Ch7 Lateral Earth Pressure Theories (407-440)

CHAPTER 7
LATERAL EAERTH PRESSURE

THEORIES
7.1 STATES OF STRESS

7.1.1 ELASTIC STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
Referring to Fig.(7.1), if no movement of the wall takes place, the soil is said to be in
"elastic equilibrium" or at rest condition. The corresponding earth pressure under this
condition is known as earth pressure at rest.
For this state of stress, the vertical and horizontal effective stresses acting on any element
of soil such as A or B are:
z = 1 = z ..(7.1)
PA = 3 = K o 1 = K o z ...(7.2)
Since no point of soil is on verge of failure, the Mohrs circle for the at rest stress state
stays within the failure surface boundaries. 6
Fig.(7.1): Elastic state of equilibrium in soil.
7.1.2 PLASTIC STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM

The soil is said to be in "plastic equilibrium" if every point of it is on the verge of failure
(failure is about to occur simultaneously at all points in the mass). This state of equilibrium is
classified into active and passive states. When the soil is in active state of plastic
Foundation for Civil Engineers Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
equilibrium, the lateral pressure is known as active earth pressure. Whereas when it is in
passive state, the pressure developed is known as passive earth pressure.
The active state of plastic equilibrium in soil behind a retaining wall with horizontal
ground surface is shown in Fig.(7.2). Since the wall is moved away from element A and
towards element B, the effective horizontal stress in element A will reduce but the effective
vertical stress will remain constant. Therefore, the Mohrs circle for active stress state will
expand until it touches the failure surfaces in Fig.(7.2).
Failure envelope
Failure (Active state)
Active State
Wall movement away from backfill v = z (remains the same)

h = K0 v = K0 z (decreases till failure occurs)
Fig.(7.2): Active state of plastic equilibrium in soil.
Fig.(7.3) shows the passive state of plastic equilibrium in soil behind a retaining wall
with horizontal ground surface. Since the wall is moved towards B, its effective horizontal
stress will increase but the effective vertical stress will remain constant. Hence, the Mohrs
circle will first contract and then expand.
Upward movement of wedge

B
Resisting force
R.W.
Passive State
v = remains the same
Wall movement towards backfill h = x = increases till failure occurs
Fig.(7.3): Passive state of plastic equilibrium in soil.
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7.2 CATEGORIES OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

There are three categories of lateral earth pressure. The magnitude of each type depends
upon the retaining wall movement relative to the backfill as shown in Fig.(7.4), type of
backfill and the value of the vertical pressure Pv which affects the state of stress. The three
categories are:
At rest earth pressure
Active earth pressure
Passive earth pressure
G.S.
Active Case At rest Case Passive Case

(Wall moves away from soil) (No movement) (Wall moves into soil)
Fig.(7.4): Wall movement.
The at rest pressure develops when the wall experiences no lateral movement. This
typically occurs when the wall is restrained. The active pressure develops when the wall is
free to move outward such as a typical retaining wall and the soil mass stretches sufficiently
to mobilize its shear strength. On the other hand, if the wall moves towards the soil, then the
soil mass is compressed which also mobilizes its shear strength and the passive pressure
develops. This situation might occur along the section of wall that is below grade and on the
opposite side of the retained section of fill. Some engineers might use the passive pressure
that develops along this buried face as additional restraint to lateral movement, but it often is
ignored.
In order to develop the full active pressure or the full passive pressure, the wall must
move a sufficient amount; otherwise the full active or full passive pressure will not develop.
The wall movement effect on development of the active or passive earth pressure is shown in
Fig.(7.5). Note that the at rest condition is shown where the wall rotation is equal to 0, which
is the condition of zero lateral strain.
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Fig.(7.5): Effect of movement on wall pressure (after NAVFAC DM-7, 1971).
From Fig.(7.5) it is evident that:

As the wall moves away from the soil backfill, the active condition develops and the
lateral pressure against the wall decreases with wall movement until the minimum
active earth pressure force (Pa) is reached.
As the wall moves towards (into) the soil backfill, the passive condition develops and
the lateral pressure against the wall increases with wall movement until the maximum
passive earth pressure force (Pp) is reached.
Thus the intensity of the active / passive horizontal pressure, which is a function of the
applicable earth pressure coefficient, depends upon the degree of wall movement since the
movement controls the amount of shear strength mobilized in the surrounding soil. Table (1)
shows the movement of a retaining wall top necessary to reach minimum active or maximum
passive pressure developed by tilting or lateral translation.
Table (1): Magnitudes of wall movement to reach failure

(after NAVFAC DM7.2, 1982).
Value of Y/H*
Soil Type
Active Passive
Dense sand 0.0005 0.002
Loose sand 0.002 0.006
Stiff clay 0.01 0.02
Soft clay 0.02 0.04
* Y is the movement of the wall top and H is the height of the wall.
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7.3 EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS

(a) At Rest Earth Pressure Coefficient:
If a mass of soil is deposited by either natural or artificial process, the coefficient K will
be equal to Ko (the coefficient of earth pressure at rest):
for normally consolidated soils:
P
K o h 1 sin .....(7.3)
Pv at .rest
for overconsolidated soils:
Ko = (1 sin ') OCRsin.......(7.4)
from elastic analysis:

Ko = 1 ........(7.5)
(b) Active and Passive Earth Pressure Coefficients for Rankine Theory:
Level backfill:
P 1 sin
K a h tan 2 (45 ) or Ka ..(7.6)
Pv active 2 1 sin
P 1 sin
K P h tan 2 (45 ) or KP ..........(7.7)
Pv Passive 2 1 sin
Inclined backfill:
cos cos 2 cos 2

K a cos ..........(7.8)
cos cos 2 cos 2
cos cos 2 cos 2

K P cos ..........(7.9)
cos cos 2 cos 2
As shown above for Rankine earth pressure theory:
K p 1 / K a ....................(7.10)
where, Ka = active coefficient of earth pressure.

