
domains overlap and share cognitive elements; when instruction includes specific
attention to underlying principles; and when instruction explicitly and directly
emphasizes transfer.
Learning and understanding can be facilitated in learners by emphasizing organized,

coherent bodies of knowledge (in which specific facts and details are embedded), by
helping learners learn how to transfer their learning, and by helping them use what they
learn.
In-depth understanding requires detailed knowledge of the facts within a domain. The
key attribute of expertise is a detailed and organized understanding of the important
facts within a specific domain. Education needs to provide children with sufficient
mastery of the details of particular subject matters so that they have a foundation for
further exploration within those domains.
Expertise can be promoted in learners. The predominant indicator of expert status is
the amount of time spent learning and working in a subject area to gain mastery of the
content. Secondarily, the more one knows about a subject, the easier it is to learn
additional knowledge.
TEACHERS AND TEACHING
The portrait we have sketched of human learning and cognition emphasizes learning for in-
depth comprehension. The major ideas that have transformed understanding of learning also
have implications for teaching.
Teaching for In-Depth Learning

Traditional education has tended to emphasize memorization and mastery of text. Research
on the development of expertise, however, indicates that more than a set of general problem-
solving skills or memory for an array of facts is necessary to achieve deep understanding.
Expertise requires well-organized knowledge of concepts, principles, and procedures of
inquiry. Various subject disciplines are organized differently and require an array of
approaches to inquiry. We presented a discussion of the three subject areas of history,
mathematics, and science learning to illustrate how the structure of the knowledge domain
guides both learning and teaching.
Proponents of the new approaches to teaching engage students in a variety of different

activities for constructing a knowledge base in the subject domain. Such approaches involve
both a set of facts and clearly defined principles. The teachers goal is to develop students
understanding of a given topic, as well as to help them develop into independent and
thoughtful problem solvers. One way to do this is by showing students that they already have
relevant knowledge. As students work through different prob-
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lems that a teacher presents, they develop their understanding into principles that govern the
topic.
In mathematics for younger (first- and second-grade) students, for example, cognitively
guided instruction uses a variety of classroom activities to bring number and counting
principles into students awareness, including snack-time sharing for fractions, lunch count for
number, and attendance for part-whole relationships. Through these activities, a teacher has
many opportunities to observe what students know and how they approach solutions to
problems, to introduce common misconceptions to challenge students thinking, and to
present more advanced discussions when the students are ready.
For older students, model-based reasoning in mathematics is an effective approach.

Beginning with the building of physical models, this approach develops abstract symbol
system-based models, such as algebraic equations or geometry-based solutions. Model-
based approaches entail selecting and exploring the properties of a model and then applying
the model to answer a question that interests the student. This important approach
emphasizes understanding over routine memorization and provides students with a learning
tool that enables them to figure out new solutions as old ones become obsolete.
These new approaches to mathematics operate from knowledge that learning involves
extending understanding to new situations, a guiding principle of transfer (Chapter 3); that
young children come to school with early mathematics concepts (Chapter 4); that learners
cannot always identify and call up relevant knowledge (Chapters 2, 3, and 4); and that
learning is promoted by encouraging children to try out the ideas and strategies they bring
with them to school-based learning (Chapter 6). Students in classes that use the new
approaches do not begin learning mathematics by sitting at desks and only doing
computational problems. Rather, they are encouraged to explore their own knowledge and to
invent strategies for solving problems and to discuss with others why their strategies work or
do not work.
A key aspect of the new ways of teaching science is to focus on helping students overcome
deeply rooted misconceptions that interfere with learning. Especially in peoples knowledge of
the physical, it is clear that prior knowledge, constructed out of personal experiences and
observations such as the conception that heavy objects fall faster than light objectscan
conflict with new learning. Casual observations are useful for explaining why a rock falls faster
than a leaf, but they can lead to misconceptions that are difficult to overcome.
Misconceptions, however, are also the starting point for new approaches to teaching scientific
thinking. By probing students beliefs and helping them develop ways to resolve conflicting
views, teachers can guide students to construct coherent and broad understandings of
scientific concepts. This and other new approaches are major break-
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throughs in teaching science. Students can often answer fact-based questions on tests
that imply understanding, but misconceptions will surface as the students are questioned
about scientific concepts.
Chche Konnen (search for knowledge in Haitian Creole) was presented as an example of
new approaches to science learning for grade school children. The approach focuses upon
students personal knowledge as the foundations of sense-making. Further, the approach
emphasizes the role of the specialized functions of language, including the students own
language for communication when it is other than English; the role of language in developing
skills of how to argue the scientific evidence they arrive at; the role of dialogue in sharing
information and learning from others; and finally, how the specialized, scientific language of
the subject matter, including technical terms and definitions, promote deep understanding of
the concepts.
Teaching history for depth of understanding has generated new approaches that recognize
that students need to learn about the assumptions any historian makes for connecting events
and schemes into a narrative. The process involves learning that any historical account
is ahistory and not the history. A core concept guiding history learning is how to determine,
from all of the events possible to enumerate, the ones to single out as significant. The rules
for determining historical significance become a lightening rod for class discussions in one
innovative approach to teaching history. Through this process, students learn to understand
the interpretative nature of history and to understand history as an evidentiaryform of
knowledge. Such an approach runs counter to the image of history as clusters of fixed names
and dates that students need to memorize. As with the Chche Konnen example of science
learning, mastering the concepts of historical analysis, developing an evidentiary base, and
debating the evidence all become tools in the history toolbox that students carry with them to
analyze and solve new problems.
Expert Teachers
Expert teachers know the structure of the knowledge in their disciplines. This knowledge
provides them with cognitive roadmaps to guide the assignments they give students, the
assessments they use to gauge student progress, and the questions they ask in the give-and-
take of classroom life. Expert teachers are sensitive to the aspects of the subject matter that
are especially difficult and easy for students to grasp: they know the conceptual barriers that
are likely to hinder learning, so they watch for these tell-tale signs of students
misconceptions. In this way, both students prior knowledge and teachers knowledge of
subject content become critical components of learners growth.
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Subject-matter expertise requires well-organized knowledge of concepts and inquiry
procedures. Similarly, studies of teaching conclude that expertise consists of more than a set
of general methods that can be applied across all subject matter. These two sets of research-
based findings contradict the common misconception about what teachers need to know in
order to design effective learning environments for students. Both subject-matter knowledge
and pedagogical knowledge are important for expert teaching because knowledge domains
have unique structures and methods of inquiry associated with them.
Accomplished teachers also assess their own effectiveness with their students. They reflect
on what goes on in the classroom and modify their teaching plans accordingly. Thinking about
teaching is not an abstract or esoteric activity. It is a disciplined, systematic approach to
professional development. By reflecting on and evaluating ones own practices, either alone
or in the company of a critical colleague, teachers develop ways to change and improve their
practices, like any other opportunity for learning with feedback.
Conclusions
Teachers need expertise in both subject matter content and in teaching.
Teachers need to develop understanding of the theories of knowledge (epistemologies)
that guide the subject-matter disciplines in which they work.
Teachers need to develop an understanding of pedagogy as an intellectual discipline
that reflects theories of learning, including knowledge of how cultural beliefs and the
personal characteristics of learners influence learning.
Teachers are learners and the principles of learning and transfer for student learners
apply to teachers.
Teachers need opportunities to learn about childrens cognitive development and
childrens development of thought (childrens epistemologies) in order to know how
teaching practices build on learners prior knowledge.
Teachers need to develop models of their own professional development that are
based on lifelong learning, rather than on an updating model of learning, in order to
have frameworks to guide their career planning.
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LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
Tools of Technology
Technology has become an important instrument in education. Computer-based technologies
hold great promise both for increasing access to knowledge and as a means of promoting
learning. The public imagination has been captured by the capacity of information
technologies to centralize and organize large bodies of knowledge; people are excited by the
prospect of information networks, such as the Internet, for linking students around the globe
into communities of learners.
There are five ways that technology can be used to help meet the challenges of establishing
effective learning environments:
Bringing real-world problems into classrooms through the use of videos,

