The International Journal of Conflict Management

1999, Vol. 10, No. 3 (July), pp. 249-267

THE INFLUENCE OF INTRA-CULTURAL

VALUE DIFFERENCES ON CONFLICT
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

M. Kamil Kozan
St. John Fisher College
Canan Ergin
Hacettepe University, Turkey

This study aims to extend cross-cultural conflict management research

to the intra-cultural level. Schwartz's (1992, 1994, 1996) values mea-
sure, designed to be used at both the societal and the individual levels,
was related to styles of conflict management and preference for third
party involvement Data were collected from 435 employees of 40 orga-
nizations in Turkey, a country where subcultural differences have
resulted from Westernization efforts. Among conflict management styles,
avoidance was found to be preferred by those having strong tradition
and conformity values. In the subsample that reported conflicts with
peers, the forcing style was used more by those strong in power values.
When third parties were involved in the conflict, subjects high in
achievement and stimulation were less likely to be the ones who invited
their involvement. The tendency to leave the initiative to the third party
was stronger among subjects that had high universalism and benevo-
lence values. The implications of these findings for conflict management
practice and future cross-cultural research are discussed
The influence of national culture on conflict management has received
increased attention in the recent literature. A number of studies have shown how
styles of conflict management are affected by culture (Ting-Toomey, Gao, Tru-
bisky, Yang, Kim, Lin, & Nishida, 1991; Kozan, 1989; Elsayed-Ekhouly & Buda,
1996). Similarly, culture has been shown to influence the preference for third party
intervention (Leung, 1987; Wall & Blum, 1991; Kozan & Ergin, 1998). These
studies compare countries known to differ along certain cultural dimensions, most
notably the individualism-collectivism dimension. The unit of analysis is the
nation state; differences that exist within the country are usually overlooked.
This study aims at extending culture research by focusing on differences that
exist within the same country. Cultures are rarely homogeneous entities, since sub-
cultures based on region, religion or language may exist. Societies in transition
from a traditional make-up to a more industrial one also exhibit subcultural differ-
250 INFLUENCE OF INTRA-CULTURAL

ences. Social change seldom happens uniformly; more likely, a segment of the
society more aligned with outside influences provides the impetus for change for
the more traditional majority.
Valuable lessons may be learned regarding conflict management from study-
ing problems caused by internal cultural differences. While commonalities are
more prominent for individuals belonging to the same society, conflict intensity
may nevertheless be high. This is because of increased interdependency and fre-
quency of contact compared to cross-cultural conflict. Furthermore, intra-cultural
differences are active in all organizations, not only in multi-nationals or on those
having outside contact. Hence, more research on intra-cultural diversity would be
worthwhile to understand organizational conflicts and their management.
The present study was conducted in Turkey, a country where a systematic,
two-centuries-long attempt to transform a traditional society has created a hetero-
geneous culture with major differences in values among various segments. Hence,
it provides an appropriate setting to test whether intra-national differences are as
potent as national cultural differences in predicting conflict management practices.

Intra-Cultural Diversity
According to Kluckhohn and Kroeber (1952), the essential core of culture
consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values. In Hofstede's
(1984) terms, culture "programs the collective minds" of its members. As Ross
(1993) has argued, conflict is interpretive behavior. Dispositions rooted in early
experiences shape a culture's style of interaction with others and interpretations of
behavior. Organizational conflicts are affected from the particular interpretations
members bring into the workplace.
While the concept of culture has mostly been used in research to compare
national differences, some scholars have drawn attention to differences in cultural
values within the same country. For example, Triandis (1994) has proposed the
terms idiocentric and allocentric for analyses at the individual level that would
correspond to the individualism-collectivism dimension at the cultural level. These
concepts, Triandis hopes, will describe persons who are counter-cultural, i.e., carry
individualistic values in a collectivistic culture (idiocentric) or collectivistic values
in an individualistic culture (allocentric).
Similarly, Sinha and Tripathi (1994) have argued that both individualistic and
collectivistic orientations may co-exist within individuals and cultures. The inter-
action of these orientations and the conditions under which they surface in the
same culture tell us more about a culture than a simple classification of the culture
as a whole. Sinha and Tripathi give as example the Indian culture for which a sim-
ple collectivistic label is misleading. In the Indian psyche, opposites get juxta-
posed, leading to a heterogenous culture which allows the coexistence of various
subcultures.
The Turkish culture is no exception to significant internal variations, even
though one may speak of modal practices. In general, conflict management prac-