KP = passive coefficient of earth pressure, and
Ka < Ko < KP.
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(c) Active and Passive Earth Pressure Coefficients for Coulomb Theory:
sin 2 ( )
Ka 2
.....(7.11)
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 . sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 ( )
KP 2
.........(7.12)
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 . sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
Note: Unlike the Rankine earth pressure coefficients, KP 1/ Ka

where,
= angle of inclination of back face of wall with horizontal.
= angle of inclination of backfill or ground surface with horizontal.
= soil-wall-friction angle.
= soil internal friction angle.
for active state: R.W.
Backfill
Ka = Ph / Pv =
for passive state:

Ka = Ph / Pv =
Fig.(7.6): Retaining wall with inclined back
face and sloped ground surface.
Typical values of earth pressure coefficients are shown in Table (2). They depend
relatively on density of soil, the process by which the deposit is formed and on the
overconsolidation ratio (O.C.R.).
Table (2): Usual range of earth pressure coefficients.
Earth Cohesionless soil Cohesive soil

pressure
coefficient Dense sand Loose sand Stiff clay Soft clay
Ka 0.4 0.6 1 2
Ko 0.33 0.22 0.4 0.8
KP 3 14 1 0.5
To change the values of (K) for a mass of sand from Ko to Ka or KP, it is necessary to
give the entire mass of soil an opportunity either to stretch or to be compressed in a
horizontal direction. Pv is unaltered, but Ph = K. Pv decreases if the soil mass stretches (Active
Rankine Case) and it increases if the soil mass compresses (Passive Rankine Case); see
Fig.(7.7).
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Relativly large
Lateral earth pressure

Small
KP
coefficient
Ka Ko
Movement
Away from backfill Against backfill
Fig.(7.7): Variation of K- coefficient versus relative movement.
7.4 RANKINE'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

This theory was developed in 1857 for frictionless soil and then it was extended by Bell
(1915) for cohesive soils. Rankine's theory assumes that:
1. The retained soil is cohesionless, homogeneous, isotropic (similar stress-strain
properties in all directions), semi-infinite (wall is very long and soil goes back a long
distance without bends) and well drained to avoid consideration of pore pressures.
2. The back surface of the wall is smooth (i.e., there is no adhesion or friction between
the wall and soil; = 0).
3. Lateral pressure is limited to vertical walls with horizontal or inclined ground surface.
Thus the resultant force must be parallel to the backfill surface as shown in Fig.(7.8).
4. Lateral pressure varies linearly with depth and the resultant pressure is located one-
third of the height (H) above the base of the wall.
5. The wall yields about its base and therefore it satisfies the deformation condition for
plastic equilibrium.
6. Failure (in the backfill) occurs as a sliding wedge along an assumed failure plane
defined by .
G.S.
G.S.
Resultant
Resultant
R.W. R.W.
H/3 H/3
(a) Levelled backfill (b) sloped backfill
Fig.(7.8): Resultant of earth pressure for smooth wall.
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7.4.1 SPECIAL CASES OF RANKINE'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

(EXCLUSIVELY FOR SANDY SOILS):
Case (1): Dry or Moist Backfill with no Surcharge.
z k a ..z
H
R.W.
PA
H/3
k a ..H
Pa .at..base Ka ..H .acting at H/3 from base
1 sin
where, K a tan 2 (45 )
2 1 sin
Case (2): Submerged Backfill

(a) Fully Submerged (b) Partially Submerged
W.T.
G.S.
H1
k a ..H1
H Pw
R.W. PA R.W.
H/3 H2
H/3
k a . .H w .H k a ..H1 k a . .H 2 w .H 2
Pa .at..base K a . .H w .H Pa .at..base K a (.H1 .H 2 ) w .H 2
Case (3): Backfill with Uniform Surcharge
q/unit area
H k a .q
R.W.
k a ..H
The effect of the surcharge of intensity q is the same as that of a fill of height equal to q/
q
above the ground surface. K a . . K a .q

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Case (4): Dry Backfill with Sloping Surface

Considering the soil element shown in Fig.(7.9) with and Pa are resultant stresses on
two conjugate planes. The principle stresses 1 and 3 are determined from Mohr circle as:
G.S.
Active condition

OA1 Pa failure envelope
PA PA OA 2
b cos

A1 B A2
R.W.
R.W.
H/3 PA
3 C 1

Fig.(7.9): Active earth pressure for bakfill with sloping surface.
By simple geometry, it can be shown that:

3 3
Pa OA1 OB BA1 1 cos 1 sin 2 sin 2 .....(7.13a)
2 2
1 3
OA 2 OB BA 2 cos 1 3 sin 2 sin 2 ...(7.13b)
2 2
.z.b cos
But, .z. cos .
b
Dividing (7.13a by 7.13b) and substituting for ; gives:
cos cos 2 cos 2

Pa .z. cos ; or Pa K a ..z
cos cos 2 cos 2
The resultant active thrust on the wall of height H is given by:
1
PA K a ..H 2 .........(7.14)
2
cos cos 2 cos 2

where, K a cos
cos cos 2 cos 2
Similarly:
cos cos 2 cos 2
K p cos
cos cos 2 cos 2
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Case (5): Submerged Backfill with Sloping Surface

If the backfill is submerged, the lateral pressure due to submerged weight of soil will act
at with horizontal, while lateral pressure due to water will act normal to the wall.
G.S.
W.T.