demonstrations, simulations, and Internet connections to concrete data and working
scientists.
Providing scaffolding support to augment what learners can do and reason about on
their path to understanding. Scaffolding allows learners to participate in complex
cognitive performances, such as scientific visualization and model-based learning, that
is more difficult or impossible without technical support.
Increasing opportunities for learners to receive feedback from software tutors, teachers,
and peers; to engage in reflection on their own learning processes; and to receive
guidance toward progressive revisions that improve their learning and reasoning.
Building local and global communities of teachers, administrators, students, parents,
and other interested learners.
Expanding opportunities for teachers learning.
An important function of some of the new technologies is their use as tools of representation.
Representational thinking is central to in-depth understanding and problem representation is
one of the skills that distinguish subject experts from novices. Many of the tools also have the
potential to provide multiple contexts and opportunities for learning and transfer, for both
student-learners and teacher-learners. Technologies can be used as learning and problem-
solving tools to promote both independent learning and collaborative networks of learners and
practitioners.
The use of new technologies in classrooms, or the use of any learning aid for that matter, is
never solely a technical matter. The new electronic technologies, like any other educational
resource, are used in a social environment and are, therefore, mediated by the dialogues that
students have with each other and the teacher.
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Educational software needs to be developed and implemented with a full understanding of the
principles of learning and developmental psychology. Many new issues arise when one
considers how to educate teachers to use new technologies effectively: What do they need to
know about learning processes? What do they need to know about the technologies? What
kinds of training are most effective for helping teachers use high-quality instructional
programs? Understanding the issues that affect teachers who will be using new technologies
is just as pressing as questions of the learning potential and developmental appropriateness
of the technologies for children.
Assessment to Support Learning

Assessment and feedback are crucial for helping people learn. Assessment that is consistent
with principles of learning and understanding should:
Mirror good instruction.

Happen continuously, but not intrusively, as a part of instruction.
Provide information (to teachers, students, and parents) about the levels of
understanding that students are reaching.
Assessment should reflect the quality of students thinking, as well as what specific content
they have learned. For this purpose, achievement measurement must consider cognitive
theories of performance. Frameworks that integrate cognition and context in assessing
achievement in science, for example, describe performance in terms of the content and
process task demands of the subject matter and the nature and extent of cognitive activities
likely to be observed in a particular assessment situation. The frameworks provide a basis for
examining performance assessments that are designed to measure reasoning,
understanding, and complex problem solving.
The nature and purposes of an assessment also influence the specific cognitive activities that
are expressed by the student. Some assessment tasks emphasize a particular performance,
such as explanation, but deemphasize others, such as self-monitoring. The kind and quality of
cognitive activities observed in an assessment situation are functions of the content and
process demands of the tasks involved. Similarly, the task demands for process skills can be
conceived along a continuum from constrained to open. In open situations, explicit directions
are minimized in order to see how students generate and carry out appropriate process skills
as they solve problems. Characterizing assessments in terms of components of competence
and the content and process demands of the subject matter brings specificity to assessment
objectives, such as higher level thinking and deep understanding. This approach links
specific content with the
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underlying cognitive processes and the performance objectives that the teacher has in mind.
With articulated objectives and an understanding of the correspondence between task
features and cognitive activities, the content and process demands of tasks are brought into
alignment with the performance objectives.
Effective teachers see assessment opportunities in ongoing classroom learning situations.

They continually attempt to learn about students thinking and understanding and make it
relevant to current learning tasks. They do a great deal of on-line monitoring of both group
work and individual performances, and they attempt to link current activities to other parts of
the curriculum and to students daily life experiences.
Students at all levels, but increasingly so as they progress through the grades, focus their
learning attention and energies on the parts of the curriculum that are assessed. In fact, the
art of being a good student, at least in the sense of getting good grades, is tied to being able
to anticipate what will be tested. This means that the information to be tested has the greatest
influence on guiding students learning. If teachers stress the importance of understanding but
then test for memory of facts and procedures, it is the latter that students will focus on. Many
assessments developed by teachers overemphasize memory for procedures and facts; expert
teachers, by contrast, align their assessment practices with their instructional goals of depth-
of-understanding.
Learning and Connections to Community

Outside of formal school settings, children participate in many institutions that foster their
learning. For some of these institutions, promoting learning is part of their goals, including
after-school programs, as in such organizations as Boy and Girl Scout Associations and 4H
Clubs, museums, and religious education. In other institutions or activities, learning is more
incidental, but learning takes place nevertheless. These learning experiences are
fundamental to childrensand adults lives since they are embedded in the culture and the
social structures that organize their daily activities. None of the following points about the
importance of out-of-school learning institutions, however, should be taken to deemphasize
the central role of schools and the kinds of information that can be most efficiently and
effectively taught there.
A key environment for learning is the family. In the United States, many families hold a
learning agenda for their children and seek opportunities for their children to engage with the
skills, ideas, and information in their communities. Even when family members do not focus
consciously on instructional roles, they provide resources for childrens learning that are
relevant to school and out-of-school ideas through family activities, the funds of
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knowledge available within extended families and their communities, and the attitudes that
family members display toward the skills and values of schooling.
The success of the family as a learning environment, especially in the early years, has
provided inspiration and guidance for some of the changes recommended in schools. The
rapid development of children from birth to ages 4 or 5 is generally supported by family
interactions in which children learn by observing and interacting with others in shared
endeavors. Conversations and other interactions that occur around events of interest with
trusted and skilled adults and child companions are especially powerful environments for
learning. Many of the recommendations for changes in schools can be seen as extensions of
the learning activities that occur within families. In addition, recommendations to include
families in classroom activities and educational planning hold promise of bringing together two
powerful systems for supporting childrens learning.
Classroom environments are positively influenced by opportunities to interact with parents