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 K. KOZAN AND C. ERGIN 251

tices show the effects of the relatively high power-distance and collectivism found
in this culture. Superior-subordinate conflicts, for example, are usually handled in
authoritarian ways (Kozan, 1989). Third parties are also an integral part of the con-
flict management process, especially in conflict among peers where authoritarian
command is not applicable (Kozan & Ergin, 1998). However, there are also wide
differences in the attitudes and values of various social segments which can alter
these general conflict tendencies. Goregenli (1995), for example, found that the
Turkish culture embodies strong individualistic elements alongside a collectivistic
outlook.
While these authors point to diversity within the individualism-collectivism
construct, other cultural values may also help define intra-cultural variation.
Hence, a comprehensive framework for studying values may be necessary to fully
account for diversity.

Measurement of Cultural Values

In studying intra-cultural variation, an approach similar to that used in cross-
cultural research may be valuable. Value dimensions, resembling those proposed
by Hofstede (1984), may help avoid the traps of stereotyping, which could emerge
with the alternative approach of identifying and labeling social groups and clus-
tering subjects in them.
While a number of dimensional models of cultural values exist, problems
may be encountered in extending these to analysis at the individual level. Hofst-
ede's (1984) path-breaking measures may be of limited help here because applica-
tion has been restricted to country differences. Glen (1981) has developed a theory
of culture which applies to national as well as intra-national differences. However,
measures have not been developed for his concepts of associative and abstractive
thought patterns and their variations. Triandis (1995) has suggested a model of
individualism and collectivism which divides each category further as vertical or
horizontal. While Triandis developed a measure applicable at both societal and
individual levels, it has not been extensively tested using multi-national data.
Schwartz (1992) has provided a conceptualization, measures and international data
set of values that are claimed to be universally applicable. He has used an inven-
tory of universal values to derive separate but interrelated values (called value
types) which describe national cultural differences and individual differences. The
present study used Schwartz's values questionnaire and derived individual value
types following a similar methodology.
Schwartz's (1992) values inventory consists of 56 value items. These are the-
oretically grouped into ten value types. Some of these value types are close to each
other, while others may be at opposites. Schwartz hypothesized a spatial arrange-
ment of his ten values types, and defined two theoretically underlying dimensions.
The first dimension depicts openness to change (combining value types of self-
direction and stimulation) versus conservation (combining security, conformity,
and tradition). The second dimension represents self-transcendence (combining

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252 INFLUENCE OF INTRA-CULTURAL

benevolence and universalism) versus self-enhancement (combining power and

achievement).

Cultural Values and Conflict Management

According to Thomas (1992), "Conflict is the process which begins when one
party perceives that the other has negatively affected, or is about to negatively
affect, something that he or she cares about" (p. 653). Conflicts can be managed in
a variety of ways. The present study focused on two of the major strategies: the
direct handling of the conflict by the adversaries and alternative dispute resolution
via third parties. Other strategies, including organizational structural methods for
reducing conflicts, were not part of the analysis. Research on the direct handling of
conflicts has mostly focused on styles of conflict management. Hence, the first set
of hypotheses relates Schwartz's value types to conflict management styles.
Conflict management styles have been represented in a space defined by two
axes: assertiveness and cooperativeness (Blake & Mouton, 1964; Rahim, 1992;
Thomas, 1992). Competing (high in assertiveness) involves the use of power in
order to win one's own concerns at the other's expense. Accommodation (high in
cooperativeness) represents trying to satisfy the other party's wishes at the expense
of one's own. Collaboration, or problem solving (high in both), involves bringing
all pertinent issues and concerns out into the open, and reaching a solution that
integrates the different points of view. Avoiding (low in both) side-steps the issue
and shies away from its open discussion. Compromise (mid-point) involves split-
ting the difference, with both parties giving up something to find a middle ground.
One's choice of these styles is influenced by one's thoughts relating to the
conflict (Thomas, 1992). These thoughts include the party's assessment of the issue
and possible settlements and normative as well as instrumental reasoning regarding
his behavior. As such, one's choices may be a function of the specific situation and
one's basic orientation or behavioral disposition towards conflict. This latter ele-
ment is closely related to one's values. According to Kluckhohn (1951), values are
desirable goals which serve as guiding principles in specific situations. Hence, the
relative importance one places on the various goals should be partly responsible for
one's choice of styles, along with the pertinent issues surrounding the conflict. The
expected relationships among four of the conflict management styles and the cul-
tural value types are given below. In a way, these hypotheses reflect the juxtaposi-
tion of the two spaces representing conflict management styles and Schwartz's
value types upon each other (see Figure 1). The moderating effects of situational
variables on the hypothesized relationships will be discussed later.
Power and achievement values were expected to stimulate a competitive
style. In a prisoner-dilemma type game, Schwartz (1996) found that power was the
strongest predictor of non-cooperation by respondents. However, the relation of
power to conflict styles has been shown to be influenced by the basis of power;
coercive power is associated with competing while referent power is not (Jamieson

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 K. KOZAN AND C. ERGIN 253

& Thomas, 1974). As a value type, though, power stresses "social status and pres-
tige, control or dominance over people and resources" (Schwartz, 1996, p. 3). It
reflects resource, coercive or legitimate power more than reference power. In hier-
archic relations, which reflect such positional bases of power, superiors were found
to use dominating (i.e., competing) with subordinates (Phillips & Cheston, 1979).

Hypothesis 1: Degree of competing in a conflict situation will be positively

related to the value one places on power and achievement.
Accommodation was expected to be related to benevolence and universalism,
the diagonal opposite of power and achievement. In Schwartz's (1996) model,
benevolence and universalism are adjacent values; both entail concern for
enhancement of another and transcendence of selfish interests. Likewise, the two-
dimensional representation of conflict styles places accommodation high in con-
cern for others and low in concern for self. Schwartz (1996) also provides empiri-
cal evidence for this relationship; in the prisoner-dilemma experiment, benevo-
lence and universalism were the best predictors of concern for others' gains.

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254 INFLUENCE OF INTRA-CULTURAL

Hypothesis 2: Degree of accommodation in conflict will be positively

related to the value one places on benevolence and univer-
salism.
Values emphasizing conservation of order and harmony (i.e., tradition, secu-
rity, and conformity) were expected to encourage avoidance. Schwartz argues that
his traditionalism measure, which incorporates these values, is parallel to the col-
lectivism construct of Hofstede. Avoidance of conflicts is a persistent characteris-
tic of collectivistic cultures because conflicts, when openly confronted, may result
in losing face and disruption of harmony (Ting-Toomey et al., 1991). As Moran,
Allen, Wichman, Ando, and Sasano (1994, p. 40) have observed for Japan: "The
management system works to repress conflicts or to fail to acknowledge them,
rather than to actually resolve any conflicts that have already been generated."
Redding, Norman, and Schlander (1994) argue that in collectivistic societies, such
as China, avoidance of public conflict is strong. Members, because of heavy
dependence on others through mutual obligation, have an interest in fulfilling their
roles and maintaining harmony.
Hypothesis 3: Degree of avoidance of conflicts will be positively related to
the value placed on tradition, security, and conformity.
Finally, values of stimulation and self-direction were expected to enhance
collaboration. Collaboration involves the confronting of all pertinent issues and
concerns, and a problem-solving attitude in handling a conflict (Thomas, 1992).
Stimulation and self-direction both involve an intrinsic motivation for mastery and
openness to change (Schwartz, 1996). Persons having these values may find it
easier to take the risks involved in open, collaborative conflict management.
Hypothesis 4: Degree of collaboration, or problem solving, in conflict will
be positively related to the value placed on stimulation and
self-direction.
As noted earlier, conflict behavior may be influenced by the interaction of
values and the situation. To account for this interaction, hypotheses on conflict
styles were further examined controlling for a number of situational variables. One
such variable was the position power of the other party, i.e., whether he/she was a
peer or a superior. Rahim (1986) found position power to have a significant influ-
ence on conflict management styles used. Kozan (1989) reports that Turkish man-
agers were more forcing towards subordinates, more avoiding towards peers, and
more accommodating towards superiors. Turkish culture has high power distance
(Hofstede, 1984) and an authoritarian tone of administration. Superiors expect, and
usually receive, respect and obedience in order to save face and maintain appear-
ance of control. Hierarchy has a strong restrictive influence on behavior of partici-
pants in these organizations.
Hypothesis 5: The predicted relationships between value types and conflict
styles will be stronger in conflicts with peers and weaker in
conflicts with superiors.

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 K. KOZAN AND C. ERGIN 255

The ownership and control of the organization, whether privately owned or

state controlled, was also expected to be a crucial situational factor. Compared to
private companies, government agencies and state-owned companies are subject to
a myriad of laws, by-laws, and regulations. These place restrictions on the conflict
management choices available to members. Formal mechanisms may substitute for
the traditional methods of conflict resolution used in the society. The whim of per-
sonality and the role of personal values in administrative decisions are compara-
tively more limited in state bureaucracies.
Hypothesis 6: The predicted relationships between value types and conflict
styles will be weaker in state controlled organizations and
stronger in private companies.
Another situational variable was the topic of conflict, whether a substantive
or a personal issue was involved. Conflicts over substantive issues are generally
more acceptable in an organizational setting than with personal issues (Renwick,
1975). Walton (1969) has argued that because of their unacceptability, personality
conflicts may often get displaced and appear under the guise of substantive con-
flicts. Given these restrictions on conflict on personal issues, a party's preferred
conflict styles may not freely emerge when dealing with such conflict.
Hypothesis 7: The predicted relationship between values types and conflict
styles will be stronger in substantive conflicts and weaker in
personal conflicts.
In addition to the styles used by the disputants, third party involvement and
behavior were expected to be related to the basic value orientation. The two main
dimensions along which Schwartz (1992) conceptualized values may both have a
bearing on third party involvement. The first dimension contrasted self-direction
and stimulation with tradition, conformity and security, which roughly corresponds
to the individualism-collectivism continuum.
A number of studies have indicated higher third party involvement in con-
flicts in collectivistic societies (Wall & Blum, 1991; Wall, Sohn, Cleeton, & Jin,
1995; Kozan & Ergin, 1998). In collectivistic cultures, third party roles are signifi-
cant for two interrelated reasons. First, disputes are seen as a problem of the col-
lectivity, i.e., the group, organization or community, rather than a problem con-
cerning the two parties alone (Wall & Blum, 1991). This view, shared by prospec-
tive third parties and disputants alike, justifies an intrusive mediatorial style. The
privacy concern of individualist cultures is not as strong a force in collectivistic
cultures. Second, intermediaries help maintain harmony through face saving
(Leung, 1987). According to Ting-Toomey et al. (1991), members of collectivistic
cultures are concerned not only with "saving face," but also with "giving face."
While face-saving concerns lead to direct face-negotiation strategies and con-
frontational styles, face-giving concerns lead to indirect face-negotiation strategies.
This is because a direct communication approach in a conflict situation may create
embarrassing results for the other party and disrupt harmony. On the other hand,
parties may communicate negative feelings more easily through intermediaries

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256 INFLUENCE OF INTRA-CULTURAL

whose function is sometimes to soften those feelings and present them in more
acceptable terms or within the context of underlying concerns and difficulties.
These tendencies of a collectivistic outlook will be most prominent in those sub-
jects who adhere to the values of tradition, security, and conformity and less in
those subjects who have deviated from traditional values and believe in self-direc-
tion and stimulation.
Hypothesis 8a: Disputants' requesting of third party involvement will be
positively related to their values of tradition, conformity and
security, and negatively related to their values of self-direc-
tion and stimulation.
Hypothesis 8b: Disputants' willingness to leave the initiative during resolu-
tion to the third party will be positively related to their values
of tradition, conformity, and security and negatively related
to their values of self-direction and stimulation.
The second dimension contrasted universalism and benevolence with power
and achievement. This represents an opposition between self-transcendence and
self-enhancement. These contrasting values were also expected to influence recep-
tivity to third party intervention. These expectations are based on the tendency of
third parties to encourage the conflicting parties to use a problem solving approach
(Pruitt, 1981). Parties that value universalistic principles and benevolence are more
likely to gain from the presence of a more or less neutral third party than the par-
ties that value power and achievement. The third parties' stance is more likely to
favor the acknowledging of the other party's concerns, which will be more wel-
come by the parties with universalistic or benevolence values. Third parties are less
likely to encourage a win-lose resolution, which parties high in power and
achievement may seek.
Hypothesis 9a: Disputants' requesting of third party involvement will be
positively related to their values of universalism and benev-
olence and negatively related to their values of power and
achievement.
Hypothesis 9b: Disputants' willingness to leave the initiative to the third
party during conflict will be positively related to their values
of universalism and benevolence and negatively related to
their values of power and achievement.

Method
Sample
Data were collected from a convenience sample of 40 public and private
firms. Twenty-six of these firms were located in Ankara, the capital, and the
remainder in seven other large cities. A total of 435 respondents completed the
data collection instrument. The distribution of the respondents in terms of industry
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 K. KOZAN AND C. ERGIN 257

were as follows: government agencies (24%), state-owned banks (8%), private

manufacturing and construction firms (21%), private marketing and tourism firms
(23%), and medicine (24%), most of which was state controlled. Large organiza-
tions with more than 1,000 employees accounted for 47% of the sample, and small
organizations with fewer than 100 employees constituted 31%. Hence, the data
somewhat over-represented medical personnel, and large and small organizations.
The sample was also predominantly from large cities. However, large cities in
Turkey are composed of a diverse population with both urban and rural back-
ground. The fringes of large cities have swollen in recent decades with heavy emi-
gration from rural areas, especially eastern Turkey. About two-thirds of the urban
population is of recent rural origin, and parts of this population find employment in
organizations similar to those sampled here.
An attempt was made to obtain data from approximately equal numbers of
managers and non-managerial personnel in each organization. The final sample
contained 55% managers and 45% non-managers. Upper managers constituted
11%, middle managers 30%, and lower managers 14% of the sample. Fifty-one
percent of the respondents were female and 49% male. The majority (83%) had a
college degree. The most common majors were business/economics (33%), engi-
neering (22%), and medicine (21%); the average age was 33.2.
Measures
Data were collected by means of a questionnaire which contained mostly
closed-ended questions. The respondents were asked to think of a recent conflict
episode to which they were a party. This could be an open conflict or more of a
covert disagreement. They were asked to briefly describe this conflict and then to
answer the questions that followed with regard to this episode. Respondents were
asked who the other party was: a superior, peer or subordinate. They were also
asked the topic of the conflict. The response categories for this question were: a
work-related technical matter; an issue regarding responsibility or authority; an
issue over promotion, salaries or leaves; a personality issue; a reflection of person-
ality conflict into one of the first three.
The conflict management styles used by the respondent during this episode
were measured by a Turkish translation of the 28-item Rahim Organizational Con-
flict Inventories-II (ROCI-II). The instrument has been reported to have satisfac-
tory test-retest and internal consistency reliabilities (Rahim, 1983; Rahim & Mag-
ner, 1995). The five-style model has been shown to have factorial validity in non-
Western cultures (Van de Vlient & Kabanoff, 1990; Ting-Toomey et al., 1991).
The reliability of translation into Turkish was checked by means of retranslation
into English by two bilingual colleagues.
Respondents further answered a question on whether or not a third party
became involved in this particular conflict. A follow-up question inquired whether
the respondent played any part in initiating third party involvement, or the other
party or the third party initiated it. Another question asked whether the respondents

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258 INFLUENCE OF INTRA-CULTURAL

felt they held the initiative afterwards while the third party was involved, or
whether the other or the third party held the initiative.
The respondents also filled out the Turkish version of Schwartz's value sur-
vey. This survey has been used previously by Kusdil (1991) on a sample of teach-
ers after being pilot tested on university students. The results had been part of the
38-nation data-bank reported by Schwartz (1994). The survey contains 56 values.
A short explanatory phrase in parentheses follows each value. Respondents rate the
importance of each value "as a guiding principle in my life" on a 9-point scale
ranging from 7 (of supreme importance) to 0 (not important) and -1 (opposed to
my values).

Results
Initial analyses were carried out on the two multi-dimensional measures of
conflict management styles and values. The means, standard deviations, and inter-
correlations of thefiveconflict styles are given in Table 1. The intercorrelations of
the styles are consistent with previous samples from Turkey using the same
instrument (Kozan & Ilter, 1994), and with data obtained in the West for ROCI-II
(Rahim, 1983).

Table 1
Means, Standard Deviation, and Intercorrelations of
the Five Conflict Management Styles (n = 435)

Conflict Management Style M SD 1 2 3 4 5

1. Accommodating 2.41 .73

2. Avoiding 2.62 .74 .39*
3. Collaborating 3.57 .81 .12 -.25*
4. Competing 2.69 .71 -.05 -.07 .15*
5. Compromising 2.90 .76 51* .22* .41* .11

*p <.01. (two-tailed)

The values survey was subjected to a Guttman-Lingoes smallest space analy-

sis, as recommended by Schwartz. Nine of the value groups identified by Schwartz
were obtained here, too. The tenth group Schwartz identified (i.e., hedonism) had
items dispersed among other groups. Of the 56 values, 31 appear in the predicted
value group. In a sample of 20 countries, Schwartz (1992) found that the number
of distinct value types that emerged ranged from four to ten, with a mode of eight.
The number of correct locations in Schwartz's data for the 56 values ranged from
38 to 51. Hence, while the number of distinct value groups was high for the present
sample, the number of values falling correctly into these types are low in compari-
son to Schwartz's teacher samples. Composite scores were calculated for each of

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 K. KOZAN AND C. ERGIN 259

the value types. The number of values comprising each composite value-type score
and their means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations are given in Table 2.
Hypotheses 1 through 4 (relating the four conflict management styles to the
value types) were tested by means of a canonical correlation between the set of
five styles and the set of nine values. In addition to the overall analysis, the influ
ence of situational factors such as position of other party, state versus private
firms, and complexity of conflicts were analyzed by conducting canonical correla
tions on split samples. The results of these analyses are shown in Table 3.
In the overall analysis, only one significant canonical function was obtained
[2 (45, N = 435) = 87.80, p < .002]. The canonical loadings for styles is highest
(.97) for avoiding. The highest loadings for values is for tradition (.78), conformity
(.72), and security (.60). Hence, Hypothesis 3 is supported. Absence of additional
significant canonical functions precluded any support for Hypotheses 1, 2 and 4 in
the overall analysis.
The influence of moderating variables was investigated by repeating the
canonical analysis for subsamples such as superiors vs. peers, state vs. private, and
substantive vs. personal conflicts reported. When the sample was split into those
reporting conflicts with superiors versus peers, a signiGcant canonical function was
obtained only for the peers subsample [2 (45, N = 186) = 63.97, p < .05]. As can
be seen from Table 3, the style with the highest canonical loading on this function
is competition (-.95). The value with the highest loading is power (-.54). Hence,
respondents with power values were competitive in conflicts with peers, supporting
Hypothesis 1 in the peers subsample. This also provides partial support for
Hypothesis 5, which predicted that hierarchy would restrict the impact of values on
conflict behavior.
In order to test for the impact of conflict topics (Hypothesis 7), the sample
was split into substantive versus personality related conflicts. The substantive con
flicts included work related technical matters, responsibility and authority issues,
and promotion, salary or leaves. Personality issues involved personality clashes or
substantive issues which the subjects felt were displaced personality conflicts.
Canonical correlations conducted separately for the two subsamples yielded a sig
nificant function only for the substantive conflicts subsample, as predicted [ 2 (35,
N = 299) = 53.64, p = .05]. The results, shown in Table 3, are parallel to the results
for the total sample, with avoiding being associated with tradition, conformity and
security.
The subsample of state-controlled organizations did not yield a significant
canonical function while the private organizations subsample yielded a single sig
nificant function [2 (35, N = 196) = 65.30, p < .005]. The results are parallel to
the total sample with tradition and conformity as the strongest predictors of avoid
ance. The results provide partial support for Hypothesis 6, which predicted that the
relationship between personal values and conflict behavior will be weaker in state
bureaucracies.

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 260
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Table 2
Means, Standard Deviation, and Intercorrelations of the Nine Value Types

Value Types M SD No. of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Items

INFLUENCE OF INTRA-CULTURAL
1. Achievement 4.21 1.47 2
2. Benevolence 5.66 .83 4 .43*
3. Conformity 4.08 1.60 2 .41* .54*
4. Power 3.41 1.58 3 .59* .20* .30*
5. Security 4.85 1.22 4 .37* .49* .66* .34*
6. Self-direction 5.28 .95 5 .44* .54* .30* .24* .26*
7. Stimulation 3.77 1.45 3 .47* .40* .33* .39* .23* .59*
8. Tradition 3.31 1.29 4 .32* .36* .60* .32* .64* .22* .26*
9. Universalism 5.44 1.01 4 .25* .59* .42* .05 .46* .48* .32* .36*

Note: N = 435.
*p < .01. (two-tailed)
 Table 3
Loadings for Canonical Analysis of Conflict Management Styles and Values

Total sample When Conflict is When Conflict is on Private companies

(N = 435) with peers a substantive issue (N=196)
(N =186) (N = 299)

Conflict Management Style

Avoiding .97 .07 .95 .86
Accommodating .43 .13 .37 .60
The International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 10, No. 3, July 1999

Compromise .33 .07 -.22 .49

K. KOZAN AND C. ERGIN

Collaborating -.19 -.09 .22 .06
Competing -.27 -.95 .38 .40
Values
Tradition .78 .09 .77 .70
Power .09 -.54 .00 .03
Stimulation .45 .29 .40 .36
Self-direction .07 .14 .03 .16
Benevolence .37 .47 .38 .45
Universalism .18 .20 .24 52
Security .60 .35 .66 .54
Conformity .72 .24 .72 .65
Achievement .21 -.26 .23 -.17

261
262 INFLUENCE OF INTRA-CULTURAL

The relation of values to third party involvement (Hypotheses 8 and 9) was

analyzed by a series of t-tests (see Table 4). None of the values was related to
whether or not a third party was part of the process. But for the subsample where
third parties were involved, respondents high in achievement and stimulation were
less likely to be the ones who invited third party involvement. This lends partial
support to Hypotheses 8a and 9a, which stated that requesting of third party
involvement will be negatively related to their values of self-direction and stimu-
lation (8a), and power and achievement (9a).
Once the conflict process was underway, respondents high in universalism
were inclined to give up or share the initiative more. Benevolence and tradition
were also related, but at a lesser degree, to giving up or sharing the initiative. This
finding lends partial support to Hypothesis 9b and partial support to Hypothesis 8b,
which stated that disputants' willingness to leave the initiative to third parties will
be positively related to their values of tradition, conformity, and security (8b) and
universalism and benevolence (9b).

Discussion
The most persistent relationship which emerges from this study is between
tradition, security and conformity values and the avoiding style. This finding is
parallel to cross-national studies that show avoidance as a dominant style in col-
lectivistic countries. When collectivistic societies undergo change and individual-
istic elements are introduced, the more traditional members still seem to adhere to
an avoidance style.
This would suggest that the problems encountered in conflicts and negotia-
tions between collectivistic and individualistic cultures are likely to emerge within
the same culture as well. For the more traditional segments who prefer avoidance,
the styles of opposite groups are likely to appear as too direct. Furthermore, the
present data showed that those that value achievement and stimulation avoid third
party help. These differences in approach may lead to mutual distrust; one group is
perceived as too aggressive and disrespectful, and the other group is perceived as
too evasive and roundabout. These findings suggest that training of employees on
the relation of values and conflict behavior may promote mutual understanding and
better communication within the same culture as well as across cultures.
A secondary finding in this study was the relation of power values and the
competitive style. This was true, however, only for conflicts with peers. The power
and achievement versus benevolence and universalism dimension of Schwartz cor-
responds, at the country-level, to the masculinity-femininity dimension of Hofst-
ede. This dimension has not been as strong a variable as individualism-collec-
tivism in cross-cultural research (see, for example, Smith, Dugan, & Trompenaars,
1996). The fact that the present study found a significant relationship only when
the hierarchy element was removed would suggest that future studies incorporating
this dimension at the individual or national level also include situational variables.

The InternationalJournalof Conflict Management, Vol. 10, No. 3, July 1999

 Table 4
Comparison of Value Means of Respondents Who Invite Third Party
Involvement and Those Who Do Not

Presence and Nature of Third Party Involvement

Was third party Who initiated third party Who had initiative
involved? involvement? afterwards?
Values Yes No Party Others Party Other Party or
Third Party
The International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 10, No. 3, July 1999

K. KOZAN AND C. ERGIN

Achievement 4.26 4.13 4.11* 4.49* 4.34 4.30
Benevolence 5.62 5.74 5.55 5.72 5.45* 5.68*
Conformity 4.05 4.14 4.01 4.15 3.91 4.14
Power 3.41 3.39 3.32 3.58 3.54 3.45
Security 4.80 4.93 4.76 4.87 4.76 4.83
Self-direction 5.28 5.27 5.24 5.33 5.18 5.30
Stimulation 3.75 3.81 3.61* 3.96* 3.64 3.80
Tradition 3.24 3.43 3.28 3.23 2.98* 3.33*
Universalism 5.39 5.51 5.39 5.41 5.16* 5.46*

Note: N = 435.
*p (difference) < .05. (one-tailed)

263
264 INFLUENCE OF INTRA-CULTURAL

This argument can actually be extended to studies investigating the influence

of any cultural value dimension. All three situational variables included in this
study (i.e., position power, state vs. private firms, and topic of conflict) had an
effect on whether a significant relation was found or not. Studies reporting no rela-
tionship between cultural variables and conflict and negotiation are sometimes
used to support the claim that culture makes no real difference. However, the lack
of findings may be because of insufficient control of moderating factors. Future
studies may benefit from more complicated models that introduce situational vari-
ables when investigating the impact of cultural dimensions. The situational vari-
ables themselves may also be better articulated. In the present study, for example, a
variety of conflict topics were subsumed under personality. The variety of experi-
ences perceived as non-work related, including clashes of Westernized and tradi-
tional values as well as personality differences, have to be better delineated.
Another limitation of the present study may be the values-measures used.
Schwartz (1992) notes that while persons may positively view most of these val-
ues, a crucial choice may have to be made when they conflict with each other in a
particular situation. While the measurement instructions asked respondents to
spread their rankings, the relatively high, positive correlations among the values
(see Table 2) suggest the presence of a strong acquiescence bias in this study. This
would restrict variance and the strength of associations with the dependent vari-
ables.
Alternative value measures may, therefore, be needed to further test the
hypotheses developed. One such measure is that advanced by Triandis (1995)
based on two dimensions: vertical versus horizontal cultures and individualistic
versus collectivistic cultures. This conceptualization is parallel to the two-dimen-
sional view of values by Schwartz. Openness to change versus conservation is
related to individualism versus collectivism and self-transcendence versus self-
enhancement is related to horizontal versus vertical. This parallel is supported at
the national cultural level by Smith et al.'s (1996) study using Trompenaar's ques-
tionnaire in 43 nations. Triandis (1995) proposes a forced-choice measure of these
dimensions, which would do more justice to the expectation that conflicts among
values are key to prediction of behavior. Testing of the present hypotheses using
Triandis' measures may, therefore, help avoid the type II error which may have
occurred in testing Hypotheses 2 and 4 because of low discriminating power of the
values measures.
In order to reach a more comprehensive view of how internal cultural differ-
ences influence conflict management, additional data from several cultures may be
needed. The present study reflects peculiarities of a single culture. Turkish society
today embodies a major division along religious versus secular orientations. In
cultures where different forces dominate contemporary politics and value rifts, dif-
ferent results may be obtained.
The present study, nevertheless, showed that cultural variables, when applied
internally, can predict some aspects of conflict management practices. One impli-
cation of this finding may be the benefit of including intra-cultural measures when
TheInternationalJournal of Conflict Management, Vol.10,No. 3, July 1999
 K. KOZAN AND C. ERGIN 265

conducting cross-national studies. Current cross-cultural research either assumes

homogeneity of each culture, or contends with comparing average practices with-
out measures of internal variation. Measures such as those proposed by Schwartz
(1992) or Triandis (1995) may enable researchers to search for subcultures within a
country. One can then test whether differences in conflict or other organizational
behavior practices observed across cultures can be generalized to the whole culture
or only to a subculture. Such an approach may help to free current cross-cultural
research from one of its limitations.

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Biographical Note

M. Kamil Kozan
Department of Management
St. John Fisher College
Rochester, NY 14618
Phone/Fax: 716-385-8090/8094
Email: kozan@sjfc.edu
Dr. Kozan is a Professor of Organizational Behavior at St. John Fisher College in
Rochester, New York. His research interests include the influence of culture on various
aspects of organizational behavior.
Canan Ergin is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at Hacettepe Uni-
versity, Ankara, Turkey. She has a Ph.D. in industrial-organizational psychology. Her
research interests include organizational conflict, burnout, and work values.

Received: December 12, 1998

Accepted after a revision: July 31, 1999

TheInternationalJournal of Conflict Management, Vol. 10, No. 3, July 1999