PA
Pw
R.W.
R.W.
H/3 H/3
1
PA K a ..H 2 .........(7.15a)
2
cos cos 2 cos 2

where, K a cos
cos cos 2 cos 2
1
Pw w H 2 ................(7.15b)
2
Case (6): Inclined Back of the Wall
(a) Horizontal Surface 0 (b) Sloped Surface 0
G.S.
W (weight of soil wedge ABC) W
B C G.S. B C P
P PA
PA
R.W. R.W. H/3
H/3
A A
The resultant pressure P is a vector sum of PA and W.
Case (7): Active Earth Pressure in Cohesive Backfill

(a) Cohesive Soil without Surcharge
From soil mechanics, the relationship between 1 and 3 at failure is given by:
1 3 N 2c N ............(7.16)
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1 2c 1
or 3 where N tan2 (45 ) or N
N N 2 Ka
here, 1 Pv .z and therefore 3 Ph .z.Ka 2c Ka
2c K a
2c A B G.S.
zo
Ka C
4c Pv .z 1
(net Ph is zero) z
Ka
H
+ Ph 3
zo = zone of
R.W. tension cracks PA
(Active Case)
D E F
.H.K a
at z = 0: Ph 2c K a and
2c
when, Ph 0 : z zo (depth of tension cracks) .......(7.17)
Ka
Tension cracks usually develop in soil at top of wall and decrease to zero at depth zo. The
4c
total net pressure up to a depth of 2z o is zero. This means that a cohesive soil could
Ka
4c
stand with a vertical face up to a depth without any lateral support. Thus the critical
Ka
height, Hc of unsupported vertical cut in cohesive soil is given by:

4c
For c- Soil: H c 2z o . ..............(7.18a)
Ka
4c
For Soft Clays 0 : Hc ..................(7.18b)

Due to tension cracks, it is usual to neglect the negative pressure diagram (ABC) and consider
the positive diagram below zo. Therefore, the resultant thrust is:

PA
1
2

.H.K a 2c K a . H

2c
Ka
.........(7.19)

1 2c
.
acts above the wall base at H
3 Ka

417
(b) Cohesive Soil with Surcharge

If there is a uniform surcharge q/unit area, then the lateral pressure is increased by q K a
everywhere (diagram AGHF).
q / unit.area
B G
q A
z C Surcharge diagram
H Kaq q.K a
R.W.
+
D E F H
.H.K a
(PH )active .HKa 2c Ka q.Ka ........(7.20)
Depending on q K a magnitude, the depth of tension cracks is altered. If q K a > 2c K a then
there is no tension cracking.
Case (8): Passive Earth Pressure in Cohesive Backfill

From Eq.(7.16):
1 3 N 2c N ........(7.21)
for passive case: 3 (Pv ) passive .z and
1 ( Ph ) passive ( .z.K P ) (2c. K P )
2c K P
A B G.S.
Pv .z 3
z
H P1 Ph .z.k P 1
R.W. P2
(Passive Case)
C D E
.H.K P
7.5 COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

This theory was developed in 1776. It can be used for different boundary conditions such
as inclined walls, walls with a break, inclined uniform or non-uniform slopes, under
concentrated and/or distributed surcharge loads. Coulomb's theory assumes that:
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The retained soil is cohesionless, isotropic and homogeneous.

The surface of the wall is rough (i.e., the soil-wall-friction angle 0). Note that
ranges from /2 - 2/3 and = 2/3 is commonly used.
The resultant force is not necessarily parallel to the backfill surface because of the
soil-wall friction value .
A condition of limit equilibrium is satisfied in the soil mass retained behind the wall
(i.e., the wall deforms to produce active or passive condition in soil).
The limit equilibrium describes the state of a soil mass that is on the verge of failure
(i.e., the applied stresses are equal to the available strength along the slip plane).
The retained soil mass will slip along a failure plane inclined at an angle to the
horizontal
The slope of the slip surface failure plane is planer.
The critical slip plane gives the maximum lateral pressure on the wall.
Failure is a plane strain problem with always two sets of slip planes - one for positive
shear stress and the other for negative shear stress as shown in Fig.(7.10).
Soil constants have definite values (i.e., , c and are constants and their values are
known).
(a) Local active failure
(b) Local passive failure (c) Mohr stress diagram
Fig.(7.10): Slip planes for active and passive earth pressures.
7.5.1 COULOMB'S ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

FOR COHESIONLESS SOIL
Figure (7.11a) shows a retaining wall of height H with its back face inclined at with
horizontal, retaining a soil of friction angle that slopes at with horizontal. If be the
angle of wall friction and under active pressure the wall will move away from the soil mass.
Semi-Analytical Solution
To find the active force, assume the failure surface in the soil mass to be a plane such
as AC inclined at an angle ( = 45 + /2) with horizontal and a possible soil failure wedge
such as ABC. Then forces acting on the wedge ABC per unit length of the wall are as follows:
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1. Weight of the wedge, W acting through the center of gravity (O) of ABC.
2. The reaction of soil against the wedge, R, inclined at an angle to the normal drawn to the
failure surface AC.
3. The active force Pa, inclined at an angle to the normal to the back face of the wall.
For equilibrium, these three forces must meet at a point. Since their directions and the
magnitude of W are known, R and Pa can be determined from force polygon.
Wall movement away from soil C
B Pa
+ W
O + +
H O
Assumed failure surfaces W
D R
Actual failure surface
N

H/3 Pa
R
N =
A
(a) Retaining wall with single trial wedge. (b) Polygon of forces.
Fig.(7.11): Coulomb's Active Pressure (Semi-Analytical Solution).
The weight of the soil wedge ABC is calculated from Fig.(7.11a) as:
Area of wedge ABC = 1/2 (AC) (BD) ...........(7.22a)
where BD is drawn perpendicular to AC.
sin( + ) H
From the Law of Sines: AC = AB , BD = AB sin( + ) , AB =
sin( ) sin
Substituting into Eq.(7.22a) and simplifying gives:
H2 sin( + )
W = A(1) = [ sin( + )] .........(7.22b)
2 sin2 sin( )
The active force Pa is calculated from force polygon shown in Fig.(7.11b) as:
Pa W
=
sin( ) sin(180 + + )
W sin( )
Pa = ............(7.22c)
sin(180 + + )
Combining Eqs. (7.22b) and (7.22c) gives:
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H2 sin(+) sin( )
Pa = [ sin( + )] .......(7.22d)
2 sin2 sin( ) sin(180 + + )
where, is unit weight of soil, parameters , , , , , are constants, is a variable

coressponding to assumed failure surface AC .