and community members who take interest in what they are doing. Teachers and students
more easily develop a sense of community as they prepare to discuss their projects with
people who come from outside the school and its routines. Outsiders can help students
appreciate similarities and differences between classroom environments and everyday
environments; such experiences promote transfer of learning by illustrating the many contexts
for applying what they know.
Parents and business leaders represent examples of outside people who can have a major
impact on student learning. Broad-scale participation in school-based learning rarely happens
by accident. It requires clear goals and schedules and relevant curricula that permit and guide
adults in ways to help children learn.
Conclusions
Designing effective learning environments includes considering the goals for learning and
goals for students. This comparison highlights the fact that there are various means for
approaching goals of learning, and furthermore, that goals for students change over time. As
goals and objectives have changed, so has the research base on effective learning and the
tools that students use. Student populations have also shifted over the years. Given these
many changes in student populations, tools of technology, and societys requirements,
different curricula have emerged along with needs for new pedagogical approaches that are
more child-centered and more culturally sensitive, all with the objectives of promoting
effective learning and adaptation (transfer). The requirement for teachers to meet such a
diversity of challenges also illustrates why assessment needs to be a tool to help teach-
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ers determine if they have achieved their objectives. Assessment can guide teachers in
tailoring their instruction to individual students learning needs and, collaterally, inform parents
of their childrens progress.
Supportive learning environments, which are the social and organizational structures in
which students and teachers operate, need to focus on the characteristics of classroom
environments that affect learning; the environments as created by teachers for learning
and feedback; and the range of learning environments in which students participate,
both in and out of school.
Classroom environments can be positively influenced by opportunities to interact with
others who affect learners, particularly families and community members, around
school-based learning goals.
New tools of technology have the potential of enhancing learning in many ways. The
tools of technology are creating new learning environments, which need to be assessed
carefully, including how their use can facilitate learning, the types of assistance that
teachers need in order to incorporate the tools into their classroom practices, the
changes in classroom organization that are necessary for using technologies, and the
cognitive, social, and learning consequences of using these new tools.
c. Nature of teaching process, The Nature of TeachingTop of page

In its broadest sense, teaching is a process that facilitates learning. Teaching is the
specialized application of knowledge, skills and attributes designed to provide unique service
to meet the educational needs of the individual and of society. The choice of learning
activities whereby the goals of education are realized in the school is the responsibility of the
teaching profession.
In addition to providing students with learning opportunities to meet curriculum
outcomes, teaching emphasizes the development of values and guides students in
their social relationships. Teachers employ practices that develop positive self-
concept in students. Although the work of teachers typically takes place in a
classroom setting, the direct interaction between teacher and student is the single
most important element in teaching. Teaching as a ProfessionTop of page
The continued professionalization of teaching is a long-standing goal of the Alberta Teachers
Association. The Association continues to work to advance teaching as a profession.
Professionalism is a complex and elusive concept; it is dynamic and fluid. Six generally
accepted criteria are used to define a profession. The teaching profession in Alberta fulfills
those criteria in the following ways:
1. Its members have an organized body of knowledge that separates the group from all
others. Teachers are equipped with such a body of knowledge, having an extensive
background in the world and its culture and a set of teaching methods experientially derived
through continuous research in all parts of the world.
2. It serves a great social purpose. Teachers carry responsibilities weighted with social
purpose. Through a rigid and self-imposed adherence to the Code of Professional Conduct,
which sets out their duties and responsibilities, teachers pass on their accumulated culture
and assist each student under their care in achieving self-realization.
3. There is cooperation achieved through a professional organization. Cooperation plays an
important role in the development of the teaching profession because it represents a banding
together to achieve commonly desired purposes. The teaching profession has won its well-
deserved place in the social order through continuous cooperation in research, professional
preparation and strict adherence to the Code of Professional Conduct, which obligates every
teacher to treat each student within a sacred trust. Teachers have control or influence over
their own governance, socialization into teaching and research connected with their
profession.
4. There is a formal period of preparation and a requirement for continuous growth and
development. Teachers are required to complete a defined teacher preparation program
followed by a period of induction or internship prior to being granted permanent certification.
This period includes support for the formative growth of teachers and judgments about their
competence. Teachers are devoted to continuous development of their ability to deliver their
service.
5. There is a degree of autonomy accorded the professional. Teachers have opportunities to
make decisions about important aspects of their work. Teachers apply reasoned judgment
and professional decision making daily in diagnosing educational needs, prescribing and
implementing instructional programs, and evaluating the progress of students. Teacher
judgment unleashes learning and creates the basis for experience.
6. The profession has control or influence over education standards, admissions, licensing,
professional development, ethical and performance standards, and professional discipline. As
professionals, teachers are governed in their professional relationships with other members,
school boards, students and the general public by rules of conduct set out in the Associations
Code of Professional Conduct. The code stipulates minimum standards of professional
conduct for teachers, but it is not an exhaustive list of such standards. Unless exempted by
legislation, any member of the Association who is alleged to have violated the standards of
the profession, including the provisions of the code, may be subject to a charge of
unprofessional conduct under the Discipline Bylaws of the Association.
The competence of teachers is governed by the Practice Review Bylaws of the Association.
The expectations for the professional practice of teachers related to interim and permanent
certification are found in the Teaching Quality Standard Applicable to the Provision of Basic
Education in Alberta. The Teaching Quality Standard defines the knowledge, skills and
attributes all teachers are expected to demonstrate as they complete their professional
preparation, enter the profession and progress through their careers. Additionally, the
Department of Educations Teacher Growth, Supervision and Evaluation Policy (Policy 2.1.5)
supports and reinforces the Teaching Quality Standard by setting out basic expectations for
teacher growth, supervision and evaluation.
Teachers as ProfessionalsTop of page
The certificated teacher is the essential element in the delivery of instruction to students,
regardless of the mode of instruction. A teacher has professional knowledge and skills gained
through formal preparation and experience. Teachers provide personal, caring service to
students by diagnosing their needs and by planning, selecting and using methods and
evaluation procedures designed to promote learning. The processes of teaching include
understanding and adhering to legal and legislated frameworks and policies; identifying and
responding to student learning needs; providing effective and responsive instruction;
assessing and communicating student learning; developing and maintaining a safe, respectful
environment conducive to student learning; establishing and maintaining professional
relationships; and engaging in reflective professional practice. These processes must be free
of discriminatory practices and should contribute to the holistic development of students who
are actively engaged, responsible and contributing members of a democratic society. The
educational interests of students are best served by teachers who practise under conditions
that enable them to exercise professional judgment. Teachers have a right to participate in all
decisions that affect them or their work, and have a corresponding responsibility to provide
informed leadership in matters related to their professional practice.
7) its relationship with the learning process d. General principles and

maxims of teaching.
8) Maxims of Teaching are the universally facts found out by the teacher on the basis of experience. They are of universal
significance and are trustworthy.The knowledge of different maxims helps the teacher to proceed systematically. It also help
to find out his way of teaching, especially at the early stages of teaching.
9) The different maxims of teaching are briefly explained below.
10) Known to Unknown:
11) This maxim is based on the assumption that the student knows something. We are to increase his knowledge and widen his
outlook. We have to interpret all new knowledge in terms of the old. It is said that old knowledge serves as a hook on which
the new one can be hung. Known is trustworthy and unknown cannot be trusted. So while teaching we should proceed from
known and go towards unknown. For example, while teaching any lesson, the teacher can link the previous experiences of the
child with the new lesson that is to be taught Teaching of English
12) Simple to Complex:
13) Class-room teaching is formal where the teacher tries to teach and the students try to learn things. In this process of
teaching-learning, the teacher should see that simple things are presented first to the students. That way they will start
taking interest. Once they become interested, thou gradually complex type of things can also be learnt by them. By learning
simple things, they feel encouraged and they also gain confidence. On this basis, they become further receptive to the
complex matter. On the other hand, if complex types of things are presented to the learner first, he become, upset, feels
bored and finds himself in a challenging situation lot which he is not yet ready being immature and unripe.
14) Gradually more difficult items of learning may be presented to the students. It will smoothen teaching being done by the
teacher and make learning convenient and interesting for the students.
15) For example, while teaching sentences of English simple sentences should be taught first and complex type of sentences may
be taken afterwards.
16) Concrete things are solid things and they can be touched with five senses. But abstract things can only be imagined. So it is
rather difficult to teach the children about abstract things. The students are likely to forget them soon. On the other hand, if
we teach the students with the help of concrete objects, they will never forget the subject matter.
17) For example when we teach counting to the students we should first examine concrete nouns like, laptop, b ook, Pen etc. and
then proceed to digits and numbers. The stars, the moon, the sun etc. being taught first whereas the abstract thing:, like
planet, satellites etc. should be taught afterwards.
18) HOW THE KNOWLEDGE OF DIFFERENT MAXIMS OF

TEACHING HELPS THE TEACHER TO PROCEED WITH
MORE CONFIDENCE
19) Analysis of synthesis.
20) Analysis means breaking a problem into its convenient parts while synthesis means grouping of these separated parts into
one complete whole. A complex problem can be made simple and easy by dividing into different parts.
21) Analysis is the approach for understanding and synthesis is for fixation. Analysis of a sentence is taught to students, th at
helps the students to understand the different parts of a sentence. Later on, synthesis of sentences should be taught.
22) Particular to General:
23) While teaching, the teacher should first of all take particular statements and then on the basis of those particular cases,
generalization should be made. Suppose the teacher is teaching Present Continuous Tense while Teaching English, he should
first of all give a few examples and then on the basis of those make them generalize is that this tense is used to denote an
action that is going on at the time of speaking.
24) Empirical to Rational.
25) Empirical knowledge is based on observation and firsthand experience. II is particular concrete and simple. We can see, feel
and experience it on the other hand; rational is based on our arguments, and explanation. The stage of arguments is the last
whereas seeing things or feeling them is the first stage. Empiric.il is less general statements whereas rational is more general
statements. So the safe approach in teaching is that we should proceed from empirical to rational. It is a journey from less
mental maturity to more mental maturity.
26) Induction to Deduction
27) Induction means drawing a conclusion from a set of examples whereas deduction is its opposite. The teacher should proceed
from induction to deduction. For example, in English while teaching conversion of active voice into passive voice, the teacher
should first convert a few sentences of active into the passive voice and on the basis of those conclude the general rule for
conversation of active voice into passive voice.
28) Psychological to Logical.
29) While teaching, the teacher should first keep in mind the interest, aptitudes, capacities, development level etc. of the children
during selection of subject matter and then on to its logical arrangement.
30) In teaching English, the structures are selected as per needs and requirements of the students and then arranged in a logical
way. The psychological appeal of the thing is more important at the early stages. Then the logic behind it should be seen.
31) Actual to Representative.
32) For teaching excellently, actual objects should be, shown to the children as far as possible. It gives them concrete learning
which is more desirable. The learners are able to retain it in their minds for quite a long time. Especially in the lower cla sses
first hand information to the students impresses them a good deal. Representative things in the form of pictures, models; etc.
should be used for the grown ups or the seniors who are already familiar with the actual objects.
33) For example, the teacher should show the elephant, the camel, the horse, the railway station, the post office etc. and thereby
he should make them understand about these things. The representative of these things in the form of pictures or models
may be used at later stages.
34) Near to Afar.
35) Every child is able to learn well in the surroundings to which he belongs. So the child should be acquainted fully with his
immediate environment. Gradually he may be taught about those things which are far from his immediate environment. This
principle, if kept in view, will smoothen the leaching-learning process considerably.
36) Thus the child should be taught the home, followed by the street, the bazaar, the school and then the distant environment of
the city to which he belongs. In the same way, acquaintance with the city should lead to acqu aintance with the Tehsil, the
District, the Division, the Stale and then the Country as a whole. This type of teaching will be incremental and will be step by
step learning. The text book writer who writes books for the small children should also place the different chapters in his
book keeping in view this principle. Then only his book will stand better chances of approval by all concerned.
37) Whole to Part.
38) In teaching, the teacher should try to acquaint the child with the whole lesson first and then the different portions of it may
be analyzed and studied intensively. This principle holds good while teaching a thing to the small children. At the early
stages, the child loves to speak full sentences because in daily life situations, full sentences are used . The child should be
given a full sentence. Then he may have full familiarity with the different words contained in that sentence. Later he may
have the knowledge of words. Then he will have the knowledge of different letters forming the words.
39) Suppose a poem is to he taught to the students. They should be acquainted with the full poem first. Gradually they may be
asked to grasp the poem stanza by stanza In the case of average students, their first attempt may be on full stanza, taking i t as
a whole and then to the different lines con I. lined in the stanza as parts. It will help the teacher to teach better and the
learners to learn things conveniently.
40) Definite to Indefinite.
41) In teaching, definite things should be taught first because the learner can easily have faith in them. Then afterwards he
should give the knowledge of indefinite things. Definite things, definite rules of grammar help the learner to have good
knowledge. Gradually he can be taught about indefinite things.
42) The above given maxims are only hints and guidelines for the teacher, especially at the initial stages. He may use them if he
finds some of them useful in his teaching situations. In some situations of class -room teaching, he may not use them if he
feels so. The teacher should keep the maxims in his hand and he should remain their master. Then only the different maxims
will remain tools and yield better result.
43) 1.Pre-active Phase of teaching a. Taxonomy of Educational objectives for classroom instructions. b.
Preparation of Year plan, lesson plan and unit plan.
44) 2.Interactive Phase of teaching Approaches for organizing learning. The Pfeiffer Library Volume 16, 2nd Edition.
Copyright 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer 1 THREE APPROACHES TO ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING Anthony J. Reilly
I do OD. Were into OD in our organization. The term Organization Development, or OD as it is popularly called,
has become part of the applied behavioral science jargon. In some instances it is confused with other terms, such as
management training or management development. Although there is some overlap, both conceptually and
operationally, among the terms, there are real differences as well. The attempt here is to show how the three terms
complement one another on the one hand and how they differ on the other. An implicit expectation of any kind of
management enrichment program is that of learning, which generally involves some relatively permanent type of
change behavioral, attitudinal, or cognitive. Therefore, the different kinds of learning are of particular interest to us
in this paper. MANAGEMENT TRAINING When I think of training, I think of one kind of learning. Training conveys to
me the idea of making people more alike than different in some respect and trying to deemphasize individual
differences in some particular area. For example, a number of persons are trained to operate a complicated piece of
equipment. Once the equipment is designed and built, hopefully to the specifications that optimize a persons ability
to operate the machine, training programs are implemented in order that the operator may fit himself or herself to
the machine. Individual differences among people in terms of how they operate the machine may cut down on the
machines efficiency. Time-andmotion studies represent another approach where training may be utilized to make
people respond to a set behavioral pattern. What about management training? Many organizations spend
considerable time, energy, and dollars to make their managers more alike than different. Instilling company values
and philosophy and inculcating the organizations climate and norms are examples of exposing managers to ideas and
ideals they are expected to emulate and to think similarly about. Training managers in specific skill areasdata
processing, budget and accounting techniques, salary administration are other examples of applications of
management training. Originally published in The 1973 Annual Handbook for Group Facilitators by John E. Jones and
J. William Pfeiffer (Eds.), San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company. 2 The Pfeiffer Library Volume 16, 2nd Edition. Copyright
1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT Whereas management training attempts to level out
individual differences, management development provides a different kind of learning opportunity. To me,
development means legitimizing individual differences, providing opportunities for the person to actualize his or her
own potential, and encouraging managers to be more different than they are alike along certain dimensions. As with
training, numerous organizations invest extensively into management development programs. Examples of
management development include the following: career testing and counseling programs, in which the person
receives feedback based on test results about his or her abilities, interests, and personality; university programs
geared towards a continuing education experience for the person, such as new ideas about management and
advanced technological advances the manager needs to know about; and personal growth experiences, in which the
person comes to an increased awareness and understanding of himself or herself and how he or she affects other
people. Each of these provides an experience aimed at developing the individuals unique potential. The focal point is
on self-development. The assumption made here is that increased self-awareness and understanding can lead to
attitudinal or behavioral changes that will increase an individuals personal effectiveness and ultimately the
effectiveness of the organization. ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Conceptually, organization development is different
from both management training and management development. The latter two kinds of learning may, however, be
part of an OD effort. Burke (1971) stated that although persons may be involved in events that are properly labeled
as OD technology (some of the examples mentioned above), such activities are not considered organizational
development if they are not part of a planned effort at changing the organizations culture. In short, OD can be
defined as a planned process of cultural change utilizing behavioral science knowledge as a base for interventions
aimed at increasing the organizations health and effectiveness (Beckhard, 1969). As such, its focus is not solely on the
individual person and his or her growth in the organization. Rather, the focus is on how the individual relates to his or
her own work group and how his or her group interfaces with other groups in the organization. Again, to use Burkes
words: The primary reason for using OD is a need to improve some or all of the system that constitutes the total
organization. Such a planned process demands careful assessment or diagnosis of what is needed to increase overall
effectiveness, along with tailor-made changes or interventions, the goals of which are to satisfy those felt needs. The
key concern of behavioral science practitioners involved in OD work is, of course, to create the kind of organizational
climate wherein individuals meet their own needs and, at the same time, optimize the realization of organizational
goals. Team-building, learning how to diagnose needs, working through task and interpersonal issues, creating
structural and functional changes to facilitate effectiveness are some examples that may be part of an OD effort. The
Pfeiffer Library Volume 16, 2nd Edition. Copyright 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer 3 These three approaches to
organization growth are certainly not mutually exclusive. Rather, each is complementary to the other. Often one phase
evolves rather naturally into another. However, the evaluation has a definite sequence. Generally, the pattern follows
one of management trainingmanagement developmentorganization development. For example, before effective
intergroup work (part of an OD sequence) is done, it is of great importance that team-building within each group be
conducted. The choice of learning approach employedmanagement training, management development or
organization developmentdepends, therefore, on the specific kind of change desired in the organization. Whether
the change be directed at reducing individual differences, legitimizing individual differences, or enhancing
group/intergroup collaboration, performance is the key issue. REFERENCES Beckhard, R. (1969). Organization
development: Its nature, origin, and prospects. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley. Burke, W.W. (1971). A comparison of
management development and organization development. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 5. Various
methods and techniques of teaching a. Lecture cum demonstration, project method, heuristic method,
inductive and deductive method. b. Techniques: Computer managed instruction, Programmed instruction&
learning, Brain storming, group discussion, diagnostic and remedial approach, supervised study, seminar
3.Post active Phase of teaching. Evaluation Process.- Tools of evaluation, types of evaluation a. Types of
examination- Written, Oral, Practical and online examination, Characteristics their merits and demerits.
Types of exam questions