Setting = 0 gives the maximum active wall force Pa as:

1
Pa = 2 H 2 K a ....................................(7.22e)
where,
sin 2 ( )
Ka .....................(7.22f)
2
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 . sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
If = = 0 and = 90 (a smooth vertical wall with horizontal backfill), Eq.(7.22f)

simplifies to:
(1 sin )
Ka tan2 (45 ) ................................................(7.22g)
(1 sin ) 2
which is identical with the Rankines coefficient for active earth pressure.
Graphical Solution
Several trial wedges are selected such as ABC1, ABC2, ABC3,..corresponding to assumed
failure surfaces AC1, AC2, AC3,..that makes an angles of 1 , 2 , 3 ,with the horizontal.
Initially for each trial wedge, the active force is determined using the force polygon as shown
in Fig. (7.12b) or using Eq.(7.22d) with specified . Then the maximum value of Pa
determined is the Coulombs active force as shown at the top part of Fig.(7.12a).
Graphical determination of Pa (max.)
Pa (max.) P2
P1 P3

C3
Wall movement away from soil C2
C1
B Pa
+ W
O
+ +

H O Assumed failure surfaces
W
D R
Actual failure surface
N

H/3 Pa
R
N =
A
(a) Retaining wall with several trial wedges. (b) Polygon of forces.
Fig.(7.12): Coulomb's Active Pressure (Graphical Solution).
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7.5.2 COULOMB'S PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

FOR COHESIONLESS SOIL
Following similar method used in obtaining the active earth pressure, the passive earth
pressure Pp can be derived and expressed by the following equations:
The weight of the assumed failure wedge ABC is calculated from Fig.(7.13a) as:
H2 sin(+)
W= [ sin( + )] ..............(7.23a)
2 sin2 sin()
The passive force Pp is calculated from force polygon shown in Fig.(7.13b) as:
W sin(+ )
Pp = ............(7.23b)
sin(180)

Setting = 0 gives the minimum value of Pp as:

1
Pp = 2 H 2 K p ....................................(7.23c)
where,
sin 2 ( )
Kp .....................(7.23d)
2
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 . sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
For smooth vertical wall with horizontal backfill ( = = 0 and = 90 ) Eq.(7.23d)

simplifies to:
(1 sin )
Kp tan2 (45 ) .....................................................(7.23e)
(1 sin ) 2
which is identical with that of Rankines passive earth pressure coefficient.

Graphical determination of Pa (min.)
P1 P3
P2
Pp (min.)

C3
Wall movement toward the soil C2
C1

B
+ W
Assumed failure surfaces
H
Pp Pp

D +
N R W
R
H/3 N

= +
A
(a) Retaining wall. (b) Polygon of forces.
for semi-analytical solution single trial wedge is needed with = /.
for graphical solution several trial wedges are needed.
Fig.(7.13): Coulomb's Passive Pressure for cohesionless soils.
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7.6 COMPARISON OF RANKINES AND COULOMBS

EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES
The results obtained from Rankines and Coulombs earth pressure theories are
identical under the same conditions (smooth wall surfaces, level grounds, and homogeneous
cohesionless soils) though the two theories are quite differently based.
Coulombs theory is derived according to the principle of force equilibrium. As a

result, there is only one failure surface, which is a plane, assuming the wedge between
the failure surface and the retaining wall is rigid. Whereas, Rankines earth pressure
theory is based on the principle of plastic equilibrium of the strained soil (as a result
there are infinite failure surfaces within the failure zone).
Coulombs theory is applicable to more complicated conditions than Rankines theory,

though it is difficult to obtain a theoretical solution.
Coulombs wedge theory calculates less earth pressure than Rankines theory for a
level back slope whereas the values converge under back slope conditions when = .
Coulombs theory calculates a unique failure angle for every design condition whereas
the application of Rankines theory to reinforced soil structures fixes the internal
failure plane at (45 + /2).
Coulombs earth pressure theory gives an upper bound estimate or an unsafe solution
because it is based on a limit equilibrium analysis which always results in a failure
load greater than the true failure load. The main reason for this is that the soil will
always be able to choose a failure mechanism that is more efficient than the assumed
failure mechanism (shape and location of slip plane). Whereas Rankines theory gives
a lower bound estimate or safe solution of lateral earth pressure due to it is based on
plastic equilibrium states of stresses which usually results in a failure load smaller
than the true failure load.
Coulombs active wedge theory and a calculated failure plane is favored by the
National Masonry Concrete Association (NCMA). While, the application of Rankines
"state of stress" earth pressure theory and fixed failure plane is favored by the
transportation agencies (AASHTO and FHWA).
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7.7 GRAPHICAL METHODS FOR EARTH PRESSURE

CALCULATION OF COHESIONLESS SOIL
7.7.1 CULMANN'S CONSTRUCTION
(a) Active Case:
1. Draw the retaining wall, backfill, etc.. , to a convenient scale, as shown in Fig.(7.14).
2. From point A (the base of the wall) draw two lines; the first line AC inclined at to the
horizontal, and the second line AD inclined at an angle ( ) or ( ) to AC
line; where is the angle between the backside of the wall and a horizontal line, and
is the angle of wall friction.
3. Draw some possible failure wedges, such as ABC1, ABC2, ABC3 and so on.
4. Compute the respective weights of wedges ABC1, ABC2, ABC3 as w1, w2, w3 and so on.
5. Using a convenient weight scale along line AC, lay off the respective weights of wedges
locating points (w1, w2, w3, etc.). C
Tangent C5
Failure plane
C4
C3
C1 C2 - line
B e5
e4 Pai
w5
e3
H e w4 + +
w1
e2 w3 Culmann's line
N e1 Wi
w2 PA (Maximum ative pressure) Ri
H/3 Pa
w1

A
(a) Gravity retaining wall. Pressure line D (b) Polygon of forces.