Exams usually include different types of questions. Before you start studying for your exams make sure you know
what type of questions to expect. Check your course materials or the course page. If you're still not sure ask your
lecturer/tutor.
This section includes tips on how to study for and answer the most common types of questions.
Short answer questions

Short answer questions require a reasonably short answer anything between a few words and a paragraph or two. The
number of marks allocated often gives an indication of the length required.
When studying for short-answer questions, concentrate on:
terminology
names
facts
concepts and theories, and examples underpinning them
similarities and differences.
When answering short questions:
Plan your answers before you start writing.
Keep your answers short. Its not necessary to rewrite the question, and you shouldnt give more information than you have
been asked for, as you wont get extra marks and may run out of time.
Mark any questions you aren't sure of, and go back to them at the end of your exam if you have time.
Try to answer all of the questions.
Multiple-choice questions
Multiple-choice questions consist of a question or the first half of a sentence (the stem), and a number of possible answers (usually
between three and five). You have to choose the answer you think is correct from that list. Again, the number of marks allocated
determines how long you should spend each question.
When studying for multiple-choice questions, concentrate on:
terminology
names
facts
concepts and theories, and examples underpinning them
similarities and differences.
When answering multiple-choice questions
Quickly read all of the questions and their answers before you answering any.
Mark the questions you arent sure of so that you can come back to them if you have time.
Answer the questions youre sure of first.
Then try the others. Start by eliminating any answers that are obviously wrong.
Watch out for negatives. For example, Which of these is not?
Stick to your time allocation. If your time's up and you still haven't decided on an answer guess or leave it out.
Don't change your first answer unless you're really sure; your first instinctive choice is usually right.
In most cases you should answer all of the questions even if you have to guess; if you choose something you may just be
right. However, sometimes marks are deducted for wrong answers, so make sure you read the instructions very carefully
before you start.
Essay-type questions (long answers)