C
Tangent
Failure plane C3
C2
C1
B - line
e3
e2 Pressure locus
w1 e w3 (Culmann's line)
e1 w2
w

w1 PA (Maximum ative pressure)
=
A
= 90o
(c) Cantilever retaining wall.
Pressure line D
Fig.(7.14): Active pressure by Culmann's method for cohesionless soils.
6. Through each point of (w1, w2, w3, etc), draw a line parallel to the line AD
intersecting the corresponding lines AC1, AC2, AC3 at points e1, e2, e3 and so on.
Triangle Aw1e1 represents the triangle of forces for the trial wedge ABC1 and w1e1 is
the pressure Pa1 on the wall from this wedge.
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7. Repeat steps 1-6 for different planes AC2, AC3, etc. and connect e1, e2, e3, etc. by a
smooth curve (Culmanns line). Through points of intersection determined in step (6),
trace a tangent to the curve parallel to AC. Then, the distance PA shown in Fig.(7.14)
to the chosen scale represents the active thrust on the wall and the real surface of
sliding lies on AeC.
Point of Application of Active Thrust

(i) No Concentrated Load: from the center of gravity (C.G.) of the failure wedge in
Fig.(7.15i) draw a line parallel to AC till intersecting the wall face at the point of
application.
(ii) Concentrated Load: draw Vc parallel to AC, Vcf parallel to ACF, and take 1/3
distance c cf from c (see Fig.(7.15ii)).
V
CF CF
B B

+ +
x C.G. failure surface
failure surface
C
C

C'F
PA PA
(i) (ii)

A A
Fig.(7.15): Point of application of active thrust by Culmann's method.
(b) Passive Case

The method is the same as that for active case except that the slope line AC is drawn
at an angle below the horizontal (see Fig.(7.16)).
C1

B Pp
+ W
+
H Pp Assumed failure
surface
D R W
N
R
H/3 N
+
A
(b) Polygon of forces.
(a) Retaining wall.
(c) Geometric relationship. (d) Profile of Culmanns graphical construction.

Fig.(7.16): Passive pressure by Culmann's method for cohesionless soils.
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7.7.2 REBHANN'S CONSTRUCTION

Active Case: (for cohesionless backfill, Fig.(7.17))
1. Draw BG at to the horizontal.
2. Draw BL at or ( ) to BG.
3. Draw AF parallel to earth pressure line BL.
4. Draw semi-circle on BG.
5. Draw a perpendicular to BG from F to meet the semi-circle in (X).
6. With center B and radius BX, draw an arc to meet BG in E. Through E draw a line
parallel to BL to meet the ground surface in C. Join BG then BC is the surface of
rupture.
7. With E as center and EC as radius, draw an arc to cut BG in K, join CK.
8. Then total active pressure on the wall
1
PA ( KCE) .( KE)( X) .................................................(7.24)
2
where is the unit weight of backfill.
9. Locate the point of application of PA by drawing parallel to final rupture plane from
center of gravity of wedge to cut the wall surface at required point.
C
A // to BL
E Slope line
+ X x
H // to BL F O
PA
N
K
H/3 ( + )
N

B Horizontal
Slope line
L
X
Fig.(7.17): Rebhann's active Pressure for cohesionless.

soils.
426
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (7.1):
Compute the total active pressure per meter length of a retaining wall 10 m high retaining
sand having 37 and 22.5 kN/m3 up to its top. The backfill has a horizontal top with a
uniform surcharge of 10 kN/m2 and the water table is located 4m below it.
10 kN/m2
A B
4m 2m
45 kN/m2 W.T.
7m C D E
135 25 kN/m2
R.W. 6m
56.25 180 kN/m2
F G H J K
Solution:
1 1
37 ; N tan 2 (45 ) 4 ; K a
2 N 4
22.5 10 12.5.kN / m3 ; Surcharge = 10 kN/m2

Consider 1 m of the retaining wall,
Lateral Point of Resultant

Area Applicable
Computation thrust application thrust
diagram unit weight
(kN) below top (kN)
1 1
ACD 22.5 42 45 2.66
2 4
1
CFGD 4 22.5 6 135 7.0
4
1 1
DGH ' 12.5 62 56.25 8.0 441.25
2 4
1
DHJ w 10 6 2 180 8.0
2
1
ABEKJD 10 10 25 5.0
4
Point of application of resultant thrust below top of the wall:

(45)(2.66) (135)(7) (56.25)(8) (180)(8) (25)(5)
6.98m
441.25
427
Problem (7.2):
A retaining wall has a vertical back of 8 m height. The soil is sandy loam of 17.6 kN/m3
unit weight, and an angle of internal friction of 20o. If water table builds up behind the wall to a
level 3 m above the bottom of the wall, calculate the magnitude of the resultant thrust on wall
per linear meter. Neglect effect of wall friction and take a horizontal top fill. What is the
maximum likely depth of tension cracks that may develop?
17.08 kN/m2
1.98m
8m 3.02m 39.22 kN/m2 W.T.
R.W. 26.04
3.0m 78.12 kN/m2
16.95 45 kN/m2
Answer:
PA = 179.2 kN/m run of wall at point of application 1.88 m above base.
Problem (7.3):
A retaining wall of 5 m height, has a smooth vertical back, the backfill has a horizontal
surface with the top of wall. There is a uniformly distributed surcharge load of 36 kN/m2. The
density of the backfill is 18 kN/m3, its angle of shear resistance is 30o and the cohesion is
zero. Water table is located at mid height of the wall; calculate the magnitude and point of
application of active thrust per meter length of wall.
36 kN/m2
A H
18750 kN/m2 W.T.