Essay-type questions require an answer that is structured in the same way as an essay or report. They questions can be
anything from a few paragraphs to a few pages. You don't have to include a reference list, but you should acknowledge
your source(s). The mark allocation will often give an indication of the length required.
When studying for essay questions:
Try to identify possible questions you may be asked by reading past exam papers, corrected assignments and/or revision-type
questions in your course material and textbook(s). However, check that the contents/format of the exam hasn't changed first.
Work out model answers.
Practise by writing answers under exam conditions. This means planning an answer, and writing it out within a timeframe.
When answering essay questions in the exam:
Read the question carefully and analyse it so that you're sure you understand what it means.
Brainstorm ideas and plan your answer. You could try using a mind map to help with this.
Write down some key words. For example, your answer might have five main points, so jot them down, with a few key words
under each point.
Start your answer by briefly rephrasing the question using your own words.
Use a new paragraph for each main idea or topic. Back up each topic with supporting detail such as examples, reasons and
results.
Leave a few lines of between each paragraph, as you may want to add additional information later.
In essay-type questions it is important to stick to your time allocation. If you spend too much time on a question it may
mean you run out of time for other questions. If you run out of time, jot down your main ideas and key words so that the
examiner knows where you were going with the essay you may get a few additional marks in this way.
You should also leave wide margins for the marker, and try to write neatly and proofread as you go.
Problems/computational questions
These types of question requires you to solve a problem using calculations.
When studying for problems/computational questions:
Learn the key vocabulary, theories and formulas, including how and when to apply the formulas.
Look for practice questions in past exam papers, your course materials, set texts, etc.
Practise answering this type of question in full, and writing each step down as if it were an exam.
When answering problems/computational questions:
Read the questions and instructions very carefully before you start to ensure you know exactly what's required.
Once youve decided what you have to do, write down the formulas or methods youre going to use (if applicable).
Show your workings. Even if your answer is wrong or incomplete you may still get some marks for showing you understand
the process.
Use a pencil for drawings and diagrams in case you need to change anything. If required, you can go over them with pen once
you're satisfied.
Label drawings and diagrams and include headings. Different Types of Exam
Essay Exams
Most examinations in Humanities subjects require students to write essays in answer to a series of questions.
The basic essay-writing rules apply (clear argument, good essay structure,
accurate grammar, spelling and punctuation etc.), but with time constraints! This means that writing essays
under exam conditions is a particular skill; but one that is easy to acquire.
Open Book or Take Home Exams

In an open book exam you are allowed to refer to certain materials whilst completing the exam. The exam may
be taken at home or completed in the classroom. Sometimes you will see the question(s) in advance,
sometimes not.
The assessment is therefore focussed on your understanding of a subject, rather than your powers of recall and
memorisation.
It is important to remember that preparation is still very important for an open book exam: your time will be
limited, so you should ensure that your notes are well organised and up-to-date. You might want to prepare
brief and concise notes on the ideas and concepts being tested.
Multiple Choice Tests

Multiple Choice Tests (MCTs) ior Multiple Choice Questionnaires (MCQs) may be done on paper or online.
If the test will be done on paper, ALWAYS take a couple of sharp pencils, a rubber/eraser and a black pen into
the exam with you: paper-based MCTs are often marked by automatic mark readers, and if your answer sheet
is messy with scribbles and crossings out, the scanning equipment will not be able to read your answers. The
result - you will lose marks.
Multiple choice questions usually involve a phrase or stem followed by three to five options, from which you
must select the correct answer.
Here are some guidelines to help you tackle multiple choice tests:
Read the rubric very carefully before starting to answer. The paper may be divided into sections:
if so, work out how long you should allocate to answering each section. Note whether you must use pen
or pencil.
Circle or underline important words in the item. This will help you focus on the information most
needed to identify the correct answer choice.
Read ALL the answer choices before selecting one. It is just as likely for the last answer choice to
be correct as the first.
Cross out answer choices you are certain are not correct. This will help you narrow down the
correct answer choice.
Look for two answer choices that are opposites. One of these two answer choices is likely to be
correct.
Look for hints about the correct answer choice in other items on the test. The correct answer
choice may be part of another item on the test.
Look for answer choices that contain language used by your teacher or found in your
textbooks. An answer choice that contains such language is usually correct.
Do not change your initial answer unless you are sure another answer choice is correct. More
often than not, your first choice is correct.
Choose "all of the above" if you are certain all other answer choices in the item are correct.
Do not choose "all of the above" if even just one of the other answer choices is not correct.
Choose "none of the above" if you are certain all other answer choices in the item are
incorrect. Do not choose "none of the above" if even just one of the other answer choices is correct.
Check whether you will be penalised for incorrect answers sometimes there's nothing to lose
by guessing, but if you'll be penalised for an incorrect answer then it's safest to leave a blank!
Material adapted from www.how-to-study.com
Oral Exams
If you are studying a foreign language, you are likely to encounter an oral examination. The oral exam tests
your knowledge (often of a foreign language), as well as your presentation skills. The exam could follow a list of
questions in a prepared format, or it could be a more informal and open discussion.
Before preparing for an oral exam you need to be clear about the format it will take and whether you will need
to submit any supporting written work at the same time. It's likely that there will be more than one examiner
present in the room, and your performance may well be recorded. Practise answering questions with your
Advantages and
classmates and practice in a similar setting to the exam room.
Disadvantages of Different Types of Test

Questions
By: Maryellen Weimer, PhD
Its good to regularly review the advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly used test
questions and the test banks that now frequently provide them.
Multiple-choice questions
Advantages
Quick and easy to score, by hand or electronically

Can be written so that they test a wide range of higher-order thinking skills
Can cover lots of content areas on a single exam and still be answered in a class period
Disadvantages
Often test literacy skills: if the student reads the question carefully, the answer is easy to recognize
even if the student knows little about the subject (p. 194)
Provide unprepared students the opportunity to guess, and with guesses that are right, they get credit
for things they dont know
Expose students to misinformation that can influence subsequent thinking about the content
Take time and skill to construct (especially good questions)
True-false questions
Advantages
Quick and easy to score

Disadvantages
Considered to be one of the most unreliable forms of assessment (p. 195)

Often written so that most of the statement is true save one small, often trivial bit of information that
then makes the whole statement untrue
Encourage guessing, and reward for correct guesses
Short-answer questions
Advantages
Quick and easy to grade
Quick and easy to write
Disadvantages
Encourage students to memorize terms and details, so that their understanding of the content remains
superficial
Essay questions
Advantages
Offer students an opportunity to demonstrate knowledge, skills, and abilities in a variety of ways
Can be used to develop student writing skills, particularly the ability to formulate arguments supported
with reasoning and evidence
Disadvantages
Require extensive time to grade

Encourage use of subjective criteria when assessing answers
If used in class, necessitate quick composition without time for planning or revision, which can result in
poor-quality writing
Questions provided by test banks
Advantages
Save instructors the time and energy involved in writing test questions
Use the terms and methods that are used in the book
Disadvantages
Rarely involve analysis, synthesis, application, or evaluation (cross-discipline research documents that
approximately 85 percent of the questions in test banks test recall)
Limit the scope of the exam to text content; if used extensively, may lead students to conclude that the
material covered in class is unimportant and irrelevant
We tend to think that these are the only test question options, but there are some interesting
variations. The article that promoted this review proposes one: Start with a question, and revise it
until it can be answered with one word or a short phrase. Do not list any answer options for that
single question, but attach to the exam an alphabetized list of answers. Students select answers from
that list. Some of the answers provided may be used more than once, some may not be used, and there
are more answers listed than questions. Its a ratcheted-up version of matching. The approach makes
the test more challenging and decreases the chance of getting an answer correct by guessing.
Remember, students do need to be introduced to any new or altered question format before they
encounter it on an exam.
Quantitative and
b. Qualitative Techniques of Evaluation their merits and demerits.
Qualitative and Assessment Methods

Tomorrow's Research
Message Number:
1199
Each primary type of qualitative data contributes unique and valuable perspectives about student
learning to the outcomes-based assessment process. When used in combination, a more complete or
holistic picture of student learning is created
Folks:
The posting below describes the differences between quantitative and qualitative research and the appropriate
uses of each of them. It is from Chapter 4, Assessment Methods in the book: Demonstrating Student Success, A
Practical Guide to Outcomes-Based Assessment of Learning and Development in Student Affairs, by Marilee J.
Bresciani, Megan Moore Gardner, and Jessica Hickmott. Published by Stylus Publishing , LLC 2283 Quicksilver
Drive, Sterling, Virginia 20166-2102.[http://www.styluspub.com] Copyright 2009 by Stylus Publishing, LLC. All
rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.
Regards,
Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: What Mentors Do
Tomorrow's Research
--------------------------------------------- 1,700 words -------------------------------------------
Quantitative and Qualitative and Assessment Methods
Quantitative Assessment Methods
Quantitative methods use numbers for interpreting data (Maki, 2004) and \"are distinguished by emphasis on
numbers, measurement, experimental design, and statistical analysis\" (Palomba & Banta 1999). Large numbers
of cases may be analyzed using quantitative design, and this type of design is deductive in nature, often
stemming from a preconceived hypothesis (Patton, 2002). The potential to generalize results to a broader
audience and situations make this type of research/assessment design popular with many. Although assessment
can be carried out with the rigor of traditional research, including a hypothesis and results that are statistically
significant, this is not a necessary component of programmatic outcomes-based assessment. It is not essential to
have a certain sample size unless the scope of your assessment is on the institutional level.
A traditionally favored type of research design that has influenced outcomes-based assessment methodology is
quantitative assessment. Quantitative assessment offers a myriad of data collection tools including structured
interviews, questionnaires, and tests. In the higher education setting, this type of design is found in many
nationally employed assessment tools (e.g., National Survey of Student engagement, Community College survey
of Student Engagement, and the CORE Institute Alcohol and Drug Survey) but can also be locally developed and
used to assess more specific campus needs and student learning outcomes. It is important when engaging in
quantitative methodological design, sampling, analysis, and interpretation to ensure that those individuals
involved are knowledgeable about, as well as comfortable with, engaging in quantitative design (Palomba &
Banta, 1999).
At Colorado State University, two primary quantitative assessment methods are used to examine apartment life
on campus. \"The Apartment Life Exit Survey is given to residents as they begin the 'vacate' process from their
apartment. Results are tabulated twice each year, once at the end of fall semester and once in the summer \"
(Bresciani et al., in press).
Administrators at Pennsylvania State University originally measured the success of their newspaper readership
program based on satisfaction and use. The quantitative survey they were using was later revised \"to include
more detailed information on students' readership behavior (e.g., how frequently they are reading a paper, how
long, and which sections), students' engagement on campus and in the community, and their self-reported gains
in various outcomes (e.g., developing an understanding of current issues, expanding their vocabulary, articulating
their views on issues, increasing their reading comprehension)\" (Bresiani et al., 2009). This revision allowed
them to use survey methodology while still measuring the impact of the program on student learning.
CSUS underwent a similar revision process of a locally developed quantitative survey looking at its new student
orientation program. Originally, only student and parent satisfaction were measured. This was later revised to
include a true/false component in the orientation evaluation that used a form of indirect assessment. In the final
revision, a pre-and post-test were administered to those students attending orientation to measure the knowledge
gained in the orientation session (Bresciani et al., 2009).
In addition, a great deal of data already contained in student transactional systems can be used to assist in the
evaluation of programs. Data such as facility usage, service usage, adviser notations, participation in student
organizations, leadership role held, and length of community service can all help in explaining why outcomes may
have been met. For instance, staff at an institution's counseling service desire for all students who are treated for
sexually transmitted diseases to be able to identify the steps and strategies to avoid contracting them before
leaving the 45-minute office appointment. However, when they evaluated this, they learned that only 70% of the
students were able to do this, but they also examined their office appointment log and realized that because of
the high volume of patients, they were only able to spend 27 minutes with each student on average. The
decreased intended time to teach students about their well-being may explain why the counseling staff's results
were lower than they would have desired.
Qualitative Assessment Methods
According to Denzin and Lincoln (2004), qualitative research is \"multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive,
naturalistic approach to its subject matter\" (p. 2). Upcraft and Schuh (1996) expand this definition by stating,
\"Qualitative methodology is the detailed description of situations, events, people, interactions, and observed
behaviors, the use of direct quotations from people about their experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and thoughts \" (p.
21). Qualitative assessment is focused on understanding how people make meaning of and experience their
environment or world (Patton, 2002). It is narrow in scope, applicable to specific situations and experiences, and
is not intended for generalization to broad situations. Different from quantitative research, qualitative research
employs the researcher as the primary means of data collection (e.g., interviews, focus groups, and observations.
Also unlike quantitative research, the qualitative approach is inductive in nature, leading to the development or
creation of a theory rather than the testing of a preconceived theory of hypothesis (Patton). It is important to note
then that when applying qualitative methodology to outcomes-based assessment, you are not fully using an
inductive approach because you are using the methodology to determine whether an intended outcome has been
identified. However, the application of the methods themselves can yield very rich findings for outcomes-based
assessment.
Data for qualitative analysis generally result from fieldwork. According to Patton (2002), during fieldwork a
researcher spends a significant amount of time in the setting that is being investigated or examined. Generally
multimethod in focus, three types of findings often result from the qualitative fieldwork experience; interviews,
observations, and documents.
Each primary type of qualitative data contributes unique and valuable perspectives about student learning to the
outcomes-based assessment process. When used in combination, a more complete or holistic picture of student
learning is created.
Interviews
Interviews comprise a number of open-ended, questions that result in responses that yield information \"about
people's experiences, perceptions, opinions, feelings, and knowledge\" (Patton, 2002, p.4). It is common to
engage in face-to face verbal interviews with one individual; however, interviews may also be conducted with a
group and administered via mail, telephone, or the Web (Upcraft & Schuh, 1996). Though questions and format
may differ, an essential component of any interview is the \"trust and rapport to be built with respondents\"
(Upcraft & schuh, p. 32). Open-ended questions can also be given to students at the conclusion of a program or
an event to receive quick and immediate feedback. At Widener University, \"questions presented before, during,
and after the {student health services} presentations allowed for an interactive experience and a means to
monitor learning progress\" (Bresciani et al., in press.
Observations
Observations, on the other hand, do not require direct contact with a study participant or group. Rather, this type
of data collection involves a researcher providing information-rich descriptions of behavior, conversations,
interactions, organizational processes, or any other type of human experience obtained through observation.
Such observation may be either participant, in which the researcher is actually involved in the activities,
conversations, or organizational processes, or nonparticipant, in which the research remains on the outside of the
activity, conversation, or organizational process in scope (Creswell, 1998; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Patton, 2002).
In keeping a record of observations, many methods can be used. One way is to take notes during the
observation; another method commonly employed is to create a checklist or rubric to use during the observation.
The checklist or rubric not only gives the observer a set of criteria to observe, but it also allows the observer to
show student progress over time and to correlate a number with a qualitative process. At North Carolina State
University, for example,
a total of 259 students that were found guilty of a violation of the {Student} Code {of Conduct} were
assigned a paper with questions
specifically written to correspond with the criteria for the development of insight and impact on life issues,
as identified in the learning
outcome. A rubric was used to review the papers. The rubric was created based on a theory of insight by
Mary M. Murray (1995). In her book
Artwork of the Mind, Murray describes how to determine the development of insight through writing. Initially
20 papers were drawn randomly to
test the rubric. The rubric originally had a scale with three categories; beginning, developing and achieved
and six dimensions based on the
theory and practice. In total, 22 papers were drawn and reviewed based on the rubric. (Bresciani eit al.,
2009).
Isothermal Community College (ICC) incorporated the qualitative assessment method of using portfolios for
professionals completing the assessment process. Although this particular example focuses on staff and
departments using portfolios, this method of assessment is commonly used with students as well. At ICC
each year staff set aside time to reflect on what has been learned through assessment, compile related
documents into a portfolio, and summarize
major areas of learning into what we refer to as \"reflective narratives.\" The process is systematic and
ongoing with portfolios and narratives
submitted for review by various administrators in June of each year. (Bresciani et al., 2009.
Documents
Finally, documents include \"written materials and other documents from organizational, clinical, or programs
records; memoranda and correspondence; official publications and reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic
works, photographs, and memorabilia; and written responses to open-ended surveys\" (Patton, 2002, p. 4). Public
records and personal documents are the two primary categories of documents one might use when doing
outcomes-based assessment or research (Upcraft & Schuh, 1996). Newspaper and magazine excerpts,
enrollment and retention records, and judicial records are examples of personal records. Both types of documents
can enhance the overall data collected in an assessment project. It is important to note, however, that the
authenticity of documents must be determined prior to using them for assessment (Creswell, 1998; Patton, 2992;
Upcraft & Schuh, 1996).
In addition to the aforementioned documents, many student affairs professionals also use portfolios, student
reflections, reports, or other forms of classroom-type documents for outcomes-based assessment data collection.
Again, criteria checklists or rubrics can be used in the analysis of documents to identify whether outcomes are
met. Keep in mind that whenever criteria are used with a qualitative method, the process of inductive discovery is
diminished and therefore is the true nature of the qualitative methodology. Nonetheless, documents are a rich
source of information and provide a great starting point for any assessment project.
REFERENCES
Quantitative Methods
Quantitative data provide information that can be counted to answer such questions as How many?, Who was
involved?, What were the outcomes?, and How much did it cost? Quantitative data can be collected by surveys
or questionnaires, pretests and posttests, observation, or review of existing documents and databases or by
gathering clinical data. Surveys may be self- or interviewer-administered and conducted face-to-face or by
telephone, by mail, or online. Analysis of quantitative data involves statistical analysis, from basic descriptive
statistics to complex analyses.
Quantitative data measure the depth and breadth of an implementation (e.g., the number of people who
participated, the number of people who completed the program). Quantitative data collected before and after an
intervention can show its outcomes and impact. The strengths of quantitative data for evaluation purposes include
their generalizability (if the sample represents the population), the ease of analysis, and their consistency and
precision (if collected reliably). The limitations of using quantitative data for evaluation can include poor response
rates from surveys, difficulty obtaining documents, and difficulties in valid measurement. In addition, quantitative
data do not provide an understanding of the programs context and may not be robust enough to explain complex
issues or interactions (Holland et al., 2005; Garbarino et al., 2009).
45) . c. Observation Techniques- Check list, Rating Scales, Anecdotal Records. d. Self observation Techniques-
Interviews, Interest Inventory, Personality Inventory.