5m B C J
59940
PA 37460 kN/m2
R.W. 8320 31250 kN/m2
1.87m
D E F G K
Active
Answer:
PA = 155.7 kN/m length of the wall at point of application 1.87 m above base.
428
Problem (7.4):
Determine the at rest lateral earth pressure per unit length of the wall shown in the figure
(a) below. Then, determine the location of the resultant of earth pressure. Take Ko 1 sin
Solution:
Ko 1 sin 1 sin 30 0.50

At point B, s 2 1.70 3.4 t / m2
u0
po K o s 0.5 3.4 1.7 t / m2
At point C, s 2 1.70 (1.9 1.0) 2 5.2 t / m2

po 0.5 5.2 2.6 t / m2
u 2 1 2.0 t / m2
= 30o
2m
= 1.7 ton/m3
W.T. (1)
B
= 30o
R.W.
sat. = 1.9 ton/m3 2m (2)
(3) (4)
C
1.7m 0.9m 2.0m
(a)
(b)
Fig.(b) shows the pressure distribution diagram. The diagram has been divided into four
parts. Let P1 , P2 , P3 ,and P4 be the total pressure due to these parts. Thus
P1 21 1.70 2 1.7 t
P2 2 1.70 3.4 t
P3 21 0.9 2 0.9 t
P4 21 2.0 2 2.0 t
Total P=8.0 t
The line of action of P is determined by taking moments about C,

P Z 1.7 2.667 3.4 1.0 0.9 0.667 2 0.667
4.53 3.4 0.6 1.33
Z 1.23 m
8.0
429
Problem (7.5):
Determine the active earth pressure on the retaining wall shown in the figure (a) below.
Solution:
1 sin
From the equation: Ka
1 sin
1 sin 35
For the upper layer, Ka 0.271
1 sin 35
1 sin 38
For the bottom layer, Ka 0.238
1 sin 38
At point B, s 2.5 1.7 4.25 t / m2

u0
pa 0.271 4.25 1.15 t / m2
Below the interface, pa is given by
pa 0.238 4.25 1.01 t /m2
At point C, s 2.5 1.70 2.5 0.80 6.25 t / m2

u 2.5 1 2.5 t / m2
pa 0.238 6.25 1.49 t / m2
Fig.(b) shows the pressure distribution.
A
= 35o
2.5m 1.15 ton/m2
= 1.7 ton/m3 W.T.
(1)
B
= 38o
R.W. sat. = 1.8 ton/m3 2.5m (2)
C (3) (4)
1.01 0.48 2.5

(a)
(b)
The forces P1 , P2 , P3 ,and P4 are determined from the pressure distribution diagram.
P1 21 2.5 1.15 1.44 t
P2 2.5 1.01 2.53 t
P3 21 2.5 0.48 0.60 t
P4 21 2.5 2.5 3.13 t
Total P=7.70 t
Taking moment about C:
1.44 3.33 2.53 1.25 0.60 0.833 3.13 0.833

Z 1.44 m
7.70
430
Problem (7.6):
Determine the active pressure on the wall shown in the figure below using Rankine's
theory.
15o
= 30o
= 19 kN/m3
4m
15o
R.W. 4/3m
Solution:
From the equation:

cos i cos 2 i cos 2
K a cos i
cos i cos 2 i cos 2
cos 15 cos 2 15 cos 2 30
cos 15 0.373
cos 15 cos 2 15 cos 2 30
From the equation:
Pa 21 Ka H 2 21 0.373 19.0 (4)2 56.7 kN
The pressure acts at a height of 4/3 m inclined at an angle 15o with horizontal.
Problem (7.7):
Determine the stresses at the top and bottom of the cut shown in the figure below. Also
determine the maximum depth of potential crack and the maximum depth of unsupported
excavation.
Solution:
From the equation:
Pa K a ..Z 2c K a
1 sin12
where, Ka 0.656
1 sin12
Thus, Pa (0.656 )(1.80 Z) (2)( 2) 0.656 1.18 Z 3.24
At top Z = 0 : Pa 3.24.t / m 2
431
At bottom Z = 4: Pa 1.48.t / m 2
From the equation of crack depth:
2c 2 2.0
Zc 2.745 m
K a 1.8 0.656
From the equation of maximum depth of unsupported excavation:
4c
Hc 5.490 m
Ka
3.24

= 12o
C = 2 ton/m2
4m = 1.8 ton/m3
+
1.48
Problem (7.8):
A 5m high retaining wall is shown in the figure below. Determine the Rankine's active
pressure on the wall for the following cases:
a. Before the formation of the crack.
b. After the formation of the crack.
Solution:
1 sin 1 sin 30
Ka Ka 0.333
1 sin 1 sin 30
From the equation:

p a K a Z 2c K a
0.333 17.5Z 2 5 0.333
5.83Z 5.77
A 5.77

0.99m
B = 20 o b
C = 5 kN/m2
5m = 17.5 kN/m
3
4.01m
R.W. +
C c d
23.38
432
At top, Z0
pa 5.77 kN / m2
At point B, pa 0
5.83Z 5.77 0
Z 0.99 m
At bottom, Z 5m
pa 5.83 5 5.77 23.38 kN / m2
Before the formation of the crack:
Negative pressure, P1 21 0.99 5.77 2.86 kN

Positive pressure, P2 21 4.01 23.38 46.88 kN
Net, Pa 46.88 2.86 44.02 kN
Line of action of Pa is determined as under:
4.01
46.88 2.86 (4.01 0.33)
Z 3 1.14 m
44.02
After the formation of the crack:
After the formation of the crack, the negative pressure is eliminated. The pressure
distribution is given by the area bcd
Pa 21 23.38 4.01 46.88 kN act at a height of 4.01/3 m above base.
Alternatively, directly from the equation:

2 c
2
Pa H K a 2cH K a
1 2
2

2(5)2
21 17.5 (5)2 0.333 2 5 5 0.333 46.85 kN
17.5
433
Problem (7.9):
Determine the Rankines passive force per unit length of the wall shown in the figure
below.
Solution:
1 sin
Kp
1 sin
For top layer I,
1 sin 30
K
p
1

1 sin 30
3.00
For bottom layer II,
1 sin 24
K
p
2

1 sin 24
2.37
From the equation:
Pp K p . .Z 2c K p
At point A, Z = 0, = 0
At point B, Z = 2m, = 2 x 1.6 = 3.2 t /m2
Top layer, pp 3 3.2 9.6 t /m2
Bottom layer, pp 3.2 2.37 2 1.0 2.37 10.66 t /m2
At point C, s 2 1.6 2 (1.9 1.0) 5.0 t / m2
pp 5 2.37 2 1.0 2.37 14.93 t / m2
u 2 1.0 2 t / m2
A
I: = 30
o
C =0 2m 9.6 ton/m2
W.T.
B = 1.6 ton/m3 (1)
II: = 24
o
R.W. C = 1 ton/m2 2m (2)