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Unit-: I Learning Process & Transfer of Learning

a. Learning- its nature and types.

Gates, Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training.

Travers J.F., Learning is a process that results in the modification of behaviour

Skinner: Learning can be viewed as acquisition and retention.

1|Learning and Teaching Ninimol Denny

4|Learning and Teaching Ninimol Denny

5|Learning and Teaching Ninimol Denny

6|Learning and Teaching Ninimol Denny

c. Theories of Learning- Trial and error, Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning,

7|Learning and Teaching Ninimol Denny

8|Learning and Teaching Ninimol Denny

e. Transfer of Learning- definition and their types.

9|Learning and Teaching Ninimol Denny

f. Factors influencing learning.

and physical growth.

mental organization and general behavior of the individual.

5. Emotional and social factors:

a wide variety of tendencies.

behavior which emerges from the learning situation.

Blaire, Jones, Simson

c. Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Readiness and will power:

General health condition of the learner:

Level of aspiration and achievement:

Factors Related to Learning Process:

a. Part v/s whole method:

b. Spaced v/s un-spaced method:

c. Recitation v/s repetition:

3. Knowledge of results as feedback:

4. Good physical atmosphere:

Clear and quick recognition is a sure sign of good memory.

It is the inability of retaining an impression in the mind.

Just like memory, forgetting is also a mental process.

When there is memory, there is bound to be forgetting.

Fig.1 Factors influencing Learning

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF MATURATION

Ross Attention is getting an object of thought clearly before the mind.

3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTENTION

3.2 RELATIONSHIP WITH LEARNING

3.3. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF ATTENTION:

4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEREST

4.2 RELATIONSHIP WITH LEARNING

Motivation may be defined as a planned managerial process, which stimulates people to

Motivation is no doubt an essential ingredient of any Organisation. It is the psychological

Following are the outstanding Features of the concept of motivation:

2. Motivation is need based:

3. Motivation is a continuous process:

4. Motivation may be positive or negative:

5. Motivation is a planned process:

6. Motivation is different from job satisfaction:

By satisfying human needs motivation helps in increasing productivity. Better utilisation of

Types of Motivation - Extrinsic

There are two primary types of motivation... Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Types of Motivation - Intrinsic

Intrinsic Motivation is geared toward internal rewards and reinforcer's.

Types of Motivation - Addiction

Types of Motivation - Subconscious Motivations

Addiction is an example of subconscious motivation...we may not know "why we do it" or

An accident-prone person may have a subconscious desire to hurt or punish himself

Most of us have heard of the "Carrot-or-Stick" types of motivation.

"Stick People" respond better to external and internal reinforcer's while

c. Importance of motivation in class room.

d. Maslow's hierarchy of needs.