= 1.9 ton/m3 (3) (4)
C
10.66 2.0
(a) 4.27
(b)
Fig. (b) shows the pressure distribution,
Total pressure P P1 P2 P3 P4
21 2 9.60 10.66 2 21 4.27 2 21 2 2
37.19 t
434
Problem (7.10):
Determine the Coulombs active force on the retaining wall shown in the figure below.
Solution:
sin 2
Ka 2
sin sin i
sin sin 1
2

sin sin i
sin 2 75 30
2 0.548
sin 30 20 sin 30 15
sin 2 75 sin 75 20 1
sin 75 20 sin 75 15
From the equation:
Pa 21 K a H 2
21 0.548 1.75 52 11.99 t
i= 15o
Pa i = 15o
= 30o
20o
5m = 20o
= 1.75 t/m3
= 75o
R.W.
This will act at a height of 5/3 m, inclined at 20o to normal, in the direction shown in the
figure. The reader should note that the direction of Pa is equal and opposite to that on the
wedge.
Problem (7.11):
Check the stability of the gravity retaining wall shown in the figure below, if the allowable
soil pressure equals to 60 t/m2.
0.5m
= 1.9 t/m3
= 36o
= 24o
4.5m
Pa
(2) (3) 24o 5.7m
(1)
0.4m 0.4m
= 70o 1.2m
0.5m
1.71m 0.7m
0.19m (4)
3.2m
435
Solution:
From the equation: Pa 21 Ka H 2

sin 2
where, K a 2
sin sin i
sin sin 1
2

sin sin i
sin 2 70 36
2 0.417
sin 36 24 sin 36 0
sin 2 70 sin 70 24 1
sin 70 24 sin 70 0
Therefore, Pa 21 0.417 1.9 5.7 2 12.87 t

The total pressure acts inclined at 24o to the normal.
Horizontal component, Ph Pa cos 20 24 9.26 t
Vertical component, Pv Pa sin(20 24) 8.94 t
Calculations are shown in the table below. The moments are taken about toe. The
clockwise moments are taken as positive.
Forces (t) Lever Moments about toe

No. Description arm Counter
Vertical Horizontal Clockwise
(m) Clockwise
1 W1 21 5 0.19 2.40 1.14 0.53 0.6
2 W2 5 0.5 2.40 6.0 0.84 5.04
3 W3 21 5 1.71 2.40 10.26 1.66 17.03
4 W4 3.2 0.7 2.40 5.38 1.60 8.61
5 Pv 8.94 2.39 21.37
6 Ph 9.26 1.90 17.59
52.64 17.59
31.71 9.26
35.05 t-m
Neglecting passive resistance, the factor of safety against shear is given by the equation:
Rv tan 24 31.72
Fs 1.53 (safe)
RH 9.26
The factor of safety against overturning is obtained from equation:
MR 52.64
Fo 2.99
Mo 17.59
From the equation:
M 35.05
x 1.10
V 31.72
436
From the equation:

e b /2 x 1.60 1.10 0.50 m
As e b /6, there is no tension.
The pressure at the base are determined from equation:
V 6 e 31.72 6 0.5
pmax 1 1 19.2 t / m
2
b b 3.20 3.2
V 6 e 31.72 6 0.5
pmin 1 1 0.62 t / m
2
b b 3.20 3.2
The factor of safety against bearing capacity failure is given by the equation:
qna 60
Fb 3.1 (safe)
pmax 19.20
Problem (7.12):
Check the stability of the cantilever retaining wall shown in the figure below. The allowable
soil pressure is 50 t/m2.
0.4m
=15o (5)
= 1.8 t/m3
= 34o
= 25o
5m Pv Pa 6.22m
(1) (4) 15o
(2) Ph
0.6m

1.0m
0.6m 2.3m
0.2m (3)
3.5m 6.22
Solution:
Let us first ascertain whether Rankins theory is applicable to the cantilever retaining wall.
From the equation:
sin i
45 i /2 sin 1
2 sin
sin 15
45 7.5 17 sin 1 7.9
sin 34
The shear does not intersect the stem. Therefore, Rankins theory can be applied.
From the equation: Pa 21 Ka H 2
437
From the equation:

cos i cos 2 i cos 2
K a cos i
cos i cos 2 i cos 2
cos 15 cos 2 15 cos 2 34
cos 15 0.311
cos 15 cos 2 15 cos 2 34
Therefore, Pa 21 0.311 1.80 (6.22)2 10.83 t

Pv Pa sin 15 2.80 t
Ph Pa sin 15 10.46 t
Forces (ton) Lever Moments about toe

No. Description arm Counter
Vertical Horizontal Clockwise
(m) Clockwise
1 W1 0.4 5.0 2.4 4.80 1.00 4.80
2 2 = (0.2)(5)(2.4)/2 1.20 0.73 0.88
3 W3 0.6 3.50 2.40 5.04 1.75 8.82
4 W4 2.3 5.0 1.80 20.70 2.35 48.65
5 5 = 0.62)(2.3)(1.8)/2 1.28 2.73 3.50
6 Pv 2.80 3.50 9.80
7 Ph - 10.46 2.07 - 21.65
35.82 10.46 76.45 21.65
Factor of safety against sliding is:
Rv tan 25 35.82
Fs 1.60 (safe)
RH 10.64
Factor of safety against overturning is:
MR 76.45
Fo 3.53 (safe)
Mo 21.65
M 76.45 21.65
x 1.53 m
V 35.12
e b /2 x 1.75 1.53 0.22 m b /6
35.82 6 0.22
pmax 1 14.12 t / m
2
3.50 3.50
35.82 6 0.22
pmin 1 6.34 t / m
2
3.50 3.50
Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure is:
q 50
Fb na 3.54 (safe)
pmax 14.12
438
PROBLEMS
P7.1 Determine the passive pressure per unit run for a retaining wall 4m in height; with
i 15, 30,and 1.90 t / m3 as shown in Fig.(7.18). The back face of the wall
is smooth and vertical.
P7.2 For the retaining wall of problem (P7.1), determine the active pressure per unit run.
P7.3 Determine active and passive pressures, using Coulumbs theory, on the wall shown in
Fig.(7.18).
P7.4 A retaining wall has a vertical back of 8m height. The back face of the wall is smooth
and the upper surface of the fill is horizontal. Determine the thrust on the wall per unit
length. Take c 1.0 t /m2 , 1.8 t /m3 and 20 . Neglect tension.
P7.5 A retaining wall with a vertical smooth back face of 8m height. The wall supports a
cohesionless soil ( 1.90 t /m3 , 30) . The surface of the soil is horizontal.
Determine the thrust on the wall.
P7.6 Check the overall stability of the cantilever retaining wall shown in Fig.(7.19).
Surcharge 50 kN/m2
0.3m
(5)
i= 15o
= 1.9 t/m3 = 18 kN/m3

= 30o = 40o
= 20o = 25o
(1)
4m 4m
(4)
(2)
= 80o 0.45m
1.9m
1.0m
0.45m (3) 0.45m
Fig.(7.18)
2.8m
Fig.(7.19)
439
REFERENCES
Bell, A. L. (1915). The lateral pressure and resistance of clay and the supporting power of
clay foundations, in A Century of soil mechanics, ICE, London, pp. 93-134.
Bjerrum, L. and Andersen, K. (1972). In-situ measurement of lateral pressures in clay, in
Proc. 5th European Conference SMFE, Madrid, Vol.1, Spanish Society SMFE, Madrid,
pp. 1120.
Caquot, A., and Kerisel, J. (1949).Tables for the calculation of passive pressure, active
pressure, and the bearing capacity of foundations, Gauthier-Villars, Paris.
Janbu, N. (1957). Earth pressures and bearing capacity calculations by generalized
procedure of slices, in Proc., IV Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., London, 2, 207.
Kerisel, J. and Absi, E. (1990). Active and passive earth pressure tables, 3rd. edition, A.A.
Balkema, Rotterdam.
Mazindrani, Z. H., and Ganjali, M. H. (1997),Lateral Earth Problem of Cohesive Backfill
with Inclined Surface, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 123, No. 2, 110 112.
NAVFAC (1982a). DM-7.2, Foundations and earth structures, U.S. Department of the
Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 200 Stovall Street, Alexandria, VA
22332, P. 7.2-209.
440

Ch7 Lateral Earth Pressure Theories (407-440)

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Ch7 Lateral Earth Pressure Theories (407-440)

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CHAPTER 7

LATERAL EAERTH PRESSURE

7.1 STATES OF STRESS

Fig.(7.1): Elastic state of equilibrium in soil.

7.1.2 PLASTIC STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM

Failure (Active state)

Wall movement away from backfill v = z (remains the same)

Fig.(7.2): Active state of plastic equilibrium in soil.

Upward movement of wedge

Fig.(7.3): Passive state of plastic equilibrium in soil.

7.2 CATEGORIES OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Active Case At rest Case Passive Case

Fig.(7.4): Wall movement.

Fig.(7.5): Effect of movement on wall pressure (after NAVFAC DM-7, 1971).

From Fig.(7.5) it is evident that:

Table (1): Magnitudes of wall movement to reach failure

7.3 EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS

from elastic analysis:

cos cos 2 cos 2

cos cos 2 cos 2

where, Ka = active coefficient of earth pressure.

Note: Unlike the Rankine earth pressure coefficients, KP 1/ Ka

Table (2): Usual range of earth pressure coefficients.

Earth Cohesionless soil Cohesive soil

Lateral earth pressure

Fig.(7.7): Variation of K- coefficient versus relative movement.

7.4 RANKINE'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

(a) Levelled backfill (b) sloped backfill

Fig.(7.8): Resultant of earth pressure for smooth wall.

7.4.1 SPECIAL CASES OF RANKINE'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

Case (1): Dry or Moist Backfill with no Surcharge.

Pa .at..base Ka ..H .acting at H/3 from base

Case (2): Submerged Backfill

Pa .at..base K a . .H w .H Pa .at..base K a (.H1 .H 2 ) w .H 2

Case (3): Backfill with Uniform Surcharge

Case (4): Dry Backfill with Sloping Surface

Fig.(7.9): Active earth pressure for bakfill with sloping surface.

By simple geometry, it can be shown that:

cos cos 2 cos 2

cos cos 2 cos 2

Case (5): Submerged Backfill with Sloping Surface

cos cos 2 cos 2

Case (6): Inclined Back of the Wall

(a) Horizontal Surface 0 (b) Sloped Surface 0

The resultant pressure P is a vector sum of PA and W.

Case (7): Active Earth Pressure in Cohesive Backfill

here, 1 Pv .z and therefore 3 Ph .z.Ka 2c Ka

height, Hc of unsupported vertical cut in cohesive soil is given by:

(b) Cohesive Soil with Surcharge

(PH )active .HKa 2c Ka q.Ka ........(7.20)

Depending on q K a magnitude, the depth of tension cracks is altered. If q K a > 2c K a then

there is no tension cracking.

Case (8): Passive Earth Pressure in Cohesive Backfill

7.5 COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

The retained soil is cohesionless, isotropic and homogeneous.

(a) Local active failure

(b) Local passive failure (c) Mohr stress diagram

Fig.(7.10): Slip planes for active and passive earth pressures.

7.5.1 COULOMB'S ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

Wall movement away from soil C

Fig.(7.11): Coulomb's Active Pressure (Semi-Analytical Solution).

Area of wedge ABC = 1/2 (AC) (BD) ...........(7.22a)

where BD is drawn perpendicular to AC.

Substituting into Eq.(7.22a) and simplifying gives: