Professional Documents
Culture Documents
General Report
Report for the212
of TC Two Sessions of TC 212
Deep
Deep Foundations
Foundations
Rapport
Rapport gnral
gnral des deux
du TC 212sessions du TC 212
Fondations
Fondations profondes
profondes
Katzenbach
Katzenbach R.
R.
Institute
Institute and
and Laboratory
Laboratory for
for Geotechnics, Department of
Geotechnics, Department of Civil
Civil Engineering
Engineering and
and Geodesy,
Geodesy, Technical
Technical University
University Darmstadt,
Darmstadt,
Darmstadt, Germany.
Darmstadt, Germany.
Choudhury
Choudhury D.
D.
Department
Department of
of Civil
Civil Engineering,
Engineering, Indian
Indian Institute
Institute of
of Technology
Technology Bombay,
Bombay, Mumbai,
Mumbai, India.
India.
Chang
Chang D.W.
D.W.
Department
Department of
of Civil
Civil Engineering,
Engineering, Tamkang
Tamkang University,
University, New
New Taipei
Taipei City,
City, Taiwan.
Taiwan.
ABSTRACT: This general report is prepared from the selected 62 papers of 18 ICSMGE which are related to the domain of studies
for ISSMGE Technical Committee TC 212 Deep Foundations. Paper IDs 1691~3105, which are presented during two sessions of
TC 212 Deep Foundations are from 26 member societies, which include Algeria (1), Argentina (1), Australia (6), Brazil (7),
Bulgaria (1), Canada (3), China (2), Finland (2), Denmark (1), Egypt (3), France (4), Germany (1), Hungary (2), India (2), Iran (1),
Italy (1), Japan (4), Korea (3), Mexico (1), Netherland (1), Poland (2), Russia (2), Thailand (1), UK (5), USA (4) and Vietnam (1).
Value in parenthesis indicates number of papers from that particular member society. The subjects of these papers cover a variety of
sub-themes like (i) foundation behaviour and performance (15), (ii) technologies for construction, rehabilitation and energy (6), (iii)
analytical and numerical analyses on piles and pile-raft foundation (20), (iv) field measurements (5), (v) seismic hazard analysis (2),
(vi) design methods and assessments (2), (vii) model testing, soil behaviours on soil-pile interactions (8), (viii) predictions from
testing methods (4).
RSUM : Ce rapport gnral est prpar partir des 62 articles proposs au 18me CIMSG concernant les Fondations profondes, le
domaine du Comit Technique TC 212 de la SIMSG,. Les articles No. 1691 - 3105, qui sont prsents pendant les deux sessions du
TC 212 - Fondation profondes, proviennent de 26 socits membres dont Algrie (1), Argentine (1), Australie (6), Brsil (7), Bulgarie
(1), Canada (3), Chine (2), Finlande (2), Danemark (1), Egypte (3), France (4) Allemagne (1), Hongrie (2), Inde (2), Iran (1), Italie
(1), Japon (4), Core du Sud (3), Mexique (1), Pays-Bas (1), Pologne (2), Russie (2), Thalande (1), Royaume-Unis (5), Etats-Unis (4)
et Vietnam (1). Les chiffres entre parenthses montrent le nombre de papiers venant de chaque socit membre. Les sujets des papiers
couvrent plusieurs sous-thmes comme (i) le comportement et les performances des fondations (15), (ii) les technologies de
construction, rhabilitation et nergie (6), (iii) les analyses analytique et numrique des pieux et radiers sur pieux (20), (iv) les
mesures in situ (5), (v) les risques sismiques (2), (vi) les mthodes de dimensionnement (2), (vii) la modlisation physique et le
comportement des sols dans linteraction sol-pieu (8), (viii) les prvisions partir des essais (4).
KEYWORDS: pile, pile raft foundation, design, model test, in-situ measurements, construction, numerical and analytical methods.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
centrifuge test data. Conclusions are: The load carried by the which is statistical approach which consider local soil condition
piles is higher for a rigid raft (Kf > 10) due to the minimal as variable and reported it in terms of equation. This approach
interaction between the raft and subsoil compared to the provided sound justification to field operational rules that may
perfectly flexible raft (Kf < 0.01). The spacing between piles lead to economical foundation solution while maintaining the
can be used to evaluate the raft flexibility instead of its width same safety level as required by code.
(Eq. 2 in this paper). The load carried by piles increases as pile Biswas and Manna conducted a comparative study on
diameter increases. However, the rate of increase is higher for vertical vibration tests of full-scale single piles with three-
small size piles and diminishes as the pile diameter increases. dimensional FE analysis using Abaqus/CAE. The resonant
Ashlock and Fotouhi performed full-scale pile vibration test frequency and amplitude obtained from 3D FE analysis were
for steel HP piles installed to a depth of 6 m in a soft clay found compatible to field test results. The resonant frequencies
profile, with one pile being surrounded by a cement-deep-soil- are decreased with the increase of eccentric moments whereas
mixed (CDSM) improved zone. Authors conducted multi-modal the changes of resonant amplitudes are opposite. It increases
tests with vertical and coupled lateral-rocking vibrations using a gradually with the increase of eccentric moments, and stops
shaker mounted on a rigid pile cap. It was observed that the below the ground water table.
improved soil zone significantly increased the stiffness of the Bouafia presented a practical method to construct the P-Y
measured vertical response, but had little effect on the lateral- curves for analysis on lateral load-deflection behavior of single
rocking mode. Results of the forced vibration tests were piles using data from pressuremeter test. Full-scale pile tests
analyzed using methods reported in the literature and it was were conducted to validate the predictions. With the
found that the simplified model was able to capture the vertical correlations between soil reaction modulus/resistance and
response reasonably well in both the improved and native pile/soil stiffness ratio via the parameters from PMT test, a step-
unimproved soil profiles along with the lateral response in by-step method was suggested to define the parameters of P-Y
unimproved soil. curves for single pile under in multi-layered soils. Formulations
Balakumar et al. developed a new design method for pile of the P-Y curves, methodology to construct the P-Y curve and
raft foundation in cohesionless soil for different densities. This the analytical features can be found in this paper.
design procedure constitutes two stages; First stage of design Bretelle compared the French (Fascicule 62) and Australian
procedure regarding to determination of the optimum number of (AS2159) approaches on pile design methodology and shows
piles, pile length and diameter required to be placed in a their difference with an example. French standard provides the
strategic manner to produce the required settlement reduction relationship between measured characteristics and design
along with the load shared by the pile group. Second stage of parameters as well as a unique set of reduction factors on
design procedure was developed a 3D model in ANSYS finite resistance. Australian standard leaves the choice to the
element analysis based software and performed an extensive engineers and defines different reduction factors on resistance
parametric study. Authors were also performed 1g small scale depending on site geotechnical risk. The ways to account for
model test on circular and square shaped pile raft foundation pile testing is described is this paper with the example showing
and concluded that that the equivalent pier theory could be used optimization opportunity when pile testing is undertaken on site.
in combination with the pressuremeter test results to predict the Cannon described the high strain and low strain dynamic
load settlement and load sharing behavior of the piled raft pile testing for assessing the foundation of Messa A Rail Bridge
foundation. at Western Australia, which have caused a change in foundation
Basile described a practical analysis method for determining type from bored pile foundation to a driven pile foundation.
the response of piled rafts. Validity of the analysis was Cross hole sonic logging (CSL) test was performed at the
demonstrated through comparison with alternative numerical required site for testing the test pile statically in tension.
solutions and field measurements. The author suggests that the However, during construction, serious problem with the
negligible computational costs make the analysis suitable not constructability of the bored pile was detected by both high
only for the design of piled rafts supporting high rise buildings strain and low strain dynamic testing. Thus the bored pile was
(generally based on complex and expensive 3D FEM or FDM changed to a driven pile, after its integrity was tested using a
analyses) but also for that of bridges and ordinary buildings. Pile Integrity Tester. Hence, the dynamic pile testing confirmed
Basu et al. presented an approach using the variational the pile resistance, providing high level of confidence in the
principles of mechanics to analyze torsionally loaded piles in foundation.
elastic soil. The total potential energy of the pile-soil system is Carvaldho and Albuquerque presented the test results of
minimized to obtain the differential equations governing the uplift behavior of bored piles in unsaturated sandy soil found in
pile and soil displacements. The analysis explicitly takes into Southern central region of Brazil. Tests were conducted in on
account the three-dimensional pile-soil interaction in multi- the campus of the University of So Paulo, located in the city of
layered soil. The authors found that the soil layering does have So Carlos on three bored piles having length of 10m and
an effect on the pile response, particularly for short, stubby piles diameter of 0.35m, 0.4m and 0.5m respectively to ascertain load
with low slenderness ratio. transfer mechanism to subsoil as well as ascertaining the
Berthelot et al. presented the necessary site investigations applicability of the methods for calculating ultimate load that
for continue flight auger piles in firm sites. The penetration in are available within the technical milieu. The ultimate loads
the grounds can be made only with a tool of specific attack (Qult) obtained on the three piles were 387kN, 440kN and
extended by an experimental retractable point in the concreting. 478kN respectively. The determination of the ultimate load
It also requires an important couple of rotation and the means of using CPT demonstrates good results when the LCPC Method is
vertical pushes. These tests were implanted right adapted soils adopted.
investigations highlight well the strong resistances and the very Christin et al. introduced the timber pile load test
high modulus of this hard soil. They can validate the anchoring instrumentation with removable extensometer. As the timber
and help the specificities of each project to bring successful piles become popularly used in France for retrofitting and reuse
construction at the sites. of all historical structures and sustainable development, the load
Bilfinger et al. adopted new approach to evaluate safety test on such pile receives attentions. The authors present a
assessment of pile foundations which uses Bayesian inference research project Pieux Bois (2010-2013) to establish a
to combine bearing capacity and field controls which may lead database necessary for design methods on timber piles. The first
to economic design. Ultimate load prediction method was used pile loading test campaign was carried out in Rouen on piles
for bearing capacity determination. Field controls methods were instrumented with removable extensometers. Interesting results
used to ensure pile settlement within limit. Bayesian inference are discussed in this paper.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Dembicki et al. presented an analysis of raft foundation observed. With increases in sample space, population dispersion
supporting the pylon of cable-stayed bridge in Rdzin. is incorporated into sample and standard deviation was found to
Important decision on the pile length was their shortening due increase with increase in dispersion, reliability index decreases
to occurrence of confined aquifers which would cause soil probability of failure was found to increase.
liquefaction under the piles during installation. The decision Gwizdala and Krasinski discussed the cases of bridge
could be undertaken after comprehensive numerical analyses as structures founded on driven displacement piles. It is pointed
well as additional investigations of soil parameters. Load tests out that the general principles given by Eurocode 7 should aim
with measurement of the distribution of force along the piles at an unification of the methods for the calculation of bearing
with extensometers were found very useful, allowing the control capacity of the pile. It would be important to create the
of design assumptions. It was concluded that in-situ international database with complete static and dynamic test
measurements with agreeable results from numerical analyses results and the information regarding the soil resistances over
are the best proof of assumptions made in the design process. the pile shaft and under the base referred to careful description
EI Sakhawy and Nassar investigated the behavior of soil of the subsoil and the in situ tests itself.
pile interaction during soil consolidation by performing several Haberfield described the design of piled raft for two
experimental tests for different conditions such as end bearing buildings (Tall towers and Nakheel tower (1000m high)) in
pile and floating tip pile for different soils at the tip of pile. Dubai which is founded on weak carbonate rocks and a group of
From the test results authors concluded that; tall towers (up to 300 m high) founded in deep alluvial soil
1. The negative skin friction was developed along the pile shaft deposits based on serviceability condition to find out ground
due to consolidation of the soil surrounding the pile under modulus based on various field testing adopted. To get accurate
surcharge loads. results pressuremeter, seismic crosshole test and Osterberg load
2. The neutral plane was moved closer to the tip of the pile with cell test were used to evaluate the geotechnical properties of
increase in the end bearing. foundation material for two towers. Test result revealed that
3. The depth of the neutral plane was increased with increase in significant thickness of debris was found at the base of pile toe
the pile length. which made the elastic modulus estimation challenging and its
Elsherbiny and El Naggar presented a 3D FE analysis using estimation is made on unloading and reloading response of pile
ABAQUS on helical piles for performance of the pile groups load test.
under axial compressive loads. Mohr-Coulomb plasticity model Hai and Dao performed two bidirectional loading tests on
is used for soils, where numerical models are calibrated and piles to determine pile capacities for the foundation of 12-story
verified using: full-scale load testing data of single piles; Sea Bank Building project in Da Nang City, Vietnam. Authors
representative soil properties obtained from the borehole logs; validated the capacities of pile with pile load test programme of
and realistic modeling assumptions. It was found that the the bidirectional O-cell test as it is the best suitable for the
performance of a helical pile group in sand or clay is mainly limited project. From the test results authors concluded that
affected by the pile-to-pile spacing. The practical range of inter- maximum upward movements were 3.3 and 7.4mm and
helix spacing (1D~3D) has negligible effect on the settlement maximum downward movements were 28mm and 49.3mm for
ratio, Rs. The factor of safety could significantly affect Rs for the two tests, the maximum upward movement of pile head
piles in sand and has negligible effect for piles in clay. In were 0.2 and 2.5 mm respectively and the shaft resistances
general, Rs for helical piles with multiple helices spaced at a above 30 m depth were not full mobilized.
typical pile spacing of 3D is suggested to be 1.15 to 1.2 for both Hamova et al. briefly described the effects of landslide of
clay and sand. width in the top 55m, length 38m and depth 8 to 9m that
Fakharian et al. adopted a numerical approach for studying occurred on main road and affected more than half of the
the setup effects of a single pile embedded in layered soil strata roadway. From the analysis authors mentioned that ground
by calculating the pile shaft resistance parameter. Authors water table raise, river erosion undermining the slope and the
adopted an axi-symmetric non linear finite element scheme dynamic effects of transport were the main factors for slope
for simulating the cavity expansion which occurred due to pile instability. Authors designed and recommended cantilever
driving followed by dissipation of pore water pressure and retaining wall on driven pile foundation. Authors observed the
ageing. Finite element based numerical package ABAQUS was proposed structure for period 2006 2012 and concluded that
used for modelling the soil as elasto perfectly plastic model. It the landslide was successfully stabilized and new landslide
was observed that an increase in the interface shear strength deformations had not been established.
between pile soil was considered to be the ageing component Herrmann et al. investigated the load-bearing behaviors of
of the soil setup. bored piles with different enlarged bases. According to DIN EN
Goto et al. conducted model pile load tests on grouped piles 1536, overboring of the bottom of drilled piles to increase the
in large tank of dry sand. 9 cylindrical model piles of 40mm bearing resistance is permissible up to three times the pile
diameter were tested under 50-200kPa load pressures. Test diameter. To validate the supports of design specifications,
results were discussed at yielding point of the total load, tip model tests at a scale of 1:25 were performed. The tests showed
stress distribution of the grouped piles, pressure distribution in that an enlargement contributes significantly. By the use of a
the soil measured by the sensors and ground deformation after reduction coefficient of 0.75 for the bearing resistance, covering
the loading tests. The authors suggested that the group pile of the disturbance effects of the drilling the enlargement, the
2.5D spacing caused significant interactional effect between bearing resistance would be underestimated. The results were
piles and it will behave as a block. In contrast, the piles in a pile evaluated against the available results of large 1:1 drilled pile
group of 5.0D spacing was reported more independently. experiments.
Gusmo et al. presented main aspects of design, execution Ishikura et al. discussed the technology of using surface
and control of shopping centre construction of 280,000 m2 area stabilization and floating type deep mixing soil stabilization for
in Recife, Brazil. Geotechnical characterization revealed that acceptable settlement where the performance of piles on deep
soil consisted of silty clays. Static pile load tests were soft soil layers is maintained. Consolidation settlement
conducted on 400mm and 500mm diameter piles with allowable properties and skin friction of model test of grouped piles were
loads of 700 and 1,150 kN. The Van der Veen equation was investigated. Two types of model tests and full scale FEM
used for extrapolating the results of the geotechnical rupture analysis were conducted. The full mobilization length of skin
load for the load tests which may help in the design. It was friction was found to be increased with elapsed time and it
found that as the number of sample increased standard deviation would converge to the constant value during the consolidation.
increases and probability density function around the mean Simple forms of the formulations are presented to calculate the
decreases and the curve with flatter appearence can be skin friction of floating type column and equivalent conversion
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
ratio defined as a ratio between the column length and the Levy and Richards confirmed that base suction may
mobilized length for skin frictions. contribute significantly to footing performance. Field tests on
Jeong and Cho studied the settlement behavior of piled raft full scale footings were carried. The suction developed is
foundations by 3D numerical analysis on case studies. Attention similar to physical model tests using centrifuge. The design
is given to the improved analytical method (YSPR) and uplift performance is not reached before the ultimate limit state
interactive analysis considering raft flexibility and soil displacement criterion set by UK design guidance. In the case
nonlinearity. It was found that the proposed method in present where suctions did not develop, the uplift performance of the
study is in good agreement with general trend of the field footings was extremely poor. Such a poor performance will
measurements. Conclusions are:. Proposed analytical method require a re-evaluation of the use coarse granular material, when
produces a considerably larger settlement than the results used in excavations bounded by London clay.
obtained by the conventional methods (GSRaft). The proposed Look and Lacey implemented two land based test piles
method is shown to be capable of predicting the behavior of a fitted with Osterberg cells for testing the shaft capacity of the
large piled raft. Nonlinear load-transfer curve and flat-shell sedimentary bedrock at the Gateway Bridge site. Based on the
element can be used to improve the existing numerical methods. test data, the required magnitude of the input unconfined
Jung et al. introduced a new development of multiplexed characteristic strength (UCS) of the rock were back calculated
Fiber-optic Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors to measure lateral pile for various pile design methods. It was concluded by the authors
displacements. With the pile displacement calculated under that five of the examined methods produced results which
lateral load, the data were compared with the measured ones. matched the observed shaft capacities by adopting a design
Three optimization strategiespositioning sensors at regular UCS value close to the UCS lower quartile characteristic
intervals, positioning sensors at projected Gaussian points but value.
not following the Gaussian rule, and positioning sensors exactly Lorenzo et al. described how to find out bearing capacity of
based on the Gaussian rulewere implemented. In both cases piled raft foundation at ultimate stage which governs the design
for the 1st and 2nd strategies, the measurement error decreases of PRs with a raft width between 6 to 14m using limit state
as the number of sensors increases. Moreover, positioning the approach. Author proposed the relation to find out ultimate
sensors rigorously based on the Gaussian quadrature rule bearing capacity of PR with the help of numerical model. To
enhances the accuracy more than just using the Gaussian points. apply limit state method, floating piles behaviour is considered
Kaneda et al. presented the numerical simulation of field under ultimate or limiting capacity and design equation were
tests on bearing capacity of pile, raft, and piled raft foundations. presented. Global factor of safety considered in the design.
The SYS Cam-clay model developed at Nagoya University was Partial safety coefficient of resistant load was found out. Taylor
used. Material parameters were determined by laboratory tests series method was adopted to find bearing capacity of PR. This
considering the state of stress in the field. Agreeable results analysis is generalized method for the calculation for
were found between predictions and field tests. Furthermore, it determining the bearing capacities of raft and pile groups
is found that the total bearing capacity of the raft and the piles is separately.
equal to that of the piled raft foundation. This was also Mayne and Woeller suggested a closed-form elastic
confirmed via the simulations. The authors explained the reason continuum solution for upper and lower segment responses of
of such phenomenon. bored piles subjected to bi-directional Osterberg load testing.
Kang et al. introduced the Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Seismic piezocone tests (SCPTu) are used to provide data for
pile and applications. To improve axial and lateral load assessing the capacity, while the shear wave velocity provides
capacities, a Hybrid Concrete Filled FRP Pile (HCFFP) is the fundamental stiffness for displacement analyses. A load test
suggested. The load-strain relation of CFFP was compared with case study involving two levels of embedded O-cells for a large
finite element solutions. The confinement effect between FRP bridge in Charleston, South Carolina is presented to illustrate
Pile and CFFP are shown. Load capacity of HCFFP member is the approach. Results from the seismic piezocone testing
increased if confining pressure and concrete strength are provide the necessary input data to evaluate axial side and base
increased. In addition, the equations to predict the compressive resistances of the deep foundations, as well as the small-strain
and flexure strengths of the HCFFP member are proposed. It stiffness (Gmax) needed for deformation analyses.
was confirmed that HCFFP is suitable to apply as the structural Mendoza et al. discussed the observations learned from
elements with the comparisons of CFFP member. Its suggested Metro-Line 12 overpass in Mexico City soft clay. A pioneer
that the structural performance of connection between the foundation of footing or foundation slab with long skirts was
segments of HCFFP, and constructability of HCFFP pile should used first time in the city. Geotechnical sensors and
be explored in the future for more practical applications. accelerometers were installed to monitor during the construction
Korff and Mair investigated the ground displacements and long term operations as well as strong earthquakes A first
related to deep excavations on a case study of North South earthquake of low intensity caused a sudden, reduced and
Metro Line in Amsterdam. It was found that the response of transitory horizontal pressure decrease on the walls, but a rapid
buildings is governed by soil displacements resulting from the recovery of the sustained loads was observed. The Metro trains
excavation. It is concluded that the surface displacement behind impose no significant changes in vertical pressure under the
the wall is 0.3~1.0% of the excavation depth, if all construction footing, nor on lateral pressures or pore water pressures on the
works are included. The largest effect on the ground surface sides of the perimeter walls.
displacement (55~75%) can be attributed to the diaphragm wall Miller et al. discussed the applications of shaft grouting to
construction, jet grout strut installation and construction of the improve pile foundation capacity in Georgia. Poor ground
roof and took in total about 4 years. The actual excavation stage conditions and high loads were encountered and the deep bored
caused only about 25-45% of the surface displacements. At piles were installed. Results from the strain gauges showed
larger excavation depths the influence zone is found differences in the behaviour of the piles in different strata
significantly smaller than 2 times the excavation depth. depending on the granular content of the material. It was found
Lehtonen introduced the use of steel piles in retaining wall the shaft grouting improved the skin friction of the strata with a
construction and energy transfer. Open section drilling for new high sand and gravel content by a factor of 2.2~2.4. Some
micropile inventions is discussed. Drilled pile walls and energy improvement was achieved in material with as little sand
transfer applications extend the use of drilled piles to sites content (<10%). It was reported that the shaft grouting
where conventional piling is rarely seen as an option and where improved the load-displacement behaviour of the test pile with
the drilled piles can be installed as hybrid structures, settlements reduced by approximately 50%.
functioning as vertically loaded piles, or retaining structure, or a Perl presented a new technology called as polymer pillar.
heating/cooling energy reservation system. The product is patented and mainly made by injecting
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
expanding high density geopolymer to a geotextile tube. It can resulted in an increase in magnitude of spectral ordinate and
be used as end bearing and/or friction piles with the dependence bending moment.
of soil conditions. While injected, the pillars volume expands Rinaldi and Viguera performed pseudo-static load tests for
fast, which will cause the surrounding soils displaced and evaluating the bearing capacity of large diameter piles. Authors
compacted. Totally there have been over 500 projects so far. showed that moderate loads, weighing between 10 to 20 tons,
Some load tests and material tests are presented in this paper. when dropped from a height of 10cm to 120cm, resulted in full
Poulos et al. performed pile load test for verifying the mobilization of ultimate pile capacity. The loading generated a
foundation design of a tower in South Korea. Four pile load test time controlled load which depended on the size and height of
were performed on vertically loaded piles using the Osterberg fall of the load, geometry and elastic properties of the
cell method, while one was performed on a laterally loaded pile elastomeric cushion which were included between the mass and
which were jacked against each other. Authors also carried out top of the pile. It was concluded by the authors that pseudo-
finite element analyses using the computer program PLAXIS static methods allowed application of load increments in steps,
for determining the effects of pile shape and quality of concrete repeatability of each loading step and simpler test setup, when
which were used while conducting the pile load test. It was compared to Statnamic tests.
found that while pile load capacities were underestimated at Sakr and Nasr investigated the effects of inclined load on
over - break levels; they were overestimated during shaking, axial pile displacement and lateral pile response for single pile
due to non consideration of diameter of the pile during the embedded in the level ground and near ground slope by
analyses. It was concluded by the authors that non uniformity conducting several experiments. Authors compared the results
of pile section and quality of concrete should be considered for of single pile founded in the level ground with that in near
accurate interpretation of pile load test data. ground slope and concluded that;
Powell and Skinner presented the data of tested piles on 1. The ultimate axial and lateral load capacities of pile were
London clay which was located at Chattenden, northern Kent decreased with increase in inclination of load with vertical.
and was underlain by high plasticity London Clay to a depth 2. The ultimate lateral load capacity of pile founded in dense
of at least 44m. This paper presents testing of piles which is sand subjected to inclined loads increased significantly with
now in use onto the soil, pile tested at an age of up to 5 increase in slenderness ratio.
months, but mostly 2.5-3.5 months, by static incremental 3. The lateral load capacity of pile was increased with increase
maintained load testing (ML). The Topic, RuFUS and in distance between pile head and slope crest for different
RaPPER pile tests were undertaken using a combination of densities of sand.
BRE load frames and a remotely operated hydraulic loading Salgado et al. proposed semi-analytical methods to calculate
and control system. Through testing (empirical factor for the response of laterally loaded piles with general-shape cross
shaft resistance) was found out for different types of piles and sections embedded in multilayered elastic soil. The method
reported and will be incorporated in the design of pile produces results with accuracy comparable with that of a 3D FE
capacity. analysis but requires much less computational time. Analytical
Puech and Benzaria presented an experimental study on solutions for laterally loaded piles with rectangular and circular
the behaviour of piles under axial static load. Three mode of cross sections embedded in multilayered elastic media are
pile installation were considered: driving, boring, and obtained. The solutions for pile deflection, slope of the
screwing. Piles tested were instrumented with removable deflected curve, bending moment and shear force, are obtained
extensiometers and installed in the overconsolidated Franders iteratively and it depends on the rate at which the displacements
clay. The results showed very high skin friction mobilized for in soil medium decreases with increasing distance from the pile.
driven pile (>150 kPa); that of bored pile and screwed pile are Shulyatiev et al. described a new field test technique
lower, 40 kPa and 60 kPa, respectively. The experimental developed for the analysis of single pile and pile groups in
results were finally compared to the prediction methods Moscow International Business Center (MIBC) Moskva-
developed by Imperial College or recommended by French CITY is a complex of 19 sky-scraper buildings. Authors were
codes. analyzed single pile and pile groups of length range 20 30m,
Ramadan et al. developed a model in PLAXIS 3D to study diameter range 1.2 1.5m and spacing range 3 5m. Authors
the importance of piled supporting system to the excavation determined separately side resistance and tip resistance in the
adjacent to existing buildings in soft to medium clay. For the site by using that developed test technique and verified with
present study authors considered the excavation area as 10 x analytical model developed in PAXIS 2D 8.2 software for
10m and the foundation of adjacent building as three strip single pile test data.
footings of length 10m and width 2m with 100kN/m2 stress on Silva et al. (a) proposed a method to mitigate risk in
the foundation level. From the analysis authors concluded that; geotechnical constructions by using borings and pile load tests
1. For stability number Nc = 4 the unsupported excavation was that enable the elaboration of bi and three-dimensional models,
fail due to stress of the adjacent building. which gives assure that the correct analysis and evaluation of
2. Continuous pile wall support wall was decreased the lateral the associated risks to design and to the construction execution
soil displacement between the foundation level of the adjacent should be one of the targets of a Geotechnical Engineering.
building and the bottom of the excavation. From the results authors concluded that the process of post-
Ray and Wolf outlined the past history and present evaluation of the models developed in computer software
implementation of foundation design when subjected to seismic requires geological/geotechnical experience of the region and
loading in Hungary as per Eurocode 8. Authors also used SAP knowledge of limitations and potential advantages of the
2000 finite element software for analyzing the influence of computer software as the quantity of input attributes, working
different support conditions on the bearing stresses of a grid limit, interpolating devices and their limitations.
superstructure on a typical reinforced concrete building. The Silva et al. (b) proposed the use of SCCAP methodology to
building periods of the structure were computed using the control the execution of CFA types foundation works which
Eurocode 8 formulae and modal analyses which considered proposes formulations, routines and criteria for pile acceptance.
fixed base and spring base supports, giving building periods of To ensure quality and the design assumptions, the SCCAP
0.85sec, 0.69sec and 0.79sec respectively. It was observed that routines introduces to the execution monitoring software for
foundations having spring base conditions reduced the bending CFA piles the excavation quality control in real time and assure
moments near the base by 30%, with the reduction being less at the execution piling process conditions for the piles to achieve
the higher portion of the column. Moreover a decrease in the planned bearing capacity. Through SCCAP quality in the
fundamental period owing to different support conditions, excavation can be assured whose results rely upon the bearing
capacity and deformability through the decrease of the
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
variability and the increase of reliability. SCCAP methodology Van Tol et al. presented the results of a study of concealed
also provides the stopping criteria for boring on the basis of safety factors by performing centrifuge tests on single pile and
statistical formulations. group piles. For studying the time effect authors loaded single
Steenfelt and Schunk discussed the cavity remediation for pile in centrifuge test at 1, 10, 100,1000 minutes after
piles underneath a cable stayed bridge. The cavity feature was installation and for pile group also were followed the same
pressure grouted and transfer of axial load across the cavity into pattern and the centrifuge test was continued to operate from the
Limestone was facilitated by insertion of grouted steel start of installation until the final load test. Authors showed that
reinforcement assemblies. The success of the remedial measures the quantification of the effect and the determination of the
was proven by carrying out an O-cell load test on the pile impact of load variations and recommended to continue with
positioned over the maximum recorded depth of the cavity. research into pile group effects of displacement piles.
Szep and Ray predicted that soil structure interaction Wang et al. presented the aspects of design and construction
could be better modelled using three dimensional geotechnical of super-long bored pile foundation together with a brief
finite element packages where true soil structure could be description of bearing behaviors of super-long bored piles. Deep
analyzed. The laterally loaded pile was analyzed using three buried firm soils are usually selected as the bearing stratum. The
numerical methods like (1) AXIS 10VM which is the authors suggests that the application of the double steel sleeves,
fundamental structural design tool in Hungary, (2) GE04 and design of the pile top, construction and measurement
GE05 which are popular geotechnical codes and (3) PLAXIS requirements are essential to the design of the field load test.
and MIDAS GTS, which are 2D and 3D geotechnical finite Calculation should consider the synergism of the superstructure,
element packages for ensuring realistic modelling of soil soils and pile foundation. Inspection and controlling standards
structure interaction. Authors also used an optimization of super-long bored piles are stricter than those of ordinary
technique for translating the pile head displacements and piles.
rotations computed using finite element analyses to a small Wong presented the results of two case studies on rock
number of elasto plastic subgrade springs, which could be socketed pile design and pile load testing in Sydney region of
used in various structural and geotechnical design software. Australia, in one site underlain by medium to high strength
Teparaksa carried out damage assessment of the Bank of shale, dynamic pile load testing was carried out, and on another
Thailand head office by means of finite element method for site underlain by high strength sandstone, Osterberg Cell (O-
predicting its influence on the Tewavej Palace and Cell) testing was carried out to validate the designs. Author
Bangkhunphrom Palace with simulation of basement concluded that better understanding of load-deformation
construction. The top down construction method was selected characteristics of pile foundations would lead to more cost-
for basement construction and complete set of instrumentation effective designs.
was installed at the palaces, diaphragm wall and ground surface Yanjing et al. proposed new methods for calculating
for monitoring the field performance during and after basement rebound and recompression deformations by analyzing the data
construction. The predicted wall movement obtained using from the consolidation-rebound-recompression test of in-situ
finite element analysis agreed well with the field performance, soil, bearing test, model experiment and field measurement test,
and construction of basement was completed without affecting which were based on the stress history of ground soil, loading
the stability of the palaces and unloading conditions. Authors established a mathematical
Ter Martirosyan et al. proposed a rheological equation relation between rebound and recompression deformation. Form
based on modification of Maxwell rheological model to explain the analysis authors concluded that;
the shear deformations in partial saturated hardening softening 1. The progress of rebound deformation exhibits three phases
clay soil. Authors explained creep, relaxation and kinematic characteristics, and the critical unloading ratio was used to
shear including decaying, stable and progressive creep, determine the calculating depth of rebound deformation.
depending on shear stress intensity by using that proposed 2. The recompression deformation was larger than rebound one
equation. Authors showed that in constant loading case that and the increase proportion vary with different kinds of soil.
proposed equation described decaying, non-decaying and 3. The recompression deformation of foundation soil was
progressing soil creep as well as stress and shear strain computed as two-phase mode.
relaxation processes in kinematic loading mode. Zaghouani et al. described some difficulties related to the
Tomisawa and Miura performed large-scale model execution of large diameter deep piles in soft soils during the
experiments to suggest a design verification method for pile construction of the bridge "Rades-La-Goulette" in Tunisia.
foundations combined with solidified improved columns with First, drilling piles of 2-m diameter up to 100-m depth in soft
following suggestions. Specifications for solidified columns are clay met various problems that increased seriously the time
related to ground conditions and the improvement depth previously expected. That induced the horizontal displacement
depends on characteristic pile length 1/. The design horizontal of the borehole's wall toward its centre. Displacement was first
subgrade reaction PHU should be smaller than the passive earth estimated using finite element modeling. Calculations show that
pressure of composite ground for inner stability and column this problem would modify only the stress related to the lateral
soundness. The allowable horizontal pile displacement in friction but not that at the pile's toe. Second, difficulties related
normal conditions and during storms and Level-1 earthquakes to the concreting phase were also described. Some faults have
should be reduced to 0.5% of the pile diameter instead of 1% been detected along the piles by sonic inspections. The paper
(or 15 mm) for natural ground. describes the techniques adopted to repair these faults.
Tsuha et al. conducted experiments for determining the Zhang et al. reported the results of axial static load tests of
influence of soil characteristics and configuration of helical both full-scale instrumented pile groups and single piles. The
blades on the uplift capacity of multi helix anchors. The single pile settlement was found smaller than the corresponding
experiments included centrifuge tests on dry Fontainebleau sand pile group settlement at the same average load per pile when the
and tension load tests executed out in a tropical soil at Sao load was relatively large. Group effect was more pronounced
Carlos in Brazil. The authors inferred that the efficiency of the for piles with smaller L/B ratios, and the impact of the pile
second helix of helical anchors embedded in sand decreased spacing is greater than that of the pile length. The load at the top
with an increase in relative density of the sand and diameter of of the corner piles was observed to be the largest, followed by
the helix. Further it was also found that uplift capacity of triple side piles and then center piles.
helix anchor with tapered helices were superior compared to
those with cylindrical helices.
2656
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Paper No. 2496. Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2408.
Lehtonen J. 2013. Drilled pile technology in retaining wall construction Szep J. and Ray R.P. 2013. Integrating Nonlinear Pile Behavior with
and energy transfer. Proceedings of the 18th International Standard Structural Engineering Software. Proceedings of the 18th
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Paper No. 2078. Engineering, Paper No. 2933.
Levy F.M. and Richards D.J. 2013. Full scale rapid uplift tests on Teparaksa W. 2013. Deep Basement Construction of Bank of Thailand
transmission tower footings. Proceedings of the 18th International Along Chao Phraya River closed to Tewavej Palace and
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Bangkhumphrom Palace. Proceedings of the 18th International
Paper No. 2480. Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Look B. and Lacey D. 2013. Characteristic values in rock socket design. Paper No. 3082.
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics Ter Martirosyan Z.G., Ter Martirosyan A.Z. and Sidorov V.V. 2013.
and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2753. Creep and long-term bearing capacity of a long pile in clay.
Lorenzo R., Zubeldia H. and Chunha R. 2013. Safety theory in Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics
geotechnical design of piled raft. Proceedings of the 18th and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2675.
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Tominsawa K. and Miura S. 2013. A design verification method for pile
Engineering, Paper No. 2602. foundations used in combination with solidified improved columns.
Mayne P.W and Woeller D. 2013. Bored pile foundation response Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics
using seismic cone test data. Proceedings of the 18th International and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2021.
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Tsuha C.H.C., Santos T.C., Rault G., Thorel L. and Garnier J. 2013.
Paper No. 2158. Influence of multiple helix configuration on the uplift capacity of
Mendoza M.J., Rufitar M., Ibarra E. and Mendoza S.A. 2013. helical anchors. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on
Performance of a pioneer foundation of the skirt type for the Metro- Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2595.
Line 12 overpass on the Mexico City soft clay. Proceedings of the Van Tol A.F., Stoevelaar R., Bezuijen A. and Hannink G. 2013.
18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Compressive resistance of piles, an update. Proceedings of the 18th
Engineering, Paper No. 2304. International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Miller M, Potts V., Skinner H. and Vaziri M. 2013. Improving the Engineering, Paper No. 2766.
capacity of bored piles by shaft grouting. Proceedings of the 18th Wang W., Wu J. and Li Y. 2013. Super-long bored pile foundation for
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical super high-rise buildings in China. Proceedings of the 18th
Engineering, Paper No. 2525. International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Perl A. 2013. Polymer pillar, a new innovation for underpinning. Engineering, Paper No. 2338.
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics Wong P.K. 2013. Case studies of cost-effective foundation design in
and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2110. rock. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil
Poulos H.G., Badelow F., Tosen R., Abdelrazaq and Kim S.H. (2013). Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2562.
Identification of Test Pile Defects in a Super-tall Building Yanjing T, Jianmin LI and Shuguang W. 2013. Experimental study on
Foundation. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on the method of rebound and recompression deformation calculation
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2617. in deep and large foundation design. Proceedings of the 18th
Powell J. and Skinner. J. 2013. A review of pile test results and design International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
from a London clay site. Proceedings of the 18th International Engineering, Paper No. 2684.
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Zaghouani K., Chouikha A. and Haffoudhi S. 2013. Difficulty
Paper No. 2531. execution of large diameter deep piles in soft soils. Proceedings of
Puech A. and Benzaria O. 2013. Effect of installation mode on the static the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
behaviour of piles in highly overconsolidated Flanders clay. Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 3058 (in French).
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics Zhang Y., Salgado S., Dai G. and Gong W. 2013. Load tests on full-
and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 1704 (in French). scale bored pile groups. Proceedings of the 18th International
Ramadan E.H., Ramadan M., Khashila M.M. and Kenawi M.A. 2013. Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Analysis of piles supporting excavation adjacent to existing Paper No. 2119.
buildings. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2811.
Ray R.P. and Wolf A. 2013. Analysis and Design of Piles for Dynamic
Loading. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2929.
Rinaldi V.A. and Viguera R. 2013. Pseudo-static Pile Load Test:
Experience on Pre-bored and Large Diameter Piles. Proceedings of
the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2917.
Sakr M.A. and Nasr A.M. 2013. Behavior of vertical piles embedded in
sand under inclined loads near ground slope. Proceedings of the
18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, Paper No. 2805.
Salgado R., Basu D., Prezzi M. and Tehrani F.S. 2013. Semi-analytical
solutions for laterally loaded piles in multilayered soils.
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2125.
Shulyatiev .., Ladyzhensky I.G and Yastrebov P.I. 2013.
Skyscrapers of Moskva-City business center tests of bored
ples. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2678.
Silva C.P.L., Souza N.M. and Silva M.C. 2013a. Three-dimensional
models of bearing capacity case study. Proceedings of the 18th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, Paper No. 2603.
Silva C., Carvalo J. and Cavelcante A. 2013b. Energy And Reliability
Applied To Continuous Flight Augern Pilings The Sccap
Methodology. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 2604.
Steenfelt J.S. and Schunk M. 2013. Cavity remediation for pylon
foundation of the Transrhumel Viaduct in Constantine. Proceedings
2658
Structural and geotechnical design of a piled raft for a tall building founded on
granular soil
Conception gotechnique et structurelle du radier sur pieux dun btiment de grande hauteur fond
sur des sols granulaires
ABSTRACT: The process followed in designing the piled raft foundation of a tall building is discussed. This entails analysing the
governing limit states, assessing the geotechnical characterisation of the soil deposit as well as deploying the appropriate modelling
tool to study the behaviour of the chosen foundation system at each design phase. Non-uniform loading imposed by the
superstructure, long-term creep effects for deeper soil layers and reinforced concrete elements, cyclic actions associated with wind
loading and pile-raft connection detailing also influence the design process. As the design of this piled raft is mainly differential
settlement governed, the interaction between the structural and geotechnical design is of the utmost importance.
RSUM: On prsente la dmarche suivie dans la conception du radier sur pieux d'un btiment de grande hauteur. Cela implique
l'analyse des tats limite, la validation de la caractrisation gotechnique des sols ainsi que la mise en uvre des outils de
modlisation appropris pour tudier le comportement du systme de fondation choisi chaque tape des tudes. Les charges
variables induites par les superstructures, les effets de fluage long terme des couches sous-jacentes du sol et des lments en bton
arm, les actions cycliques associs aux charges de vent, ainsi que les spcificits de la connexion radier-pieux, sont autant dlments
qui interviennent galement dans le processus de conception. Comme la conception de ce radier sur pieux est principalement
contrle par les tassements diffrentiels, l'interaction entre la conception gotechnique et celle de la structure est de la plus haute
importance.
KEYWORDS: piled raft, settlement reducing piles, differential settlement, cohesionless soils
1 INTRODUCTION Use is primarily offices with a few areas reserved for services.
In plan the tower is approximately 54.8m long by 22.5m wide.
Unlike conventional rafts or fully piled foundations, piled rafts The reinforced concrete raft is 2.5m to 3.5m thick and is
are composite structures consisting of three bearing elements: supported by 10 no. 1.5m diameter piles and 52 no. 1.2m
piles, raft, and subsoil. The Isozaki Tower foundation falls diameter piles. The piles are bored cast in-situ and 33.2m in
under the category of large piled rafts and requires, according length.
to Mandolini 2003, differential settlement based design; it is The unfactored total load applied at the base of the tower is
considered a raft-enhanced pile group as per the definitions 1350MN (Figure 2). Considering a raft footprint of
given by Burland et al. 2012. 63.1m x 27.0m, the equivalent bearing pressure on the ground is
860kPa, including the raft self-weight.
2 THE ISOZAKI TOWER
3 GROUND CONDITIONS
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
permeability tests as well as a pumping test. The SI also configuration for a fully piled solution, considering the pile
comprised a set of geophysical investigations. Undisturbed length constraints explained below. The behaviour of an unpiled
samples collected from the cohesive layers were subject to raft foundation solution was analysed to guide the selection of
oedometer tests and triaxial tests. the settlement reducing pile locations and control the raft
Within the granular deposit, three interbedded layers of clayey stresses and differential settlements (Figure 4).
silts with a PI of 10-30% are found at +79m asl (layer D), +59m
asl (layer F) and +45m asl (layer H) with a thickness of 3m, 4m
and 2m respectively (Figure 3).
The cohesionless layers typically have a relative density of 45-
65% and cv=36. The soil stiffness profile at small strains was
derived from VS measured in situ; a good agreement with the
empirical correlation to NSPT values proposed by Stroud (1988)
was found for the granular materials. For the cohesive layers,
the secant stiffness was estimated from cu and OCR according
to Koutsoftas and Fisher 1980.
The two level basement requires a 16m deep excavation, so the
raft formation level is at +108m asl. Extensive aquifer
exploitation lowered the groundwater table from +120m asl to a
minimum level of +100m asl in the mid 70s. With the
relocation of industrial sites outside the urban area the
groundwater table has risen to the current level of +106.5m asl,
resulting in a lightly overconsolidated deposit, with OCR values
ranging between 1.35 and 1.20 in the cohesive layers D to H.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
strain (=0.1%) derived from the stiffness degradation curves Simplified methods are used during the initial optioneering
proposed by Seed & Idriss 1970 for cohesionless soils. phase to develop a solution which can then be analysed with
The GSA model was compared with a full 3D FE analysis more rigorous tools.
developed with MIDAS GTS (Figure 5) which provided similar GSA is a reliable and efficient tool for the final design stages
settlements, pile axial loads and raft stresses. which has shown to match the results of a parallel full 3D FE
piled raft model.
Pile length to equivalent circular raft radius ratio and pile group-
raft area ratio are important elements to consider during design.
A FoS<2 on piles results in higher working load in piles than
would otherwise be the case; this requires additional
consideration for their structural design.
Internal actions on the upper part of the piles are reduced by
avoiding a structural connection between piles and raft without
significantly affecting the raft behaviour. Limiting the
mobilisation of the piles shaft resistance minimises the
sensitivity of the raft behaviour with respect to workmanship
problems and local variations of soil conditions.
Assessment of the total settlements requires consideration of
time-dependant phenomena.
Piled rafts can offer a cost-effective foundation solution for
high-rise buildings.
Figure 5. MIDAS GTS 3D FE model of the piled raft.
Creep effects of the concrete in the raft and piles were taken 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
into account as these affect the long term behaviour of the
The authors would like to thank Duncan Nicholson, Alessandro
foundation. A reduction factor of the young modulus of 1+
Baliva, and Matteo Minno for their contribution as well as
was adopted with =0.90 for the raft and 0.76 for the piles. In
Marco Beccati for his support from the clients side.
order to limit bending moments in the top of the piles due to raft
deflection, no structural connection between the raft and the pile
head was provided. 7 REFERENCES
The piled raft behaviour under horizontal loads was analysed
with PIGLET (Randolph 2006) and the Oasys software ALP Burland and Burbidge 1985. Settlement of foundations on sand and
and PDISP. gravel. Proc. ICE, part 1.
The effect of wind induced cyclic actions was estimated Burland J., Chapman T., Skinner H. D. and Brown M. 2012. Manual of
Geotechnical Engineering, Institution of Civil Engineers.
according to the methods described by ORiordan 1991 Decreto Ministeriale 14.1.2008 del Ministero delle Infrastrutture.
(settlements) and Poulos & Davids 2005 (pile stiffness Nuove norme tecniche per le costruzioni. S.O. n. 30 alla G.U. del
degradation). 4.2.2008, n. 29.
Half of the maximum raft settlements were estimated to occur Fleming G.W.K. 1992. A new method for single pile settlement
during construction, 33% were associated to creep, 13% to prediction and Analysis, Geotechnique 42, No. 3 pp 411-425
cyclic loading and 4% to planned nearby buildings. The Koutsoftas, D., Fisher, J. 1980. Dynamic properties of two marine clays,
ASCE J. Geotech Division 106 (GT6), pp. 145-157.
potential for tilting due to variations in thickness of the cohesive
Mandolini A. 2003. Design of piled raft foundations: Practice and
layers was estimated to be negligible. Development, Design of foundations on bored and auger piles, Van
The load percentage split between the raft and the piles Impe ed., Rotterdam.
estimated from the FE analyses is 35/65: this matches well with Mandolini A., Russo G. and Viggiani C. 2005. Pile Foundations:
that proposed by Mandolini et al. 2005 for (s/d)/(Ag/A)=4.75. Experimental investigations, analysis and design. ICSMGE, Osaka.
The 1.2m diameter piles have a factor of safety (FoS) ranging MIDAS GTS Scientific Manual.
between 1.45 and 1.65, and the 1.5m diameter piles between Oasys Ltd, Oasys Geo Suite v 19.1 ALP, GSA and PDISP Software
Manual, London 2010.
1.55 and 1.75. ORiordan N.J. 1991. Effects of cyclic loading on the long term
Whilst stringent checks of pile construction (eg. cleaning of the settlements of structures, Cyclic loading of soils, Blackie.
base) are needed to ensure that the specified requirements are Poulos H. G. 2001. Piled-raft foundation: design and applications.
met, limiting the mobilisation of the piles shaft resistance Geotechnique, 51(2), 95-113.
minimises the sensitivity of the raft behaviour with respect to Poulos H. G. and Davids A. J. 2005. Foundation design for the Emirates
workmanship problems and local variations of soil conditions. Twin Towers Dubai, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 42, 716-730.
Accepting a FoS<2 for the piles required the use of a higher Randolph M.F. 2006. PIGLET: Analysis and design of pile groups.
Users Manual, Version 5.2, Univ. Western Australia, Perth.
concrete class (C32/40) than in conventional piled foundations: Reul O. and Randolph M.F. 2004. Design strategies for piled rafts
this has cost implications and needs to be considered at subjected to nonuniform vertical loading, Journal of Geotechnical
optioneering stage. The overall cost of the piled raft was and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE.
estimated to be 35-45% lower than that of a simple raft; the Seed H. and Idriss I. 1970. Soil moduli and damping factors for
piled raft requires 50-60% less concrete and 35-45% less steel. dynamic response analysis. EERC report n.70-10. Berkeley, CA.
The cost of the piles is 20% of the total foundation cost. Stroud, M.A. 1988. The standard penetration test its application and
interpretation.
The piled raft has been constructed and is fully instrumented.
5 CONCLUSIONS
2661
Performance of Piled-Raft System under Axial Load
Performance du systme radier pieux sous chargement axial
Alnuiam A.
University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada and affiliated with King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
El Naggar H.
University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada
El Naggar M.H.
University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
ABSTRACT: Many high rise buildings are founded on piled raft foundation systems, which generated a significant interest in
understanding the performance characteristics of this foundation system. The soil-structure interaction for piled raft foundations
involves the interaction of different components including: the pile-soil interaction; pile-soil-pile interaction; raft-soil interaction; and
piles-raft interaction. To account for this complicated interaction scheme, three-dimensional consideration of the problem is
necessary. In this paper, a 3D finite element model is established to analyze the response piled raft foundation system installed in
cohesionless soil with linearly increasing stiffness with depth. The model was calibrated/verified using geotechnical centrifuge test
data. The calibrated model was then employed to investigate the effect of raft dimensions and piles diameter and spacing on the load
sharing between piles and raft.
RSUM : Durant ces dernires annes, un grand nombre de projets ont t construit en utilisant le concept du systme de fondation
de radier sur pieux. Cest ainsi que de nombreuses tudes ont t menes afin dexaminer et de comprendre la performance de ce
systme soumis des charges verticales. Linteraction sol-structure pour ce systme implique diffrentes interactions comme
linteraction pieux-sol, pieux-radier, radier-sol et finalement linteraction pieux-radier. Par consquent, une analyse numrique
tridimensionnelle est ncessaire dans un cas aussi complexe. Dans cet article, une modlisation 3-D par lments finis a t effectus
pour analyser la rponse dun systme radier pieux sur un sol sans cohsion et qui prsente une rigidit qui augmente linairement
avec la profondeur. Ce modle a t calibr partir de rsultats exprimentaux obtenus sur des essais en centrifugeuse. Les rsultats
numriques ont t utiliss pour tudier leffet de plusieurs paramtres, comme l'paisseur et la largeur du radier, lespacement et le
diamtre des pieux, sur le transfert des charges entre le radier et les pieux.
KEYWORDS: piled raft foundation, soil-structure interaction, 3D FEM, centrifuge, cohesionless soil, piled-raft load sharing.
2663
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
This paper investigates the performance of piled raft Table 1. The dimensions of the model in both model and prototype
foundations and their load sharing mechanism employing a 3D scales.
finite element model calibrated/verified using geotechnical
centrifuge data. Model Prototype (n=50)
Diameter (mm) 10 500
2 DEVELOPMENT OF FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
Wall thickness (mm) 1 Solid
The development of the FEM in this study consisted of Materials Aluminum Concrete
three main steps. First, a 3D FEM was established to simulate
Pile length 170 mm 8.5 m
the behavior of piled raft foundation considering an appropriate
size mesh and number of elements. Second, the results of a Modulus of Elasticity 71 GPa 41.7 GPa
centrifuge study of piled raft performed by others were used to Raft thickness 40 mm 2.0 m
calibrate the FEM created in this study. Lastly, the calibrated Raft width (square) 80 mm 4m
FEM was employed to perform a parametric study to evaluate
the effect of different parameters on the overall performance of Pile Spacing 40 mm 2m
piled raft foundation. Number of piles 4 4
2.1 Description of FEM Cone penetration tests (CPT) were performed in-flight to
A finite element model (FEM) was developed using the evaluate the sand strength using a miniature cone penetrometer.
Plaxis 3D software package (Plaxis bv. 2011). A quarter of the The cone tip resistance profile is shown in Figure 2. It is noted
piled raft foundation system was modeled taking advantages of that the strength (and stiffness) increased with depth, which is
symmetry across the x and y-axes to reduce the computation expected for sand soil. This strength profile will be simulated in
effort and time. The boundaries of the model were set at a the FEM through the input parameters such as the initial
distance equal to 1.5B~2B (where B is raft width) measured modulus of elasticity and the incremental modulus of elasticity,
from the edge of the raft, and the depth of the model was which will account for the increase in stiffness with depth.
approximately two times the pile length as shown in Figure 1.
Cone Tip Resistance, q c (MN/m 2)
0 5 10 15 20 25
The model was built using about 275,000 3D 10-node
0
tetrahedral elements. The average size of the element was
approximately 110 mm. The large number of small size 40
elements assured high accuracy of the results at locations where
Depth (mm)
200
1.5B~2B Figure 2. In-flight results for CPT (after Horikoshi et al. (2003a).
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
resulted in a portion of the load to be transmitted through the Eq. 2, the raft can be characterized according to the following
contact at the raft-soil interface. conditions: (i) perfectly rigid if Kf > 10; (ii) perfectly flexible
when Kf < 0.01; and (iii) intermediate flexibility at Kf varies
Table 2. The parameters used in the FEA. between 0.01 to 10 (Mayne and Poulos 1999). The load sharing
scheme for piled rafts with varying flexibility is investigated.
Soil Concrete
Figures 4 and 5 show the load carried by the piles for two
Constitutive Modeling Mohr-Coulomb Linear Elastic different pile spacing with various raft thicknesses as a function
Unit Weight (kN/m3) 14.6 23.6 of the piled raft total displacement.
Angle of internal friction 45 -
At initial small displacement, most of the load is carried by the
Modulus of Elasticity 4500 kN/m2 23.6 GN/m2 piles; this is believed to be due to the lack intimate contact
Poissons ratio 0.175 0.21 between the raft and subsoil. Similar behavior was reported by
Stiffness increases with depth Yes No Horikoshi and Randolph (1996). As the displacement increases,
Incremental Modulus of the proportion of the load carried by the piles dropped
6500 - significantly at about 7% of the total displacement and
Elasticity (kN/m2/m)
Interface reduction factor 0.43 - continued to decrease gradually after that. At about 80% of
displacement, the load transmitted by the piles reached a plateau
and became almost constant. The variation in load carried by
the pile is noticeable at S/D=4; the load carried by the piles is
about 35% and 45% for raft thickness, t= 0.3 m and t= 2 m,
respectively. The raft flexibility, Kf = 0.2 and 8.73 for these two
cases. On the other hand, Kf = 0.29 and 0.02 if the spacing is
S/D=10 for the same raft thickness values. Due to the narrow
range of Kf for the large spacing case, the variation in
percentage of load carried by the piles is insignificant, and it is
approximately 25%. This is attributed to the large pile spacing,
which renders even the thick raft flexible, resulting in increased
raft soil interaction, compared to the case of the raft with small
pile spacing. Poulos (2001) reported a similar percentage of
25% of the load carried by the piles.
(2)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
rigid raft) and the results are presented in Figure 6. As expected, The spacing between piles can be used to evaluate the raft
Figure 6 shows that the load transmitted by the piles was flexibility instead of its width using Eq. 2.
reduced as the raft width increased. It is noted that the piles load
decreased sharply until it reached a constant value at about 18% The percentage of load transmitted by the piles decreases by
of the total displacement. As the raft width increased from 4 m about 22% as the raft width doubled within the range
to 7 m, the load transferred through the piles decreased by about considered.
22%. As the load carried by the raft increases, however, it is
important to carefully examine the total and differential The percentage of load carried by piles increases as the pile
settlements, which may rise due to the high level of stress diameter increases. However, the rate of increase is higher for
beneath the raft. small size piles and diminishes as the pile diameter increases.
Additional studies are required to evaluate the performance of a
3.3 Effect of pile diameter. flexible piled raft considering the number of piles, pile length
The pile diameter has a significant effect on its load carrying and loading scheme.
capacity and stiffness, which can affect the performance of the
piled raft. To examine the effect of pile diameter on its load 5 REFERENCES
share in piled raft design, a raft with width, B = 7.2 m and piles Brown, P. T. 1969. Numerical Analyses of Uniformly Loaded Circular
spaced at S/D =4 is considered with pile diameter varying from Rafts on Deep Elastic Foundations. Gotechnique 19 (3), 399-404.
0.3 m to 0.9 m. Figure 7 demonstrates the percentage of load Burland, J. B., Broms, B. B., and De Mello, V. B. 1978. Behaviour of
carried by the piles as the pile diameter changes. The load foundations and structures. Proc. 9th ICSMFE. Tokyo: V. 2, 496-546.
transferred by the piles increased from 18% to 33% of the total Clancy, P., and Randolph, M. F. 1993. An Approximate Analysis
load as the pile diameter increased from 0.3 m to 0.9 m. The Procedure for Piled Raft foundations. International Journal for
increase occurred because the piles started to interact with the Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 17(12),849-869.
soil across a larger surface area and thus more load carried by Horikoshi, K., and Randolph, M. F. 1996. Centrifuge modelling of piled
the piles. However, the effect of the pile diameter on the piles raft foundations on clay. Gotechnique, 46 (4), 741-752.
load share diminishes as the diameter reaches the higher end of Horikoshi, K., Matsumoto, T., Hashizume, Y., and Watanabe, T. 2003b.
Performance of Piled Raft Foundations Subjected to Dynamic
the range considered. For example, the percentage of load taken
Loading. International Journal of Physical Modelling in Geotechnics,
by the piles increased by about 2% as the diameter increased 3 (2), 51-62.
from 0.7 to 0.9 m, while the difference for a smaller diameter Horikoshi, K., Matsumoto, T., Hashizume, Y., Watanabe, T., and
was about 9% as the diameter increased from 0.3 to 0.5 m. Fukuyama, H. 2003a. Performance of Piled Raft Foundations
Subjected to Static Horizontal Loads. International Journal of
Physical Modelling in Geotechnics 3 (2), 37-50.
Horikoshi, K., Watanabe, T., Fukuyama, H., and Matsumoto, T. 2002.
Behaviour of Piled Raft Foundations Subjected to Horizontal Loads.
In R. Phillips, P. J. Guo, & R. Popescu (Ed.), Procceding of the
Internationa confrancePhysical Modelling in Geotechnics. St John's,
Newfoundland, Canada: Taylor & Francis.
Katzenbach, R., Arslan, U., Moorman, C., and Reul, O. 1998. Piled Raft
Foundation: Interaction Between Piles and Raft. Darmstadt
Geotechnics, Darmstadt University of Technology 4, 279-296.
Matsumoto, T., Fukumura, K., Horikoshi, K., and Oki, A. 2004b.
Shaking Table Tests on Model Piled Rafts in Sand Considering
Influnce of Superstructures. International Journal of Physical
Modelling in Geotechnics 4 (3), 21-38.
Figure 6. Load carried by the piles with different raft width. Matsumoto, T., Fukumura, K., Pastsakorn, K., Horikoshi, K., and Oki,
A. 2004a. Experimental and Analytical Study on Behaviour of Model
Piled Raft in Sand Subjected to Horizontal and Moment Loading.
International Journal of Physical Modelling in Geotechnics4(3),1-19.
Mayne, P. W., & Poulos, H. G. (1999). Approximate Displacement
Influence Factors for Elastic Shallow Foundations. 125(6), 453-460.
Plaxis bv. 2001. Plaxis 3D Version 2001,Reference Manual. Delft, The
Netherlands.
Poulos, H. G. 2000. Practical Design Procedures for Piled Raft
Foundations. In J. Hemsley, Design Applications of Raft Foundations
425-467. London: ICE Publishing.
Poulos, H. G. 2001. Piled Raft Foundations: Design and Applications.
Geotechnique 51 (2), 95-113.
Poulos, H. G., and Davis, E. H. 1980. Pile Foundation Analysis and
Design. New York: Wiley.
Figure 7. Load carried by the piles with different pile diameters. Poulos, H. G., Small, J. C., and Chow, H. 2011. Piled Raft Foundations
for Tall Buildings. Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS
4 CONCLUSIONS and AGSSEA 42 (2), 78-84.
Randolph, M. F. 1994. Design Methods for Piled Groups and Piled
Some of factors that affect the load sharing between the piles Rafts. Proc. 13th ICSMFE, 61-82. New Delhi, India.
and raft in a piled raft foundation were examined using a 3D Ta, L. D., and Small, J. C. 1996. Analysis of Piled Raft System in
Layered Soils. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical
finite element model that has been calibrated/ verified by
Methods in Geomechanics 20 (1), 57-72.
comparing its predictions with measurements made in a Tomlinson, M. J. 1996. Foundation Design and Construction. London:
geotechnical centrifuge study. Based on the results of the 3D- Longman Publishing Group.
FEA, a number of conclusions can be drawn as follows:
The load share carried by piles is higher for a rigid raft (Kf >
10) due to the minimal interaction between the raft and
subsoil compared to the perfectly flexible raft (Kf < 0.01).
2666
Analysis of Full-Scale Random Vibration Pile Tests in Soft and Improved Clays
Analyses grande chelle de vibrations alatoires sur pieux dans un sol argileux
ABSTRACT: Full-scale pile vibration test results are analyzed for steel HP piles installed to a depth of 6 m in a soft clay profile, with
one pile surrounded by a cement-deep-soil-mixed (CDSM) improved zone. Multi-modal tests with vertical and coupled lateral-
rocking vibrations were conducted using a shaker mounted on a rigid pile cap. The improved soil zone significantly increased the
stiffness of the measured vertical response, but had little effect on the lateral-rocking mode. Results of the forced vibration tests are
analyzed using methods reported in the literature, including impedance functions and an approximate computational method which
incorporates variation of soil properties with depth. The simplified model is able to capture the vertical response reasonably well in
both the improved and native unimproved soil profiles, as well as the lateral response in unimproved soil. For the pile in improved
soil, however, calibration of the model to the observed vertical mode results in a greatly stiffened lateral-rocking response which was
not observed experimentally. To improve the simulation results, more sophisticated computational solutions are proposed for
modeling the dynamic interaction of the pile and improved soil.
RSUM : Les rsultats dessais de vibrations grande chelle sur des pieux en acier (HP) et un pieu renforc en tte par un mlange
sol-ciment, installs sur 6 mtres de profondeur dans de largile, ont t analyss. Des tests multimodaux avec vibrations verticales et
balancements latrales ont t raliss laide dun actionneur mont en tte des pieux. Nous montrons que le renforcement du sol
amliore la rponse verticale de manire significative mais na que peu deffet sur la rponse latrale. Les rsultats des essais ont t
interprts en utilisant des mthodes publies dans la littrature, notamment une mthode qui prend en compte des fonctions
dimpdance et une mthode numrique qui prend en compte les variations des proprits du sol en fonction de la profondeur. Le
modle simplifi utilis est capable de dcrire correctement la rponse verticale pour les deux types du sol, avec ou sans
renforcement, ainsi que la rponse latrale pour un sol non renforc. Cependant, lajustement du model partir de la rponse verticale
rend compte dune plus grande raideur latrale que celle observ exprimentalement. Ainsi, afin damliorer les rsultats de nos
simulations, nous proposons des modles plus sophistiqus qui prennent en compte linteraction dynamique des pieux avec le sol
renforc.
KEYWORDS: soil-pile interaction, soil dynamics, random vibration, pile, soil improvement, soft clay, impedance.
1 INTRODUCTION excitation types used were chaotic impulse, random and swept-
sine, denoted C, R and S, respectively. Theoretically, the
Accurate characterization of the dynamic interaction between broadband random (R) signal has a uniformly distributed energy
foundations and layered soils is an important issue for the over all frequencies while the swept-sine signals (S) concentrate
design and analysis of foundations under seismic or vibratory the excitations energy at a single frequency which is
loading. To date, several solutions ranging from simplified 2D continually changing within a predefined interval. The chaotic
approximations to 3D numerical models have been developed impulse (C) excitation consists of a series of randomly timed
and employed to analyze soil-foundation interaction. However,
impulses with randomly distributed amplitudes. In all tests,
validation and calibration of the various methods against full-
accelerations of the shaker and pile cap were measured in the
scale field tests is essential for an understanding of their relative
horizontal (x) and vertical (z) directions in the plane of motion
capabilities and limitations. While analytical and computational
studies in the literature are numerous, the volume of full-scale of the pile cap using six uniaxial accelerometers. Additionally,
field testing studies is comparatively limited. To help bridge the seven triaxial accelerometers were buried 6 inches below the
knowledge gap between theory and experimentation in soil-pile soil surface at selected locations to record the near-surface
interaction problems, the current study investigates a series of vertical and horizontal motion. Figure 1 details the test setup
full-scale dynamic field tests of two identical steel HP 250x63 including the soil profile, improved zone and sensor
(English HP 10x42) piles installed to a depth of 6 m in a soil arrangement.
profile featuring soft clay. The influence of local soil For data acquisition and real-time analysis in the time and
improvement on the dynamic pile response is also examined frequency domains, a 20 channel dynamic signal analyzer was
experimentally using a 1.2 m diameter, 4 m deep cement-deep- programmed in LabVIEW to record time histories and spectral
soil-mixed (CDSM) zone installed in the soft clay layer quantities including FFTs, auto- and cross-spectral densities,
surrounding one of the piles. The piles were subsequently used transfer functions, and coherence functions. The stimulus for the
for a reaction frame in a related study, which limited the pile transfer functions was taken as the force applied by the shakers
spacing and diameter of the improved zone. The pile in the inertial mass in the direction of excitation, and all other
native unimproved soil profile is referred to as pile U, and the accelerations of the pile cap and soil were treated as response
pile in the improved CDSM soil as pile I. The random vibration quantities. Additionally, the full time histories of all sensors
test procedures employed are described below, followed by were simultaneously recorded on the nees@UCLA Kinemetrics
analyses of the experiments via simplified 2D numerical models Granite seismic recording systems to enable further
developed for dynamic interaction of piles with layered soils. interpretations such as time-domain analyses or different
A newly developed servo-hydraulic shaker system was used stimulus-response combinations.
to deliver three types and various levels of excitation. The
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2 THEORETICAL MODEL
VC/VE The theoretical accelerance of the system is calculated using
VC/VC frequency-domain rigid-body equations of motion for the pile-
cap and shaker, an Euler-Bernoulli beam-column formulation
for the above-ground pile segment, and the aforementioned 2D
approximate or 3D BEM formulations for impedance functions
at the soil level to account for the dynamic pile-soil interaction
(the BEM models are not discussed in this paper). The soil-pile
HC/VE impedance matrix relates the force and displacement of the pile
cross-section at the soil surface elevation. Each component of
HC/HC the impedance matrix is frequency dependent and complex-
valued, with the real part representing the dynamic stiffness of
the pile-soil system and the imaginary part accounting for the
material and geometric damping.
The 2D approximate pile-soil interaction model introduced
Figure 3. Comparison of VE test to combination of VC and HC tests by Novak and Aboul-Ella (1978) was used to calculate the soil
for swept sine loading on pile I in improved soil. Top: VC response impedances with account of the variation of soil parameters
from VC and VE tests; Bottom: HC response from HC and VE tests. with depth. This model derives the soil reactions from a plane
strain assumption and also incorporates the reaction of the soil
For each combination of pile type (U or I), excitation type at the pile tip. Upon constructing the stiffness matrices using the
(C, R, or S) and intensity (1, 2, or 3), three separate tests were approach, the pile head impedances can be found by solving the
performed with the shaker mounted in the vertical-centric (VC), global matrix equations for prescribed unit displacements and
horizontal-central (HC), and vertically eccentric (VE) positions, rotations of a pile section at the soil-surface. The model is
shown schematically in Figure 2. The VC test primarily limited to hysteretic damping behavior for the soil and a circular
activates the vertical mode of vibration, while the HC test cross section for the pile. Circular sections with equivalent axial
excites the coupled horizontal-rocking mode. These two tests or bending stiffness as appropriate were therefore used to model
have traditionally been performed independently, creating the H-piles in this study. Additionally, the model requires that
uncertainty as to the similarity of contact and soil conditions in soil and pile properties are constant for each pile element.
the two separate tests. The VE tests were studied as a method to The approach is fast compared to other numerical
reduce such uncertainties and improve efficiency by activating alternatives such as the finite element and boundary element
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This material is based upon work supported by the National
Science Foundation under Grant No. 0936627. This support is
gratefully acknowledged. Any opinions, findings, and
conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of
the National Science Foundation. This project was a payload to
Figure 7. Comparison between experimental accelerance for pile in the NEESR-SG project 0830328. The assistance of the NEESR-
unimproved soil and theoretical model using the Hardin & Drnevich SG project teams and the nees@UCLA team is appreciated.
modulus profile with modification factors of (0.8 ,0.8, 0.5) for
modulus and (10,10,10) for damping from top to bottom layers. Left:
vertical response, Right: horizontal response.
2670
A Design Method For Piled Raft Foundations
Mthode de conception des fondations de type radier sur pieux
Balakumar V.
Simplex Infrastructures Limited, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
Oh E., Bolton M., Balasubramaniam A.S.
Griffith University Gold Coast Campus, Brisbane, Australia.
ABSTRACT: The design of piled raft foundation involves two stages namely a preliminary stage and the final stage. The
preliminary design stage involves the identification of the essential parameters namely the number of piles, their diameter and the
length along with Es value of the subsoil strata for an optimum design which can produce the required settlement reduction. The
existing design methods, whose accuracy depends upon the accuracy of the evaluation of in-situ parameters like Es although can
produce satisfactory results, the computational efforts involved and the time does not justify the use of them for the preliminary
analyses which will involve repetitions. This paper outlines a simple analytical procedure and the effectiveness of the pressuremeter
tests in predicting the piled raft behaviour, so that the results can be used in the detailed design.
RSUM : La conception des fondations de type radier sur pieux implique deux tapes, ltape prliminaire et ltape finale.
Ltape prliminaire de conception implique la dtermination de paramtres essentiels : nombre de pieux, leurs diamtres et leurs
longueurs ainsi que la valeur de Es de la couche de sol superficielle pour un design optimal qui pourra amener la rduction requise
du tassement. Les mthodes de conception existantes, dont la prcision dpend de la prcision sur la mesure des paramtres in situ
conduisent des rsultats satisfaisants. Nanmoins les moyens numriques et le temps impliqus pour leurs ralisations ne sont pas
justifis pour lanalyse prliminaire qui ncessite des rptitions. Cet article synthtise une mthode analytique simple et efficace de
tests de pression pour prdire le comportement des fondation de type radier sur pieux dont les rsultats peuvent tre utiliss pour des
projet de conception.
KEYWORDS: piled raft, tri-linear pressuremeter.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
It is always recognized in geotechnical engineering that the linear behaviour extends nearly upto 30% of the load taken by
most difficult part is the evaluation of the in-situ parameters the piled raft corresponding to settlement equal to 10% of the
particularly the elastic modulus. In most of the cases, such pile length. The second stage of the curve AB is the stage where
parameters are obtained either from laboratory tests or from the behaviour tends to become elasto- plastic, which extends up
standard correlations between tests like SPT and Es values, to a settlement level 9 mm for 200 mm long pile, 7.5 mm for
which can affect the accuracy of results. However over the past 120 mm long pile and 4.5 mm for 75 mm long pile.
few years there is a considerable shift from the laboratory
testing to in-situ testing and this has led to the use of the results LOAD, kN
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
from in situ tests such as CPT and pressuremeter tests 0
d = 10mm
extensively to determine the stress strain characteristics and 2 t = 8mm
essential parameters like the in-situ elastic modulus of the soil 4
N = 21
R.A. = 36
over the length of the pile. A well tried procedure for predicting 6 D = 200mm
Bed = MD
such parameters along with the shaft friction development has
SETTLEMENT, mm
8
predictions can be used to evaluate the numerical details such as 14 PLAIN RAFT
200 mm
the number of piles, length, diameter, and layout required for 16
120 mm Piled raf t
the design of the piled raft. 18 100 mm Pile length
20 75 mm
22
3. SCOPE OF WORK
With the above in mind it was decided to study the various
Figure 1. Load-Settlement Response of Circular Piled Raft
options available to idealise the piled raft model which would
with Various Pile Lengths
be amenable for a simple numerical procedure and will give the
load settlement, settlement reduction and load sharing behaviour
of the piled raft. Further in order to evaluate the elastic modulus
and other parameters over the pile depth various in-situ test
options were also studied. It was found that the equivalent pier
approach would be the most suitable approach for modelling the
piled raft. The paper presents the details of the study and the
conclusions of the study.
4. THE STUDY
In the design of piled raft the requirement is the settlement
reduction and the data for the design is the load shared by the
raft and the pile group. It is only from the group capacity
required, the number of piles required, diameter and the length
can be evaluated. In order to study the load settlement response, Figure 2. Characteristic Response of Piled Raft
a series of 1g small scale model tests were carried out on
circular and square shaped piled raft placed on sand bed. Poorly To have better understanding on load sharing between the
graded sand was rained in pre-calibrated manner so that the raft and pile group of piled raft, three dimensional nonlinear
required densities could be achieved; the tests were carried out analysis was carried out using ANSYS code. Only quarter
on unpiled raft, free standing pile group and piled raft. model of piled raft was analysed taking advantage of the
Extensive parametric studies were also carried out but the symmetry (Figure 3).
presentation is restricted to the load settlement and load sharing
response typically for circular piled raft under medium dense
bed condition. The studies showed that the performance of the
piled raft was identical in all the other cases. Details of the
models test set up and other details are presented elsewhere
(Balakumar etal., 2005)
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
compatibility. The load was applied as pressure in small and the preparation of test conditions. The probability of wide
increments till the load on the raft equal to the final test load. variation while correlating the field data with the laboratory test
Figure 3 shows the quarter model including finite element results cannot be ruled out. Therefore the evaluation of
meshing adopted in the analysis. parameters from the in-situ tests gain considerable
importance.A well tried procedure for predicting the shaft
6. LOAD-SETTLEMENT BEHAVIOUR friction development has been published by Roger Frank et al.,
(1991) using pressuremeter is discussed below.
Figure 4 presents the load settlement curves of circular piled raft
obtained from 1g model test and the numerical model. Figure 5 7. PREDICTION OF PILE BEHAVIOUR.
presents comparison of characteristic load-settlement response PRESSSUREMETER AND ITS APPLICABILITY
of circular piled raft between experiment and numerical
The pressuremeter is an effective tool that has been extensively
analysis. The results obtained from the 1g model test and
used to obtain the in-situ parameters and for the last three
numerical model agree very closely, till the settlement level of
decades foundations have been designed based on the
4 mm.
parameters obtained from the in-situ tests. The large volume of
LOAD, kN data collected over a period of time particularly the French
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Highway authorities has enhanced the confidence level of the
0
designers in using them for the design of deep foundations.
4
Frank etal., (1991) have studied the load settlement response of
two piles forming a part of a bridge foundation. and had
S ET T L EM E N T , m m
20 NUMERICAL - MISO
24
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
SHAFT STRESS, N/m m 2 the tri-linear relationship for the shaft friction mobilisation
0.00 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80 adopted by Frank etal.,(1991 )to study the performance of two
0.00 single piles was in agreement with the trend of the characterised
0.11
load settlement response of the piled raft. Also the trend of shaft
0.22
friction mobilisation over the length of the pile agreed with the
LENGTH RATIO 1
0.33
prediction made from the pressuremeter test results in the case
0.44
of single pile. Based on the above it is concluded that the
0.55
0.66
equivalent pier theory can be used in combination with the
0.77 Central pile pressuremeter test results to predict the load settlement and load
0.88 Inner pile sharing behaviour of the piled raft adopting parameters
0.99 Outer pile determined from in-situ tests which are more reliable.
1.10
10. REFERENCES
Figure 7. Variation of stress along the shaft of
typical piles along the centre line of raft for 8.10kN Katzenbach R., Arslan V. and Moorman ch .2000a. Numerical
Stimulations of Combined Piled Raft Foundations for the New
High Rise Building, Max in Frankfurt am main, Proc. 2nd Int.
Conf. on Soil Structure Interaction in Urban Civil Engineering.
This establishes the fact that if the pile group of piled raft
Poulos H.G. 2001. Piled Raft Foundation: Design and Application,
can be idealised as a single large pier,then the procedure Geotechnique, 51( 2),111-113
adopted by Frank et al(1991) can be used to predict the Horikoshi K. 1995. Optimum Design of Piled Raft Foundations,
behaviour of pile group of piled raft foundations. Poulos (2001) Dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
has shown that while studying the settlement behaviour of the University of Western Australia.
pile group, that if the pile group with the soil prism can be Polous H.G. 2008. The Piled Raft Foundation for the Burj Dubai
considered as a single pier, then the procedure applied for a Design & Performance. IGS Ferroco Terzaghi, Oration 2008.
single pile behaviour can be used for the prediction of the load Burland J.B. 1995. Piles as Settlement Reducer 18th Italian Congress
on Soil Mech., Pavia.
settlement response of the equivalent pier numerically using
Balakumar V. and Ilamparuthi K. 2007. Performance Monitoring of a
axisymmetric analyses.The equivalent pier modulus Eeq is given Piled Raft Foundation of Twelve Storied Building and Analytical
by the expression Validation, Indian geotechnical Journal, 37(2), 94-115.
Yamashita.K , Hamada.J, Yamada.T. 2010. Field Measurements On
EEQ = ES+ (EP - ES) AT/AG Piled Rafts with Grid-Form Deep Mixing Walls on Soft Ground,
(1) Geaotechnical Engineering-SEAGS .42(2) .
Cooke R.W. 1986. Piled Raft Foundation on Stiff Clays A
Contribution to Design Philosophy, Geotechnique, 36(2),169 -203
Roger Franke, Nicholos Kateziotis , Michel Bustamante, Stavaros
Christoulos .1991. Evaluation of Performance of Two piles Using
Pressuremeter Methods - Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
117(5), 695-713
Balakumar V., Kalaiarasi V. and Ilamparuthi K. 2005. Experimental and
Analytical Study on The Behaviour of Circular Piled Raft on Sand,
Proc. 16th Intl Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering-2005, Osaka, Japan, 1943-1947.
9. CONCLUSIONS
The design economy in the piled raft design depends upon the
optimum design of the pile group of piled raft. Therefore before
the final design number of trials has to be made and also the
evaluation of in situ parameters has a considerable influence.
Keeping the above in mind the study carried out has shown that
2674
A practical method for the non-linear analysis of piled rafts
Une mthode d'analyse pratique pour dterminer la rponse non linaire des fondations mixtes de
type radier sur pieux
Basile F.
Geomarc Ltd, London, United Kingdom
ABSTRACT: The paper describes a practical analysis method for determining the response of piled rafts. The key feature of the
method lies in its capability to provide a non-linear complete boundary element solution of the soil continuum, while retaining a
computationally efficient code. The validity of the proposed analysis is demonstrated through comparison with alternative numerical
solutions and field measurements. Examples are given to demonstrate the importance of considering soil nonlinearity effects in piled
rafts (given the relatively high load level at which the piles operate), thereby leading to more realistic predictions of the raft and pile
response. The negligible computational costs make the analysis suitable not only for the design of piled rafts supporting high rise
buildings (generally based on complex and expensive 3D FEM or FDM analyses) but also for that of bridges and ordinary buildings.
RSUM: Cet article dcrit une mthode d'analyse pratique pour dterminer la rponse des fondations mixtes de type radier sur
pieux. La principale caractristique de la mthode rside dans sa capacit fournir une solution non linaire de type Boundary
Element du continuum sol, tout en conservant un code de calcul efficace. La validit de l'analyse propose est dmontre par
comparaison avec d'autres solutions numriques et des mesures in situ. Des exemples sont donns pour dmontrer l'importance de la
prise en compte de la non-linarit du sol dans lanalyse des radiers sur pieux, ce qui conduit des prvisions plus ralistes de rponse
du radier et pieu. Les cots ngligeables de calcul rendent l'analyse approprie non seulement pour la conception des radiers sur pieux
supportant des immeubles de grande hauteur (bas sur des analyses 3D en lments ou diffrences finies, complexes et coteuses),
mais aussi pour celle des btiments ordinaires et des ponts.
KEYWORDS: CPRF, piled raft, pile group, non-linear, numerical analysis
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
and makes the analysis suitable not only for the design of piled Clearly, for "large" flexible rafts (in which Br/L > 1 according to
rafts supporting high rise buildings (generally based on complex the definition by Viggiani), the assumption of rigid raft is no
and expensive 3D FEM or FDM analyses) but also for that of longer valid and the limitation of differential settlement
bridges and ordinary buildings. becomes one of the design requirements. It is interesting to note
A description of the BEM formulation adopted in that Poulos (2001) has shown that, except for thin rafts, the
PGROUPN for the case of pile groups has been presented by maximum settlement and the load sharing between the raft and
Basile (2003). In a similar fashion, the approach has been the piles are little affected by the raft rigidity.
extended to include the raft analysis (including its reciprocal
interaction with the piles) by discretizing the raft-soil interface
into a number of rectangular elements (Fig. 1), whose behaviour 3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
is evaluated using the traditional Mindlin solution. Completely
general loading conditions (axial, lateral and moments) on the 3.1 Comparison with Kuwabara (1989)
piled raft can be examined, even though only the bearing The accuracy of PGROUPN is initially assessed in the linear
contribution of the raft is considered (i.e. the raft-soil interface elastic range for the piled raft (3x3 group) sketched in Fig. 1.
is assumed to be smooth). Similarly to the pile analysis, non- The figure shows the dimensionless load-settlement ratio
linear soil response is modelled, in an approximate manner, by (P/EsDw, where P is the total applied load and w is the
adopting a hyperbolic stress-strain model within a stepwise settlement) of the piled raft for a wide range of pile length-
incremental procedure which ensures that the specified limiting diameter ratios (L/D). For comparison, results from the
stresses at the raft-soil interface are not exceeded. Limiting corresponding free-standing pile group are also reported and
values of raft-soil contact pressure (based on the traditional show the small influence of the raft contribution to the resulting
bearing capacity theory) are set for both compression and settlement. However, the load distribution is considerably
tension in order to allow for local bearing failure or lift-off of affected by consideration of the ground-contacting raft, as
the raft from the soil. illustrated in Figure 2 which shows the percentage of the total
The proposed PGROUPN analysis is currently restricted to load carried by the raft and by the corner pile as a function of
the assumption of perfectly rigid raft. In practice, this the L/D ratio. For comparison, the load taken by the corner pile
assumption makes the analysis strictly applicable to "small" of the pile group is also reported, demonstrating a significant
piled rafts (Viggiani et al. 2012), i.e. those rafts in which the reduction of corner load in the piled raft as compared to the pile
bearing capacity of the unpiled raft is usually not sufficient to group. Both figures show a favourable agreement of PGROUPN
carry the applied load with a suitable safety margin, and hence with the boundary element solution of Kuwabara (1989) and the
the primary reason for adding piles is to increase the factor of variational approach of Shen et al. (2000).
safety. This generally involves rafts in which the width (Br)
amounts to a few meters (typically Br<15m) and is small in 3.2 Comparison with Poulos (2001)
comparison to the length (L) of the piles (Br/L<1). Within this
range (whose limits should however be regarded as tentative The effects of soil nonlinearity are examined in the piled raft
and indicative only), the raft response may be considered as (3x3 group) shown in Fig. 3, as reported by Poulos (2001). The
truly rigid and hence the design should aim at limiting the non-linear load-settlement response predicted by PGROUPN
maximum settlement (being the differential settlements agrees well with the corresponding settlement value obtained by
negligible). In practical applications, a simple check on the Poulos using the program GARP (employing a FEM analysis
validity of the assumption of rigid raft may be performed by for the raft and a BEM analysis for the piles), under the
calculating the raft-soil stiffness ratio (Krs) as defined by assumption of rigid raft (i.e. a raft thickness tr = 1m giving Krs =
Horikoshi and Randolph (1997): 6.1), and for a typical design load P = 12 MN (equivalent to an
overall factor of safety of 2.15 against ultimate capacity). For
. consistency with the Poulos analysis, an elastic-perfectly plastic
= 5.57 (1)
soil model has been adopted in PGROUPN with an assumed
raft bearing capacity of 300 kPa and a pile load capacity of
where the subscripts r and s denote the raft and soil properties,
50
60 Raft PGROUPN
1.5m
5m 40 Kuwabara (1989)
Load carried by raft/piles (%)
PGROUPN
discretization of Shen et al. (2000)
Load-settlement ratio P/(EsDw)
5m
raft-soil
interface 30
1.5m
1.5 5m 5m 1.5m
40 20
P Corner pile (group)
Rigid raft
PGROUPN - piled raft
PGROUPN - pile group 10
L = variable
Ep = 25 GPa
Kuwabara (1989) - piled raft Corner pile (piled raft)
Es = 25 MPa
D=1m
Kuwabara (1989) - pile group s = 0.5
Shen et al. (2000) - piled raft 0
0 25 50 75 100
20
0 25 50 75 100
L/D
L/D Figure 2. Load sharing between raft and piles
Figure 1. Load-settlement ratio and piled raft analysed
respectively, E is the Young's modulus, is the Poisson's ratio,
Br is the raft breadth, Lr is the raft length (with Br Lr), and tr is
the raft thickness. For values of Krs > 5-10 the raft can be
considered as rigid while a lower limit Krs > 1.5 may be
assumed for practical purposes (Randoph 2003). It is however
observed that the above definition of Krs does not include the
additional stiffening contribution provided by the piles and by
the superstructure which in effect increases the raft rigidity.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
30 80
1m
2m Piles (total)
25
20 1m PGROUPN - Non-linear
1m 4m 4m 1m
PGROUPN - Linear elastic
15 Ep = Er = 30 GPa 40
p = r = 0.2 P = 12 MN
Poulos (2001) - Non-linear
1m Raft (rigid raft)
10
PGROUPN - Non-linear Poulos (2001) - Non-linear
Es = 20 MPa 20
PGROUPN - Linear elastic (flexible raft)
s = 0.3 10m
5 0.5m Corner pile
Poulos (2001) - Non-linear (rigid raft) 20m
Figure 3. Load-settlement response and piled raft analysed Figure 4. Load sharing between raft and piles
873 kN in compression and 786 kN in tension. The figure also
shows a fair agreement with the load-settlement curve obtained 38mm. Thus, a pile-group solution is considered and is found
by Poulos for a flexible raft (i.e. tr = 0.5m giving Krs = 0.8), as that a group of 4x4 piles (30.5m long) at a spacing of 3D = 3m
previously reported. It is noted that, as the load capacity of the is required in order to achieve FS = 2 on the maximum axial
piles becomes nearly fully utilized at a load of about P = 10-12 force (Vmax) of the corner pile, (i.e. Qall = 2421 kN > Vmax = 2390
MN, the load-settlement behaviour reflects that of the raft, kN). It is noted that the calculated pile-group settlement is equal
which is significantly less stiff than the overall pile-raft system, to 14mm, i.e. below the allowable value of 25mm, thereby
while the load carried by the raft starts to increase significantly indicating that a design optimization may be achieved.
(Fig. 4). As previously observed, the fact that some of the piles A piled raft solution (3x3 group with pile spacing of 4D =
(usually the stiffer piles located around the perimeter of the 4m and pile length of 20m) is then evaluated following the
group) are close to their ultimate capacity is not an issue for a methodology outlined in the International CPRF Guideline
piled raft and is actually inevitable for an efficient design. (Katzenbach 2012). According to the guideline, a sufficient
The load sharing between the raft and the piles as a function safety against failure of the overall pile-raft system is achieved
of the total applied load reported in Fig. 4 shows a significant by fulfilling the following inequation:
reduction of the total load carried by the piles with increasing ,
load level. Under a total load P = 12 MN, the figure shows a , (2)
good agreement with the load carried by the piles predicted by
Poulos for the rigid raft and a slightly less agreement with that where Ek is the characteristic total force acting on the CPRF, F
obtained for the flexible raft. Overall, the comparison shown in and R are the partial safety factors on actions and resistance,
Figs. 3-4 demonstrates the importance of considering non-linear respectively, and the characteristic value of the total resistance
behaviour of the pile-raft system in order to obtain realistic Rtot,k has to be derived from the load-settlement response of the
predictions of the settlement and the load sharing between the CPRF and is equal to the load at which the increase of the
raft and the piles. Assumption of linear elastic behaviour settlement becomes increasingly superproportional, as
beyond a load of about 10 MN would lead to an under- determined from a "numerical" load test. In order to allow a
estimation of the settlement and an over-estimation of the direct comparison with the above pile-group solution, it is
amount of load carried by the piles, with a consequent over- assumed that an overall FS = 2 applies to the force Ek (this
design of the requirements for structural strength of the piles. assumption is equivalent to consider a value of FR = 2). This
As emphasized by Poulos (2001), an analysis which accounts implies that Equ. (2) is fulfilled by proving that Rtot,k 2Ek =
for soil non-linearity, even though in an approximate manner, is 225 = 50 MN. Thus, using PGROUPN, a numerical load test
preferable to a complex analysis in which linear behaviour is has been performed to generate the typical relationship between
assumed. the settlement and the total load (i.e. the CPRF overall
resistance), as illustrated in Fig. 5. From this figure, it can be
3.3 Design example seen that, up to the loading of 50 MN, the increase of the
The hypothetical design example shown in Fig. 5 is described in settlement is not yet superproportional (i.e. Rtot,k > 50 MN),
order to demonstrate that, in suitable ground conditions, a implying that no significant failure of the CPRF has occurred.
significant reduction of the piling requirements can be achieved Thus, the ultimate bearing capacity (ULS) of the piled raft has
with the use of a piled raft as compared to a conventional pile been proved. It is noted that the maximum pile axial load is
foundation. Two foundation systems are evaluated: equal to Vmax = 2210 kN, which would give FS = 1.5 (being the
(1) A 4x4 pile group (i.e. with no raft contribution) designed pile capacity Qult = 3358 kN); however, in contrast to
according to a traditional approach in which an overall conventional pile foundations, the proof of the bearing capacity
(geotechnical) factor of safety FS = 2 is assumed to apply
100
1.5m
to the maximum axial force of the single pile;
4m
(2) A piled raft (3x3 group) in which FS = 2 is assumed to
apply to the total force acting on the whole pile-raft 75
4m
system.
Overall resistance (MN)
1.5m
Rtot,k
A total force Ek = 25 MN is acting on the foundation and a 1.5 4m 4m 1.5m
2m
linear soil model) with the parameters indicated in Fig. 5 (the Es = 75 MPa
raft may be considered as fully rigid being Krs = 10.5). The 25 Ek s = 0.5
Cu = 75 kPa
initial solution of an unpiled raft (11m x 11m) has been = 0.6
Hyperbolic factors:
D=1m 20m
54.5 MN (based on qu = 6Cu) and the raft settlement results in Settlement (mm)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
for single piles is unnecessary because this proof is inconsistent attained with a significantly smaller total pile length,
with the concept of piled rafts. Within the same numerical load specifically with 25.5m long piles in a 4x5 group configuration
test, proof of the serviceability limit state (SLS) for the piled (at a spacing of 5.0m and 5.5m along the shorter and the larger
raft can be performed and, under the total load of 25 MN, a side of the raft, respectively). In this case, a better ratio of the
settlement of 20mm is calculated, i.e. below the allowable value raft-pile load sharing could have been achieved (i.e. 23%) with
of 25mm. It may be observed that at this load level the raft a saving of 39% in total pile length, i.e. from 840m for the
carries 39% of the total load. Finally, it should be emphasized original 6x7 group (L = 20m) to 510m for the 4x5 group (L =
that the piled raft solution leads to a significant reduction in the 25.5m). Finally, it is noted that PGROUPN non-linear analyses
required number and length (L) of the piles as compared to the for the 6x7 and 4x5 group configurations run in 3 and 1 min,
conventional pile group, resulting in a saving of 63% in total respectively, on an ordinary computer (Intel Core i7 2.7 GHz),
pile length, i.e. from 488m for the 4x4 pile group (L = 30.5m) to thereby resulting in negligible computing costs for design.
180m for the 3x3 piled raft (L = 20m).
5 CONCLUSIONS
4 CASE HISTORY
The paper has described a practical analysis method, based on a
The case history for the Messe-Torhaus building in Frankfurt is complete BEM solution and implemented in the code
presented (Sommer et al 1985). The building is supported by PGROUPN, for determining the non-linear response of piled
two separate piled rafts, each with 42 bored piles with a length rafts. The method has been successfully validated against
of 20m and a diameter of 0.9m. The piles under each raft are alternative numerical analyses and field measurements.
arranged in a 6x7 rectangular configuration with a centre-to- It has been shown that the concept of piled raft, generally
centre spacing of 2.9m and 3.5m along the shorter and the larger adopted for "large" flexible piled rafts, can also be applied
side of the raft, respectively. Each raft is 17.5m x 24.5m in plan, effectively to "small" rigid piled rafts (and to any larger piled
2.5m thick and is founded at 3m below ground surface. raft in which the assumption of rigid raft is valid), making
The piled raft is embedded in the Frankfurt clay and, within PGROUPN suitable to a wide range of foundations such as
PGROUPN, it is assumed that Cu increases linearly with depth bridges, viaducts, wind turbines and ordinary buildings. In such
from 100 kPa at the foundation level to 200 kPa at the pile base, cases, if the raft can be founded in reasonable competent ground
with a correlation Es/Cu = 600 and s = 0.5. The same soil (which can provide reliable long-term resistance), then the extra
parameters were adopted in the variational approach by Chow et raft component of capacity can be used to significantly reduce
al (2001) so that a direct comparison between analyses may be the piling requirements which are necessary to achieve the
made. For consistency with the non-linear Chow analysis, an design criteria (e.g. ultimate bearing capacity, settlement).
elastic-perfectly plastic soil model has been adopted, while a Given the relatively high load level at which the piles
total load of 181 MN is assumed to act on the piled raft (as only operate within a pile-raft system, the influence of soil
approximately 75% of the total structural load of 241 MN was nonlinearity can be significant, and ignoring this aspect can lead
applied at the time of the measurements reported herein). In to inaccurate predictions of the deformations and the load
addition, the following parameters have been assumed (as these sharing between the raft and the piles. Consideration of soil
were not reported by Chow): an adhesion factor () of 0.7 (in nonlinearity would also be required if PGROUPN is used to
order to achieve an ultimate pile load of about 7 MN, given that perform a numerical load test following the methodology
the measurements showed that piles were carrying at least this outlined in the International CPRF Guideline. Due to the
amount of load), and a Young's modulus of 23.5 GPa for the negligible costs (both in terms of data preparation and computer
piles and of 34 GPa for the raft. The latter value results in Krs = execution times), a large number of cases can be analysed
2.2 and hence the PGROUPN assumption of rigid raft is valid, efficiently, enabling parametric studies to be readily performed.
as confirmed by the field measurements which showed that the This offers the prospect of more effective design techniques and
raft actually behaved as fully rigid. worthwhile savings in construction costs.
The settlement of the piled raft and the proportion of load
carried by the raft are reported in Table 1 showing a good
agreement between analyses and measurements. In this case, 6 REFERENCES
soil nonlinearity appears to have only a relatively small effect
Basile F. 2003. Analysis and design of pile groups. In Num. Analysis
on the computed response (at least in terms of settlement and and Modelling in Geomech. (ed. J.W. Bull), Spon Press, 278-315.
load carried by the raft). The rather low value of the measured Bond A.J. and Basile F. 2010. Repute 2.0, Software for pile design
load carried by the raft (20%) suggests that the effect normally and analysis. Reference Manual, Geocentrix Ltd, UK, 49p.
intended by a piled raft was not realised, thereby indicating a Chow Y.K., Yong K.Y. and Shen W.Y. 2001. Analysis of piled raft
quite conservative design. Indeed, the contact pressures between foundations using a variational approach. Int. J. Geomech. 1 (2),
raft and soil are scarcely larger than those due to the dead 129-147.
weight of the raft (i.e. about 25 MN, resulting in a load Horikoshi K. and Randolph M.F. 1997. On the definition of raft-soil
proportion of 14%), so that almost the complete load of the stiffness ratio. Gotechnique 47 (5), 1055-1061.
superstructure is carried by the piles. It is also noted that, while Katzenbach R. 2012. Combined Pile-Raft Foundations. International
the aim of reducing settlements of the foundation in comparison CPRF Guideline.
to a shallow foundation has been reached (resulting in a Kuwabara F. 1989. An elastic analysis for piled raft foundations in
reduction of about 50%), a more efficient design could have homogeneous soil. Soil and Foundations 29 (1), 82-92.
been achieved using fewer piles of greater length. Indeed, Poulos H.G. 2001. Piled-raft foundation: design and applications.
PGROUPN shows that an identical value of settlement can be Gotechnique 51 (2), 95-113.
Randolph M.F. 2003. 43rd Rankine Lecture: Science and empiricism in
Table 1. Settlement and load proportion carried by raft pile foundation design. Gotechnique 53 (10), 847-875.
Settlement Load carried Shen W.Y., Chow Y.K. and Yong K.Y. 2000. A variational approach
(mm) by raft (%) for the analysis of pile group-pile cap interaction. Gotechnique 50
Measured (Sommer et al 1985) 45 20 (4), 349-357.
Chow et al (2001) 45 26 Sommer H., Wittmann P. and Ripper P. 1985. Piled raft foundation of a
PGROUPN 44 21 tall building in Frankfurt clay. Proc. XI ICSMFE, 2253-2257.
PGROUPN (linear elastic) 43 21 Viggiani C., Mandolini A. and Russo G. 2012. Piles and pile
PGROUPN (4x5 group, L= 25.5m) 44 23 foundations. Spon Press, 278p.
2678
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Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
A
A Variational
Variational Approach
Approach for
for Analysis
Analysis of Piles Subjected
of Piles Subjected to
to Torsion
Torsion
Une
Une approche
approche variationnelle
variationnelle pour
pour l'analyse
l'analyse des
des pieux
pieux soumis
soumis
torsion
torsion
Basu D.,&Misra
D. Basu A.
A. Misra
University
University of
of Waterloo
Waterloo
Chakraborty T.
T. Chakraborty
Indian
Indian Institute
Institute of
of Technology
Technology Delhi
Delhi
ABSTRACT: A framework is developed using the variational principles of mechanics for analyzing torsionally loaded piles in elastic
soil. The total potential energy of the pile-soil system is minimized to obtain the differential equations governing the pile and soil
displacements. Closed-form solutions are obtained for the angle of twist and torque in the pile as a function of depth. The analysis
explicitly takes into account the three-dimensional pile-soil interaction in multi-layered soil. The results match well with the existing
solutions and with those of equivalent finite element analyses.
RSUM : Un cadre conceptuel est labor en utilisant les principles variationnels de la mcanique pour l'analyse de pieux chargs
en torsion dans un sol lastique. L'nergie potentielle totale du systme pieu-sol est minimise pour obtenir les quations
diffrentielles rgissant le pieu et les dplacements du sol. Des solutions analytiques sont obtenues pour le couple et l'angle de torsion
dans le pieu en fonction de la profondeur. L'analyse prend en compte explicitement les interactions pieu-sol tridimensionnelles dans
un systme multi-couches. Les rsultats correspondent bien avec les solutions existantes ainsi qu' celles obtenues par des analyses
par lments finis.
KEYWORDS: pile, torsion, multi-layered soil, elastic analysis, variational principles.
2 ANALYSIS
A pile of radius rp and length Lp embedded in a soil medium
containing n layers is considered (Figure 1). The pile base rests Layer n1
in the nth layer and the pile head is at the level of the ground
surface. The pile has a shear modulus of Gp and is subjected to a Layer n Pile
torque Ta at the head. The soil layers extend to infinity in all
horizontal directions and the bottom (nth) layer extends to z
infinity in the downward vertical direction. The bottom of any
layer i is at a depth of Hi from the ground surface; therefore, the
thickness of the ith layer is Hi Hi1 (note that H0 = 0). The soil Figure 1. Torsionally loaded pile in multilayered soil.
2679
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
G J 2 s rdr i n 1
2 soil. The boundary conditions at the interfaces of the adjacent
p p
rp
layers ensure continuity of angle of twist and equilibrium of
torque across these horizontal planes. The boundary condition at
2 Gsi rp2 L2p ds s 2 the pile head ensures that equilibrium between the torque T(z =
G p J p rp dr
r
rdr i 1, 2, ..., n 0) and applied torque Ta is satisfied. The boundary condition at
the pile base ensures equilibrium by equating the torque in the
pile and soil at a horizontal plane infinitesimally above the base
ki 2 Gsn rp Lp
2 2
ds s
2 with the torque in soil at a horizontal plane infinitesimally
ln rp lim ln
rdr
G J
p p 0
rp
dr r
below the base.
The differential equation of s(r) is given by
i n 1
d 2s 1 ds 1
2
(5) s 0 (13)
The boundary conditions of p(z) are given by dr 2 r dr r 2 rp
d p1
1 2t1 Ta
(6)
where
dz
at the pile head (i.e., at z = z = 0),
pi p (i 1) (17a)
2680
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
H i in Gs1* = 4.3 103 kPa, Gs2* = 9.26 103 kPa, Gs3* = 14.4 103
d pi
2
kn
n
kPa and Gs4* = 20.0 103 kPa. The shear modulus of the pile
rp
Gsi
dz
dz Gsn pn
2
z 1 8tn 1 Gp = 9.6 103 kPa and the applied torque at the head Ta = 100
i 1 H i 1
kN-m. Figure 3 shows the angle of twist in the piles (14) as a
Lp H i
tn 1
n
Gsi
function of depth for the two examples described above. It is
2
dz Gsn pn
2
i 1
pi z 1 2k evident that the match between the results of the present
H i 1 n
analysis and those of the finite element analyses is quite good.
At the boundaries r = rp and r = , s is prescribed as s = 1
and s = 0, respectively, which form the boundary conditions of 1000
equation (13). Present Analysis
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2.5 10000
Homogeeous Soil
0.50 Gs2
1.5
10
1
1
2.0
0.5 0.1
4.0 Gp/Gs1 = 1000
0 0.01
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Figure 4. Angle of twist versus depth of a 10 m long pile in a 2-layer Gs2 Lp/3 0.69Gs 0.23Gs 0.69Gs
soil deposit.
Gs3 Lp/3 2.08Gs 2.08Gs 0.23Gs
The effect of soil layering is further studied with three-layer
profiles for three different cases. For all the cases, the three
layers divide the pile shaft into three equal parts of length Lp/3 Figure 5. Response of piles in three-layer soil.
and the pile base rests within the third layer, which extends
down to great depth (Figure 5). Moreover, the shear moduli Gs1,
Gs2 and Gs3 of the top, middle and bottom layers are so chosen 5 REFERENCES
that (Gs1 + Gs2 + Gs3)/3 = Gs for all the cases. Case I represents
a soil profile in which the soil stiffness increases with depth Basile, F. (2010). Torsional response of pile groups. Proc. 11th DFI and
the top, middle and bottom (third) layer have a shear moduli EFFC Int. Conf. on Geotechnical Challenges in Urban
equal to 0.23Gs, 0.69Gs and 2.08Gs, respectively. Note that, for Regeneration, June 26-28, London.
this case, Gs3 = 3Gs2 and Gs2 = 3Gs1. For Case II, Gs1 = 0.69Gs, Budkowska, B. B. and Szymczak, C. (1993). Sensitivity analysis of
Gs2 = 0.23Gs and Gs3 = 2.08Gs. For case III, the soil stiffness piles undergoing torsion. Computers and Structures, 48(5), 827-
decreases as depth increases with Gs1 = 2.08Gs, Gs2 = 0.69Gs 834.
and Gs3 = 0.23Gs. Figure 7 shows the I versus t plots for these Chow, Y. K. (1985). Torsional response of piles in nonhomogeneous
cases. The parameter t is calculated using the average shear soil. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 111(7), 942947.
modulus Gs. Also plotted in the figure is the I versus t plots Dutt, R. N. and ONeill, M. W. (1983). Torsional behavior of model
for homogeneous soil with shear modulus equal to Gs. As piles in sand. Geotechnical Practice in Offshore Engineering,
evident from Figure 5, the effect of layering is predominant for ASCE, New York, 315334.
t > 1.0 for which I < 1.0. Similar plots can be obtained for Guo, W. D. and Randolph, M. F. (1996). Torsional piles in non-
cases with multiple layers. homogeneous media. Computers and Geotechnics, 19(4), 265-287.
Guo, W., Chow, Y. K. and Randolph, M. F. (2007). Torsional piles in
two-layered nonhomogeneous soil. International Journal of
4 CONCLUSIONS Geomechanics, 7(6), 410422.
Hache, R. A. G. and Valsangkar, A. J. (1988). Torsional resistance of
The paper presents a method for analyzing piles in multi- single piles in layered soil. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
layered elastic soil subject to a torque at the head. The analysis 114(2), 216220.
is based on a continuum approach in which a rational Poulos, H. G. (1975). Torsional response of piles. Journal of
displacement field is defined and the variational principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 101(10), 10191035.
mechanics are used to develop the governing differential Rajapakse, R.K.N.D. (1988). A torsion load transfer problem for a class
equations. The equations are solved analytically using which of non-homogeneous elastic solids. International Journal of Solids
the pile response can be obtained using an iterative solution and Structures, 24(2), 139-151.
scheme. Randolph, M. F. (1981). Piles subjected to torsion. Journal of
The new method predicts the pile response quite accurately, Geotechnical Engineering, 107(8), 10951111.
as established by comparing the results of the present analysis
with those obtained in previous studies by different researchers
and with the results of equivalent three dimensional finite
element analysis. A parametric study is performed for piles in
layered soil profile. It is found that soil layering does have an
effect on the pile response, particularly for short, stubby piles
with low slenderness ratio.
2682
Ancrage des pieux tarire creuse type III dans des terrains indurs : ncessit
doutils de forage performants et de reconnaissances de sols adaptes
Anchoring of continue flight auger piles in hard soil: necessity of succesful tools of drilling and
adapted soils investigations.
Berthelot P.
Bureau Veritas, Paris, France,
Cardona G., Glandy M.
Soletanche-Bachy-Pieux, Paris, France,
Durand F.
Fugro, Paris, France
RSUM : Une des limites dutilisation des pieux tarire creuse est la potentialit dancrage dans des terrains indurs (grs,
poudingues, marno-calcaire compact, rocher, etc.). Lobjet de larticle est de dcrire les essais de faisabilit raliss dans ces terrains
pralablement aux travaux, essais mettant en exergue la sensibilit et la performance des outillages mis en uvre provenant de tarire
creuse de dernire gnration. La pntration dans ces terrains ne peut se faire quavec un outil dattaque spcifique prolong dune
pointe pilote tlescopable au btonnage. Elle ncessite aussi un important couple de rotation et des moyens de pousses verticales. Ces
essais ont t implants au droit de sondages de reconnaissance gotechnique adapts (de type pressiomtres de haute pression,
enregistrement de paramtres de foration, carottage,) permettant de bien mettre en vidence les fortes rsistances et les modules trs
levs de ces terrains indurs. Ces essais de faisabilit prenant en compte ces adaptations de loutillage et les rsultats des
reconnaissances gotechniques ont t mis en uvre sur deux chantiers importants. Ils ont permis de valider les critres dancrage
rpondant aux spcificits de chacun des projets et de mener bien ces deux chantiers.
ABSTRACT: One of the limits of continue flight auger piles is the potentiality of anchoring in hard soil (sandstone, compact malm-
limestone, rock ) The object of the article is to describe feasibility tests realized in these grounds before the works, the tests
highlighting the sensibility and the performance of the implemented equipments resulting of continue flight auger of last generation.
The penetration in these grounds can be made only with a tool of specific attack extended by an experimental retractable point in the
concreting. He also requires an important couple of rotation and the means of vertical pushes. These tests were implanted right
adapted soils investigations (pressiometer high pressure, recording of parameters of foration, core drilling) allowing to highlight well
the strong resistances and the very high modulus of this hard soil. These feasibility test taking into account these adaptations of the
equipment and the soil investigation were operated on two important construction sites.They allowed to validate the criteria of
anchoring answering the specificities of each projects and to bring a successful conclusion these two construction sites..
MOTS-CLS: tarire creuse, terrains indurs, outil de forage, essais pressiomtriques, essais destructifs.
KEYWORDS: continue flight auger, hard soil, drilling tools, pressiometer test, destructive test
1 INTRODUCTION
2.1 Hpital Robert Schumann Metz
Sur les sites de lhpital Robert Schumann Metz, et des
Terrasses du Port Marseille, le contexte gologique, Le site a fait lobjet dune campagne de reconnaissance par
rocheux, voire indur, du substratum orientait le concepteur vers Fondasol, et a mis en exergue la gologie suivante au droit du
lexcution de pieux fors tubs, avec mise en uvre de moyen sondage PR5 qui correspondait aux valeurs de module les plus
de pntration adapt au terrain dur tel que le trpan ou le leves
carottier 0 6 m, argile de caractristiques moyennes avec ple = 0.7
En variante, Soletanche-Bachy-Pieux a propos la mise en MPa et Em = 10 MPa ;
uvre du procd Starsol (Cahier des Charges version 5, 2012) 6 9 m, argile marneuse moyenne avec ple = 1.5 MPa et Em
sous rserve dun essai de faisabilit pralable aux travaux. = 15 MPa
Ces essais de faisabilit avaient pour objet, dune part de 9 11 m, argile marneuse plus compacte avec ple = 2 MPa
vrifier que les moyens mis en uvre permettaient de raliser et Em = 50 MPa
les fondations, dautre part de caler un critre dancrage en Au-del, marnes passages calcaire de pf (pression de
fonction des caractristiques pressiomtriques mesurs. fluage) > 5 MPa et Em > 250 MPa, avec ple retenue = 8 MPa
Sur le site de Marseille, ils ont t coupls des essais La classification des sols, notamment le distinguo entre marnes
pressiomtriques supplmentaires haute pression et argiles marneuses, repose sur la mesure des teneurs en
Lobjet de cet article est dexposer le contexte gotechnique de carbonate CaCO3.
chaque site, de dcrire les moyens mis en uvre, de dcrire les
essais de faisabilit raliss, et enfin de conclure sur les critres 2.2 Terrasses du Port Marseille
dancrage Le site a fait lobjet dune premire campagne de
2 CONTEXTE GOTECHNIQUE reconnaissance par Sobesol, puis par une campagne de
reconnaissance pressiomtriques avec essai haute pression et a
Les deux sites ont fait lobjet dune campagne de mis en exergue la gologie suivante du substratum stampien qui
reconnaissance partir principalement dessais carotts et prsente la particularit dtre soit
dessais au pressiomtre avec ple : valeur moyenne des pressions Marneux avec des ple > 5 MPa et des Em > 100 MPa
limites mesures par couche et Em : valeur moyenne des Grseux, avec des ple > 10 MPa et des Em > 200 MPa ;
modules mesurs par couche.
2683
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4 ESSAIS DE FAISABILIT
2684
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Le pieu a t ralis au droit du sondage M2.2 et du sondage Les valeurs de pression limite des essais courants tant
carott SC34 correspondant un ancrage de 8m dans le plafonnes 5 MPa, que ce soit dans la marne ou que ce soit
stampien grseux partir de 18 m de profondeur dans le grs et afin de bien caractriser les critres dancrage,
les sondages pressiomtriques complmentaire avec sonde haute
pression ont t raliss au droit de chaque type de substratum,
avec possibilits de mesurer des pressions de fluage plus de 9
MPa et ainsi de valider une pression limite de 10.5 MPa.
Nous avons alors diffrenci deux critres dancrage cales sur
des vitesses davancement de loutil de forage et vrifis sur
chaque pieu :
Dans les matriaux prdominance marneuses la
vitesse retenue de loutil Starsol est : V = 80m/h sur les 2
premiers m et 60 m/h au-del. Dans ce type de matriaux le
minimum dancrage permettant de justifier les critres de calcul
de projet est de 3 m.
Dans les matriaux prdominance grseux la vitesse
retenue de loutil Starsol est : V = 25 m/h. Dans ce type de
matriaux lancrage minimum permettant de justifier les critres
Figure 5. Marseille : Comparaison avancement de loutil Starsol et de calcul de projet est de 1.5 m.
valeurs de lessai au pressiomtre (Em, pf, pl; vitesse instantane Le chantier sest ensuite droul sans problme majeur,
davancement.). supervis par une mission G4 par Fugro, les enregistrements de
paramtres en temps rel permettant de valider en toute
Le terrassement gnral de la fouille voisine sous le btiment transparence les ancrages raliss.
M1 a permis de visualiser ce stampien grseux
6 CONCLUSION
Grce la puissance de la machine et surtout la spcificit de
loutil dattaque terminant le tube plongeur, la pntration et
donc lancrage du pieu tarire creuse de type III (Starsol) dans
un sol trs rsistant (module pressiomtrique > 200 MPa) et sur
des longueurs 2 diamtres sont ralisables.
Seule lutilisation doutil spcifique particulirement en base du
tube plongeur permet lancrage, en vitant le patinage de la
plaque classique que lon trouve sur les tarires creuses sans
tube plongeur
Les enregistrements de paramtres en temps rel permettent en
toute transparence de raliser le chantier conformment au
dimensionnement
Des essais de faisabilit en dbut de chantier, bien positionns
par rapport aux essais gotechniques sont toujours ncessaires
pour dmontrer la parfaite adquation entre les moyens mis en
uvre par lentreprise de Fondations Spciales et les critres
fixs par le projet.
Figure 6. Marseille Stampien grseux Il est utile de raliser des essais pressiomtriques haute pression
pour valoriser le terme de pointe en fonction de la relle valeur
4.2.3 Analyse de mesure de pl, voire dune corrlation de cette valeur en
fonction de la valeur mesure de pf
Au sens de lessai destructif avec enregistrement de paramtres
men pralablement la ralisation de lessai pressiomtrique,
les vitesses instantanes davancement (v.i.a) montrent une trs 7 RFRENCES
nette diffrence entre le Stampien marneux avec des v.i.a. de
Cahier des Charges Pieu Starsol 2012. Version 5. Soletanche-Bachy-
lordre de 20 40 m/h et le Stampien grseux avec des v.i.a. Pieux.
infrieure 20 m/h. NF EN 1536 (P 94-310) 2010.Excution des travaux gotechniques :
Les enregistrements en temps rel spcifiques raliss par Pieux fors. AFNOR, Paris.
loutillage Starsol et tracs directement sur papier grce au
systme embarqu Enbesol permettent de retrouver cette
dichotomie entre les deux types de Stampien. La pntration
dans le stampien marneux se caractrise par des vitesses
davancement de lordre de 60 m/h, celle dans le stampien
grseux par des vitesses infrieures 20 m/h.
2685
Improved Safety Assessment of Pile Foundations Using Field Control Methods
valuation amliore de la scurit des fondations sur pieux l'aide de mthodes de contrle
in situ
Bilfinger W.
Vecttor Projetos, So Paulo, Brazil
Santos M.S.
Liberty Seguros, So Paulo, Brazil
Hachich W.
Polytechnic School University of So Paulo, Brazil
ABSTRACT: The theme of foundation safety has historically deserved special attention in both theory and practice due to the need to
find optimized solutions which balance cost and safety. Safety against bearing capacity failures (ultimate limit states) continues to be
a key topic, particularly in pile foundations, as opposed to other foundation types in which serviceability limit states tend to dominate
safety considerations. The paper presents a new approach, in which Bayesian inference is used to combine bearing capacity
predictions and field controls, so as to improve reliability assessment and, possibly, lead to more economic design. For bearing
capacity predictions semi-empirical procedures based on SPT blow-count are frequently used, and those are the ones addressed in the
paper. Rebound and set obtained during pile driving are generally used for uniformity control only, but the paper explores the
possibility of combining this duly interpreted information with the design predictions, so as to achieve more economical foundations,
while maintaining the prescribed level of safety against failure. The extension of the approach to the case where pile load tests (both
static and dynamic) are also available is straightforward and discussed in referenced papers.
RSUM : Le thme de la scurit des fondations a historiquement fait lobjet dune attention particulire, dans la thorie et la
pratique, en raison de la ncessit de trouver des solutions optimales entre cot et scurit. La scurit vis--vis des tats limites
ultimes est notamment importante dans le cadre des fondations sur pieux, par opposition aux autres types de fondations, dans lesquels
les tats limites de service dominent les considrations de scurit. Cet article prsente une nouvelle approche, dans laquelle
linfrence baysienne est utilise pour combiner les prdictions de capacit portante et les contrles in situ, afin d'amliorer
l'valuation de la fiabilit et, ventuellement, conduire un projet plus conomique. Des procdures semi-empiriques fondes sur le
SPT sont frquemment utilises pour la prvision de la capacit portante, et ce sont celles traites ici. Le refus lastique et
lenfoncement obtenus au cours du battage des pieux sont gnralement utiliss pour le seul contrle de l'uniformit, mais cet article
explore la possibilit de combiner ces informations, dment interprtes, avec les prdictions de projet afin de parvenir des
fondations plus conomiques, tout en maintenant le niveau prescrit de scurit vis--vis de la rupture. L'extension de l'approche, au
cas o des essais de chargement de pieux (statique et dynamique) sont galement disponibles, est simple; elle est discute dans les
documents rfrencs.
KEYWORDS: pile, set, rebound, foundation, safety, bayesian, inference, ULS
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(Rosa 2000), revised to correlate static ultimate loads to CASE- enjoy great popularity among practicing engineers, because the
dynamic ultimate loads (Bilfinger 2002). use of these formulas reduces the design of a pile foundation to
a very simple procedure. The number of technical papers on
Table 1. Moments of the distribution of R = log (POBS/PD&Q) from two such formulas is indeed significant; after all, it is also relatively
different sources easy to obtain field data. Even if some published results show
Source Mean Variance good correlation between estimated and measured ultimate
40 static load tests (original) 0.00610 0.01538 loads, the universal use of any particular formula must be
189 dynamic load tests reinterpreted 0.04157 0.04330 questioned: pile length, pile diameter, hammer types,
operational practices, soil types, to name a few, are factors
Figure 1 is a graphical representation of the distribution
which have significant impacts on the results. Figure 2 presents,
associated with the second line of Table 1.
for the database made available by Rosa (2000), the comparison
of ultimate loads obtained by dynamic load tests and those
predicted on the basis of some of the most popular (Poulos and
D&Q Method Davis 1980) set-based pile driving formulas: Engineering News,
Eytelwein (or Dutch), Weisbach, Hiley, Janbu, Danish and
25 Gates. The scatter speaks for itself.
5000
20
15
Engineering News
3000 Eytelwein
10 Weisbach
Hiley
Janbu
2000
Danish
5 Gates
Mean = 0,0415737
Std. Dev. = 1000
0,20808842
0 N = 189
-0,40000 -0,20000 0,00000 0,20000 0,40000
0
R=log(Pobs/Pprev) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Dynamic Load Test (KN)
Figure 1. Distribution of R = log (POBS/PD&Q)
Figure 2. Comparison between measured and estimated bearing
It is interesting to note that the variance of the original capacities using set-based dynamic formulas.
results used to develop the method is significantly lower than
that associated with databases compiled from regular job sites. Janbus formula led to the best correlation and the moments
One can speculate that boreholes and tested piles were probably of the variable log(POBS/PCTL), where CTL=Janbu, are
much closer to each other for the original formulation, so that presented in table 2.
intra-site variance was negligible. Moreover, the correlation Rebound, the elastic deformation caused by a hammer blow,
between static and dynamic load tests adds to the uncertainty in is being increasingly used as a pile driving field control. The
the second database of Table 1. In any case, the higher basic idea is to use the pile itself as a dynamometer that
coefficient of variation of POBS/PD&Q in the second database measures soil resistance to driving, but it is sometimes difficult
(61.7%) is not incompatible with equivalent results found by to distinguish pile rebound from soil rebound. Moreover,
other researchers: Briaud and Tucker (1988) published the measuring rebound requires continuous pile displacement
results of 98 static pile load tests and showed that the coefficient recording during driving, which is more complicated than set
of variation of POBS/PPRED, for 12 different ultimate load measurement.
prediction methods (using SPT, CPT, PMT and direct shear Figure 3 presents, for the database made available by Rosa
strength tests) varied between 42% and 74%. (2000), the comparison of ultimate loads obtained by dynamic
For this reason, it seems reasonable to assume that ultimate load tests and those predicted on the basis of two of the most
load prediction methods based on industry-standard site popular (Aoki and Alonso 1989) rebound-based pile driving
investigation plans are prone to exhibiting high variability and formulas: Chellis and Uto. In addition, it presents similar results
could, therefore, benefit from information gathered during the for Rosas modification of the Chellis formula (Rosa 2000).
pile driving operation itself. Comparison of the scatter in Figures 2 and 3 suggests that
rebound-based formulas are more precise than set-based
4 FIELD CONTROL METHODS formulas. This is confirmed by the variances in Table 2. Also,
the coefficient of variation of POBS/PJANBU is 69.8%, while that
Only a limited number of piles are usually subject to dynamic of POBS/PCHELLIS is 45.0%.
monitoring and testing. For the vast majority, field control
methods are the only tools the engineer has at his disposal to Table 2. Moments of the distribution of log (POBS/PCTL) for two different
check if the piles are being adequately driven. formulas
Field control methods have been used since the early days of Pile driving formula Mean Variance
pile driving, and the best known is the set, the permanent CTL=Janbu (set-based) -0.01819 0.02657
settlement due to a hammer blow. There are a number of the so CTL=Chellis (rebound-based) 0.01818 0.01113
called pile driving formulas, which basically equate the energy
delivered by the pile driving equipment to the work done by the
soil forces that resist pile penetration.
Terzaghi (1943) thus expressed his realistic opinion about
the relevance of those formulas: In spite of their obvious
deficiencies and their unreliability, pile driving formulas still
2688
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
5000
h h n h (4)
4000
The same authors (Martz and Waller 1982) show that, in the
case of known variance, integration of the single nuisance
parameter () leads to a predictive distribution of R (equivalent
Estimated Bearing Capacity (KN)
2000
Chellis Modificada
mR m (5)
1 1 1
1000 (6)
hR h h
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 The procedure described above can be readily applied to a
Dynamic Load Tests (KN) situation in which the new information stems from a direct
Figure 3. Comparison between measured and estimated bearing measurement of the resisting force (POBS), such as a static or
capacities using rebound-based dynamic formulas. dynamic load test (Hachich and Santos 2006, Hachich, Falconi
and Santos, 2008).
5 BAYESIAN UPDATING IN PILE FOUNDATION In this paper, however, the idea is to incorporate whatever
SAFETY information is provided by field control procedures into the
reevaluation of the safety of a pile foundation. The resisting
Baecher and Rackwitz (1982) define a random variable K = force on a pile, PPRED, is predicted at the design stage by one of
POBS/PPRED as the ratio of observed and predicted resisting the semi-empirical procedures, which are based on SPT blow
forces, which is assumed to follow a lognormal distribution. counts from a borehole that is seldom located at the exact point
Therefore, R=log10(K) is normally distributed (Gauss): where the pile is being installed. The only information
R~N(,h-1), where and h-1 are the usual parameters of a pertaining exactly to the location where the pile is installed is
Gaussian distribution; represents the central tendency and h-1 provided by the field control procedures, either set or elastic
the dispersion. In more usual notation, h = 1/2, that is, rebound, and it would be a waste not to take advantage of this
parameter h, which is sometimes called precision, is the inverse location-specific information to revise the pile safety prediction.
of the variance. In the context of Bayesian inference, the For this, POBS/PPRED can be written as the product of
parameters of fR(r), and h, are themselves random variables, POBS/PCLT and PCTL/PPRED, where PCTL stands for the pile
so that the (normal) distribution of R is conditional on the resistance inferred from the field control records, namely
knowledge of those parameters: fR(r|,h). Within this approach: Janbus expression based on set, or Chellis expression based on
rebound. It is straightforward to derive the moments of
POBS/PPRED from the moments of POBS/PCLT and PCTL/PPRED. It
f R (r ) f
,h
R ( r | , h ) f ( , h ) d dh (1) is understandable that the variance of POBS/PPRED thus obtained
is significantly larger than the variance of the POBS/PPRED
derived from pile resistances actually measured in pile load
The Bayesian updating procedure consists in deriving a tests. This fact must be accounted for in the Bayesian updating
posterior (or updated) distribution f ''(,h) from the prior procedure, since the actual observation is not a pile load test,
distribution, f '(,h), and statistics of a sample obtained in the but rather an estimate of ultimate load based on a field control
field. Formally, measurement. It can be demonstrated that this is achieved in a
statistically sound manner if the actual number of observations
L( , h) f ' ( , h) (n in equations 3 and 4) is replaced by an equivalent number
f " ( , h) that is adjusted downwards in proportion to the ratio of those
(2)
L( , h) f ' ( , h)ddh
-
two variances. In other words, one observation derived from a
set measurement and application of Janbus formula (or rebound
and Chellis), is worth less than one observation in the Bayesian
updating procedure.
f ''(,h) is the substituted into equation 1, so as to arrive at an
The moments of POBS/PCTL are available from the
updated version of fR(r).
proponents of the pile driving formulas and from correlation
Variability inherent to geological characteristics of the local
studies in the literature. Values relevant to the present
subsoil, driving details and other local and circumstantial
application were presented item 4 above.
specificities make 2 vary from one site to the next; h is
Moments of PCTL/PPRED are the only missing piece of
therefore named intra-site precision. Bilfinger and Hachich
information for application of the Bayesian updating procedure
(2006) analyze some aspects of intra-site variability. Baecher
just proposed.
and Rackwitz (1982) treat it as a random variable within the
Table 3 presents the moments of the random variable
context of Bayesian inference (see equation 2). Many authors
log (PCTL/PD&Q), estimated from statistical analysis of the
have treated variance as a known, generally estimated,
aforementioned database of 189 dynamic pile load tests (Rosa
deterministic parameter (Kay 1976, Kay 1977, Vrouwenvelder
2000), revised by Bilfinger (2002) to correlate static ultimate
1992, Zhang 2004). This is the approach adopted here.
loads to CASE-dynamic ultimate loads. The database includes
Under such conditions of know variance, updating of a
precast concrete piles with diameters of 17 to 70cm, lengths up
Normal process is significantly simpler and it can be
to 39m, driven by free fall hammers of 13 to 80kN. The first
demonstrated (Martz and Waller 1982) that the posterior
line of Table 3 refers to the variable log(PJANBU/PD&Q), while
distribution of , the mean of fR(r), is also normal with two
the second refers to log(PCHELLIS/PD&Q).
parameters obtained from equations 3 and 4.
h m h m n h r (3)
2689
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Table 3. Moments of the distribution of R = log (PCTL/PD&Q) for Janbu while maintaining the same safety level required by code-
and Chellis formulas prescribed safety factors. Figure 5, for example, sets a sound
Pile driving formula Mean Variance foundation for operational rules that provide safe guidance for
CTL=Janbu (set-based) 0.05977 0.05339 early interruption of pile driving.
CTL=Chellis (rebound-based 0.02339 0.04523
8 REFERENCES
Once again correlations with the Chellis formula exhibit a
smaller variance that those with Janbus. Aoki, N., Alonso, U. R. Correlation between different evaluation
procedures of static and dynamic load tests and rebound. XII
ICSMFE 12th International Conference On Soil Mechanics And
6 APPLICATION AND RESULTS Foundation Engineering, Rio de Janeiro.
Baecher, G.B., Rackwitz, R. 1982. Factors of safety and pile load tests.
Application of the proposed procedure was guided by the final International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in
goal of developing plots that could provide sound statistical Geomechanics, v. 6, 409-424.
justification to field operational rules that will lead to more Bilfinger, W. 2002. Safety criteria of foundations of driven piles using
economical pile foundation solutions, such as shorter piles, with field control methods. PhD Thesis. Polytechnic School, University
the very same probability of failure (or reliability index, ). of So Paulo (in Portuguese).
Figures 4 and 5, developed by means of equations 3 to 6 Bilfinger, W., Hachich, W. 2006. Influence of pile length in the
with data from Tables 1 to 3, show the updated global safety variability of axial resistance. XIII COBRAMSEG Congresso
Brasileiro de Mecnica dos Solos e Engenharia Geotcnica,
factor required to maintain the same reliability index () after
ABMS, Curitiba (in Portuguese).
the distribution of the predicted ultimate load of the pile is Briaud, J. L., Tucker, L. M. 1988. Measured and Predicted Axial
updated on the basis of field control measurements and the Response of 98 Piles. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
corresponding pile driving formulas. The x-axis values are ASCE, 114 (9), 984-1001.
possible observable results of the ratio POBS/PPRED. In Figure 4, Dcourt, L. 1982. Prediction of the Bearing Capacity of Piles based
set is the field control and Janbu is the formula used for POBS exclusively on N values of the SPT. 2nd European Symposium On
prediction. In Figure 5 the performance of set and rebound are Penetration Testing, Amsterdam.
compared for an intra-site variance of 0.08, while results in Dcourt, L. 1991. Bearing Capacity of displacement piles in residual
Figure 4 explore four possible values of intra-site variance. soils on basis of SPT. SEFE II 2O Seminrio De Engenharia De
Fundaes Especiais, So Paulo, So Paulo.
Figure 5 confirms previously discussed indications that
Dcourt, L., Quaresma, A. R. 1978. Capacidade de Carga de Estacas a
rebound-based control is slightly superior to set-based control. partir de Valores de SPT. VI COBRAMSEF 6o Congresso
Brasileiro De Mecnica Dos Solos E Engenharia De Fundaes,
Updated F from Janbu-interpreted set measurement,
Rio de Janeiro.
for constant Kay, J.N. 1976. Safety factor evaluation for single piles in sand. J. of
(see legend for intra-site variances adopted) the Geot. Engng. Div., ASCE, V. 102.
Kay, J.N. (1977) Factor of safety for piles in cohesive soils. IX
2,5 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Tokyo.
2,25
Hachich, W., Falconi, F., Santos, M.S. 2008. Foundation safety:
0,08
incorporating load test results. 11 Congresso Nacional de
0,12
Geotecnia, SPG, Coimbra, Portugal (in Portuguese).
2 0,16
F
Hachich, W., Santos, M.S. 2006. Safety updating for piles based on load
0,20
tests. XIII COBRAMSEG Congresso Brasileiro de Mecnica dos
1,75 D&Q only
Solos e Engenharia Geotcnica, ABMS, Curitiba (in Portuguese).
Martz, H.F., Waller, R. A. 1982. Bayesian reliability analysis. John
1,5
Wiley & Sons.
0,5 0,75 1 1,25 1,5
Meyerhof, G. G. 1956. Penetration Tests and bearing capacity of
POBS/PD&Q cohesionless soils. J. Soil Mechanic and Foundation Division -
ASCE, 82 (SM1), 1-19.
Figure 4 - Comparison of code-prescribed global safety factor (F=2) Poulos, H. G., Davis, E. H. 1980. Pile Foundation Analysis and Design,
with set-updated F values, for the same reliability index () New York.
Poulos, H. G. 1989. Pile behaviour theory and application.
Gotechnique 39(3), 365-415.
Updated F from interpreted set (Janbu)
or rebound (Chellis), for constant
Poulos, H. G., CARTER, J. P., SMALL, J. C. 2001. Foundations and
Intra-site variance = 0,08
retaining structures research and practice, XII IXSMGE 12th
International Conference On Soil Mechanics And Geotechnical
2,5
Engineering, Istambul, 2001.
Rosa, R. L. 2000. Proposition for the modification of Chellis and Uto et.
Al. Driving formulas using CASE method results. MSc Thesis,
2,25
Polytechnic School, University of So Paulo.(in Portuguese).
Janbu
Santos, M.S. 2007. Bayesian inference for the evaluation of foundation
2 Chellis
F
7 CONCLUSIONS
Duly interpreted field control measurements, recorded during
pile driving, facilitate more economical pile foundation design,
2690
Three Dimensional Finite Element Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of Full-Scale Piles
Piles under
under Vertical
Vertical Excitations
Excitations
Analyse dynamique non linaire en 3D par lments finis des pieux grande chelle soumis
des vibrations verticales
Biswas
S. S., B.
Biswas, Manna B.
Manna
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi - 110016, India
India
ABSTRACT: The present investigation emphasised on a comparative study between vertical vibration tests of full-scale single piles
(length of 22 m and diameter of 0.45 m) with the three-dimensional (3-D) finite element (FE) analysis using Abaqus/CAE. A 3-D
finite element model was developed to predict the nonlinear dynamic response of pile foundations in layered soil medium based on
field data. First, the FE analysis was carried out for static load for the validation of the finite element model and the results were
compared with the test results. Then, the vertical vibration analyses were conducted on the finite element model to determine the
frequency-amplitude response of the pile and the FE results were compared with the vertical vibration test results of full-scale pile. It
was found that the resonant frequency and amplitude obtained from the 3-D FE analysis were very close to the field test results of the
full-scale single pile. Based on the FE analysis the variation of the soil-pile separation length with the depth was presented in this
paper for different eccentric moments. It was found that the 3-D finite element model was found to be very efficient for the prediction
of the nonlinear frequency-amplitude response considering complex nonlinear phenomena of soil-pile system in layered soil medium.
RSUM : La prsente tude a mis l'accent sur une tude comparative entre les essais de vibrations verticales grande chelle des
pieux simples (longueur de 22 m et un diamtre de 0,45 m) laide dune analyse par lment finis (EF) trois dimensions (3D) en
utilisant Abaqus / CAE. Un modle des lments finis 3D a t dvelopp pour prdire la rponse dynamique non linaire des pieux
dans les sols multicouches en utilisant les donnes in-situ. Tout d'abord, l'analyse par lments finis a t ralise pour la charge
statique fin de valider le modle et les rsultats ont t compars avec les mesures in-situ. Ensuite, les analyses de vibrations
verticales ont t modlises par lments finis pour dterminer la rponse en frquence d'amplitude du pieu et les rsultats EF ont
t compars avec les rsultats d'essais aux vibrations verticales des pieux pleine chelle. Il a t constat que la frquence de
rsonance et l'amplitude obtenues partir de l'analyse ont t trs proches des rsultats des essais in-situ du pieu pleine chelle. La
variation de la longueur de la sparation sol-pieu avec la profondeur a t calcule dans ce papier pour diffrents moments
excentriques. Il a t constat que le modle 3D est trs efficace pour la prdiction de la rponse de frquence non linaire-amplitude,
compte tenu des phnomnes complexes non linaires du systme sol-pieu dans un milieu multicouches.
KEYWORDS: Layered soils; Nonlinear response; Soil-pile separation; Vertical vibration; 3-D finite element analysis.
2691
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2 EXPERIMENTAL BACKGROUND tangential contact between the pile and the surrounding soil was
defined using Coulomb's Law with a friction coefficient
The vertical vibration tests on the full-scale single pile were estimated by the tangent of the friction angle between the two
conducted at I.I.T. Kharagpur Extension Centre, Block No. HC, materials. The normal behaviour was considered to be hard (no
Plot. 7, Sector - III, Salt Lake City, Kolkata, India (Manna and penetration to each other) allowing separation after contact.
Baidya, 2009). In the field three bore holes were made and soil
samples were collected. The depth of exploration below ground
level was 30.45 m. Disturbed representative soil samples and
undisturbed soil samples were collected from the field. During
boring ground water was encountered in all the three boreholes
and it was found that the position of standing water table was at
1.25 m below the ground level. Standard penetration tests (SPT)
were carried out in the field and the SPT - N value was
determined at different depths of the soil strata. Based on
different laboratory observations and field test results the site
soil was divided into six different layers. The RCC piles were
constructed at site using cast in situ technique. The diameter and
length of the pile were 0.45 m and 22 m respectively. Forced
vibration tests were conducted on the piles in vertical direction.
The mechanical oscillator (Lazan type) was used to induce
unidirectional vibrations on pile foundation. The mechanical
oscillator was connected by means of a flexible shaft with a
motor and its speed was controlled by a speed control unit. The
vibration measuring equipment consisted of a piezoelectric
acceleration pickup and the associated vibration meter. The
complete dynamic test set up is shown in Figure. 1. The
amplitudes were measured at different frequencies for each
eccentric setting. Tests were conducted for four different
exciting moments (0.278, 0.366, 0.45, and 0.529 Nm) under
different static loads (8 kN and 10 kN).
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
coefficients () and () was used to define in each layer and the 4.2 Comparison between finite-element analysis and dynamic
coefficients were determined from the relationship given below: test results
i2
2i Di (1) The time versus amplitude curves were obtained from FE
analysis at different operating frequencies of machine for
where Di = damping ratio corresponding to frequency of different static load and eccentric moments. A typical response
vibration i curve is presented in Figure. 4 for static load of 10 kN. From the
It was assumed that 60 rad/sec and 500 rad/sec were the limit time versus amplitude curves, the frequency versus amplitude
of predominant frequencies in dynamic testing i.e., all damping curves were obtained and compared with the field vibration test
values for different layers were less than the damping values results.
(D1, D2) considered here in this frequency range. The damping
values were taken from guidelines given by Bowles (1996).
Finally the () and () coefficients were calculated by using Eq.
(1).
The model was analysed in three calculation phases. First
gravity analysis was performed only in soil mass in vertical Z
direction. In the next step, the pile-soil interaction was
introduced as well as static load was applied on the top of the
pile. A steel plate was provided on the pile head to simulate the
exact static load (8 kN and 10 kN) applied on pile. In the third
phase the dynamic FE analysis was performed by applying
sinusoidal vertical load on the pile using a dynamic multiplier
function at wide range of frequencies (5 to 60 Hz). According to
the values of eccentric moments (0.278 Nm, 0.366 Nm, 0.450
Nm and 0.529 Nm) and operating frequency of the motor, the
dynamic load amplitudes were determined.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
in shear modulus during vibration. The negligible difference in moments. This phenomenon indicates the nonlinear behaviour
resonant frequencies with the test results are due to the average of soil-pile system obtained from FE analysis which is similar
soil properties and stratifications considered in the FE analysis. to the field test results. The frequency-amplitude responses
Though there is a significance difference in amplitude values obtained from FE analyses are found very satisfactory
but it is understandable that it can be optimize by implementing comparing with the dynamic test results.
precise represented field damping values of soil. In spite of A most critical parameter, soil-pile separation lengths for
nonlinearity, the FE model can also able to describe vibration various eccentric moments were also determined from 3-D FE
theories by showing the pattern of reducing resonant frequency analysis. The soil-pile separation length is increased gradually
and amplitude values with the increase of static load on pile for with the increase of eccentric moments but there is no effect of
same eccentric moment. soil-pile separation below the ground water table. The nonlinear
3-D finite element model is found to be very efficient for the
prediction of dynamic response of full-scale pile in layered soil
medium.
2694
P-Y curves from the prebored pressuremeter test for laterally loaded single piles
Courbes P-Y partir de lessai pressiomtrique prfor pour les pieux isols sous charge latrale
Bouafia A.
University of Blida Department of civil engineering P. O. Box 270 R. P Blida 09000 Algeria
ABSTRACT: The paper aims at presenting a practical method of constructing the P-Y curves for the analysis of the lateral load-
deflection behaviour of single piles on the basis of the prebored pressuremeter test data. This method was derived from the
interpretation of several full-scale lateral loading tests on fully instrumented piles in a variety of soils. After presenting the
methodology of construction of the P-Y curve, the paper focuses on the validation of the proposed method, the comparison with the
existing approaches and on the discussion of the concept of the critical deflection and the effect of the lateral pile/soil stiffness ratio
on the P-Y curve parameters.
RSUM : La communication a pour objectifs de prsenter une mthode pratique de construction des courbes P-Y pour lanalyse du
comportement en dflection des pieux isols la base des donnes de lessai pressiomtrique prfor. Cette mthode a t dveloppe
suite linterprtation de plusieurs essais de chargement latral en vraie grandeur de pieux instruments dans une varit de sols.
Aprs une prsentation de la mthodologie de construction des courbes P-Y, la communication focalise sur la validation de la
mthode propose, la comparaison avec les mthodes existantes, ainsi que sur linterprtation du concept du dplacement latral
critique et de leffet de la rigidit latrale relative pieu/sol sur les paramtres de la courbe P-Y.
KEYWORDS: P-Y curve, Pile, Lateral load, Deflection, Pressuremeter test, Loading test, Full-scale.
1 INTRODUCTION.
During more than half a century the design methods of piles
under lateral loads based on the P-Y curves concept
demonstrated their capability to accurately predict the lateral
pile response. The simple physical model of a spring at the
pile/soil interface allows taking into consideration the non
linearity of the pile/soil interaction as well as the non
homogeneity of the soil properties along the pile.
As shown in figure 1, the P-Y curve is characterised by an
initial slope denoted Eti called the lateral reaction modulus, and
a horizontal asymptote Pu corresponding to the lateral soil
resistance.
The pressuremeter test PMT provides an experimental stress-
strain curve describing the lateral expansion of the soil borehole
under horizontal axisymmetric loads. Some methods of Figure 1. Schematic shape of the P-Y curve
construction of P-Y curves assume some similarity in terms of
stress and displacement fields between the lateral response of The first ratio is noted KE and called the modulus number
the pile and that of the PMT borehole (Baguelin et al, 1978), such as:
and relate the P-Y curve parameters Eti and Pu to the ones of the
PMT test, namely EM and Pl which are respectively the Mnard Eti=KE.EM (3)
deformation modulus and the PMT limit pressure, according to
the following general equation at a given depth: The second ratio is noted Kp and called the lateral resistance
factor:
f(Pl*, EM, EpIp, D, B, Pu, Eti) = 0 (1)
Pu=Kp.Pl*.B (4)
Pl*, EpIp, D and B are respectively the net PMT limit pressure,
the pile flexural stiffness, the pile embedded length and the pile The third ratio is the pile slenderness ratio and the last one is
diameter (or the dimension perpendicular to the lateral load noted KR and called the lateral pile/soil stiffness ratio. Equation
direction). 2 shows that KE and Kp are both functions of KR and D/B.
Dimensional analysis of this equation according to the Because of the three-dimensional aspect of the lateral
Buckinghams theorem leads to the dimensionless equation: pile/soil interaction and the multitude of the key parameters
involved in such an interaction, a rigorous determination of KE
Eti Pu D E p I p and Kp is rather complex. Alternatively, full-scale lateral
g( , , , )0 (2) loading tests on instrumented piles were carried out for more
E M Pl * B B E M D 4
than half a century to investigate this topic. P-Y curves are
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
usually derived from bending moment profiles measured by The elastic length (or the transfer length) L0 is given by:
strain gauges along the pile. However, a few full-scale tests on
instrumented piles were reported in the literature with
successful derivation of the P-Y curves from double EpI p (11)
L0 4
differentiation and integration of the bending moment profile. Etic
The main difficulty in deriving these curves is due to the high
sensitivity of the lateral soil reaction P to the experimental Etic is the characteristic lateral reaction modulus of the
conditions as well as to the method of fitting and differentiation equivalent homogeneous soil (or the average lateral reaction
of the bending moments (Bouafia and Garnier, 1991). modulus) given by:
The method of construction of the P-Y curves presented in
1
De
this paper in based on the interpretation of several full-scale
lateral loading tests on fully instrumented piles carried out in a
variety of quite homogeneous soils in France. A detailed
Etic
De E
0
ti ( z )dz (12)
Kp = b + cKRm (7) 2. If the soil is composed of n layers around the pile, compute
the average PMT modulus EMi for each layer i supposed thick of
Table 1 summarises the values of coefficients a, b, c, n and hi as follows:
m. Due to the limited data regarding the behaviour of
experimental piles in organic clays and in silty soils it was not 1 hi
Ec .De4 1
De E i
M hi
(14)
Ec E ( z )dz i 1
M
De 0
De
Ec is the characteristic PMT modulus defined as the average
value of the PMT moduli such as:
5. Compute the lateral pile/soil stiffness ratio KR according to
the equation (8).
1 De
Ec
De 0
E M .dz (9)
6. Compute the modulus number KEi of each layer i (i=1, n) on
the basis of equation (6) and table 1.
D is the embedded length of the pile and De is the effective
embedded length of the pile, beyond which the pile segments do 7. Compute the average lateral reaction modulus Etii of the layer
not deflect. It is computed as: i at the mid-segments of the pile:
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1 Ki (15) 50
Etii
hi Eti ( z )dz E E M ( z )dz K Ei E Mi
hi 45
40
pred. meas.
c Y0 /Y0 =1,11
8. Compute Eti according to equation 12 as follows:
Y0/B predicted %
35
2
30 (R =94%)
i n
1
De K i
E
i
E hi
M
(16)
25
E E ( z )dz
c i 1 20
ti
De
ti
De Lock & Dam, Pile 3-12
0 15
Lock & Dam, Pile 3-13
10 Roosevelt bridge, Pile 16
9. Compute the transfer length L0 by equation 11. 5
Longjumeau, Pile TG
Longjumeau, Pile TD
10. Compute the effective embedded length De of the pile based 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
on equation 10. If L0 leads to D>De (flexible pile), repeat steps 4
to 10 along an iterative process until the convergence of KR. Y0/B measured %
Figure 2. Comparison of predicted and measured deflections in sand
11. Compute the values of Eti and Pu for each segment according
to equations (3) and (4) respectively.
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2698
Comparaison des rglements australien et franais pour le dimensionnement des
pieux - Prise en compte des essais de chargement
French and Australian Pile Design Comparison Load Testing Influence on Design
Bretelle S.
GHD, Perth, Australie
RSUM : Lutilisation des pieux pour la ralisation de fondations douvrages de toute taille est une mthode couramment utilise
dans le monde entier. Lapproche rglementaire relative au dimensionnement de ces lments de fondations reste diffrente, pour des
raisons diverses comme la nature des sols dans chaque pays ou des raisons culturelles. Au-del de la simple comparaison des
approches rglementaires Franaise (Fascicule 62) et Australienne (AS2159) et partir de ltude comparative illustre par un type
de pieu et une stratigraphie de sol standard, cet article vise montrer les principales caractristiques des deux approches. Lune dfinit
de manire prcise les paramtres dinteraction partir des rsultats des essais en place (Approche Franaise), lautre repose de
manire plus importante sur linterprtation de lingnieur pour le choix des paramtres, et insiste sur les essais de chargement en
permettant leur prise en compte au travers de la dfinition dun facteur de risque (Approche Australienne). Finalement, lintrt
des essais de chargement est dmontr au travers de lestimation de la longueur optimale ncessaire lobtention des caractristiques
de portance requises.
ABSTRACT: Piling is commonly used as foundation system in all countries. Design standards remain quite different, for cultural
reasons, but also due to the different types of soils encountered in each country. This paper compares French (Fascicule 62) and
Australian (AS2159) approaches, describing the design methodology and comparing both approaches on a detailed example. French
standard provides the relationship between measured characteristics and interaction design parameters, and a unique set of reduction
factors on resistance. Australian standard lets the parameter choice to the geotechnical engineer and defines different reduction factors
on resistance depending on site geotechnical risk. Finally, the way each standard accounts for pile testing is described, the example
showing optimisation opportunity when pile testing is undertaken on site.
MOTS-CLS : Pieux, dimensionnement, pondration, essais chargement, comparaison
KEYWORDS: Pile, design, safety factors, risk, load testing, comparison.
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La rsistance en pointe Qpu = S qpu qui sapplique sur la des incertitudes sur les rsistances diffrent, non pas dans le
section de pointe (la section complte dans le cas du principe, mais dans les coefficients utiliss.
pieu for). LAS 2159 ne propose pas de valeurs de frottement latral
avec ou de rsistance en pointe. Il rappelle les principes ncessaires
S = section totale de la pointe du pieu ; la dtermination de la capacit portante ultime :
D = diamtre du pieu ; Analyser les paramtres gotechniques provenant de la
qpu = contrainte ultime en pointe du pieu ; reconnaissance de sol sur le site ;
qsi = frottement latral unitaire dans chaque couche i ; Analyser les rsultats dessais de chargement
li = longueur du pieu dans chaque couche i. dynamique ou dinstrumentation de battage ;
La contrainte de rupture en pointe est donne par Analyser les rsultats des essais statiques.
lexpression :
qpu = kc qce Dans le cas o des corrlations sont utilises, elles doivent
qce= * qc(z) dz (la rsistance en pointe mesure par le avoir t obtenues dans des conditions similaires (mthode
pntromtre qc est intgre entre 0.5m au-dessus et 1,5m au- dinstallation, types de sol) et dmonstration doit tre faite de
dessous de la pointe du pieu) cette similarit.
kc est le facteur de portance. Il dpend du mode de mise en La rsistance ultime du pieu sexprime alors comme dans le
place des pieux et du type de sol (voir tableau 1). Fascicule 62, en respectant la logique de linteraction :
Rd,ug = fms As + fb Ab
Avec
Tableau 1. Facteur de portance kc (Fascicule 62).
Ab = section totale de la pointe du pieu ;
Pieux mis en place As = surface du fut du pieu (ngligeant les 1.5 m
Nature des Pieux mis en place suprieurs) ;
sans refoulement
terrains
de sol
avec refoulement de sol fb = contrainte ultime en pointe du pieu ;
fms = frottement latral unitaire (diffrenci dans chaque
Argiles, limons 0.40 0.55 couche si ncessaire).
Les combinaisons dactions prvalant au dimensionnement
Sables, graves 0.15 0.50 des pieux sollicits par des charges permanentes G sont les
suivantes :
Craies A - B 0.20 0.30 0.20 0.45 ELU (ULS) 1.20 G < g * Rd,ug
ELS (SLS) vrification des tassements
Les valeurs du frottement latral sont dtermines en
fonction du mode de mise en place et de la catgorie de sol, par Le coefficient de rduction de la rsistance gotechnique (g)
lintermdiaire du coefficient qs=qc/Voir tableau est le paramtre qui constitue la plus grande diffrence entre les
deux rglementations. Le facteur gotechnique (g) est
Tableau 2. Choix du coefficient (Fascicule 62). dtermin de la faon suivante :
Les facteurs de risque sont valus sur une chelle de 1
qs max 5 (risque trs faible a risque trs lev) laide du
Nature des terrains
(kPa) tableau 3 ; A chaque risque est attribu un poids
(importance relative de ce risque dans lensemble du
Sables, graves
200 120 dimensionnement) ;
Pieux fors Le risque global (ARR) est la moyenne pondre de
lensemble des risques identifis ;
Sables, graves (qc<15 MPa) La valeur de (gb) est alors choisie en fonction du
250 40 tableau 4 ;
Pieux fors tubs tube rcupr
g est calcul en fonction du nombre et du type dessais,
Sables, graves (qc>20 MPa) et est gal gb en labsence dessais.
300 120
Pieux fors tubs tube rcupr Tableau 3. Choix des facteurs de risque (AS2159).
Risque Site Poids
Les combinaisons dactions prvalant au dimensionnement Complexit gologique 2
des pieux sollicits par des charges permanentes G sont les
suivantes : Importance de la reconnaissance de sol 2
ELU fondamental 1.35 G < (Qsu + Qpu) / 1.4
ELS quasi permanent G < (0.7 Qsu + 0.5 Qpu) / 1.4 Quantit et qualit des donnes gotechniques 2
Les combinaisons de dimensionnement ne varient pas en
Risque Dimensionnement Poids
fonction de la complexit du site, de la qualit de la
reconnaissance de sol, ou de la spcificit du problme. Exprience du mme type de fondations dans 1
La parution de lEurocode 7, et la mise en place progressive le mme contexte gotechnique
des annexes nationales spcifiques aux pieux conduit utiliser
de nouvelles mthodes de dimensionnement. Elles ne sont Mthode de dtermination des paramtres de 2
toutefois pas encore usuellement mises en uvre, lannexe dimensionnement
nationale Franaise portant sur le dimensionnement des Mthode de dimensionnement 1
fondations profondes tant parue en Juillet 2012.
Utilisation d'essais in situ et de mesures 2
2.2 Pratique Australienne pendant l'installation
Risque Installation Poids
La rglementation Australienne diffre par son approche. Celle-
ci accorde plus dimportance aux rsultats des CPT et aux essais Niveau de contrle pendant la construction 2
de laboratoire (donnant la cohsion et langle de frottement). Niveau de contrle du la structure pendant et 0.5
Les mthodes de prise en compte de la variabilit des actions et aprs la construction
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Par exemple, pour valuer le risque li la Complexit Un sable lche avec qc=5 MPa de 0 6m ;
gologique, les exemples suivants sont proposs dans Un sable moyennement compact avec qc=10 MPa de 6
lAS2159 : 15m ;
1 (trs faible risque) correspond des couches Un sable dense avec qc=20 MPa de 15 20 m.
subhorizontales, et des caractristiques de sols et de
roches bien dfinies ; Afin de simplifier la comparaison, un profil de
3 (risque moyen) correspond un site avec une dimensionnement unique est propos sur le log. On se reportera
variabilit notable, mais sans changements brusques de aux commentaires spcifiques chaque rglementation pour le
stratigraphies ; choix du profil de dimensionnement.
5 (risque trs lev) est utilis pour un site trs variable,
avec des karsts ou des failles impliquant le niveau de La charge de dimensionnement non pondre est de
fondation. 1 100 kN, constitue essentiellement de charges permanentes.
Tableau 4. Choix du coefficient gb (AS2159) pour un systme de 2.3.2 Dimensionnement suivant le Fascicule 62
fondation redondant.
Les classes de sol applicables suivant les catgories du fascicule
Moyenne pondre catgorie globale de
gb 62 sont :
du risque (ARR) risque
Un sable A (lche de 0 6m),
ARR < 1.5 Trs faible 0.76 Un sable B (moyennement compact de 6m 15m),
Un sable C (dense de 15m 20m).
1.5<ARR<2.0 Trs faible faible 0.70
Les caractristiques de la pointe sont les suivantes :
2.0<ARR<2.5 Faible 0.64
Kc = 0,15 (sable pieu mis en place sans refoulement)
2.5<ARR<3.0 Faible modr 0.60 qce = 20 MPa
qpu = 3 MPa
3.0<ARR<3.5 Modr 0.56 Rsistance en pointe : Qpu = S qpu = 850 kN
3.5<ARR<4.0 Modr fort 0.53
Pour ce qui concerne le frottement, les valeurs unitaires se
4.0<ARR<4.5 Fort 0.50 dcomposent comme suit :
Sable de 0 6m : qs = 20 kPa
ARR>4.5 Trs fort 0.47 Sable de 6 15m : qs = 40 kPa
Sable de 15 20m : qs = 65 kPa
2.3 Exemple de dimensionnement
La rsistance en frottement est : Qsu = qsi D li
Qsu = kN
2.3.1 Donnes gotechniques
Les vrifications suivantes sont effectues pour justifier
Lexemple retenu pour illustrer lutilisation des deux rglements quune longueur de pieu de 20m est juste suffisante :
portera sur le dimensionnement de pieux fors (Pieux fors
tubs tube rcupr) de 60 cm de diamtre. Tableau 5. Vrifications de capacit portante (Fascicule 62).
La capacit portante sera dtermine suivant le fascicule 62
et lAS 2159, avec le pntromtre statique dont le log est Charge Rsistance pondre du
Cas de charge
report sur la figure 1. pondre sol
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Cannon J.G.
Jonathan G Cannon
Independent Geoscience Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia, indgeo@optusnet.com.au
ABSTRACT: The paper will describe high strain and low strain dynamic pile testing that was used to assess the foundations for this
bridge and how the results led to an innovative decision during construction to change from a bored pile foundation to a driven pile
foundation. The revised construction used minimal extra equipment and materials. The foundations originally comprised
permanently cased bored piles socketed into rock. Dynamic pile testing identified significant problems with the concrete early in the
project. A number of attempts were made to correct the problems but to no avail. In addition, the down-the-hole hammer system
being used to install the casings was causing delays. The steel tube casings being used were substantial and a large hydraulic piling
hammer was on site for dynamic testing. A decision was made to drive the casings into soft rock far enough to generate the required
compression and tension resistance and to delete the concrete sockets. Dynamic pile testing was used to verify that the required
resistances were achieved.
RSUM : Cet article dcrit l'analyse dynamique dessais de pieux sous forte et sous faible dformation, effectue pour valuer les
fondations du pont, et montre comment les rsultats ont men une dcision innovante pendant la construction, passant de fondations
par pieux fors des fondations par pieux foncs. Le changement de construction ncessita peu d'quipements et matriaux
supplmentaires. Les fondations comprenaient l'origine des pieux fors dans la roche maintenus de manire permanente par des
conduites en bton. L'analyse dynamique des pieux mit en vidence un srieux problme li au bton ds le dbut du projet. Plusieurs
tentatives pour le rgler furent infructueuses. De plus, le systme de marteau de fond de trou utilis pour installer les pieux posait
problme et crait des retards. Les conduites en acier utilises taient de grande taille et un marteauhydraulique tait sur place. La
dcision fut prise d'enfoncer les boitiers dans une roche meuble assez profondment pour gnrer la compression et tension
ncessaires et de supprimer les conduites en en bton. L'analyse dynamique de pieu fut ensuite utilise pour vrifier que la rsistance
ncessaire tait atteinte.
KEYWORDS: Dynamic pile testing, Bridge Foundations, PDA, CAPWAP, Cross-Hole Sonic Logging, PIT, WEAP.
1 INTRODUCTION.
2 FOUNDATION CONDITIONS
The Mesa A bridge is located over the Robe River in the Pilbara
Region of Western Australia. Iron ore is mined from various Foundation conditions comprised saturated gravels and cobbles
Mesa, or low flat-topped mountains, in the area. The iron ore is over an extremely low to very low strength weathered shale.
carried directly from near the mine face by rail to a processing The depth to top of rock varied from 10m at the West Abutment
and export facility about 200km away. The trains are some of to 23m at the East Abutment. Although surface water rarely
the longest in the world and have some of the highest axle loads flowed during the "dry" season the ground water was near
in the world. At the bridge site the Robe River is dry on the surface level and was flowing through the gravels and cobbles.
surface for much of the year but up to 15m deep and fast- Surface pools were evident a short distance downstream from
flowing during the "wet" cyclone season. Significant scour of the site. An extensive site investigation was conducted with at
the foundations was expected. High lateral loading from river least one borehole at each pier location and sometimes two.
debris was also anticipated. The shale rock strength was variable and was logged as
During the "dry" construction season conditions are being of UCS about 0.4 to 1.0MPa, with some harder siliceous
arduous for construction work and, in particular, concreting bands and quartz intrusions. There were also bands that were
with daytime temperatures typically 38-42 C and within the completely weathered to a stiff clay.
construction zone in the low-lying riverbed they were frequently
higher. 3 INITIAL CONSTRUCTION METHOD
The Specification for the work included a test pile
separate from the bridge works, which was to be tested The Contractor submitted alternative pier foundations that
statically in tension, together with testing for integrity using comprised three raking piles in a tripod arrangement as shown
cross-hole sonic logging (CSL). The contractor offered high below. (Figure 1). The tripod arrangement meant there were no
strain dynamic testing with a Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) as redundancies and it was absolutely essential for every pile to
an alternative to the static test. The client required PDA testing perform as designed. Abutment foundations comprised four
at 40kHz, which required the newest PAX model PDA. vertical piles. The size of the abutments meant there was the
possibility of installing extra piles to augment any under-
strength piles.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2706
Uplift behavior of bored piles in tropical unsaturated sandy soil
Comportement en traction de pieux fors en sol tropical sablonneux non satur
Carvalho de D.
State University of Campinas, Brazil
Rocha de Albuquerque P.J.
State University of Campinas, Brazil
ABSTRACT: Large deposits of high-porosity, unsaturated, sandy soils are found in the southern central region of Brazil, to several
meters of depth. This region regularly sees increases in uplift loads in structures such as wind energy and power transmission towers.
For the current study uplift load tests were conducted on three bored piles,10m depth and with respective diameters of 0.35m, 0.4m
and 0.5m. The piles were instrumented with strain gauges connected in full bridge at five depth levels. The load vs. displacement and
the load transfer curves along the depth were obtained. The data obtained from the field tests (CPT, SPT) and laboratory tests (c, , n)
were used to predict the ultimate loads of the piles. The calculated ultimate load values were compared with those obtained in the
piles load tests. The tests were carried out on the campus at the University of So Paulo, in the city of So Carlos. The average
composition of the subsoil is sand (62%), clay (22%) and silt (16%), with an average porosity of 45%. The field tests produced
average values of NSPT=5, qc=1700kPa and fs=98kPa, respectively. The water table was encountered at a depth of 10m.
RSUM : Dans la rgion centrale sud du Brsil on trouve de grands dpts de sols sablonneux, non-saturs, jusqu' plusieurs mtres
de profondeur. Laugmentation des tensions verticales de soutien de charge est frquente dans cette rgion pour des structures comme
des tours doliennes et des lignes de transmission d'nergie. Pour cette recherche ont t raliss des essais darrachage sur trois
pieux fors 10m de profondeur et avec des diamtres de 0,35m, 0,40m et 0,50m. Les pieux ont t instruments avec des jauges de
dformation connectes en ponts complets cinq niveaux le long de lencastrement. On a obtenu des courbes charge/dplacement et
le transfert de charge le long de lencastrement. Les donnes des essais in situ (CPT ,SPT) et des essais en laboratoires (c, , n) ont
t employes pour prvoir les charges ultimes des pieux. Les valeurs calcules ont t compares avec les valeurs obtenues dans les
essais de charge. Les essais ont t raliss dans le Campus da Universit de So Paulo, dans la ville de So Carlos. La composition
moyenne du sous-sol est sable (62%), argile (22%) et limon (16%), avec porosit moyenne de 45%. Les essais in situ ont indiqu
des valeurs moyennes de NSPT=5, qc=1700kPa et fs=98kPa. Le niveau deau a t trouv 10m de profondeur.
KEYWORDS: uplift load test; unsaturated sandy soil; bored pile; instrumented pile.
1 INTRODUCTION open hole down to the level of the water table, situated at a
depth of 10 meters.
The southern central region of Brazil possesses vast areas of The tests characterized the subsoil down to a depth of 10
sandy soil where the water table is often deeper than 10 meters. meters as being made up of two layers, primarily composed of
This unsaturated soil condition, combined with the lateritic soil, fine lateritic sand separated by a line of boulders at a depth of
enables the use of bored piles, with no need to line the 6.5 m. The soil in the first layer is characterized as Cenozoic
boreholes in the vast majority of constructions. Where these sediment and in the second layer as sandstone of the Bauru
foundations are subjected to uplift forces, there is some debate
Group. Table 1 shows the average values for the geotechnical
as to which method to use to calculate the ultimate load.
parameters of the subsoil in the chosen location.
Consequently, this study, by way of the performance of three
uplift load tests on instrumented bored piles, analyzes the
Table 1. Average geotechnical parameters
mechanism for transferring load to the subsoil as well as
Depth 1m6m 6 m 12m
ascertaining the applicability of the methods for calculating
Formation Sediment Residual
ultimate load that are available within the technical milieu. This
n (kN/m3) 16.3 18.9
study was conducted on the campus of the University of So
w (%) 16 16
Paulo, located in the city of So Carlos, in the state of So Gs 2.73 2.76
Paulo, Brazil. Geographically, its location is defined by the e 0.94 0.71
coordinates 22 01' 22 South and 47 53' 38 West. n(%) 48 42
2 GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS Sr ( % ) 47 62
LL (%) 28 32
The region sits on rocks of the So Bento Group, composed of IP (%) 11 17
Sand (%) 62 61
sandstone of the Botucatu and Pirambia formations and by
Silt (%) 13 10
ridges of basalt rocks of the Serra Geral formation. On top of
Clay (%) 25 19
these rocks appears sandstone of the Bauru Group, followed by c' (kPa) 6 20
Cenozoic sediment. ' 30 23
Close to the piles used in the study, five CPT tests and five SPT - N72 4 7
SPT tests were carried out. Laboratory testing was carried out CPT qc (MPa) 1.07 2.36
on both disturbed and undisturbed soil samples collected via an CPT fs (kPa) 45 150
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
N.B. n (bulk specific weight), w (water content), Gs (grain density), e Figure 3 shows, for the ultimate loads and working loads,
(avoid ratio), n (porosity), Sr (degree of saturation), c (cohesion CD (Qult/2) the lateral friction for each pile segment, recognizing a
triaxial); ' (friction angle CD triaxial) rupture in the pile-soil interaction.
Three 10m long auger bored piles were inserted with respective
diameters of 0.35m, 0.4m and 0.5m. The boring was carried out
without using water. The concreting was carried out
immediately following the opening of the holes. The simple
compression resistance of the concrete used was 26MPa at 28
days.
The reinforcement of the piles consisted of two 20mm and
two 32mm corrugated steel bars, both 10m in length.
The instruments consisted of strain gauges at five levels
along the depth (0.6m reference section; 3.1m; 5.3m; 7.5m;
9.7m). The strain gauges were connected in full bridge to 20mm
steel bars, 0.6m long, which were screwed to the reinforcement.
At each level along the depth, two diametrically opposed,
instrumented bars were installed (Figure 1).
Tell tales were also installed on the piles but these did not
give precise readings for analysis due to the low displacement
values measured.
The load tests were of the slow maintained load type, with Figure 4 shows the average lateral friction curves resulting
successive 40kN loads, observing the principles of Brazilian from shaft displacement. Tables 2, 3 and 4 show the load values
standard NBR 12131. The reaction system comprised root piles at depth for all piles.
16m long with a diameter of 0.25m, for a working load of
500kN, and four I-shaped steel beams with a load capacity of
2MN. Loads were measured using load cell with a capacity of
1MN and displacement was measured using four dial gauges to
within an accuracy of 0.01mm. The ultimate loads (Qult)
obtained were 387kN, 440kN and 478kN respectively. The load
vs. displacement curves obtained are shown in Figure 2.
Load (kN)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0
5
Displacement (mm)
10
0,35m
Figure 4. Average skin friction x shaft displacement curves.
0,40m
15
0,50m
Table 2. Load at depth for the 0.35m pile.
440 kN
20 387kN
Load at top Load at respective levels (kN)
(kN) 3.1m 5.3m 7.5m 9.7m
25 40 35 29 27 21
80 76 47 41 23
478 kN
30 120 107 90 70 23
Figure 2. Load vs. displacement curves. 160 146 119 80 21
200 171 140 91 23
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
240 210 167 103 25 Table 5. Ratio of the ultimate load value obtained in the load test to the
280 253 196 115 27 calculated value
320 280 222 126 23 Ratio
360 315 253 154 23 0.35m 0.4m 0.5m
PUlt.PC / PUlt.Cal
387 - 272 161 23 Meyerhof and Adams (1968) 2.03 1.79 1.26
Meyerhof (1973) 0.71 0.66 0.51
Table 3. Load at depth for the 0.4m pile. Das (1983) 1.21 1.00 0.85
Load at top Load at respective levels (kN)
Martin (1966) - Univ. Grenoble 0.82 0.81 0.68
(kN) 3.1m 5.3m 7.5m 9.7m
LCPC (Fellenius, 2012) 1.21 1.19 1.00
40 37 35 32 1
Aoki and Velloso (1975) SPT 2.16 2.13 1.79
80 64 56 46 3
120 118 104 75 11 Aoki and Velloso (1975) CPT 2.30 2.29 1.99
160 150 126 83 11
Decourt (1996) 1.08 1.06 0.89
200 187 158 110 11
Philiponnat (1978) 1.44 1.14 0.96
240 217 185 123 11
280 249 211 136 11
320 284 233 144 11
360 318 265 163 11 For the two soil layers, the average skin friction ratios for the
400 340 278 166 8 piles based on the results of the CPT tests are sf1=0.5.fs1,
440 - 302 190 8 sf2=0.3.fs2, sf1=0.02.qc1, sf2=0.02.qc2, respectively. By
expressing the ratios sf = k.fs and sf = C.qc, the values for k
Table 4. Load at depth for the 0.5m pile demonstrated by Slami and Fellenius (1977) range from 0.8 to 2
Load at top Load at respective levels (kN) while those for C range from 0.008 to 0.018 for sandy soils.
(kN) 3.1m 5.3m 7.5m 9.7m Bustamante and Gianeselli (1982) present the C coefficient
40 36 32 32 4 ranging from 0.005 to 0.03, as governed by the magnitude of the
80 79 68 65 7 cone resistance, type of soil and type of pile.
120 119 111 93 22
The LCPC Method (in Fellenius 2012), based on the
160 158 133 101 18
200 183 158 120 22
experimental work of Bustamante and Gianeselli (1982),
240 212 180 133 40 establishes that sf=C.qc, for bored piles in sand and with a qc of
280 248 208 151 29 less than 5MPa, the value of C is equal to 1/60. Given these
320 287 241 162 29 values, sf1=19kPa and sf2=39kPa can be computed, values
360 320 269 176 29 which are close to those obtained in the load tests, namely
400 348 295 194 40 21kPa and 45kPa, respectively.
440 377 320 216 18 Using the method espoused by Dcourt (1996), which uses
478 - 345 233 18 SPT test data, tensile ultimate load values were calculated for
the three piles. According to the current suggestion of the
5 ANALYSIS author, it is also necessary to use a correction coefficient (L)
due to the soil being lateritic. In this case, L=1.2 was used,
The load tests show, for the ultimate load, an average skin giving rise to the results presented in Table 3.
friction (sf) for the three piles of 21kPa (sf1) for the Cenozoic The method proposed by Martin (1966) and developed at the
sediment layer and 45kPa (sf2) for the residual soil layer. University of Grenoble, includes various important aspects such
From Figure 4 it can be seen that the almost total as cohesion, angle of friction, overload, specific soil mass and
mobilization of skin friction is for 5mm displacement.. the weight of the foundations themselves. Moreover, it is
Fellenius (2012) showed that, to mobilize the ultimate pile shaft recognized that the rupture surface forms an angle at the base
resistance requires very small relative movement between the of the pile. In the calculations performed, the hypothesis of
pile and the soil, usually only a few millimeters in inorganic angle equal to zero was the one which most closely
soils and that the direction of the movement has no effect on the approximated the load test results.
load-movement for the shaft resistance. That is, push or pull, The method proposed by Meyerhof (1973) considers
positive or negative, the maximum shear stress is the same. adhesion, pile-soil angle of friction, effective vertical stress and
Moreover, the movement necessary for full mobilization of the a pull-out coefficient that depends on the angle of friction of the
shaft resistance is independent of the diameter of the pile. soil and the type of pile. The method employed by Das (1983)
was developed for sandy soils and includes the pile-soil angle of
In analyses using semi-empirical formulae, the rupture in the friction and a pull-out coefficient which depend on the relative
pile-soil contact area was assumed. As the soil being studied density of the sand, the pile-soil angle of friction and the soils
was soft sand and the piles were relatively short, the tensile skin angle of friction. The problem with these two methods lies in
friction was assumed to be equal to the compression skin the correct definition of the abovementioned parameters.
friction. Poulos (2011) states that for piles in medium dense to In order to predict the ultimate loads from the load vs.
dense sands, this ratio typically ranges between 0.7 and 0.9, but displacement curves of the load tests, the method employed was
tends towards unity for relatively short piles, and that a that proposed by Dcourt (1999) based on the stiffness concept
significant advance in the understanding of this problem was (Fellenius 2012), which divides each load with its
made by Nicola and Randolph (1993). corresponding movement and plots the resulting value against
the applied load, Figure 5. Ultimate load prediction simulations
Table 5 shows the results obtained in the load tests (PUlt.PC) were performed, without using all of the load vs. displacement
compared to those obtained from the methods employed to curve data and it was found that, starting from 70% of the
predict the ultimate load of the piles (PUlt.Cal.). maximum load in the test, the method presents good results in
terms of determining the ultimate load.
The average tensile skin-friction values found are close to
the values found in compression load tests with the same type of
pile in the same soil.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3000 8 REFERENCES
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the So Paulo Research Foundation
(Fapesp), the University of So Paulo (EESC-USP) and the
university lecturers Jos Henrique Albiero and Judy
N.R.Mantilla.
2710
Essais de chargement statique de pieux en bois instruments avec des
extensomtres amovibles
Timber pile load test instrumented with removable extensometers
ABSTRACT: Timber piles were used in France until the 19th Century. They cannot currently be proposed in projects as they are not
implemented in the French pile design methods. Nevertheless, their domain of application has widened with retrofitting and reuse of
all historical structures and sustainable development. The research project Pieux Bois (2010-2013) has the objective of beginning to
establish a database necessary for design methods. The first pile loading test campaign carried out in Rouen on piles instrumented
with removable extensometers, shows interesting results.
RSUM : Les pieux en bois, utiliss en France jusquau 19me sicle, ne peuvent pas lheure actuelle rentrer dans les mthodes de
dimensionnement franaises bases sur le pressiomtre (dveloppes dans les annes 50). Nanmoins, leur domaine dapplication
trouve un cho favorable pour la rhabilitation de vieux ouvrages et dans la dynamique actuelle du dveloppement durable. Le projet
de recherche Pieux Bois (2010-2013) a pour objectif de commencer tablir la base de donnes ncessaire pour les rgles de
dimensionnement. La premire campagne dessais de pieux, instruments laide de lextensomtre amovible, ralis sur le port de
Rouen, donne accs des rsultats tout fait intressants.
KEYWORDS: Foundation, wood, timber pile, pile loading tests.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1.3 Caractristiques mcaniques des pieux Dans un premier temps, une saigne de 80mm de largeur et
La non-linarit des pieux en bois rendant difficile le calcul de de 60 mm de profondeur a t ralise sur toute la longueur du
leur volume, la masse volumique des pieux a t dtermine en pieu, au niveau de la section o le pieu tait le plus rectiligne.
laboratoire partir dune tranche prleve en tte de pieux. Des pattes de fixation, de 60mm de large et 80mm de long,
La masse des pieux a t mesure aprs usinage, c'est--dire ont t fixes dans la saigne au droit des futurs emplacements
aprs la taille de la pointe et la ralisation de la saigne des bloqueurs. Les pattes taient espaces les unes des autres de
accueillant les tubes logement du systme de mesure. 75 cm (Figure 1).
Dans le but de disposer du module dlasticit longitudinal Des fentres de 26cm de longueur et de 80mm de largeur ont
moyen de chaque pieu, une analyse vibratoire couple un t usines sur un tube mtallique section rectangulaire de
modle aux lments finis (MEF) a t mise en uvre. Dans un dimensions 80mm * 60mm. Ce tube mtallique (qualifi de tube
premier temps, le profil en long de chaque pieu ainsi que leur extrieur) est venu chapeauter et protger lensemble patte de
masse totale ont t mesurs. En plaant le pieu sur deux fixation + tubes de logement dans la saigne. Il a t fix au
appuis, celui-ci a t mis en vibration libre. A laide de trois bois avec des vis et des tirefonds (Figure 2).
acclromtres, la premire frquence propre a t obtenue par La pointe des pieux a t usine en forme pyramidale.
analyse frquentielle. Aprs avoir rintroduit le profil en long Lextrmit du tube extrieur au niveau de la pointe a t
du pieu et sa masse dans le MEF, le module moyen tenant biseaute de sorte que le biseau soit dans le prolongement dune
compte dun rapport E/G de 16 a t retrouv pour chaque pieu. des faces de la pointe. La pointe a t renforce avec 4 plats
Le tableau 2 prsente les caractristiques mcaniques des mtalliques (un sur chaque face) dont lun a t soud au biseau
huit pieux. du tube extrieur (Figure 2).
Deux plats diamtralement opposs et distants de 20 cm
Tableau 2. Caractristiques mcaniques des pieux en bois (distance constante sur tous les pieux) ont t usins sur la tte
Essence Masse
Masse Frquence Module du pieu. Ils avaient pour objectifs de faciliter la fixation du
(numro) (kg)
volumique rsonance dYoung casque de battage au pieu lors de la phase chantier.
(kg/m3) (Hz) (MPa)
Htre (1) 136 475 18,2 6400
Htre (2) 275 709 21,1 9100
Pin (3) 153 572 19,9 9370
Pin (4) 120 587 20,5 9900
Chne (5) 201 723 16,4 8150
Chne (10) 192 723 14,6 6980
Acacia (8) 150 806 15,2 10970
Acacia (9) 153 757 18,8 13320
0m
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
la tte des pieux et le marteau a t mis en place sur les ttes des 20
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
celle des efforts repris par les tronons A et B (QB), modulant 140
les longueurs des tronons. A
Hp 120
(3)
Qp QA (QB QA)* B
Frottement (kPa)
HA 100
0,18
200
2,0
La dispersion des valeurs du frottement latral unitaire en
C fonction de la pression limite montre que la nature de lessence
2,5
de bois na pas dinfluence sur le comportement du pieu dans le
3,0
B
sol.
3,5 Les mesures de rsistance de pointe des pieux ont permis de
A
dterminer un coefficient de portance kp,exp. Il est dfini comme
4,0
Pointe de pieu
le ratio entre la rsistance de pointe unitaire qp,exp et la pression
4,5 limite quivalente ple* sous la fondation qui a t prise gale
5,0 0,75Mpa dans l'argile sableuse. La moyenne des coefficients de
Rsistance de pointe
portance issus des rsultats exprimentaux est de 2,15.
Figure 8. Dformation unitaires et distribution de charge du pieu n1
A effort constant, les dformations les plus importantes sont 5 CONCLUSIONS
mesures sur le tronon E, situ en dessous de la tte du pieu.
La diminution progressive des dformations des tronons E A Les essais de chargement raliss sur des pieux en bois de
montre que les tronons reprennent une partie de leffort diffrentes essences ont permis de dterminer des premires
appliqu en tte de pieu par frottement avec le sol. valeurs du frottement latral unitaire et de la rsistance de
On observe une rupture de pente pour un effort de 220kN, pointe. Ces valeurs sont ncessaires la proposition dune
plus marque sur les tronons A, B et C que sur les tronons D courbe de frottement unitaire limite le long du ft des pieux en
et E. Cet effort marque la limite entre le domaine lastique et le bois.
domaine plastique du sol linterface sol-pieu. Ces essais ont mis en vidence que la nature de lessence
Pour une charge infrieure 220kN, les dformations des ninterviendrait pas dans les caractristiques mcaniques de
tronons voluent pseudo-linairement avec leffort appliqu en linterface sol-bois.
tte. On retrouve cette relation pseudo-linaire entre la charge
applique en tte et le tassement du pieu dans le sol. Jusqu 6 REMERCIEMENTS
220kN, la mobilisation du frottement le long du pieu augmente
Les auteurs remercient le projet Pieux Bois, le GPMR le
avec la charge.
SETRA et lentreprise GTS pour leur aide et leur contribution
Pour une charge suprieure 220kN, lvolution des
apporte durant le projet. Les auteurs remercient galement le
dformations des tronons en fonction de leffort appliqu en
MEDDE pour le financement du projet dans le cadre du
tte nest plus linaire. Le frottement linterface sol-pieu est
programme C2D2.
intgralement mobilis. Le sol linterface commence fluer.
La distribution des efforts permet de remonter la loi de
mobilisation du frottement des tronons du pieu en fonction de 7 REFERENCES
leur dplacement. Les courbes (Figure 9) sont caractrises par Bustamante M. et Jzquel J.-F. 1975. Mesure des longuations dans les
une phase pseudo-linaire, une rupture de pente puis un plateau pieux et tirants laide dextensomtres amovibles, Travaux (489)
(ou un pic) reprsentatif de latteinte du frottement latral AFNOR, Norme NFP94-262. 2012. Justification des ouvrages
maximum. gotechniques, normes dapplication nationale de lEurocode 7.
2714
Pylon foundation of a cable stayed bridge at the motorway ring road of Wrocaw
Fondation dun pylne du pont suspendu du priphrique de lautoroute de Wrocaw
ABSTRACT: The largest bridge of the motorway ring road of Wroclaw is a cable stayed bridge over the Odra river near Rdzin. Due
to hydrogeological conditions of the ground it was not convenient to use standard bored piles of high length. Instead shorter piles
were applied with additional improvement by cement injections at the pile toes. This decision was possible by extending ground
investigation program and application of numerical modeling of the soil-structure interaction with nonstandard material models of the
overconsolidated clayey deposits. Sufficient stiffness and bearing capacity of piles was approved by field tests. Overall performance
of the foundation was monitored during construction and after completion of the bridge. Comparison of settlements predicted during
design and obtained in the monitoring is presented and discussed.
RSUM : La plus grande construction sur le priphrique de lautoroute de Wrocaw est le pont suspendu sur le fleuve Odra
Rdzin. Lutilisation des pieux normaliss de grandes longueurs a t juge inconvenable cause des conditions hydro-gologiques.
Les pieux de grands diamtres raccourcis avec un renforcement de la base par linjection de ciment ont t donc utiliss. Une telle
solution a t rendue possible grce un programme largi de caractrisation du sous-sol ce qui a permit de raliser les calculs du
projet en utilisant des modles de comportement non standards adapts aux matriaux grains fins surconsolids. La rigidit et la
rsistance correspondante des fondations sur pieux ont t confirmes par les essais de chargement in situ. Le comportement de la
fondation en entier a t contrl durant sa construction et durant la priode dexploitation aprs la fin des travaux. Les dplacements
de la fondation valus en cours de projet et aprs, par observation, ont t prsents et discuts.
KEYWORDS: piled-raft foundations, pile foundations, finite element analysis
1 INTRODUCTION silty sands and sandy silts with confined water table under high
pressure was found.
Main section of the bridge of 612m length will be suspended
from a single pylon of 122m high. Large loading from the pylon Table. 1: Characteristic values of basic geotechnical parameters
structure causes the design of the foundation to be a challenging Layer Soils () c Eoed
geotechnical problem due to high level of loads to be safely
3 o
[kN/m ] [] [kPa] [kPa]
transmitted into the subsoil. In the case of the cable-stayed Cl, siCl,
bridge over the Odra river the highest characteristic vertical IIa/IIb 21,0/11,0 15,0 5,0 30 000 0,20
Si
load, considered among various combinations of loads analysed
by the designer, transmitted onto the support was estimated to MSa,
IIIa 19,0/10,0 33,0 1,0 85 000 0,20
be 776.0 MN. Dimensions of the bridge makes it the highest CSa,
object of that type in Poland.
FSa
MSa,
2 SOIL AND WATER CONDITIONS IIIb 20,0/10,0 35,0 1,0 150 000 0,15
CSa,
Designed foundation will be placed in the central part of grCSa
Rdzin Island within the main Odra river bed. The island is
connected with the river banks and mainland through two grCSa,
IIIc 20,0/10,0 35,0 1,0 220 000 0,15
Rdzin locks, which are located ca. 70 m north and through Gr
historical weir, located ca. 110 m south-west. The area
Cl, siCl,
designated for foundation is 67.4 m x 28.0 m. Va 21,5/11,5 23,0 18,0 40 000 0,20
The terrain under foundation is basically flat with mean Cl, siCl,
elevation of 112.8 m a.s.l. From the geomorphological point of Va* 21,5/11,5 23,0 18,0 100 000 0,20
view it is located in Wrocaw-Magdeburg ice-marginal valley siSa
Vc 20,5/11,0 32,0 1,0 85 000 0,15
(Odra River valley), 10 km wide and filled with Pleistocene and
Holocene river sediments with several terraces at various levels.
The surface layer of fills and normally consolidated river To the depth of 50 m below the subsoil surface there were no
accumulation formations 2.0 m thick lies on dense coarse weak soils found. Tertiary clays are characterized by good
material of the thickness of 6-7 m with unconfined water table strength and stiffness. The only problem related to the depth of
at the mean elevation of 107.6 m a.s.l. Below coarse sediments the pylon foundation are local water percolations and high water
there are fine soils of tertiary origin represented by clays and pressures in confined aquifers. The most unfavorable foundation
locally silty sands. In this continuous, 15 m thick layer local and execution conditions have been assumed for the further
water percolations are observed. Below it, thin layer (2.5 m) of calculations and analyses, see Figure 1 and Table 1.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4 CALCULATIONS
At the preliminary stage of the foundation design several
schemes of pile foundation system were analyzed. In the
simplest scheme no direct soil - foundation slab interaction as
well as infinite stiffness of slab were assumed (rigid foundation
method). Here, maximal compression force in pile was
estimated at the level of 7200 kN for the envelope of maximum
moments acting at the top of foundations, whereas minimum
Figure 1: Characteristic geotechnical cross-section with the compression force was 5300 kN. In the next calculation stage
simplified system of layers. the foundation was analysed as boundary-value problem solved
by finite element method. The discretization was based on
3 TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTION OF THE FOUNDATION structural elements such as shells and beams resting on elastic
supports. The characteristics of elastic supports have been
Four alternatives regarding the foundation of the pylon were calculated based on the stiffness of soil layers. The soil response
being considered i.e.: shallow foundation in the layer of dense under the slab was assumed as uniform passive ground pressure
coarse soils, foundation on the diaphragm walls, foundation on equal to 100 kPa. It allowed to assess the values of internal
the block made of jet-grouting columns and foundation on large forces in the foundation slab and in the piles. These forces were
diameter bored piles. Finally, the latest concept has been necessary for design of the reinforcement. The maximum
assumed for design. Additionally bored piles were strengthened calculated axial force in the pile was 7367 kN and meets
by the injection under the pile base. Such solution was found to standard bearing capacity condition just on the edge of safety
be optimal technologically in the soil conditions. The concept of whereas maximum bending moment was 4742 kNm.
shallow foundation was rejected due to small thickness of
coarse material below the foundation level. In the case of
diaphragm walls the problem might be low shaft bearing
capacity. The foundation on the block made of injection
columns has been rejected due to large volume and mass of the
block.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
elements is independent of the mesh representing soil (so called expressing the dependence of the stiffness on effective stress
embedded piles). Bearing capacity of the pile base is modelled and 0.7 is shear strain at which shear modulus Gref decreases
by equivalent force. Its value is calculated based on the stress about 30% with respect to G0 initial modulus at reference
state and bearing capacity of a soil at the level of pile base. stress pref (see Fig. 5).
Schemes of plane strain and three dimensional models are
shown in Figs. 3 and 4. G0
s
t
G G
s
G =0.7G0
G [kPa ]
co /0.7
/ =1.0
Gtmin
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
/[-]
Figure 5: Dependence of shear modulus on shear strains. Gt=Gref
and Gs are tangent and secant shear moduli, respectively and Gtmin is a
minimal shear modulus at the accumulation of shear strain co.
(1)
(2)
where G and Gref are current and reference tangent shear moduli
respectively, Gref = Eref/(2(1-)) at mean reference stress
pref = 200 kPa; is the stress tensor; = 0.5 is power parameter
2717
test piles, extensometer measuring system to control the
distribution of force along the pile was installed. The goal of
these measurements was to investigate the distribution of load
transmitted by the pile shaft and th
base. It is also useful to assess
the force Proceedingsgenerated of the at 18 the International
pile base due Conference
to injection. on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Additionally, extensometer measurements were planned for the
case of unfavorable bearing capacity test results. The
measurement results would be useful for the analysis of the
reasons of too low bearing capacity (shaft of pile or its base).
5TheLOAD TESTS OF
extensometers were INDIVIDUAL
installed at PILES. seven levels distributed 6 FIELD MEASUREMENTS
along the pile length.
In order to verify the design assumptions as well as to meet After piling and pylon slab construction, six benchmarks
general0 recommendations
2000 4000 regarding
6000 pile
8000 foundations,
10000 the
12000 were placed on the slab surface in characteristic points (see
0
bearing capacity of piles was investigated by static load Q [kN]tests. figure X). Since 11.09.2009 till now the vertical displacements
5
Due to importance of the construction as well as from the of foundation are geodetically monitored. After every stage of
design
10 assumptions,
5 LOAD TESTS OF INDIVIDUAL PILES. the load tests program was extended (after bridge
6 FIELD loading vertical displacement were measured. Currently
MEASUREMENTS
the15 agreement of the designer Piles No and investor).
62, 71, 74 In order to examine bridge is fully loaded, and settlements are in a stabilisation
s [mm]
Consolidating
Consolidating Soil-Pile
Soil-Pile Interaction
Interaction
Interaction
Interaction pieux-sol
pieux-sol en
en cours
cours de
de consolidation
consolidation
ABSTRACT: Soft clay is consolidated upon any slight change in the effective vertical stress. Consolidation causes a downdrag
movement to the shaft piles that penetrate this layer. The downdrag movement adds additional loads to the already loaded pile. This
force is expressed as a negative skin friction. Negative skin friction extends to a depth depending on the consolidating soil-pile
interaction. This depth is referred to as the neutral plan.
This paper presents a study on the behavior of soil-pile interaction during soil consolidation. Experimental work was developed to
analyze the negative skin friction and the location of the neutral plane on a single pile embedded in soft clay layer. The pile is ended
either in clay or sand soil, or is floated. The clay layer was allowed to consolidate. The study concluded that the neutral plane is
located closer to the end of the pile as the end bearing increases. The depth of neutral plane increases by increasing the embedded
length of the pile in the clay layer. Closed form equations of Shong, 2002, predict the experimental results in very well agreement.
RSUM : Une argile molle se consolide sous leffet dune augmentation de la contrainte verticale effective. Cette consolidation
provoque un dplacement vertical des pieux qui pntrent la couche de sol. Ce mouvement ajoute des charges supplmentaires au pieu
dj charg. Cette force peut tre exprime en frottement latral ngatif et stendre en profondeur en fonction de linteraction sol-
pieux en cours de consolidation. Cette profondeur est dfinie comme tant le plan neutre.
Cet article prsente une tude sur le comportement de l'interaction sol-pieux lors de la consolidation des sols. Un travail exprimental a
t dvelopp pour analyser le frottement ngatif et l'emplacement du plan neutre sur un seul pieu fond dans une couche dargile. La
couche dargile peut se consolider. L'tude montre que le plan neutre se situe prs de lextrmit du pieu ou la charge augmente. Ainsi,
la profondeur du plan neutre augmente en mme temps que la longueur du pieu. Ces rsultats sont en accord avec ceux de Shong,
2002.
KEYWORDS: soft clay consolidation, pile foundation, negative skin friction, down drag movement neutral plane, floating piles
2719
1
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Shong approach Proceedings
is adaptedofinthe
the18analysis
International Conference
of the results on Soil Mechanics
in this Table (1) and Geotechnical
illustrates Engineering, program.
the experimental Paris 2013Three cases
study. of boundary conditions were considered in this study. The first
ShongThisapproach is adapteda in
paper represents the to
study analysis of thethe
investigate results in this
behavior of caseTable
is the(1)
pileillustrates
ended in the the experimental
clay layer. This program. Three
represents claycases
end
study. interaction during soil consolidation. Since full-scale
soil-pile of boundary
bearing case.conditions
The second werecaseconsidered in this
is the pile study.
ended The sand
in the first
Thisofpaper
testing the represents
influence aofstudy
the tolarge
investigate
numbertheofbehavior of
variables case
layer.is And
the pile ended
the last in represents
case the clay layer. Thispile.
floating represents
That is,clay end
the pile
soil-pile interaction
involved duringunreasonable,
is economically soil consolidation. Sincelaboratory
a simulated full-scale bearing case. The
passes through second
the lower case
plate andis not
the resting
pile ended
on anyin soil.
the sand
This
testing of the
experiment has influence of the large
been designated. number
A special of variables
rig was designed layer.
case is And
aimedthetolast case represents
investigate the purefloating pile. Thatwithout
shaft resistance is, the pile
the
involved
and is economically
constructed unreasonable,
for this purpose. a simulated
In order laboratory
to carry out the passes through
interference the end
of the lower plate and not resting on any soil. This
condition.
experiment hasexperimental
investigations, been designated.
program A was
special rig was designed
developed. case is aimed to investigate the pure shaft resistance without the
and constructed for this purpose. In order to carry out the interference
Table of thecases
(1) Different endwith
condition.
code for each test
investigations, experimental program was developed. No. Cases Pile L/d Pile Code No. of
2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK Table (1) DifferentDiameter
cases with code for each
Lengthtest Strain
No. Cases Pile
(cm) L/d Pile
(cm) Code No.
gages of
2 EXPERIMENTAL
(Nasser 2010) arranged WORK
the experimental rig as shown in Figure 1 Diameter
1.5 10 Length
15 L15EC Strain 3
(end bearing
1. Three P.V.C circular model piles with different diameters of 2 (cm) 15 (cm) L22.5EC gages
22.5 3
(Nasser
1.5, 2 and2010)
2.5 arranged
cm were the experimental
chosen to model rig
theaspile
shown in Figure
in this study. 13 1.5 10
20 15
30 L15EC
L30EC 34
I (endI bearing
clay EC)
1. Three P.V.C
Compression circular
tests model piles
were carried out onwith different of
a specimen diameters
this P.V.Cof 24 2 15
10 22.5
20 L22.5EC
L20EC 33
1.5, 2 to
pipes anddetermine
2.5 cm were chosen to
its modulus of model the pile
elasticity. Theinmodulus
this study.
of 35 20
15 30
30 L30EC
L30EC 44
clay EC)
Compression
elasticity tests
of the were
pile carriedP.V.C
material; out onisa specimen of this2.P.V.C
1500000 KN/m The 46 2 10
20 20
40 L20EC
L40EC 34
CASECASE
pipes toofdetermine
surface the pile isits modulus of elasticity. The modulus of
smooth. 57 2.5 15
10 30
25 L30EC
L25EC 44
elasticity of the pile material; P.V.C is 1500000 KN/m2. The 68 20
15 40
37.5 L40EC
L37.5EC 44
surface of experimental
Fig. 1 The the pile is smooth.
rig 79 2.5
1.5 10
10 25
15 L25EC
L15ES 34
(end bearing
8
10 15
15 37.5
22.5 L37.5EC
L22.5ES 43
Fig.Two
1 Thelayers of sandrigwith depth 5cm for each layer. One of
experimental 9
11 1.5 10
20 15
30 L15ES
L30ES 43
II (endII bearing
sand ES)
10
12 2 15
10 22.5
20 L22.5ES
L20ES 33
Two layers of sand with depth 5cm for each layer. One of 11 20 30 L30ES 44
13 15 30 L30ES
sand ES)
The applied
surcharge
th
12
14 2 10
20 20
40
CASECASE L20ES
L40ES 43
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics
13 and Geotechnical15 Engineering,
30 Paris 2013
L30ES
Circular
The applied
plate 15 2.5 10 25 L25ES 44
Dial Gauge surcharge
14
16 20
15 40
37.5 L40ES
L37.5ES 44
Shong approach is adapted in Circular the analysis of the results in this
plate 15
17
Table (1) illustrates
Floating 2.5
2.5
the experimental
10
10 25 program.
25 L25ES
L25F
Three44 cases
study. Dial Gauge P.V.C pipe of16
18boundary
(F) conditions were15
15considered
37.5
37.5 in this
L37.5ESstudy.
L37.5F The 44 first
This paper represents a study to investigate the behavior of
250 mm
case
19 is Floating
17 the pile ended
2.5 in the 10
clay layer.
20 50 This represents
25 L25F
L50F clay
44 end
soil-pile interaction during P.V.C soilpipeconsolidation. Since full-scale
250 mm
bearing
18 case.
(F) The second 15 case is 37.5
the pile L37.5F
ended in the4 sand
Steel
testing of the influence of the large number
Circular plate of variables
Data Logger
layer.
19 And the last case represents
20 floating
50 pile.
L50FThat is, the
4 pile
involved is economically unreasonable,
50 mm
Steel
a simulated laboratory passes
3 RESULTSthrough AND
the lower plate and not resting on any soil. This
ANALYSIS
experiment has been designated. Circular
A special rig
plate
Strain gauge was designed
Data Logger case is aimed to investigate the pure shaft resistance without the
3interference
RESULTS AND endANALYSIS
50 mm
Steel rod
Compression tests were carried outPerforated
100 mm
on aplatespecimen of this P.V.C reaching
4 the early peak.
2 The
10 other strains
20 continue
L20EC increasing
3
pipes to determine its modulus until
5 the end of the test. 15 30 L30EC 4
Steelof
rod elasticity. The modulus of
Valve
these layers placed on the surface of soft soil and the second 10 15 22.5 L22.5ES 3
layerTwo under layers of sand with depth 5cm for each layer. One of
the soil. 11 20 30 L30ES 4
sand ES)
theseBentonite
layers placed soil onhasthe surface
been adapted of soft forsoiltheandexperimental
the second 12 2 10 20 L20ES 3
layer under the soil.
investigation in this study. 85% water content provides a soft 13 15 30 L30ES 4
The applied
Bentoniteof bentonite.
consistency soil has been For this adapted
surcharge
condition for initial
the experimental
void ratio is 14 20 40 L40ES 4
investigation in this
2.38, bulk density is 16 KN/m .platestudy. 85%
3Circularwater content provides a soft
15 2.5 10 25 L25ES 4
consistency Dial Gauge
A surcharge of bentonite.
has to Forbe3this applied condition initial
to the soilvoid ratiofor
layer is 16 15 37.5 L37.5ES 4
2.38, bulk
consolidation. density is 16
Steel andKN/m .
lead plates of 1.2kN total weight were 17 Floating 2.5 10 25 L25F 4
arrangedA surcharge has to be
for the surcharge. These applied
P.V.C pipe
loads to the soil
simulate layer for
a surcharge of 18 (F) 15 37.5 L37.5F 4
250 mm
consolidation.
1m fill of unit weight 17kN/m3plates
Steel and lead . of 1.2kN total weight were 19 20 50 L50F 4
arrangedThe verticalfor the surcharge.
displacement These of loads
Steel the model simulate pilea and
surcharge of
the soil
3 Circular
1m
surface fill of wereunitmeasured
weight 17kN/m
using dial . gauges. plate
TheDatadisplacement
Logger of
3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
50 mm
Perforated plate The middle axial strains continue increasing with lower rate
until the end of the test.
Steel rod
Valve 2720
2
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
than the initial one. The bottom strain is much less than the negative skin friction to positive skin friction. Obviously, the
upper and middle ones. The stress increase, and hence the neutral plan is located at this peak point.
water dissipation and the soil consolidation, is moderate at the
bottom strain compared with the other two locations.
Figure 3 illustrates the pile strains for pile model (L22.5Ec).
It can be seen from the Figure that the bottom strains are
generally larger when compared with the previous case of pile
ended in clay. This can be attributed to the increased
dissipation of pore water pressure through the bottom layer.
Moreover, sand layers offer resistance to the pile movement;
end bearing. This increases stresses in the bottom portion of the
pile. Hence, there is increase in the monitored strain.
Fig. 5 Axial strain and shear stress distribution along pile length for
cases (L15EC and L15ES)
The developed shear stress along the pile shaft is calculated from the
monitored strain. Shear stress starts from zero value at the surface of
the soil and increases until it reaches a peak negative value at an
intermediate depth, then it decreases down to zero at the elevation of the
neutral plane where the positive skin friction develops. Neutral plane is
determined where shear stress changes from negative to positive. That
is at the intersection of the curve with the vertical axis. As can be seen
from the Figure the location of the neutral plane is matched from these
two approaches.
As can be seen from Figure 5, the transition of pile ended in
clay is located near to the middle of the pile. The transition
zone of pile ended in sand is located near the pile toe. The
Fig. 3 Time- Axial strain curves of pile model (L15ES) neutral plane is located at the peak point of the transition zone.
In addition, it can be seen that the normalized neutral depth is
(0.53) and (0.61) for the cases of end bearing on clay and sand,
respectively. That is the neutral plane is located closer to the
end of the pile as the base layer gets stiffer.
This observation can be explained based on the simple
equilibrium of vertical forces. (Accumulative negative skin
friction = accumulative positive skin friction + bearing
resistance). Since small-bearing resistance is available for case
I, positive skin friction should be large enough to resist negative
skin friction. Hence, negative skin friction will be reduced with
the neutral plane being located further from the pile tip.
Figure 4 shows the pile strains for pile model (L25F). Here,
the boundary condition at the pile tip does not allow for
developing stresses at the bottom of the clay layer. Hence, the
bottom strains are the least among all locations along the pile.
2721
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
from the Figure, the normalized neutral depth increases with the the elevation of the neutral plane where the positive skin
increase of the pile length embedded in the clay layer. friction develops.
The explanation of the effect of the pile length on the neutral plane is The neutral plane is located closer to the end of the pile as
due to the compressibility of the pile length. When negative skin the base layer getting stiffer.
friction is induced in a short pile, most of the downdrag is transmitted to The normalized neutral depth increases with the increase of
the pile tip in the form of penetration to the bearing layer. Whereas, for the pile length.
long pile the downdrag is partly taken by the pile compressibility, and
Shong approach for ND results into very good agreement with the
partly transmitted to the tip.
monitored ones.
4 CONCLUSION
This paper presents a study on the behavior of pile during soil
consolidation. In order to carry out the investigations,
experimental program was designated. A special rig was
designed and constructed for this purpose. Based on test results
the following conclusions are reached:
Consolidation of the soil surrounding the pile due to
surcharge loads induces negative skin friction on piles.
The monitored strains along the pile length reflect the
consolidation process with time. Strain increases from the
pile top until it reaches a peak value at the location of the
neutral plane.
Sand layers, at the pile tip, offer resistance to the pile
movement; end bearing. This increases stresses in the
bottom portion of the pile. Hence, there is increase in the
monitored strain, when compared with piles ended in clay,
or floated.
Shear stress is initiated from zero value at the surface of the
soil and increases until it reaches a peak negative value at
an intermediate depth. Then, it decreases down to zero at
2722
The Performance of Helical Pile Groups Under Compressive Loads: A Numerical
Investigation
Performance dun groupe de piles hliocodales sous chargement axial : une tude numrique
Elsherbiny Z.
Natural Resources, AMEC Americas Ltd., Calgary, Canada
El Naggar M.H.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
ABSTRACT: An extensive finite element analysis (FEA) study on helical piles is conducted to evaluate the performance of helical
pile groups subjected to axial compressive loads. Three-dimensional nonlinear analysis is conducted using the FE program ABAQUS.
The Mohr-Coulomb plasticity model is used to represent the mechanical behaviour of soil. The numerical models are calibrated and
verified using: full-scale load testing data of single piles; representative soil properties obtained from the borehole logs; and realistic
modeling assumptions. A parametric study is then conducted on a wide range of varying parameters including: soil types (dry sand
and saturated clay); and pile spatial parameters (inter-helix spacing and pile spacing). The numerical results are compared to available
methods in the literature for conventional piles and design recommendations are provided.
RSUM : Une tude numrique par lments finis (MEF) sur des piles hlicodales est entreprise pour valuer la performance dun
groupe de piles soumis des charges de compression. Une analyse tridimensionnelle, non linaire, est conduite en utilisant le code
ABAQUS et le modle de plasticit de Mohr-Coulomb It is est
convenient
utilis pour to characterize
reprsenter le thecomportement
group effect mcanique
on the traces
du sol. ofLes gravel. Underlyin
modlisations numriques sont calibres sur des essais performance
complets surofsimple pile groups
pile avecthrough the settlementdu
les caractristiques ratio, Rs, as sur des
sol obtenu extendscarottes to 9m below gro
en laboratoire et avec des hypothses ralistes. Une tude paramtrique est alors entreprise sur un large ventail de fine
follows: grained at the top to c
paramtres
comprenant: les types de sol (sable sec et argile satur) et des paramtres gomtriques (espacement inter-hlice et espacement des
The Standard Penetratio
piles). Les rsultats numriques obtenus sont compars aux rsultats issus de la littrature pour des piles conventionnelles et des
recommandations de conception sont fournies. indicated loose to medium
(1) The natural moisture con
KEYWORDS: helical pile, numerical modeling, group effect,
interaction factor, settlement ratio, displacement ratio, efficiency factor
= 1.0 depth. The groundwater ta
It is convenient to characterize the group effect on the traces of gravel.and
drilling Underlying
the pilesthe wec
1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Review of Pile group Behaviour
performance of pile groups through the settlement ratio, Rs, as extendsmonth to 9mofbelow October. ground sur
follows:system
Helical piles represent an efficient deep foundation A practical Piles in a group
used approximation of thearesettlement
expected ratioto interact
was asfine thegrained
stress at zones
the top to coarse g
in a wide range applications varying from anchors forRandolph around the piles overlap. This interaction is strong for small pile
derived by (Rowe, 2001): The Standard TheThe Penetrationsoil
subsurface Testpro
transmission towers to foundations for bridges and large spacing and diminishes as the pile spacing increases.
It is overlapped
convenient stress to characterize
zones the group
underneath the effect
cap on the
indicated
could at loose
site
affect traces
to
(B)
the of gravel.
medium
comprises dense
a U
su
industrial installations. Helical piles are made of a steel shaft;
either a solid square shaft or circular pipe, with one or multiple performance averageof pile groupsorthrough
capacity average thesettlement(1) ofratio,
settlement The
piles Rnatural
s, mixed
in asthe group extends
moisture
with some to organics
9m belw
content
(2)
helices attached to it. They are installed by employing rotational
= follows: compared to single
1.0 subjected to average depth.
piles group load.The
number fine
groundwater grained
ranging at the
table
between wa5
It is convenient to characterize the group effect on thepiles
The
force applied through a drive head. The piles could be installed drilling isand
medium the toStandard
were
stiff brown Pens
insta
to any depth and at any angle provided that the soil conditions performance of pile groups through the settlement ratio, Rs, as
where n is the number follows:of piles in the group; and w is a factor month of October.
between indicated
2.3m toloose
4.6m to b
are tolerable and the pile is designed to withstand the applied
A practical approximation of the settlement ratio was (1)
depending on pile spacing, pile geometry, relative pile/soil The natural
number varying between 3 moist
torque from a suitable drive head.
The current design methods of single helical derived bybased
Randolph onand(Rowe,
=2001):
piles are stiffness, the variation of soil modulus with
1.0
depth. Thelayer subsurface depth.
that soilThe
(1) extends profile est
groundw
to dep
at site (B) comprises
drilling a surficial
andclay thelayep
A practical approximation of the settlement surface. The silty
the same framework and theories of conventional piles, wherew = 0.5 for friction piles in clay and 0.33 for friction
Typically, ratio was
the compressive capacity of the pile is provided piles inbysand a spaced at 3 x pile diameters center to center. mixed with and the somemonth
SPTorganics and
of October.
number rang e
derived by Randolph (Rowe, 2001): (2)
combination of shaft resistance and bearing resistance on the A practical approximation of the settlement ratio was
number ranging between 5 and 6.
helices (Mitsch and Clemence, 1985; Narasimha Rao, et.derived al, table was(2)encountered 1.0
Poulos and Davis by(1980)
Randolph (Rowe,using
proposed 2001):the interaction factors,is medium to stiff brown The subsurface
silt and
1991; Zhang, 1999; and Livneh and El Naggar, 2008). where n is the number of piles in the group; and w is a factor
Pile foundations typically involve a group of where nis,
piles connected the
to number
represent
by of
thepiles in
effect
depending the
of
on group;
a pile
pile and
on a
spacing,w is a factor
neighboring
pile pile.
geometry, between
In relative 2.3m
The attosite
pile/soil 4.6m
tested(B) below
compris
piles g
v
a common pile cap. A concrete cap is normally depending
usedgeneral, on pile
to connect spacing, pile
stiffness, geometry,
and the relative
variation
the interaction factor is a function of the relative pile/soil
of soil number
modulus varying
representative
with mixed
depth. between with
of 3 some
and
typical 1
h
(2)
the pile heads in the group. Structural loadsstiffness,
are applied and the
to the Typically,
variation
pile/soil stiffness,piles of
pileinlength,
wsoil= 0.5 for friction
modulus
pile
diameter, with piles in clay and
depth. layer
0.33that for extends
involve number
light
friction to ranging
depths
medium be
6.1
loa
at 3 x pilecenter to center
cap, which in turn transfers them to the piles. The pile group sand spaced diameters center to center. is medium to stiff
Typically, pilewspacing,
= 0.5 forand friction piles in clay and 0.33 for the
friction surface.inThe Tables silty1 clay
and 2layer gets(A
for site
behaviour is strongly affected by the soil type and the spacing Poulos and Davis (1980) proposed usinglength
the soil elastic modulus along pile the interaction factors,
where n is the number of piles in the group; and w is
anda factor
the SPT between
number 2.3m
ranged to
from
between piles. However, currently there piles is no in and
sand atspaced
publishedits base at (Poulos,
3xv,pile
to diameters
1988). the
represent center to center.
effect of a pile on a neighboring pile. In
research work on the compressive capacity and performancedepending of on pilethespacing,
general, interactionpile factor
geometry, is a relative
function pile/soil
tableof was The
the encountered
relativetest
number results
varying were
1.0 m belo be
Poulos
helical pile groups which lead the designers to use and Davis
Themethods (1980)
stiffness, and
settlement proposed
ratio the
pile/soil using
can variation the interaction
then beofevaluated
stiffness, pile factors,
soil modulus
length, pile using with
diameter, the depth.
center to verify
center the
pile numerical
layer that extends mode
available for conventional piles (i.e. boredpiles and driven
v, to represent
interaction the
Typically, spacing,
effect
approach w =ofas and
for the
afollows:
0.5 pile on soil elastic
piles inmodulus
a neighboring
friction andalong
claypile. In0.33theforpile The the tested
length
friction at piles
parametric
andsurface. study. geomc
The silty
piles) to design helical pile groups. its base (Poulos, 1988). representative of typical helical pi
piles in sand spaced is at
a 3function
x pile diameters center to center. and the SPT numb
The load transfer mechanism of helical pilesgeneral,
is morethe interaction
complex Thefactor
settlement ratio canofthen theberelative
evaluated using the interaction
pile/soil stiffness, involve light to table medium wasloading
encounte co
than for conventional piles. The lack of particular guidance forpile length,
approach pileasdiameter,
follows: center to center
helical piles motivated the present research pile
work spacing,
herein,and Poulos and Davis
withthe soil elastic modulus (1980)
proposed using the
along the pile length interaction in
(3) factors,
Tables 1 and 2 for site (A) and si
Table 1. Summary of tested pi
special emphasis on the group performance of
and at its base (Poulos,
helical piles andv, to represent
1988). the effect
= + 1.0 of a pile on a neighboring pile. In (3)
The tested
to provide design methods that are tailored for helical pile The test results were used
representative of t
general, the interaction factor is a function of the relative
groups. This paper examines the effects of: inter-helix
The settlement spacing; ratio can
where then
n is the be evaluated
number of piles using
in the the
group; theverify the numerical
interaction involve models
lightDepth
to that
med
pile/soil stiffness, pile length, pile diameter, center to center Test Pile
soil type; and pile spacing on the performance of helical pile
interaction approach factor
as follows: between reference pile and itself, 11= 1 the
; and
parametric
1j is the study.
in Tables 1 (m) 2 fo
and
groups. pile spacing, and the soil elastic modulus along the pile length
where n is the number of piles in the group; the interaction
and at its base (Poulos, 1988). PA-1 5.5
factor between reference pile and itself, 11= 1; and 1j is the The test resul
interaction Thefactor between
settlement
reference
ratio can pilethen1 andbe pile and j = using the PA-3
j (3)
evaluated verify the numeric 5.6
2723 approach Table 1. Summary the parametricconfig
of tested piles stud
2,, n. interaction
= + as follows:
1.0
program. The soil continuum is modeled considering a 3D 3.2 Calib
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
cylindrical configuration and the pile is placed along the axial z-
Using som
direction of the cylinder. The helix is idealized as a planar
configurati
cylindrical disk so that modeling of the pile and the
from the b
surrounding soil can take advantage of the axisymmetric
are calibra
interaction factor between reference pile 1 and pile j and j = conditions
direction as
of shown in FigureThe
the cylinder. 1. helix is idealized as a planar
2,, n. cylindrical disk so that modeling of the pile and the surrounding load test r
soil can take advantage of the axisymmetric conditions as Figures 2
shown in Figure 1. assumed to
2 FULL-SCALE TESTING
3 NUMERICAL MODELING
Using the same soil properties that are established from the
calibration of model considering pile PA-1 test data, the
calculated response of neighbouring pile PA-3 is softer than the
field test results as shown in Figure 4(a), but the calculated
response of pile PB-4 is stiffer than the load test data. This is
expected due to the natural spatial variability of soil properties.
Figure 7. The settlement ratio for 4-piles group in clay with different Sr
Figure 5. The settlement ratio for 4-piles group in sand with different Sr Figure 7. The settlement ratio for 4-piles group in clay with different Sr
5 CONCLUSIONS
5 CONCLUSIONS
The performance of a helical pile group in sand or clay is
The
mainlyperformance
affected of bya helical
the piles pile group
centerintosand or clay
center is mainlyThe
spacing.
affected
practical by the of
range piles center to
inter-helix center(1D
spacing spacing.
to 3D)The haspractical
negligible
effect of
range Rs. The factor
oninter-helix spacing of (1D
safety, FS, has
to 3D) could significantly
negligible effect affect
on
R for piles in sand and has negligible effect for piles in clay. In
Rss. The factor of safety, FS, could significantly affect Rs for piles
addition, the settlement ratio, Rs, for a pile group is not simply
Figure 5. The settlement ratio for 4-piles group in sand with different Sr Figure
in 7. The settlement ratio foreffect
4-piles group in clay with different Sr
an sand and
algebraic has negligible
summation of the for piles
interaction in clay. In addition,
factors, ij, of the
Figure 5. The settlement ratio for 4-piles group in sand with different Sr
5 the settlement
CONCLUSIONS
piles in the group. ratio, Rs, for a pile group is not simply an
Figure 5. The settlement ratio for 4-piles group in sand with different Sr Figure 7. The settlement ratio for 4-piles group in clay with different Sr
algebraic
Finally, summation
Rs can ofbetheconservatively
interaction factors, ij, of the
estimated pilesthe
using
5The CONCLUSIONS
performance
methods
in the group. reportedof a helical
herein pile
usinggroup
a in sand
straight or clay
shaft is mainly
pile with a
affected
diameterby equal the pilesto thecenter
shaftto diameter
center spacing.
of theThe practical
helical pile. In
Thegeneral,
performanceRs Rforofcana helicalpiles
helical pile group in sand orhelices
clay is mainly
rangeFinally,
of inter-helix
s spacing (1D with
to 3D)
be conservatively multiple
hasestimated spaced
using
negligible effect the
on at a
affected
typicalbypile the piles
spacing center
of 3D to center
is in spacing.
the range The
of 1.15 topractical
1.2 for both
Rsmethods
. The factor reported
of safety, FS, could
herein usingsignificantly shaft Rpile
a straight affect s forwith
piles a
clayofand
range sand. spacing (1D to 3D) has negligible effect
inter-helix on
indiameter
sand andequal to the shaft
has negligible effectdiameter
for pilesofin the
clay.helical pile. In
In addition,
Rs. The factor of safety, FS, could significantly affect Rs for piles
general,
the Rs for ratio,
settlement helicalRspiles
, for with
a pilemultiple
group helices
is not spaced
simply at an a
in sand and has negligible effect for piles in clay. In addition,
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 6. The effect of the factor of safety on the settlement ratio for 4- typical
algebraic pile spacing of
summation of3Dtheisinteraction
in the range of 1.15ijto
factors, 1.2the
, of forpiles
both
piles group in sand the settlement ratio, Rs, for a pile group is not simply an
inclay
the and
The group.sand.wish to extend their thanks to the National Science
authors
algebraic summation of the interaction factors, ij, of the piles
For piles in clay, it is found that Rs could be as high as 1.33 for and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for the
in the group.financial
Finally, Rs can support.
be conservatively
The authorsestimated using
theirthe
Sp = 2D and as low as 1.1 for Sp = 3D, as shown in Figure 7. The generous
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
also extend thanks
settlement ratios are the highest at Sp = 2D and decrease methods reported herein
and appreciation to Helical usingPiera straight
Systemsshaft (HPS) pile andwithAlmita
a
Finally,Inc.Rsforcan becontinuous
conservatively estimated using the
rapidly with increasing spacing. It is also found that Sr has a diameter
Piling equal to
theirthe shaft diameter
support. of the
The authors wish to extend their thanks to the National Science helical pile. In
methods reported herein using a straight shaft pile with a
negligible
Figure 6. The effect onthe
effect of Rs.factor of safety on the settlement ratio for 4- general, Rs for helical
and Engineering piles with
Research Councilmultiple
of Canadahelices spacedfor
(NSERC) at the
a
diameter equal to the shaft diameter of the helical pile. In
Figure
piles 6. The
group effect of the factor of safety on the settlement ratio for 4-
in sand typical pile spacing of 3D is in the range
generous financial support. The authors also extend their
7 REFERENCES of 1.15 to 1.2 for both
piles grouptoin piles
sand general, Rs for helical piles with multiple helices spaced at a
thatasRhigh clay and sand.
For piles in clay, itinissand,
Similar foundit that
is also
R found
could be s for as
a group
Figure 6. The effect of the factor of safetys on the settlement ratio for 4-
of
1.33 for thanks
typical
ASTM.
and appreciation to Helical Pier Systems (HPS) and
pile(2007).
spacing of 3D istest
Standard in methods
the range forof 1.15
deep to 1.2 forunder
foundations both axial
piles
For
Sp =group
piles
is
piles
2D andinnot a
clay, linear
it is algebraic
found that Rsummation
could be as of the
high as
as low as 1.1 for Sp s= 3D, as shown in Figure 7.
in sand
interaction
1.33 for Almita Piling Inc.load,
for their continuous Westsupport.
clay and sand.
compressive D1143M-07. Conshohocken: ASTM
Spfactors,
The 2D and
=settlement ijas
, oflow the
ratios as are
1.1 theinShighest
pilesfor = 3D,
pthe group.
as SpIt= is2D
at shown infound
Figure that
7. The
and decrease the International.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
For pileswith in clay, it is found that Rby could
s It be as (Equation
high thatas 1.33 S1)r for
empirical
rapidly
settlement equation
increasing
ratios aresuggested
spacing.
the highest is Sp =found
Randolph
at also 2D and decrease over-
has a Basile, F. (1999). Non-linear analysis of pile groups. Proceedings of the
Snegligible
p = 2D andeffect as low on asRs1.1 for Sp = 3D, as shown in Figure 7. The
. spacing. 7 REFERENCES
Institution of Civil Engineers (UK), Geotechnical Engineering,
predicts
rapidly withRs by 80%
increasing for piles spaced at 2Dfound
It is also and by that 100%Sr has for aSp 6TheACKNOWLEDGEMENT
authors
137(2), wish to extend their thanks to the National Science
105-115.
settlement
Similar to piles ratiosinare sand,theit highest
is also found at Sp =that 2DRand s for decrease
a group of
greater than
negligible effect3D. on RIn. addition, using Poulos (1979) charts and and Engineering Research
ASTM. (2007). Standard testFoundation
CFEM. (2006). Canadian Council for
methods ofEngineering
Canada
deep (NSERC)
foundations for axial
under
Manual (4th the
ed.).
piles iswith
rapidly a linears algebraic
not increasing spacing. Itsummationis also found of thatthe interaction
Sr has a The authors wish BC:
to extend their thanksLtd.to the National Science
compressive
generous load,
financial D1143M-07.
support. TheWest Conshohocken:
authors ASTM
also extend their
factors, ij, of the piles in the group. It is found to
Randolph and Poulos (1982) equation, (Poulos, 1988), obtain Richmond, BiTech Publishers
that the andLivneh,
Engineering
B., & ElResearch Council of Canada (NSERC) for the
negligible
Similar toeffect
piles on in Rsand,
s. it is also found that R for a group International. Naggar, M. H. (2008). Axial testing and numerical
assuming
empirical
v straight shaft piles diameter
equation suggested by Randolph (Equation p1) over- of s D for S = 2Dofis thanksmodeling
and appreciation
of square shaft to Helical Pier Systems (HPS)and and
piles is Rto
not a 80%linearforalgebraic summation of the interaction generous financial support. helical piles
The authors under compressive
also extend their
found
predicts overestimate
s by . On
piles the other
spaced at 2Dhand, and byusing
100% the for same Sp Almita
Basile, Piling Inc.Non-linear
F. (1999).
tensile forCanadian
loading. their continuous
analysis support.
of pile
Geotechnical groups. Proceedings
Journal, of the
1142-1155.
Similar to piles in sand, it isv also found that Rs for a group of thanks and M.,appreciation to(1985).
Helical Pier Systems (HPS) and
factors,
greater
chartsthan ij, 3D.
and of the
equationIn piles within athe
addition, using group.
straight Poulos It ispile
shaft found
(1979) that the
charts
diameter andd
of Institution
Mitsch, & of Civil Engineers
Clemence, S. (UK), The
Geotechnical
uplift Engineering,
capacity of helix anchors
piles is notand a Poulos
linear algebraic summation of the interaction Almita 137(2),
Piling
in 105-115.
sand.Inc. forClemence
In S. their continuous support. of the Uplift Behaviour
(Ed.), Proceedings
empirical
Randolph equation
yields comparable suggested
(1982) by Randolph
valuesequation,
to ones(Equation
the (Poulos, 1988),
obtained 1)
toby over-
obtain
the
factors,
predicts
v assuming ij, ofstraight
the piles shaft in piles
the group.
diameter It ofis found
D for Sthat = the
2DS is 7 REFERENCES
of Anchor Foundations in Soil (pp. 26-47). Detroit: ASCE.
parametric Rs bystudy.
80% for piles spaced at 2D and by 100% for CFEM.
Narasimha (2006).
p
Rao,Canadian Foundation
p
S., Prasad, Engineering
Y., & Shetty, Manual
M. (1991). The(4th ed.).
behaviour of
empirical
found to equation
overestimate v. Onbythe
suggested Randolph
other hand, (Equationusing1)the
Richmond, over-same
BC:piles
BiTech Publishers Ltd.
greater than 3D. In addition, using Poulos (1979) charts and
ASTM. model
7 REFERENCES(2007). screw
Standard in
test cohesive
methods soils.
for Journal
deep of Soils
foundations and
under axial
charts and
predicts Rs byequation
80% forwith
piles aspaced
straight shaft
2D and pile diameter for RofSp at d
Randolph
yields Finally,andinPoulos
comparable contrast(1982)
values to
to piles
equation,
the onesinatsand,
(Poulos,
obtained
by
it isby
1988),
100%that
compressive
Foundations,
found
the
load,
31,D1143M-07.
to obtain
parametric
35-50.
s
West Conshohocken: ASTM
greater than 3D. In addition, using Poulos (1979) charts and Livneh,
Poulos,B., H.&(1988).
El Naggar, M. H. (2008). AxialLondon:
testing and numerical
ASTM.International.
Marine Geotechnics. Unwin Hyman Ltd.
vservice
assuming load straight
considering shaftFSpiles= 2 isdiameter
lower than (2007). Standard test methods for deep foundations under axial
of RDs for Sp = 2D
forservice loads
is
study. Rowe, modeling of square
R. K. (2001). shaft helicaland
Geotechnical pilesgeoenvironmental
under compressive and
engineering
Randolph andinPoulos (1982) equation, (Poulos, compressive load, D1143M-07. West Conshohocken: ASTM
given
found
Finally, FS = contrast
byoverestimate
to 4, however tov. the
On effect
piles the sand, it is1988),
is negligible.
in other hand,
Basile, tensile
using the
handbook.
F.
found tothat
(1999).
International.
obtain
loading. Canadian
same
Massachusetts:
Non-linear
Rs at Geotechnical
Kluwer
analysis of pile Journal,
Academic
groups. 1142-1155.of the
Proceedings
Publishers.
v assuming straight shaftFS piles= 2diameter D forRsSpfor
of thanInstitution
Randolph, = 2D is
of Civil
M.F. Engineers
(1994). Design (UK), Geotechnical
methods for pile Engineering,
groups and piled rafts.
service
charts load considering
and equation with a straight is lower
shaft pile
Mitsch, diameterservice
M.,105-115. of d
&thClemence,
Int. Conf.S.S.M.
(1985). The uplift capacity of helix anchors
Basile,137(2),
found to overestimate Proc. 13 & Found. Eng., 5: 61-82
loads given by FS = 4, v. On the
however the other
effect hand,
is using the same
F. (1999).
negligible. Non-linear analysis of pile groups. Proceedings of the
yields comparable values to the ones obtained by the Int. in sand.
Conf. In S.&Clemence
S.M. Found. (Ed.),5:Proceedings
Eng., 61-82. of the Uplift Behaviour of
charts and equation with a straight shaft pile diameter of d Institution of Civil Engineers (UK), Geotechnical Engineering,
parametric study. CFEM. Anchor
SIMULIA.(2006). Foundations
Canadian
(2009). in Soil
Foundation
Getting (pp.Engineering
Started 26-47). Detroit:
with ABAQUS: ASCE.
Manual (4th ed.).Edition.
Interactive
137(2), 105-115.
yields comparable values to the ones obtained by the Richmond,
Providence: BC: Dassault
BiTech Publishers
SystmesLtd. Simulia Corp.
parametric Zhang, D. J.Canadian
(1999). Foundation
Predicting Capacity of Helical
Manual Screw Piles in
Finally,study. CFEM.
in contrast to piles in sand, it is found that Rs at (2006). Engineering (4th ed.).
Livneh, B., & ElBC:
Alberta
Richmond, Naggar,
Soils. M.Publishers
H. (2008).
Unpublished
BiTech Axial testing
master's
Ltd. thesis.and numerical
Alberta, Canada:
service load considering FS = 2 is lower than Rs for service loads modeling
University of square shaft helical piles under compressive and
of Alberta.
Finally, in contrast to piles in sand, it is found that Rs at tensile Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
given by FS = 4, however the effect is negligible. Livneh, B., & loading.
El Naggar, M. H. (2008). Axial testing and1142-1155.
numerical
service load considering FS = 2 is lower than Rs for service loads modeling of square shaft helical piles under compressive and
given by FS = 4, however the effect is negligible. 2726Mitsch,
tensileM.,loading.
& Clemence, S. (1985).
Canadian The uplift
Geotechnical capacity
Journal, of helix anchors
1142-1155.
in sand. In S. Clemence (Ed.), Proceedings of the Uplift Behaviour of
Mitsch, Anchor
M., &Foundations
Clemence, S.in(1985).
Soil (pp.
The26-47).
uplift Detroit:
capacityASCE.
of helix anchors
in sand. In S. Clemence (Ed.), Proceedings of the Uplift Behaviour of
Contributing factors on soil setup and the effects on pile design parameters
Facteurs contribuant au durcissement du sol et leur effet sur les paramtres de conception
des pieux
ABSTRACT: Most of the pile setup studies in literature have focused on the variations of total capacityand/or tip and skin friction
resistances. But it is of practical importance to propose realistic parameters for design applications such as pile shaft resistance -
parameter. Pile dynamic (PDA) and staticload test results are available for 5% of total of 6000 drivenpre stressed spun piles with OD
of 450 mm at a petrochemical utility plant in southwest Iran.The range of -parameter for each of the three layers along which the
piles are embedded are determined for design applications in the regionwith back-calculationfromdynamic tests results at restrike. An
axisymmetric finite element numerical model isused to simulate the cavity expansion developedduring pile driving and corresponding
generation of excess pore water pressure (EPWP). The setup effects are evaluated allowing sufficient time for dissipation of EPWP
and simultaneous increase in radial effective stresses along the pile shaft. The difference between shaft capacity obtained from the
back-calculated of the field data and that from the numerical model for EPWP dissipation analysisonly, is assumed to be attributed
to aging effects. Increase in the interface shear strength between pile-soil with time isconsidered to account for the aging component
of the soil setup. The results show that the dissipation of EPWP has been the dominant factor in soil setup corresponding to increase
in the frictional resistance of the pile shaft of the study area in which 75% has been resulted from radial cosolidation (EPWP
dissipation) and 25% from aging.
1 INTRODUCTION time initially, the rate of which substantially decreases with time
elapse.
Driven piles are frequently used in industrial projects in The stated reasons for setup can be summarized as: (1)
southern lowlands of Iran near Persian Gulf.One of the generation of excessive pore water pressure during pile driving
important issues in driven piles is variation of bearing capacity and subsequent dissipation with time, (2) aging. Most of the
with time after the initial drive. This important issue is well- studies available in literature, however, have focused on pile
understood in literature and it is pointed out that depending on capacity variation with time and it is stated that (for example by
the soil type, either soil setup or soil relaxation may occur Svinkin, 2000) the most portion of setup is related to dissipation
with time. Soil setup results in eventual increase in the pile of effective pore water pressure. Little attention has been paid
capacity, whereas in the soil relaxation condition, the bearing on distinguishing between the contribution of dissipation of
capacity decreases with time. EPWP and aging.
Different reasons are stated for these phenomena and the The main objective of this study is a numerical approach to
types of soil in which either of the setup or relaxation may occur study the setup effects on a single pile embedded in layered
(Svinkin, 1996; Seidel and Kolinowski, 2000; Rausche et al., strata on the basis of back-calculated parameters from an
2004; Bullock et al., 2005 and 2005b).In majority of reported industrial unit in southwest Iran. An axisymmetric nonlinear
cases however, the setup has occurred and relaxation has finite element scheme is adopted to simulate the cavity
seldom been reported (Komurka et al., 2003; Axelsson, 2000). expansion as a result of pile driving and its subsequent
The bearing capacity variations are observed to be rapid with dissipation of EPWP and aging effects. A case in fajr II utility
2727
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
have been carried out at End of Initial Drive (EOID) and, after in which, z (in m) is depth from ground surface.
13 days, at Beggining of Resrtike (BOR) condition is selected to Similarly, Eqs. (2) and (3) represent the upper bound, , and
study the different components contributing to the setup effects. lower bound, , respectively. The parameter variation with
depth value is limited to 1.5 in all equations.
2 CONSTRUCTION SITE AND TESTS
(kN/m3)
E (MPa)
K (m/s)
Layer #
C (kPa)
Depth
(m)
2728
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
specified at the pile-soil contact surface. The interface effective stress is developed after 13 days that about60% of
parameters were specified as tangential interface. EPWP has dissipated. Figure 6 presents the variation of
The pile installation process has been simplified to an effective radial stress with time between initial in situcondition
eventual expansion of the soil from a zero radius up to the 225.5 up to end of EPWP dissipation along the pile shaft. It is of
mm. In other words, cavity expansion has been simulated in importance to note that the effective radial stress at EOID is
axisymmetric condition, therefor effects of eventual pile shaft considerably greater than initial in situ condition. This could be
penetration are not considered in this study. The PWP at the end attributed to passive stress path outside the expanded cavity
of cavity expansion (U0) has the maximum magnitude, zone, indicating compaction of the soil. This requires further
corresponding to t=0 in the presented results. investigation with more advanced constitutional models and
Validation of the numerical model was done by comparing field measurements. The change in variations at depths of 7.4
the numerical model results with the results of instrumented and 12.4 m is because of soil layer differences.
case that is reported by Konrad and Roy (1987).It is noticed that
the numerical model predictions compare reasonably well with
measurements.For example, Figs. 3 representthe dissipation of
EPWP resulted from driving at depth 6.1 m with time. The
EPWP at any time t (Ut) is normalized with U0 and expressed in
percentage. Therefore Ut/U0 at t=0 is 100% and supposed to
approach 0 at sufficiently long periods of time, depending on
the permeability of the soil material. More details of
verification process may be found in Haddad et al. (2012).
(a)
(b)
2729
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
To account for the aging setup effects, the interface frictional -The variation of interface shear strength reduction factor,
resistance coefficient, expressed by factor in this study, has is considered to represent the setup component
been increased until correlations are obtained between predicted attributed to aging.
and field measurements. This has been shown by the blue line in -In the layered media of the study site, the contribution of
Fig. 7. The difference between the two green and blue lines in dissipation of EPWP and aging to soil setup has been
figure is assumed to be representing all the contributing factors estimated 75% and 25%, respectively, at about 50 days
to soil setup that are not effective-stress related. Such factors are after initial drive.
referred to as aging in this study, and as explained, the
factor is assumed to account for it. Figure 7 shows that the
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
contribution of dissipation of EPWP is 75% while the
contribution of aging is 25%. The authors would like to thank Amirkabir University of
Technology (AUT), Fajr Petrochemical Co., and Machine Sazi
Pars Co., for financing the extensive dynamic and static load
tests of this study.
7 REFERENCES
Axelsson, G. (2000). Long-Term Set-up of Driven Piles in Sand Ph.D
Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Bullock, P. J., Schmertmann. J., McVay. M, and Townsend, F. (2005).
Side Shear Set-up: Test Piles Driven in Florida. Journal of
Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 131(3),
292-30
Bullock. P. J., Schmertmann. J., McVay. M. and Townsend. F. (2005b).
Side Shear Set-up. II: Results From Florida Test Piles Journal of
Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 131(3),
301-310
Fakharian, K., Bahrami, T., Esmaili, F., and Hosseinzadeh Attar, I.
(2012). Dynamic and Static Tests for Optimization of Spun Piles
of a Utility Plant near Persian Gulf - Case Study The 9th
Figure 6.Radial effective stress changes with timealong the pile shaft. International Conference on Testing and Design Methods for Deep
Foundations, 18-20 September, 2012, Kanazawa, Japan.
Fakharian, K. and Iraji, A. (2010).Numerical modeling of suction pile
installation in Caspian Sea clay with effective and total stress
analyses International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineers
(IJOPE), Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 313-320.
Haddad, H., Fakharian, K., and Hosseinzadeh Attar, I.
(2012).Numerical Modeling of Setup Effects on Pile Shaft
Capacity and Comparison with an Instrumented Case The 9th
International Conference on Testing and Design Methods for Deep
Foundations, 18-20 September, 2012, Kanazawa, Japan.
Komurka, E., Tuncer, B. E. and Wagner, A. (2003). Estimating
Soil/Pile Set-Up Wisconsin highway Research Program #0092-00-
14
Konrad, J. M. and Roy, M. (1987). Bearing capacity of friction piles in
marine clay Geotechnique 37, No. 2, 163-175
Rausche, F. Robinson, B. and Likins, G. (2004). On The Prediction Of
Long Term Pile Capacity From End-Of-Driving Information
Current Practices and Future Trends in Deep Foundations (GSP
125) pp. 77-95.
Sarrafzadeh, A, Fakharian, K., and Hosseinzadeh Attar, I. (2012).
Investigation of bearing-capacity parameter variations with time
Figure 7.Increase in pile shaft capacity in numerical model. using PDA test results: case study The 9th International
Conference on Testing and Design Methods for Deep Foundations,
18-20 September, 2012, Kanazawa, Japan.
5 CONCLUSION Seidel, J. and Kolinowski, M. (2000). Pile set-up in sands, Procedures
of the 6th Int. Conf. on the Application of Stress Wave
The construction site ofFajr II utility plant,Mahshahr, Iranis Measurements to Piles, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Balkema, 267-274.
selected to study the different components contributing to the Svinkin, M. R. (1996). Setup and Relaxation in Glacial Sand
setup effects using an elasto-perfectly plastic axisymmetric Discussion, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Volume 122,
FEM model. Theadopted FEM model is capable of effective No. 4, ASCE, pp. 319-321.
stress analysis and consideration of PWP effects and has been Svinkin, M. R. and Skov, R. (2000). Setup effects of cohesive soils in
used to simulate the cavity expansion resulted from pile driving pile capacity Proc. 6th International Conference on Application of
Stress-Wave Theory to Piles, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Balkema, pp. 107-
and subsequent dissipation of EPWP. The focus of study was to 111.
distinguish the effective stress-dependent and independent
factors influencing the setup in layered strata. The findings of
the study are listed below:
-An empirical equation for calculation of shaft capacity
after setup is presented for the study area.Two equations
also are proposed as upper and lower bounds.
- The numerical model predictions compare well with field
measurements.
-The generation of EPWP as a result of cavity expansion
and subsequent dissipation with time has been predicted
reasonably well.
2730
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
ABSTRACT: Model pile loading tests in dry sand were conducted with applying confining pressure of 50-200kPa at the surface of
the model ground to investigate the behavior of a group pile. The group pile consisted of 9 cylindrical model piles of 40mm in
diameter, while two kinds of the pile spacing between pile centers were used; 2.5 times of the diameter of the pile and 5.0 times of
the diameter. For comparison, a single pile with a large diameter was also tested under the same condition. The test results were
discussed based from the following 4 points of view; the settlement at the yielding point of the total load, tip stress distribution by the
pile location in the group pile, pressure distribution in the soil measured by the tactile sensors and ground deformation after the
loading tests. All discussion suggested that the group pile of 2.5D spacing caused significant interactional effect between piles and
behaved in one block. In contrast, each pile in the group pile of 5.0D spacing behaved more individually.
RSUM : Des essais de chargement de modle de pieu dans un sable sec ont t effectus en appliquant une pression de
confinement de 50-200 kPa la surface du sol modle pour dtudier le comportement dun groupe de pieux. Le groupe de pieux
comprend neuf pieux modles cylindriques de 40 mm de diamtre. Deux types despacement entre les pieux ont t utiliss dans le
groupe de pieux modles : 2,5 fois le diamtre du pieu et 5,0 fois le diamtre entre les centres des pieux. Afin de comparer, un seul
pieu grand diamtre a galement t test dans les mmes conditions. Les rsultats sont examins selon les quatre points de vue
suivants : le tassement la limite lastique du chargement total, la distribution de contraintes en fonction de la position du pieu au sein
du groupe, la distribution de la pression au fond du rservoir contenant le sol, mesure par des capteurs tactiles, la dformation du sol
aprs les essais de chargement. Lanalyse suggre que le groupe de pieux de 2,5D despacement a provoqu une forte intraction entre
les pieux qui se sont comports en tant quun seul bloc. En revanche, chaque pieu appartenant au groupe de pieux de 5D
despacement sest comport de manire individuelle.
KEYWORDS: group pile, model test, interaction
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Table 1. All conducted tests conditions
Case No. Aim of the test Number of piles Pile Spacing Pile length Initial embeded depth
1 5.0 * D (200mm)
Loading test of the pile group 1000 mm 550mm
2 2.5 * D (100mm)
9
3 Veritical pressure distribution
5.0 * D
1300 mm 850mm
under the pile group loading
4 2.5 * D
Figure 3. Pile layout in a pile group Figure 4. Annular load cells on the bottom
in parallel below the initial height of the pile tips to observe the 3.1 Load settlement curve and yielding point
ground deformation after all loading tests were completed. Figure 5 shows the relationships between total bearing load
All conducted test conditions and main object of each test are measured by at the top by the load cell and the settlement of the
shown in Table 1. footing. The pile spacing was 5.0D in Case 1 and 2.5D in Case
The models of Case 1 to Case 4 were composed of 9 2. Irrespective of the pile spacing, the greater confining pressure
cylindrical piles as shown in Fig. 3. Each pile was made of induced the greater bearing load. Although this was partially
aluminum, 40mm in outer diameter, 4mm in thickness and caused by the increased stress level under higher confining
1000mm (Case 1 and Case 2) or 1300mm (Case 3 and Case 4) pressure, it is important as well that the ground below pile tips
in length. The bottom of the piles was closed by a flat plate. had been compressed during the previous pile loading.
Strain gauges were attached inside the piles at 5 levels along the The inflection points of each curve, so called yielding points,
piles and each level had 4 strain gauges to measure both the were marked by arrows in Fig. 5. The settlement at yielding
axial force and bending moments in two directions. Two kinds points when the pile spacing was 2.5D is greater than that of
of the center-to-center spacing between piles were adopted; 5.0 5.0D spacing under each confining pressure. The settlement at
times the pile diameter (200mm) and 2.5 times (100mm). yielding point became slightly greater at the same pile spacing
The diameter of a single large pile in Case 5 was 150mm in the when the confining pressure was increased.
outer diameter, while the thickness being 10mm and 1,000mm Figure 6 shows the load-settlement curve until 20mm
in length. Area of the pile tip is 1.5 times the total area of 9 piles settlement under the confining pressure of 100 kPa with both
in group piles. The strain gauges were attached inside at the pile spacing. The curve of the single pile loading tests with the
same elevation as in the case of group piles. Moreover, the large diameter in Case 5 and the individual loading tests in Case
bottom of the large pile was closed by a load cell that was 1 under the same confining pressure are also shown in the
divided into annular 4 rings as shown in Fig. 4 and the contact figure. The yielding point of each curve was marked by the
pressures were measured individually by each ring. arrow. The settlement at the yielding point became greater as
After the ground was built up to le level of the pile tips, pile the pile diameter increased in case of the single or individual
models were set on the ground. The initial embedded depth is loading. This implies that the settlement of a single pile would
shown in Table.1. Each head of pile in a group pile was fixed to increase if the diameter of pile becomes larger.
a steel plate that is called footing in Fig. 1. After setting the In comparison with the case of the single pile, the settlement
models, the ground was built again up to 1200mm in height. at the yielding point in the group pile of 5.0D spacing was
Group-pile loading tests were conducted in a displacement- similar with that in the single pile of the small diameter; the
control manner; 0.1mm/min. The footing, to which each pile individual loading result in Case 1. On the other hand, the
was connected, was pushed down so that all piles would move settlement in the group pile of 2.5D spacing was similar with
together into the ground. The confining pressure was increased that in the single pile of the larger diameter. These suggest that
from 50kPa to 200kPa at an interval of 50 kPa. The loading the group pile of 2.5D spacing behaved as a unified group,
were performed till 30mm settlement under each confining while each pile in the group pile of 5.0D spacing behaved
pressure, the loading was suspended at every 10mm settlement independently.
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suggests the strong interaction near the pile tip incase of 2.5D
spacing.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The vertical loading tests of the group pile and the single pile
were conducted. By comparing the bearing load, stress
concentration by the pile location, pressure distribution and the
ground deformation, the following conclusions may be drawn.
(1) For the narrower 2.5D pile spacing, the group pile yields at a
larger settlement and the settlement was almost same as that
in the loading of a pile of a large diameter. In contrast the
settlement in the 5.0D pile spacing was similar to that in the
loading of a single pile of the same diameter.
(2) For 2.5D pile spacing, tip resistance concentrated to the
corner piles in the early state of loading. The concentrated
load shifted to the center pile after the settlement increased.
The same shift of the concentration occurred in the bottom
of the single pile with the larger diameter as well.
(3) The higher ground pressure occurred below the bottom of
each pile individually in 5.0D spacing group pile near the
pile bottom. In contrast, the higher pressure was observed in
a block manner and the highest pressure showed a ring
distribution in 2.5D spacing group pile.
(4) The ground only below the bottom of each pile deformed
downward individually in case of 5.0D spacing. Conversely,
the ground under the group pile deformed in a contiguous
convex curve for 2.5D spacing.
From these observations, it was concluded that individual piles
in the group pile with 5.0D spacing behaved independently. In
contrast, the group pile of 2.5D spacing behaved in a block,
similar to one large single pile. Figure 12. Ground deformation Figure 13. Ground deform.
after all loading tests near the pile bottom
6 REFERENCES
5 ACKOWREDGEMENT
1) Whitaker, T. : Experiments with Model Piles in Groups,
Authors are thankful to Dr. Sadao Yabuuchi, President of Japan Geotechnique, Vol. 7, pp. 147-167, 1957
2) Vesic A.S. : A Study of Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations,
Pile Corporation for his invaluable support. Authors also Final Rep., Project B-139, Georogia Inst. of Tech., 1967
appreciate the discussion made by members of the research 3) Itoh, A. and Yamagata, K. : Vertical Loading Test of Model Group
committee on group pile that was sponsored by the Kanto piles(Part 3: Influence of Pile Spacing), Proceedings of Annual
Chapter of the Japanese Geotechnical Society. conference AIJ, Structure, pp. 661-662, 1988 (in Japanese)
4) Goto, S. Aoyama, S., Liu, B., AyalaAlarco, R., Takita, A. and
Towhata, I. : Model pile and group pile bearing capacity in large
scale soil tank test ,Proceedings of IS-Kanazawa 2012, 2012
2734
Brazil
Probabilist analysis of the foundation of a shopping center in brazil
Analyse probabiliste des fondations d'un centre commercial au Brsil
Gusmo A.
University of Pernambuco and IFPE, Brazil
Oliveira P.
Gusmo Engineers, Brazil
Ferreira S.
Federal University of Pernambuco and Unicap, Brazil
Maia G., Amorim M.
Gusmo Engineers, Brazil
ABSTRACT: The Brazilian foundation code that was reviewed in 2010 defined the criteria for the use of probabilistic analysis in the
design of foundation, and there is a perspective that such analyzes are increasingly used in practice. The greatest difficulty of the
analysis is the small number of load tests available in the works, and particularly in the design phase. This article presents the main
aspects of design, execution and control of the construction of a shopping center with 280,000 m2 area in Recife, Brazil, where they
were executed 4,000 continuous flight auger piles type (CFA piles). 40 static load tests were simultaneously performed with the
execution of the piles (1% of the total number of piles as recommended by the Brazilian code). With the favorable outcome of the first
15 load tests, the design was reviewed and there was a significant reduction in the number of piles and the total cost of the foundation.
It is presented a statistical analysis of results of static load tests, where it was verified the influence of the number of load tests
considered on the shape of the curve of resistance, global factor of security, characteristic safety factor and probability of failure. The
results showed that when it attained a number of load tests equivalent to 0.4% of the total number of piles, the probability of failure
are not showed more substantial changes.
RSUM : La norme brsilienne sur les fondations qui a t rvise en 2010 a dfini les critres pour l'utilisation de l'analyse
probabiliste dans la conception des fondations. Une telle analyse est susceptible dtre de plus en plus utilise en pratique. La plus
grande difficult de l'analyse est le petit nombre dessais de chargement disponibles et en particulier en phase de conception. Cet
article prsente les principaux aspects de la conception, l'excution et le contrle de la construction d'un centre commercial de
280 000 m2 de surface Recife, au Brsil, o ont t excuts 4 000 pieux fors en continu (pieux CFA). 40 essais de chargement
statique ont t raliss simultanment l'excution des pieux (soit 1% du nombre total de pieux, tel que recommand par la norme
brsilienne). Avec les rsultats satisfaisants des 15 premiers essais de chargement, la conception t rvise, entranant une rduction
significative du nombre de pieux et du cot total des fondations. Une analyse statistique des rsultats des essais de chargement
statique est prsente, permettant de vrifier l'influence du nombre dessais de chargement considr sur la forme de la courbe de
rsistance, le facteur global de la scurit, le facteur de scurit caractristique et la probabilit de ruine. Les rsultats ont montr que,
quand on atteint un nombre dessais de chargement quivalent 0,4% du nombre total de pieux, la probabilit de ruine ne se trouve
pas significativement modifie.
KEYWORDS: Foundation, Statistical Analysis, Probability of Failure.
1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE AND moderately compacted, interspersed with layers of silty clays,
SUBSOIL medium, to levels of -21.00 -28.00. After this layer, a layer of
silty clays, or silt with very fine sand, gray, compact, extends to
The building analyzed is a precast reinforced concrete structure the limit of the soundings that were performed (-35.00). The
with openings, with approximately 280,000 m2 destined to water level was found to vary in levels from 0.00 to +1.50.
shopping areas and garages. There are portions of the structure
with up to six levels of concrete slabs. A total of 1,283 pillars
support permanent vertical loads ranging from 200 to 9,000 kN. 2 FOUNDATION DESIGN AND VERIFICATION
The arrangement of the loads also takes into account vertical, OF PERFORMANCE
horizontal, and moments loads resulting from wind action. The
project is designed with a ground floor level, deployed at an CFA piles (400 and 500 mm diameter) were employed, with
elevation of +3.00. From the standpoint of topography, the allowable loads of 700 and 1,150 kN, respectively. The client
native terrain does not feature natural unevenness, with a indicated that load tests be conducted over the course of the
median average of 2.00. From the geological standpoint, the site execution of the foundation, due to the time frame for
is located in the fluvial-marine plain, within an marine terrace completion and delivery of the project. At first, a total of 15
(Gusmo et al., 1998). static load tests were performed, with satisfactory results. At
The geotechnical characterization carried out with an this point, during this first step, 2,563 piles had been placed.
arrangement of 61 percussion soundings permits, in a simplified Then, from the results of these pilot load tests, the project was
form (Fig.1) characterization of the foundation ground, which is revised, and loads for the 400 and 500 mm piles were altered to
initially composed of a landfill layer of fine silty sand, light 800 kN and 1,300 kN (an increase of 14% and 13%
brown, soft to moderately compact, to a level of 1.00; followed respectively).
by layers of sand with organic materials, or silty organic clays,
dark gray, very soft, to a level of -3.00. Below this level are
found subsequent layers of fine to medium sand, gray, lightly to
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
2737
Bearing capacity of displacement piles in layered soils with highly diverse strength
parameters
Capacit portante des pieux de deplacements battus dans les sols stratifis avec des paramtres
fortement differs de la resistance
ABSTRACT: Reliable prediction of pile bearing capacity including the installation effects is still a serious research and engineering
problem. Computational analyses should be related to the load-settlement characteristics comprising entire range of loads, up to the
limit state. European standard Eurocode 7 includes only the general rules and some calculation concepts. In the analytical method of
pile bearing capacity calculation a commonly applied static formula, based on pile base and shaft unit resistances, is proposed. It is
also recommended that the calculating procedures and the values of unit soil resistances used in the calculations would be verified by
field tests done on real piles. In the paper the cases of bridge structures founded on driven displacement Vibro and Franki piles are
presented. The design assumptions and computational results were verified by static load tests of piles (SPLT). Soil profiles and
geotechnical parameters of soil layers have been determined by CPTU tests. One of static load tests was carried out on instrumented
pile equipped with extensometers.
RSUM : Prediction rliable de la capacit portante des pieux avec les effets dinstallation constitue toujours un problme important
de lingnirie et de la recherche. Analyse devrait inclure les caractristiques charge-tassement dans le cadre entire de la charge
jusquau ltat limit. Le standard Eurocode inclue seulement des rgles et une concption gnrales de calculs. Une mthode analytic
de la capacit portante est propose par la formule statique considerant unitaires resistances de base et du frottement latrale. Il est
rcomand que la procedure de calcul ansi que les valeurs unitaires de la rsistance au sol soit verifier par un essais de chargment
dun pieu rel. Quelques cas des fondations de ponts poss sur les pieux battus Vibro et Franki sont prsents. Les assumptions de
dimmensionement et les rsultats de calcul sont vrifis par le chargement statique des pieux (SPLT). Le profil du sol et les
paramtres de couches du sol sont dtrmins par les essais CPTU. Un essais de chargement statique est ralis avec un pieu
instrument avec xtnsomtres.
KEYWORDS: pile bearing capacity, settlement of piles, displacement piles
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
precisely defined (Fig. 1). Possibly, some reserve Q may be Table 1. Static load test and calculation results for VibroFundex pile
included in relation to critical load Qc (see Gwizdala 1997). Bearing Corre- Chara- Partial Calcula-
Comparison of bearing capacities calculated by various capacity lation cteristic resis- ted
methods reveals significant differences. Exemplary results of Method based on coeffi- bearing tance bearing
calculations for Vibro pile and for data presented in Fig. 2 are characte- cients capacity factor capacity
collated in Table 1. ristic
parameters Rc;k t Rc;d
[kN] [kN] [kN]
Design load Qr 1034.0
PN-83/B- 1758.0
02482 (Rc = k = 0.8 1406.0
based on SPLT Qmax,SPLT)
EN 1997-1; 1758.0 1 = 1.4
2004 (Rc = 2 = 1.4 1256.0 1.1 1142.0
based on SPLT Qmax,SPLT)
EN 1992-2; 3 = 1.4
2007 2378.0 4 = 1.4 1699.0 1.1 1545.0
(DIN 1054)
LCPC
Bustamante 1980.0 3 = 1.4 1414.0 1.1 1285.0
& Gianeselli 4 = 1.4
(1982)
method 1538.0 3 = 1.4 1098.0 1.1 998.0
API (1984) 4 = 1.4
Figure 1. Generalized load-settlement curves of pile Gwizdala & 3 = 1.4
Steczniewski 2308.0 4 = 1.4 1648.0 1.1 1498.0
(2007)
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settlement relations for both pile types are nearly linear. Due to
conventional procedure of tests, the results did not provide any
information regarding the distribution of loads transmitted by
the shaft and by the base of piles into the subsoil.
Figure. 5. Basic result from static load test of instrumented Vibro pile
Figure. 4. Soil conditions and SPLT results of Vibro and Franki piles
tested for bridge over the Vistula river project
More advanced static load test has been carried out for
508/560 mm Vibro pile installed under the foundation of road
viaduct in Gdansk. In the test the distribution of load between
shaft and base of the pile was measured. For this purpose
a system of 7 extensometers have been installed inside the pile
shaft in order to measure shaft strains. The principle of
extensometric system work is commonly known, (Bustamante
and Diox 1991, Hayes and Simmonds 2002, etc.). The
assessment of axial load at various pile levels is based on the
shortening measurement of individual pile sectors. Subsequent-
ly, the load transmitted into the particular soil layers over the
pile shaft and under its base are determined.
Basic Q-s diagram representing settlement of the pile is
presented in Fig. 5. In turn, the distribution of axial load in the
pile for subsequent load levels obtained from the extensometric Figure. 7. Unit friction resistances tsi over the shaft in particular soil
layers and unit resistance qb under the base of instrumented
measurements is shown in Fig. 6. In Fig. 7 the results of further
Vibro pile
interpretation of the measurements in terms of unit friction
resistances tsi over the pile shaft in particular soil layers and unit There are main observations and conclusions drawn from the
resistance under the pile base qb are presented. The unit analysis of the results of extensometric measurements:
resistances have been expressed as a function of displacement large part of external load applied to the pile head has been
of corresponding pile sectors. overtaken by the friction resistance of upper sandy soil
layers which exist in the subsoil to the depth of 14 m, still
over the mud layers;
small portion of total load reached the level of pile base.
The value of Qb force transmitted by the pile base in the
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2742
Practical experience with piled raft design for tall buildings
Exprience pratique de la conception de radiers sur pieux pour les immeubles de grandes hauteurs
Haberfield C.M.
Golder Associates Pty Ltd Melbourne, Australia
ABSTRACT: For many tall buildings, a practical and cost effective foundation solution is provided by a piled raft. Recent research
and field observations have shown that in practically all cases, serviceability conditions control the behaviour of the footings. The
design of a piled raft usually requires non-linear analysis in three dimensions, based on detailed knowledge of the ground conditions,
the soil and rock properties (especially modulus and its variation with strain), structural loads and raft geometry. Information on
ground properties can only reliably be obtained from a detailed ground investigation with a heavy reliance on quality insitu testing.
Further information can be obtained from instrumented pile load testing. This paper describes the design of the pile rafts for two tall
towers: the 1000 m Nakheel tower in Dubai, which is founded on weak carbonate rocks and a group of tall towers (up to 300 m high)
founded in deep alluvial deposits.
RESUME: La construction de radiers sur pieux offre une solution pratique et conomique pour les fondations de nombreux
immeubles de grande hauteur. Les observations rcentes faites sur le terrain et dans le domaine de la recherche ont montr que, dans
pratiquement tous les cas, les conditions de service contrlent le comportement de ces fondations. La conception d'un radier sur pieux
ncessite gnralement une analyse non linaire tridimensionnelle, base sur une connaissance approfondie de l'tat du sol en
profondeur, des proprits du sol et de la roche (en particulier le module et sa variation avec la dformation), des charges appliques
par la structure et de la gomtrie du radier. Les donnes sur les proprits du sol et/ou de la roche ne peuvent tre obtenues de
manire fiable qu partir d'une campagne de reconnaissance gotechnique dtaille et avec des essais de bonne qualit. Des
informations complmentaires peuvent tre obtenues partir dessais de chargement de pieu. Cet article dcrit la conception des
radiers sur pieux de deux tours de grande hauteur: la tour Nakheel de 1000m de hauteur, Duba, fonde sur des roches carbonates
de faibles caractristiques et un groupe de tours (jusqu' 300 m de hauteur), fondes en profondeur dans des dpts alluvionnaires.
1 FACTORS AFFECTING FOOTING PERFORMANCE evaluation of ground modulus for the calculation of behaviour
at serviceability limit state.
For a typical pile-supported footing, it is necessary to consider
both individual pile, pile group and raft performance. These
require consideration of the behaviour of the ground in critical
locations:
At the pile toe where all the factors for the pile shaft are
present and in addition the pile end bearing is of Figure 1 Areas of interest for footing design
interest.
2 METHODS OF GROUND INVESTIGATION
Beneath the pile where stiffness for pile settlement is For many tall buildings, the ground investigation is required to
important for a depth of at least twice the building extend to significant depths (e.g. up to 200 m for the Nakheel
width. tower) due to the heavy loads and relatively large plan area of
the building. Where footings do not found on relatively strong
Recent research and field observations have shown that in rock, a major component of settlement can result from
practically all cases, serviceability conditions control the compression of the soil or weak rock below the pile toe. The
behaviour of the footings. Therefore this paper concentrates on
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
measurement of representative deformation and strength ground properties for use in a group settlement analysis package
properties at this depth can be problematic. such as PLAXIS or FLAC.
2.1 Laboratory testing of core 2.5 Application of in situ testing to modulus estimates
Core samples subjected to laboratory testing are affected by The methods for estimating ground modulus described in
disturbance and stress relief and can give erroneous results Sections 2.3 and 2.4 are demonstrated for the design of footing
which usually represent a significant underestimate of the insitu systems for two towers. Section 3 describes the application to
stiffness of the material. This leads to over-design of footings, the design of the proposed 1000 m Nakheel tower in Dubai
higher costs and in some cases the footings can be impractical which is to be founded in a weak calcareous siltstone (UCS of
to design or construct. about 2 MPa). Section 4 considers design for a group of tall
towers (up to 300 m high) founded in deep alluvial deposits
2.2 In situ testing by SPT or cone tests comprising very dense silty sand and hard sandy silt.
Two of the insitu tests commonly used in ground investigations; 3 NAKHEEL TOWER, DUBAI
standard penetration tests and cone penetration tests, are either
not appropriate for testing at significant depths or cannot 3.1 The tower and ground conditions
penetrate relatively competent founding materials. For example,
the results of SPTs at reasonable depth (say 30 m) must be The Nahkeel Tower in Dubai was designed to extend to a height
considered to be unreliable due to the rod weight and the in excess of 1 km. With about 2,000,000 tonnes dead load, the
resulting ineffectiveness of the impact from the hammer. It is structure would have been one of the heaviest ever built. The
also of very little value to report an SPT value of 50 blows for project was placed on hold in early 2009 at a stage when about
some nominal (say 50 mm penetration). Such a result cannot be half of the foundations had been constructed.
interpreted to give an estimate of ground stiffness. The high bearing pressures applied to the ground coupled
Cone penetrometer tests are ineffective where they cannot with the soft calcareous rock ground conditions present at the
penetrate moderately competent ground. Predrilling to site provided a significant challenge to the design of the footing
overcome frictional resistance is not a solution since refusal system.
often occurs at the tip.
3.2 Foundation system
2.3 Pressuremeter and cross-hole seismic tests
Based on prior but limited knowledge of the ground conditions
High quality pressuremeter testing and cross-hole seismic in Dubai, the foundation system concept adopted for the tower
testing provide a practical method for obtaining estimates of the was a piled raft. The raft design had a variable thickness, being
deformation parameters of the rock at different strain levels. up to 8 m under the most heavily loaded structural elements.
The crosshole seismic test provides estimates of small Design founding depth was at about 20 m below ground level,
strain modulus which cannot be applied directly to analysis of and at the base of a 120 m diameter excavation supported by a
footings where strains in the ground under dead, live and wind circular, embedded diaphragm wall. Approximately 400
loading are significantly higher than those experienced during barrettes were proposed, for installation to depths of between
seismic testing. As deformation parameters depend on the strain approximately 60 m and 80 m below ground level. The design
level imposed in the test, this must be taken into account in the of the barrettes had to consider not only the control of ground
test interpretation. response to the tower loading, but also various regulatory
The pressuremeter on the other hand provides deformation requirements and constructability issues.
properties at strain levels which are commensurate with those of
the ground when subjected to service loading from the building. 3.3 Ground investigation
On some sites however, for example in deep alluvial deposits,
pressuremeter testing may result in significant disturbance to the The ground investigation (Haberfield and Paul, 2011)
ground and hence the results of such testing may not be of comprised an extensive laboratory testing program on core
benefit. Self-boring pressuremeter tests can overcome this samples together with pressuremeter and crosshole seismic
problem, however they may be impractical in relatively hard testing. The self-boring pressuremeter tests extended to depths
materials such as discussed in Section 4. of up to 200 m below ground level. Cross-hole seismic testing
was undertaken in arrays of 3 boreholes with 3 m centre-to-
2.4 Instrumented pile load tests centre spacing between the boreholes.
Figure 2 shows the values of initial loading modulus (Ei)
Deformation properties of the ground under load can be calculated from laboratory unconfined compression strength
obtained from an appropriately designed test on an instrumented (UCS) tests, pressuremeter tests and cross-hole seismic tests.
pile. The results can be used to supplement those obtained from The small-strain cross-hole seismic tests gave estimates of
the tests described in Section 2.3 prior to final design of the modulus which ranged between about 3 to 7 times those
footing system. measured in the pressuremeter tests at the same depths. This
Load cells (typically Osterberg cells) are located in the pile difference is consistent with the effects of strain level on
at chosen depths, while displacement transducers can be located modulus. To obtain a modulus value for engineering design
below the tip. By placing one Osterberg cell close to the base of adopting the strain levels appropriate to field behaviour, the
the pile in conjunction with a displacement transducer, the load- cross-hole values were reduced by a factor of five.
displacement performance of the base of the pile can be The modulus values measured in the UCS tests showed a
measured. It is a relatively straight forward process to then back wide scatter. An upper bound to the results over the depth of
calculate a representative modulus for the material immediately interest is around 600 MPa, which is about half the value
below the pile toe. estimated from the pressuremeter test results.
By combining the results from pressuremeter and cross-hole
seismic tests (adjusted to take into account strain levels), a 3.4 Instrumented pile load tests
reasonable level of confidence can generally be obtained to
undertake the footing design. The preliminary foundation design was based on the results of
The overall pile load-displacement performance can also be the in situ tests. However, prior to the detailed design stage,
measured and provides a means of back-figuring pile and three test barrettes with cross-sectional dimensions of 1.2 m
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
2.8 m were installed to depths of 65 m and 95 m. Load testing of a value for final design. Adoption of the laboratory test
of the barrettes comprised two levels of Osterberg cells in each results would have led to an overly conservative design (and, in
test barrette with each level of cells designed to achieve a bi- fact, would have shown the design of a pile-supported raft to
directional load of up to 83 MN. The Osterberg cells were meet the settlement criteria to be impractical).
positioned to measure performance of the lower 20 m
(approximately) of the barrettes . 4 TALL TOWERS ON DEEP ALLUVIAL DEPOSIT
The remaining instrumentation for each test barrette included
strain gauges and tell-tales as well as a displacement transducer 4.1 Ground conditions and original investigation methods
located in the rock below the toe in order to directly measure the
displacement of the rock at this location. The displacement The author has recently been involved in the design of piled
transducer at the toe of the barrettes was used to make a direct rafts for a series of towers from 50 levels to 80 levels. The site
measurement of compression of the ground immediately below is located on a river flood plain and is underlain by very deep
the toe. alluvial deposits comprising predominantly very dense silty
sands and hard sandy silts.
The original ground investigation undertaken by others
included SPT tests to about 100 m depth, with SPT refusal
(more than 50 blows for less than 150 mm penetration)
occurring for all tests below about 30 m depth. It was therefore
not possible to make a reliable estimate of ground stiffness from
the SPT results.
Menard pressuremeter testing was also performed. The
Menard pressuremeter tests gave unrealistically low results,
possibly the result of relatively poor drilling methods which
caused significant disturbance of the borehole. Cone
penetrometer testing was also attempted but the cone refused at
relatively shallow depth. Continuation of cone testing beyond
refusal depth using predrilling was not successful as cone
refusal occurred within 0.5 m of the base of the predrill.
The information from the geotechnical investigation
(undertaken by others) was not sufficient to be able to reliably
design the foundations for the towers. In addition, preliminary
calculations indicated that based on a reasonable interpretation
of the ground investigation data, a pile only or pile raft solution
of sufficient capacity and dimensions to support the towers
could not be practically installed using available piling
technology.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
of the soil below the toe of the pile was therefore made on the 5 CONCLUSION
basis of the unload-reload response of the pile load test. This
estimate of 250 MPa is reasonably consistent with the results Piled rafts often form practical solutions for the support of tall
from the factored cross-hole seismic test results shown in Figure buildings on sites comprising weak rock or deep alluvial
3 at the pile toe elevation (about RL 33 m). deposits. The analysis of piled rafts in these ground conditions
requires a good understanding of the soil deformation modulus
at the appropriate strain level.
Laboratory testing on core samples often underestimates the
modulus because of stress relief and sample disturbance. In situ
testing by cone penetrometer or by the use of standard
penetration testing is often unsatisfactory or impossible in
relatively stiff materials such as those encountered at the sites
discussed in this paper.
Experience at the sites discussed shows that a careful
evaluation of the results of pressuremeter tests, cross-hole
seismic tests and instrumented pile load tests can provide a
consistent picture of deformation modulus. This consistency
provides confidence in the results of the analyses using these
values.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
7 REFERENCES
Haberfield, C.M. and Paul, D.R. 2011. Footing Design of the Nakheel
Tower, Dubai, UAE in Workshop on soil-structure interaction and
retaining walls. Proceedings of the Technical Meeting TC207
ISSMGE, Dubrovnik, pp 35 to 52
2746
Non-Conventional
Non-Conventional Pile
Pile Loading
Loading Tests
Tests in
in Vietnam
Vietnam
Essais non conventionnels
Non conventionnelles dede
essais chargement dede
chargement pieux auau
pieux Vietnam
Vietnam
Hai
Hai N.M.
N.M.
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Thu Dau Mot University, Vietnam
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Thu Dau Mot University, Vietnam
Dao
Dao D.H.
D.H.
Faculty of Bridge and Road Engineering, Da Nang University of Technology, Vietnam
Faculty of Bridge and Road Engineering, Da Nang University of Technology, Vietnam
ABSTRACT: Two bidirectional tests used single-level jacks were performed on strain-gauge instrumented bored piles in Da Nang
ABSTRACT: Two bidirectional tests used single-level jacks were performed on strain-gauge instrumented bored piles in Da Nang
City, Vietnam. The soil profile consists of medium dense silty sand followed by thick firm clay underlain by highly weathered
City, Vietnam. The soil profile consists of medium dense silty sand followed by thick firm clay underlain by highly weathered
sandstone. The piles, 800 mm and 1,000 mm in diameter, were installed to 34 m depth and constructed using bucket drill technique
sandstone. The piles, 800 mm and 1,000 mm in diameter, were installed to 34 m depth and constructed using bucket drill technique
with bentonite slurry. The jack assemblies were attached to a reinforcing cage above the pile toe from 0.5 m through 0.8 m. The static
with bentonite slurry. The jack assemblies were attached to a reinforcing cage above the pile toe from 0.5 m through 0.8 m. The static
loading tests were performed 21 days after constructed piles. The maximum bidirectional test loads ranged from 3.8 through 4.8 MN
loading tests were performed 21 days after constructed piles. The maximum bidirectional test loads ranged from 3.8 through 4.8 MN
and the measured maximum upward and downward movements ranged from about 3 through 28 mm and 7 through 49 mm,
and the measured maximum upward and downward movements ranged from about 3 through 28 mm and 7 through 49 mm,
respectively. The analysis of strain-gauge records showed that the Youngs modulus values were about 25 and 22 GPa as calculated
respectively. The analysis of strain-gauge records showed that the Youngs modulus values were about 25 and 22 GPa as calculated
on the nominal cross section of the 800 and 1,000 mm diameter piles, respectively, the shaft resistances were strain-softening, and the
on the nominal cross section of the 800 and 1,000 mm diameter piles, respectively, the shaft resistances were strain-softening, and the
pile toe stiffness was very soft and essentially linear. The measured load distribution corresponded to effective stress proportionality
pile toe stiffness was very soft and essentially linear. The measured load distribution corresponded to effective stress proportionality
coefficients, , of about 0.2 through 0.3.
coefficients, , of about 0.2 through 0.3.
RSUM : Deux essais bidirectionnels utiliss un niveau sur les pieux instruments jauges de contrainte ont t effectus Da
RSUM : Deux essais bidirectionnels utiliss un niveau sur les pieux instruments jauges de contrainte ont t effectues Da
Nang, Vietnam. Le profil gologique du site se compose dune couche de sable limoneux moyennement dense au-dessus dune
Nang, Vietnam. Le profil gologique du site se compose dune couche de sable limoneux moyennement dense au-dessus dune
couche dargile ferme paisse reposant sur les grs trs altrs. Les pieux de 800 mm et 1000 mm de diamtre, ont t installs
couche dargile ferme paisse reposant sur les grs trs altrs. Les pieux de 800 mm et 1000 mm de diamtre, ont t installs
jusqu 34 m de profondeur en utilisant la technique de seau de forage avec les coulis de bentonite. Les ensembles de vrins taient
jusqu 34 m de profondeur en utilisant la technique de seau de forage avec les coulis de bentonite. Les ensembles de vrins taient
attachs une cage d'armature de 0,5 m 0,8 m au-dessus de la pointe des pieux. Les essais de chargement statique ont t effectus
attachs une cage d'armature de 0,5 m 0,8 m au-dessus de la pointe des pieux. Les essais de chargement statique ont t effectus
21me jours aprs lexcution des pieux. Les charges maximales des essais bidirectionnels varient de 3,8 4,8 MN et les dplacements
21me jours aprs lexcution des pieux. Les charges maximales des essais bidirectionnels varient de 3,8 4,8 MN et les dplacements
maximaux mesurs vers le haut et vers le bas varient respectivement de 3 28 mm et de 7 mm 49 mm. L'analyse des donnes
maximaux mesurs vers le haut et vers le bas varient respectivement de 3 28 mm et de 7 mm 49 mm. L'analyse des donnes
enregistres des jauges de contrainte a montr que le module de Young tait d'environ 25 22 GPa, tel que calcul sur la section
enregistres des jauges de contrainte a montr que le module de Young tait d'environ 25 22 GPa, tel que calcul sur la section
nominale des 800 1.000 mm pieux, respectivement, les rsistances se ramollissaient et la rigidit de la pointe des pieux tait trs
nominale des 800 1.000 mm pieux, respectivement, les rsistances se ramollissaient et la rigidit de la pointe des pieux tait trs
faible et essentiellement linaire. Le coefficient de proportionnalit () entre la charge mesure et la contrainte effective
faible et essentiellement linaire. Le coefficient de proportionnalit () entre la charge mesure et la contrainte effective
correspondante tait de 0.2 0.3.
correspondante tait de 0.2 0.3.
KEYWORDS: bidirectional test, bored piles, strain-gages, shaft and toe resistances, strain-softening, movements.
1 INTRODUCTION
WATER CONTENT (%) GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION SPT N-INDICES
The 12-story Sea Bank Building is built over a 7.35 m by 20.30 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 20 40 60 80 100
(blows/0.3 m)
0 20 40 60 80 100
+ 5.0 m
m area among existing high-rise Buildings in Da Nang City, 0
+ 3.5 m GWL
0 0
Vietnam. The foundations were placed on 800 and 1,000 mm wn SILT
5 5 5
diameter bored piles constructed to 34 m depth designed for SAND
20
DEPTH (m)
DEPTH (m)
project area. Both test piles were equipped with vibrating wire
25 25 CLAY
strain gages. SILT 25
wn wP wL
The results of the tests are presented and correlated to the 30 30 30
soil conditions of the site. The test data and back-analyses are
HIGHLY
considered to be of interest beyond the design of the piled 35 35
WEATHERED
35
2 SOIL PROFILE Figure 1. Water contents, grain size distrib., and SPT N-indices
The soil profile consists of medium dense silty sand to 18.5 m Average of SPT N-indices is about 23 blows/0.3m to 27 m
depth followed by 14.5 m thick firm clay underlain by highly depth and more than 100 blows/0.3m below this depth. The
weathered sandstone. Figure 1 shows the distribution of water underlain layer is highly weathered sandstones with rock quality
content, consistency limits, grain size distribution, and SPT N- designation of 0% through 10% and total core recovery of 12
indices. The natural water content ranges from about 20 % through 21 % to 50 m depth below the original ground surface.
through about 30 %. The density of the silty sand above the firm Below this depth, the rock quality designation and total core
clay is 1,940 kg/m3 (from wn = 25 %). Total saturated density is recovery are 13 through 30% and 20 through 80%, respectively.
about 1,950 kg/m3 throughout the firm clay. The groundwater table is located at a depth of about 1.5 m
below the ground surface.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3 PILE CONSTRUCTION AND TEST PROGRAMME load, if any, acting at the O-cell level. For both test piles TP01
and TP02, the initial upward movement records were taken at
The two test piles, Piles TP01 and TP02 of 800 and 1,000 mm 570 and 960 KN; that is, these recorded loads included bond
diameter, were constructed using bucket drill technique with breaking load, the buoyant weight and residual load. The pile
bentonite slurry on 24 and 26 August 2012, to 34 m depth, buoyant weights above the O-Cell for Piles TP01 and TP02
respectively. The production piles were designed with the were 163 KN and 255 KN, respectively. Therefore, the residual
reinforcing cages of sixteen 20 and 22 mm bars to 11 m depth loads determined at O-cell locations of Piles TP01 and TP02 are
and eight 20 and 22 mm bars below this depth. The O-cells 217 and 225 KN, respectively.
attached at 0.5 and 0.8 m above the pile toes, as shown in Figure 3 shows the load-movement records of the two O-cell
Figure 2. However, to avoid damage to the instrumentation tests. After subtracting the buoyant weight of the piles TP01 and
during the lowering the reinforcing cages into piles the TP02 above the O-Cell, the maximum upward resistances were
reinforcing cages of the test piles were supplied with sixteen 3,636 and 4,544 KN, respectively. The maximum O-cell upward
bars. movements were 3.3 mm and 7.4 mm, the maximum O-cell
Pile TP01 Pile TP02
downward movements were 28.0 and 49.3 mm, and the
0.0 m
D800 D1000 Ground Surface maximum pile head movements (upward) were 0.2 and 2.5 mm,
0
respectively.
5 SILTY 30
SAND Breaking Bond Buoyant Weight Buoyant Weight
20 TP01-190 KN 163 KN 255 KN
10 SG5 10 m SG5 10 m UPWARD
MOVEMENT (mm)
10
15 m 0
15 SG4 SG4 15 m
18.5 m -10 TP01
Breaking Bond
20 SG3 20 m 20 m -20
DEPTH (m)
SG3 TP02-480 KN
-30 TP02
25 SG2 25 m SG2 25 m -40
FIRM
CLAY
-50
30 SG1 30 m SG1 30 m DOWNWARD
33 m -60
O-Cell 33.5 mO-Cell 33.2 m 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
35 LOAD (KN)
34 m 34 m SAND
STONE Figure 3. Load-movement curves of the piles
40
Figure 2. Details of instrumented test piles 1.2 Strain measurements and determining Axial Modulus
The test piles were instrumented with a pair of diametrically To determine the secant modulus of the pile material, the best
opposed vibrating wire strain-gages at four levels and two pairs way is to use "tangent modulus" or "incremental stiffness" plot
of diametrically opposed vibrating wire strain-gages at levels which is the applied increment of load over the induced
SG1 and SG4, respectively. increment of strain plotted versus the measured strain. The
The test piles were constructed by first inserting 820 mm and tangent modulus is then converted to the secant modulus
1,020 mm outer diameter temporary casings, respectively, (Fellenius 1989; 2011). The incremental stiffness plots for the
to 7.6 m depth. Thereafter, the test piles were drilled to 34 m two tests are shown in Figures 4 and 5. The incremental
depth using a bucket drill with bentonite slurry. Before stiffness method assumes that for load increments applied after
concreting each shaft, the shafts were cleaned and a reinforcing the shaft resistance at the studied gage level has been fully
cage with the O-Cell assembly was lowered into the shafts. The mobilized, the continued incremental stiffness values will plot
O-cell assemblies consisted of three O-cells; 200 mm diameter along a slightly sloping line, representing the tangent modulus
in Pile TP01 and 220 mm in TP02. relation for the pile cross section. Because of the combined
On completion of the drilling, on August 24 and 26, 2012, effect of the strain-softening and the scatter of values, the
a 219 mm diameter tremie pipe was inserted to the bottom of incremental stiffness method did not provide sufficiently precise
each shaft and tremie placing of the concrete was commenced, values for the tangent and secant stiffnesses. Therefore, for this
displacing the bentonite slurry. case, the authors have preferred to rely on the linear portions of
The concrete cube strength was determined 28 days after load-strain relations and convert the measured strains using
casting to 40 MPa and 44 MPa for the concrete used in Piles constant stiffnesses, AE, of 12.5 GN and 17.0 GN for Piles
TP01 and TP02, respectively. TP01 and TP02, respectively. Correlated to the nominal cross
The bottom 0.5 and 0.8 m length of Piles TP01 and TP02, sectional areas, the values indicate that the E-modulus of Piles
respectively, was equipped with a 114 mm diameter coring tube TP01 and TP02 is about 25 and 22 GPa, respectively.
attached to the reinforcing cage. The coring was performed after
INCREMENTAL STIFFNESS AE (GN)
80
SG - 1A
the concrete had cured and showed that an about 20 mm thick SG - 1B
SG - 1C
layer of debris and slurry existed below the toe of Pile TP01. 60 SG - 1D
SG - 2A
Pile TP02 could not be cored because the coring tube was SG - 2B
obstructed by steel reinforcement bars.. 40
SG - 3A
SG - 3B
The static loading tests were performed on September 16 and
AE = 12.5 (GN)
17, 2012, 23 and 22 days after concreting.
20
The internal bond of the O-cells was broken at loads of at 190 Figure 5. Increment stiffness plot of records from Levels 1 to 3,
and 480 KN load for Piles TP01 and TP02, respectively. Pile TP01
Theoretically, the O-Cell does not impose an additional upward
load until its expansion force exceeds the bond breaking load,
the buoyant weight of the pile above the O-Cell and the residual
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
80
SG - 1A above the O-cell level has not occurred excepting for the curves
SG - 1B
SG - 2A
from O-cell to SG1. The uppermost gage level movements and
60
SG - 2B
SG - 3A
loads were too small to produce meaningful curves in pile. The
40
records of unit shear resistance between SG4 and SG5 in Pile
AE = 17 (GN) TP02 were unreliable and are therefore omitted.
20
120
The evaluated stiffness (EA) values were used to convert the SG5 Pile Head
0
strain measurements to load. Figure 6 shows the so-evaluated 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
load distributions. The shaft resistances shown along the upper MOVEMENT (mm)
about 30 m for both piles were not fully mobilized. Figure 8. Average shear resistance between gage levels of Pile
Existing Ground Surface Existing Ground Surface
TP01
0 0
TP01 (D800) TP02 (D1000) AVERAGE SHEAR (KPa) 100
5 5
Equivalent
80
Equivalent Head-down
10 #5 Head-down 10 #5 Distribution
SILTY SILTY
Distribution SAND SAND
15 #4
60
Measured 15 #4 Measured
Distributio Distribution
DEPTH (m)
n
DEPTH (m)
20 #3 20 #3
40
FIRM
20
25 #2 CLAY 25 #2 FIRM
Approximate CLAY
Approximate
Head-down
Head-down
30 Distribution
#1 Distribution 30 #1 0
O-cell O-cell
0.0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0
35 SAND 35
Rt = 3,723 KN Rs = 4,088 KN STONE
Rt = 4,495 KN Rs = 4,932 KN
SAND
STONE
MOVEMENT (mm)
40
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
40 Figure 9. Average shear resistance between gage levels of Pile
0 3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000
LOAD (KN) LOAD (KN) TP02
Figure 6. Load Distributions with Approximate Head-down Figure 10 shows stresses applied to the pile toe versus the
Curve of Piles TP01 and TP02 pile toe movements divided by the pile diameter in percent. The
stresses are determined by dividing the measured load at O-cells
As shown in Figure 1, the soil at the depth of SG1 to SG3 with the nominal shaft areas below O-cell. The maximum toe
was a firm clay layer. It is a reasonable expectation that the movements were about 3 and 5 mm, respectively. The
load distributions would have shown a gentle shape with a increasing stiffness measured for Pile TP01 is considered due to
decreasing slope toward depth, reflecting increasing shaft the debris at the pile toe having become compressed.
resistance as SPT N-indices increase with depth. That this is For both piles, the pile toe stress-movement response was
not the case is considered due to varying effect of the slurry essentially linear and showed no tendency toward an ultimate
filter cake and, possibly varying pile cross section. resistance. It is obvious that the pile toe response is not
Assuming that the shaft resistance would show a uniform representative for pile toes placed in weathered sandstone or in
proportionality to effective overburden stress, Figure 6 shows sand. Similar observation for large diameter bored piles is
the actual and approximate equivalent head-down load- reported by (Fellenius and Nguyen 2013).
distribution curves. The latter are obtained by an effective stress
calculation for -coefficient of 0.2 to 18.5 m depth and 0.3
below this depth to the pile toes. The effective stress analysis MOVEMENT/DIAMETER (%)
indicates the toe resistance and total shaft resistance of Pile
NORMALIZED TOE STRESS (MPa)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
TP01 are 3,723 and 4,088 KN, and of Pile TP02 are 4,495 KN 2.5
and 4,932 KN, respectively.
2.0
1.4 Unit stress versus movement for shaft resistances and pile 1.5
toes TP01-D800
1.0
TP02-D1000
The average unit shaft shear resistance between the gage levels
can be determined as the difference in evaluated strain-gage 0.5
load divided by the surface area between the gage levels. 0.0
Breaking Bonds
Figures 8 and 9 show those values plotted against movements
for the particular gage levels. The maximum values of the unit Figure 10. Stress-% downward movement curve of Piles TP01
shaft resistance evaluated between the O-cell and SG1 for both and TP02
test piles showed the average unit shaft resistances of about
60 kPa. Because of strain-softening, the shear resistances were
smaller than expected. Moreover, the resistances from SG1 1.5 Back-analysis to response long-term settlements of piles
through SG3 are smaller than between SG2 and SG3 for both The back-analysis of two tested piles was performed by The
piles.. It is probable that the construction process left a filter Unified Pile Design method (Fellenius 1984; 1988; 2011).
cake between the concrete and the soil and, therefore, the shear
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The unified pile design approach is the combination of capacity, The evaluated pile Youngs modulus, E, for the piles TP01
drag load, settlement, and downdrag. The main tenet of method and TP02 correlated to 25 and 22 GPa for the nominal pile cross
includes the sustained working load, the shaft resistance section of both piles. The shaft resistances were small and
distribution, and the soil settlement distribution; they interact correlated to an effective stress analysis beta-coefficient of 0.2
with the neutral plane location, the downdrag, and the pile toe and 0.3. The shaft resistances between O-cell and SG1 were
load-movement response. strain-softening. It appears that the shaft resistances for both test
The back-analysis of two tested piles is performed by the piles were affected by presence of slurry filter cake between the
software UniPile (Goudreault and Fellenius 1999) and the concrete and the soil.
results are presented in Figure 10. Figure 11 shows the long- The measured pile toe stress-movements in percent of
term load distribution in the piles TP01 and TP02 starting from nominal diameters for the piles were essentially linear trend and
the 3.8 and 4.8 MN sustained load from the structure, have shown no tendency toward an ultimate resistance. The pile
respectively. Assuming that the drag loads accumulated from toe response was very soft and not representative for a pile in
negative skin friction are fully mobilized, the maximum loads in high weathered sandstone.
the piles are about 5.8 and 7.2 MN at the neutral planes at 23 Back-analysis by the Unified Design method shows that the
through 25 m depth below the ground surface. The maximum structure maximum long-term settlements of the piles will be
loads are well within the axial structural strength of both piles. about 20 mm, which is well below the acceptance value of
The settlements at the neutral planes and the 'elastic' shortenings 40 mm assigned to the project.
of the piles are about 11 through 13 mm and 9 through 11 mm,
respectively. 6 REFERENCES
Thousands
LOAD (MN) SETTLEMENT (mm) Da Nang University of Technology, 2008. Reports on Bored Pile
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 25 50 75 100 Testing for SeaBank Tower, Da Nang, Vietnam, 54p.
0 0 Fellenius, B.H., 1984. Negative skin friction and settlement of piles.
TP01 TP02 TP02 TP01
5 5 Proceedings of the Second International Seminar, Pile Foundations,
Max. Load Settlement of
DEPTH (m)
Penetrations
40 40 Revised Electronic Edition, [www.Fellenius.net], 374 p.
0 0.0 Fellenius B.H. and Nguyen H.M., 2013. Large Diameter Long Bored
LOAD (MN)
2750
Slope stability structures for road landslide
Structures de stabilit de pentes pour glissement de terrain
ABSTRACT: Landslide had appeared on main road affecting more than half of the roadway and caused traffic difficulties. The
landslide had a width in the top 55 m, length - 38 m and maximum depth of 8-9 m. Groundwater table rising, river erosion
undermining the slope and the dynamic effects of transport were defined as key factors for slope instability. Cantilever retaining wall
on driven piles foundation, in addition with trailing plate and drainage facilities for landslide stabilization were designed and
constructed. The monitoring of strengthened road section during the period 2006 - 2012, shows that the landslide was successfully
stabilized and new landslide deformations have not been established.
RSUM : Un glissement de terrain est apparu sur une route principale affectant plus de la moiti de la chausse et perturbant
terriblement le trafic. La surface de glissement avait les dimensions suivantes: largeur dans la partie suprieure - 55 m, longueur - 38
m sur une profondeur maximale de 8 9 m. On a considr que linstabilit de la pente tait le rsultat des facteurs suivants : nappe
phratique, rosion croissante provoque par la rivire, effets dynamiques du trafic. Un mur de soutnement fond sur des pieux, un
sol renforc par inclusion et des drainages ont t conus et construits pour stabiliser lensemble. Lanalyse du profil en travers de la
route entre 2006 et 2012 montre que le glissement a t stabilis et quaucun nouveau dplacement na t observ.
KEYWORDS: Landslide, slope instability, stabilization, cantilever retaining wall, driven piles, drainage facilities.
1 INTRODUCTION Veliko Tarnovo on the left slope of the Yantra River. The slope
is too steep to vertical at the top and low-grade - at the bottom.
Many landslides have appeared every year on the roads of
Bulgaria triggering by various factors and causing serious traffic
problems (Ivanov & Dobrev, 2006). Such landslide had
occurred on the main road Ruse - Veliko Tarnovo in October,
2005. The landslide had affected more than half of the roadway
and it had a width at the top 55 m. This part of the road for a
few days had slide up to 70 cm. Wide open cracks had been
clear observed on the roadway (fig. 1).
Tension cracks were hardly noticed without vertical escarp at
the beginning of sliding. The impression was that only
horizontal movement of the landslide had occurred toward the
rest of the terrain. The appearance of the landslide was preceded
by anomalously high precipitation. Overall it was a wet year,
and the annual rainfall amounted to 163% compared to the
norm. Rainfalls had formed significant surface runoff,
increasing water levels in the river Yantra and the related
increase in the levels of groundwater. The subsequent rapid
drop in the river water levels had caused reverse filtration and
occurrence of high groundwater gradient toward the river.
2.1. Geomorphology
The studied area represents a system of low hills with well-
defined crests with west-east direction. More expressive heights
Figure 1. Location map of landslide: 1 - main scarp; 2 - lateral
are Tarnovo Hils with oversea levels - 300 to 400 m. Main boundary; 3 - movement direction; BH 2 - borehole No 2; DP 1 -
artery Yantra River cuts through the Turnovo mountain forming dynamic probing No 1; I - II - engineering geological cross-section
pictorial Dervish Gorge. Belyakovo and Arbanasi Plateaus are
located to the west and the east of the gorge. The northern
slopes of Turnovo Hills are steep and there the Danube plain
border is marked. The survey landslide is on the highway Ruse -
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2.3. Climate
Investigated area characterized by moderate continental climate.
The average January temperature is -1 to -3,0 C and the
average July temperature 23-24 C. The annual rainfall is 550-
650 mm, with a minimum in February and a maximum in June.
The west and northwest winds predominate. In 2005, significant
rainfall exceeded the average monthly and annual rate (Table 1).
2752
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
medium to coarse angular to semi rounded gravels with soft Position of the most unfavorable sliding surfaces is
sandy-clayey filler. Its thickness varies from 0.50 m in BH 1 to determined as following boundary conditions have been
2.30 m in BH 3. accepted: obtained main slope of the landslide, swelling on the
landslide terrain and established sliding surfaces in drilling
Table 2. Physical and mechanical properties of the layers boreholes. The form of the sliding surfaces is circular. Janbus
effective stresses method is applied under consideration of
Layer Unit wt. Angle of Cohesion, following conditions: slope stability in natural and dry state and
, internal c under a dynamic loading.
No N/m3 friction, N/m2
1 23,0 35 0,00 Table 3. Alternation of Factor of safety (Fs,min) for a different
design states and for all of investigated geological profiles
2 20,5 14,9 13,3
Design state Fs,min
3 22,7 16,3 15,8
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Present investigation has been funded by Road infrastructure
agency part of Ministry of Regional Development and Public
Works of Bulgaria.
REFERENCES
BS-EN 1997. Eurocode 7-1 "Geotechnical design. National annex"
Chrischev, Chr. (ed.). 1990. Geological map of Bulgaria. Sheet Veliko
Tarnovo, scale 1:100 000. Bulg. Geol. Survey, 1.
Figure 3. Layout of stabilizing structures EN 1997 Eurocode 7 " Geotechnical design "
1 - deep trench drains with branches; 2 - retaining wall with trailing Glavcheva R., and N. Dobrev. 2012. Inventory of past earthquakes in
plate on driving pile foundation; 3 - deep horizontal interception Bulgaria and searching for geodynamical effects at archaeological
sites. 5th Int. Conf. 110 anniversary of the seismological survey in
drainage
Azerbaijan, 2012, 487-499.
Ivanov, P., N. Dobrev. 2006. Results from laboratory tests of samples
from Fore-Balkan landslides. Proc. National Sci. Tech. Conf. on
Landslides and Erosional Processes in Bulgaria, Prof. M. Drinov,
155-160.
Kolev, Ch. 2006. General criterion for optimization of complex
retaining systems. National Scientific conference Conditions and
controlling of landslides and erosion in R.Bulgaria Academic
Publisher Prof. M.Drinov. pp.131-134.
www.stringmeteo.com/synop/prec_year.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Conducting investigation of activated landslide leads to
following conclusions:
The investigated slope consists of Quaternary deposits
covering Lower Cretaceous marls. Activated landslide is
caused by combining influence of river erosion due to high
water tables of Yantra River, low strength parameters of
quaternary clays, temporary rise of ground water levels
from rain water infiltration, static loading from road
embankment and dynamic impact of passing vehicles.
For quality strengthening of road section passed trough
activated landslide has been constructed reinforced
retaining structure on pile foundation, combined with
trailing plate. Piles are embedded in a strong soil layer
beneath the sliding surface. The structure has been
2754
Research on the Load-Bearing Behaviour of Bored Piles
with Different Enlarged Bases
La recherche sur le comportement portante de pieux fors avec diverses bases largies
ABSTRACT: According to DIN EN 1536 overboring of the bottom of drilled piles to increase the EC7-1: bearing resistance is permissible up
to three times the pile diameter. The former German standard DIN 4014, however, permitted only an overboring of up to double the pile
diameter. The bearing resistance was reduced to 75% in order to take into account the EDZ (excavation disturbed zone) caused by the
overboring process. This special area of foundation engineering has been largely unexplored until the early tests by FRANKE/GARBRECHT,
and reliable data is not yet available for the new possible pile-base enlargement according to DIN EN 1536. Therefore, model tests at a scale
of 1:25 were performed. The experiments were also based on the geometry of the new-type overboring excavation method by BAUER. Thus,
new knowledge was obtained on the bearing and settlement behavior of large overbored pile bases with enlargements of one-, two-, and three-
times the pile diameter. The tests first showed that an enlargement contributes significantly to an increase in bearing resistance or in limiting
pile settlement. More efficient pile foundations are technically possible. A further result is that by the use of a reduction coefficient of 0.75 for
the bearing resistance, covering the effects of the drilling the enlargement, the bearing resistance is underestimated. The results were
evaluated against the available results of large 1:1 drilled pile experiments. The results of the full-scale tests were assessed regarding their
Serviceability Limit State. The available results are to be evaluated by further investigations.
RSUM: Selon la norme DIN EN 1536 l'largissement du fond des pieux fors pour augmenter la capacit de support de charge est
permis jusqu' trois fois le diamtre du pieu. L'ancienne norme allemande DIN 4014, cependant, est premise seulement pendant un
alsage allant jusqu' doubler le diamtre du pieu. Le palier de capacit a t rduite 75% afin de tenir compte de l'EDZ (excavation
zone perturbe) cause par le processus d'largissement. tant donn que cette rgion est en grande partie inexplore part les essais
antrieurs de FRANKE/GARBRECHT et que les tudes pour llargissement de la nouvelle base de pile possible selon DIN EN 1536
ne sont pas encore disponibles, des essais selon un modle l'chelle 1:25 ont t effectus. Les essais se sont galement bass sur la
gomtrie de la nouvelle mthode de type d'excavation de BAUER. Ainsi, de nouvelles connaissances relatives la capacit de charge
et au comportement de dformation, en cas dlargissements du diamtre du pieu dune, de deux et mme trois fois ont ainsi t
obtenues. Les essais ont montr, en premier lieu, quun largissement selon cette nouvelle mthode contribue une augmentation de
la capacit portante ou une limitation de tassement du pieu. Techniquement, des fondations plus efficaces des piles sont possibles.
Une autre consquence est que le coefficient de rduction de 0,75 pour la rsistance de roulement, justifie par l'influence de la
technique de forage dans la production de l'expansion, conduit une valeur calcule qui contient un facteur de scurit lev. Les
rsultats ont t valus en fonction des rsultats disponibles des essais de forage 1:1 des pieux. Les rsultats des grands essais ont t
valus quant leur fonctionnalit. Les rsultats disponibles doivent tre valus par des enqutes ultrieures plus approfondies.
KEYWORDS: Drilled Pile, Pile foot expansion, reducing coefficient, pile diameter, EDZ excavation disturbed zone
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Research on the Load-Bearing Behaviour of Bored Piles with Different Enlarged Bases
th
18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2756
2
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Research on the Load-Bearing Behaviour of Bored Piles with Different Enlarged Bases
th
18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
FRANKE/GARBRECHT
b Ratio Pile foot b(sgr)(1) b(sgr)
(1)
resp.bf bf base area resp.
Pile resp. bf(sgr)(1) to
Figure 7. Load Test Resistance-Settlement Curves, Rb+s and Rb (average b bf(sgr
values in each case from 3 test load trials) [-] [m] [N/mm2] )(1)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Research on the Load-Bearing Behaviour of Bored Piles with Different Enlarged Bases
th
18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2758
4
Visualization of Settlement Behavior for Friction Pile Group during Consolidation
Visualisation du tassement pour un groupe de pieux frottant lors dune consolidation
Ishikura R.
Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
Matsuda H., Igawa N.
Yamaguchi University, Ube, Japan
ABSTRACT: Combined technology by using surface stabilization and floating type deep mixing soil stabilization has been developed
as a method with acceptable settlement for maintaining the proper functioning of superstructures on deep soft soil layers. In this study,
in order to apply for the practice of this ground improvement technique, settlement properties and skin friction were investigated by
using two types of model tests and full scale FEM analysis in the consolidation process. For applying the image analysis to the model
test, it was clarified that vertical strain of soft clay in the upper part of the improved portion was restrained by transferring the load to
the deep soft soil layer. Further, from the analytic results, it was also found that full mobilization length of skin friction increased with
elapsed time and converged to the constant value under the consolidation condition.
RSUM : Une technologie combine comprenant une stabilisation de surface et des fondations de type pieux sur sol renforc a t
dveloppe pour limiter le tassement et assurer la stabilit des super structures dans les sols mous. Dans cette tude, afin danalyser
cette technique d'amlioration du sol, le tassement et le frottement ont t tudis laide de deux types de modle numrique
grande chelle (MEF) pendant la phase de consolidation. Les essais sur modles rduits ont montrs un transfert de la charge verticale
de la partie suprieure du massif renforc vers la partie profonde sur sol mou. En outre, partir des rsultats, il a galement t
constat que la longueur de mobilisation du frottement augmente avec le temps et tend vers une valeur constante au cours de la
consolidation.
KEYWORDS: ground improvement, skin friction, consolidation, floating soil pile
1 INTRODUCTION
Equivalent
Economy and environmental safety have recently become very raft
H1
important factors in the construction of soil structures. So it is
essential to develop the rational construction technique to H1/3 H1
correspond with the diversity of performance. In this demand of
society, it is beginning to recognize the importance of the
technique that combines different individual methods. Bearing layer
Piled raft foundation has recently been considered as a
rational foundation type in Japan. This technology can reduce Floating type End bearing type
raft settlement by combining piles with maintaining the safety
Figure 1. Equivalent raft method
of the foundation on deep soft soil layers.
In the ground improvement field, combined technology by
group transfers the load to the bearing layer at the elevation of
using surface stabilization and floating type deep mixing soil the pile tips by an end-bearing-type mechanism. He also
stabilization has also been developed. This technology has the suggested that the pile group transfers the load to the soft soil
advantage to reduce the construction cost of soil structures on
layer at an elevation corresponding to 2/3 the pile length below
deep soft soil layers. The structural form of the floating deep the top of the piles. However, this method is still experimental
mixing soil piles with shallow stabilization is similar to that of and has not been sufficiently validated.
the piled-raft foundation. In order to apply for the practice, it is
In this study, in order to investigate the group effect of this
important to clarify the mechanical behavior of this improved improved ground in the consolidating ground, consolidation
ground in relation to the combined effect between pile and raft. settlement behavior was observed by using two types of model
In previous studies, several model tests for simulating this
tests. From the test results, the influence of improvement
type of improved ground were conducted to investigate the conditions on the consolidation settlement and skin friction was
influence of the improvement parameters such as improvement discussed. Secondly, ground behavior was observed through the
ratio and improvement depth on the settlement (Bergado et al.,
rubber membrane of transparent plate. By using image analysis,
1994; Miki et al., 2004; Ishikura et al., 2006). A method for several strain distributions of the model ground were clarified.
predicting the total settlement of this improved ground has been Based on the model tests, group effects during consolidation
previously proposed (Ishikura et al., 2006). On the other hand,
were discussed. In particular, skin friction under different
from the model tests of piled raft foundation conducted on soft improvement conditions were formulated.
ground, it has been clarified that the failure of piled raft Finally, in order to consider the equivalent raft elevation in
foundations was caused by the block consisted of the pile and
relation to the improvement conditions, full scale FEM analysis
soft clay enclosed within the pile group by Whitaker (1957). were performed in the consolidating ground using the different
Figure1 shows the concept of the equivalent raft method. In pile skin friction resistance. From the results, equivalent raft
this figure, H1 is defined as the improvement depth. As shown
elevations were discussed in the consolidation process.
in this figure, Tomlinson et al. (2008) suggested that the pile
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Plan view
0.4
Vertical Displacement
Box shaped cell
load gauge 0.3 f / ( =20-40 (kPa) )
f/
250mm
S /D
Height of model ground
Kaolin clay -0.2
Length of pile
H=200mm
S /D ( =40-80 (kPa) )
H= 270mm
Pore pressure -0.3
transducer 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time T (min)
Drainage
port Figure 3. Relationships between skin friction and settlement
0 0
Figure 2. Loading model test under the plane strain condition
was applied and increased stepwise from =20kPa to 40kPa, 1 pile (=080kPa) 3 piles (=080kPa)
2.2 Test results and discussions consolidation. As shown in this figure, normalized skin friction
and normalized settlement curves with 1 pile are different from
Figure 3 shows the relationships between normalized settlement
that with 3 piles under several consolidation pressures. However,
S/D, normalized incremental averaged skin friction f / and
normalized averaged incremental skin friction f / increased
elapsed time in the consolidation process with 1 pile.
initially with an increase of the normalized settlement and later
Incremental averaged skin friction f is the value that divides
converged to the constant value under all the test conditions.
the load difference between the pile head and pile end by the
Figure 5 shows the vertical strain distributions with 1 pile and
surface area of the model pile. As shown in this figure,
3 piles. These strains can be obtained from the deformation
normalized settlement S/D increased with elapsed time and
vectors during loading model tests. Deformation vectors are
converged to the constant value. On the other hand, incremental
obtained by observing the ground behaviors through the rubber
averaged skin friction f initially increased just applying on the
membrane. As shown in this figures, vertical strain of soft clay
vertical pressure, however, after reaching the peak incremental
just below the pile end increased significantly with 1 pile. It is
skin friction f, these began to decrease with elapsed time and
considered that the applied load is transferred from the model
later converged to the constant values.
pile to the soft clay. It is also observed that vertical strain of soft
Figure 4 shows the corresponding relationships between the
clay just below the pile end with 3 piles is smaller than that with
normalized settlement S/D and normalized averaged
1 pile. On the other hand, soft clay just below the loading plate
incremental skin friction f / under several test conditions. It
has little vertical strain in comparison with that of just below the
is considered that averaged incremental skin friction f is
pile end in both test conditions.
mobilized by acting relative displacement between the model
pile and soft clay around the pile end surface during
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
L 1.5
Approximated formula
Skin friction Skin friction H /H = 0.55, 1pile
1
=/cu
1
45 +/2
H /H = 0.75, 5piles
H1
1
H /H = 0.74, 1pile
d1
Wall
H /H = 0.74, 3piles
H H1 H1 0.5 1
Modeling
Slip
H1
surface
Depth
Depth
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
H /L
1
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
=0.50 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to many students, at
Normalized depth z/H 1
0.25
graduate school of Yamaguchi University, for their supports.
R =0.90 The first author is grateful to Prof. Y. Nakata of Yamaguchi
R =0.75 University for his support of image analysis and is also grateful
0.50
R =0.50
to Professor Noriyuki Yasufuku of Kyushu University and
Professor Kiyoshi Omine of Nagasaki University for their
R =0.30
advice and encouragement.
0.75
6 REFERENCES
Bergado, D.T., Chai, J.C., Alfaro, M.C. and Balasubramaniam, A.S.
1.0 1994. Improvement Techniques of Soft Ground in Subsiding and
Lowland Environment, Taylor and Francis,pp.108 121.
Ishikura, R., Matsuda, H., Yasufuku, N., Omine, K., Kashima, K.,
1.2 Igawa, N. 2012. Settlement behavior of piled raft foundation in soft
R ground, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference of on
Normalized friction length zf/H1
2762
Interactive 3-D Analysis Method of Piled Raft Foundation for High-rise Buildings
Mthode d'analyse 3-D interactive de fondations mixte radier pieux pour immeubles de grande
hauteur
Jeong S.J.,
Eong S. ChoJa.
J, Cho J.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
ABSTRACT: The settlement behavior of piled raft foundations were investigated by a numerical analysis and field case studies.
Special attention is given to the improved analytical method (YSPR) and interactive analysis proposed by considering raft flexibility
and soil nonlinearity. The proposed method has been verified by comparing the results with other numerical methods and field case
studies on piled raft. In the interactive analysis of super- and sub-structure, the loading conditions of super-structure, stiffness of sub-
structure and soil conditions were considered. Through comparative studies, it is found that the proposed method in present study is in
good agreement with general trend observed by field measurements and, thus, represents a significant improvement in the prediction
of settlement behavior.
RSUM : La stabilit des fondations mixtes de type radier pieux, dun cas dtude, est analyse numriquement. Une attention
particulire est porte lamlioration de la mthode analytique (YSPR) et lanalyse interactive propose en considrant la
flexibilit du radier et la non linarit du sol. La mthode propose a t vrifie en comparant les rsultats obtenus dautres
rcuprs sur des cas dtude. Avec lanalyse interactive de la super structure et de la sous structure, les conditions de chargement, la
rigidit et les tats du sol ont t considrs. En comparant les tudes, nous montrons que la mthode utilise est en bon accord avec
les observations de terrain. Elle reprsente donc une amlioration significative par rapport au risque de tassements prvisionnels.
KEYWORDS: High-rise buildings, Piled raft foundation, Interactive analysis, computer based analytical method
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Fig. 3(a) and (b) shows the raft settlement at different section
predicted by GSRaft and YSPR. Agreement between the
GSRaft and YSPR of settlement is generally good; however
there is a slight difference in prediction of settlement in the
faulting zone which the sudden drop of the magnitudes were
(a) Modeling of a piled raft occurred. This can be attributed to the appropriate assumption
of material properties due to no accurate ground investigation
data on this section. As shown in this result, the prediction by
the proposed method has a considerably larger settlement than
the settlement calculated by the existing solution. This is
because the existing method ignores lateral displacement due to
membrane action of flexible raft and, thus, overestimates the
lateral stiffness of raft and small displacement in raft lateral
behavior. Although there are no measured profiles of raft
settlement, the proposed analysis method showed reasonably
good correspondence with well-known in-house program.
(b) Flowchart
Figure 1. YSPR(Yonsei Piled Raft)
(b) Section2
Figure 3. Raft settlement distribution
3 INTERACTIVE ANALYSIS OF SUPER- AND SUB-
STRUCTURE
3.1 General
Figure 2. Preliminary design case The unified analysis of piled foundation in long span bridges
and buildings has become an important issue in structure
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1000
Unified Analysis (PLAXIS 3D)
Fixed Boundary (YSPR)
1st CSM (YSPR)
-500
-1000
-1500
-20 -10 0 10 20
Horizontal distance (m)
(b) Modeling of structure-piled raft foundation Figure 7. Raft bending moment distribution
Figure 5. Typical 3D model for FE analysis
4 CONCLUSIONS
The pile is considered as linear-elastic material at all times, The primary objective of this study was to propose improved
while for the surrounding soil layer the Mohr-Coulomb non- analytical method and interactive analysis for super- and sub-
associated flow rule is adopted. The interface element modeled structure. A series of analytical studies were conducted.
by the bilinear Mohr-Coulomb model is employed to simulate Additionally, the analytical method is intermediate in
the pilesoil interface. The interface element is treated as a zone theoretical accuracy between general three-dimensional FE
of virtual thickness. It behaves as an element with the same analysis and the conventional numerical method. From the
material properties as the adjacent soil elements before slip findings of this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
occur. A decreased value of shear modulus is assigned to the Proposed analytical method produce a considerably larger
interface element when a slip mode occurs in the interface settlement of piled raft than the results obtained by the
element. The decrease of strength for the interface element is conventional methods (GSRaft). When compared with the
represented by a strength reduction factor Rinter in PLAXIS. results of case histories, the proposed method is shown to be
Fig. 6 shows the computed settlement of a raft with different capable of predicting the behavior of a large piled raft.
analysis methods. It is observed that the unified method using Nonlinear load-transfer curve and flat-shell element can
PLAXIS 3D Foundation predicts smaller settlement compared overcome the limitations of existing numerical methods, to
with interactive analysis in fixed and CSM boundary condition. some extent, by considering the realistic nonlinear behavior of
Although, a reasonably good agreement between the unified soil and membrane action of flexible raft. Therefore, the
analysis method and the proposed interactive analysis was proposed method could be used in the design of large piled rafts
obtained for the same loading step, the fixed boundary analyses for high-rise buildings.
have a larger displacement than that of the proposed interactive Based on a numerical analysis for the structure-piled raft-soil
analysis and unified analysis. system, it is found that the CSM boundary condition provide
more realistic behavior of piled raft foundation than the result
0
Unified Analysis (PLAXIS 3D) obtained by the fixed boundary condition.
Fixed Boundary (YSPR)
1st CSM (YSPR) 5 REFERENCES
2nd CSM (YSPR)
3rd CSM (YSPR)
Raft Settlement (mm)
2766
Optimal FBG Sensor Deployment via Gaussian Quadrature Formula
for Measurement of Displacement of Laterally Loaded Piles
Le dploiement optimal des capteurs fibres optiques, par la formule de la quadrature de Gauss,
pour la mesure du dplacement des pieux chargs latralement
ABSTRACT: A new approach to sensor deployment for measurement of lateral displacement of piles is introduced. To monitor a pile
loaded by lateral loads, the multiplexed Fiber-optic Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors are used. For enhanced accuracy of measurement
under budgetary limitation, optimal position of the FBG sensors inscribed along an intact optic fiber line is crucial. Herein, ideal test
conditions under which test results could be verified through theoretical solutions were created. The integration points of the Gaussian
quadrature formula were employed to determine the optimal positions to place sensors. By using differential equations on pile
displacement subjected to lateral load, the measured and calculated displacements were compared. The comparative analysis shows
that positioning sensors based on theoretical Gaussian quadrature formula reduces measurement errors. To minimize the errors in
estimating lateral displacement under general in-situ conditions, a suggestion for the FBG sensor deployment has been given.
RESUME : Une nouvelle approche de dploiement des capteurs fibres optiques pour la mesure du dplacement latral des pieux est
prsente. Pour surveiller un pieu charg latralement, les capteurs multiplexeurs fibres optiques avec rseau de Bragg (Fiber-Optic
Bragg Grating : FBG) sont utiliss. L'emplacement optimal des capteurs FBG inscrits le long d'une ligne intacte de fibre optique est
crucial afin dassurer une bonne prcision de mesure, un cot optimis. Les conditions idales d'essai dans lesquelles les rsultats
peuvent tre vrifis par des solutions thoriques ont t cres. Les points dintgration de la formule de la quadrature de Gauss ont
t utiliss pour dterminer les meilleurs emplacements des capteurs. En utilisant les quations diffrentielles des dplacements dun
pieu soumis une charge latrale, les rsultats des mesures et du calcul ont t compars. L'analyse comparative montre que
l'approche du dploiement des capteurs sur la base thorique de la formule de la quadrature de Gauss fonctionne trs bien. Une
suggestion du dploiement des capteurs FBG est donne afin de minimiser les erreurs destimation du dplacement latral sous les
conditions gnrales in situ.
KEYWORDS: Gaussian quadrature, Sensor placement, Lateral-loaded Pile, Measurements
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
where the photoelastic constant, = 0.229, provided by the = = (8)
manufacturer.
where E is the Youngs modulus of the pile material, I is the
1.2 Integration by Gaussian quadrature moment of inertia of the section area of the pile, x is the
In numerical analysis, a quadrature rule is an approximation of distance from the pile end, and M is the sectional moment.
the definite integral of a function, usually stated as a weighted Integrating Eq. (8) yields the function of the slope, S, as
sum of function values at specified points within the domain of
integration. An n-point Gaussian quadrature rule is a quadrature = = = (9)
rule constructed to yield an exact result for polynomials of
degree 2 1 or less by a suitable choice of the points and For the cantilever beam, the slope, S= / , remains zero at
weights for i = 1, , n. The domain of integration for such a the clamped end (i.e., x = 0). Integrating Equation (9) again
rule is conventionally taken as [-1, 1], so the rule is stated as yields an expression of the lateral displacement, y, as
. (4) =
=
=
3 (10)
Gaussian quadrature as above will only produce accurate As a result, the maximum deflection, ymax, occurs at the point of
results if the function f(x) is well approximated by a polynomial the lateral load, given as
function within the range between -1.0 and +1.0. If the
integrated function can be written as = , where
is approximately polynomial, and is known, then = (11)
there are alternative weight such that
Note that two sequential integrations are necessary to obtain the
= . (5) displacement function of Eq. (10) from the moment function of
Eq. (8).
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
= = [ + ] (13)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
= = (13)
2770
Numerical Simulation of the Load Tests on Bearing Capacity of Piled Raft
Foundations
Simulations numriques d'essais de chargement pour tablir la capacit portante des fondations
mixtes radier sur pieux
ABSTRACT: Field tests on the bearing capacity of pile, raft, and piled raft foundations are compared with simulations of the same
tests. Those simulations used the SYS Cam-clay model developed by the Soil Mechanics Group of Nagoya University as the
constitutive equations for material behavior. In this study, the material parameters and initial conditions were determined by
laboratory testing performed on specimens collected in the area of the field tests. We found that the numerical simulations reproduced
the experimental data well. Furthermore, in our experiments, the total bearing capacity of the raft and pile were found to be equal to
that of the piled raft foundation. This was also confirmed via the simulations.
RSUM : Cet article, qui traite de la capacit portante des pieux, des radiers et des fondations mixtes de type radier sur pieux,
prsente des rsultats issus dune comparaison entre des essais in situ et ceux obtenus par simulations numriques. Ces simulations
utilisent le modle de comportement SYS, dvelopp par le groupe de mcanique des sols de lUniversit de Nagoya. Les paramtres
relatifs aux matriaux et aux conditions initiales ont t dtermins sur la base dessais en laboratoire dchantillons prlevs au mme
endroit o les essais in situ ont t excuts. Ces simulations numriques ont convenablement reproduit les donnes exprimentales.
Par ailleurs, lors des essais in situ, la capacit portante totale du radier et du pieu a t trouve similaire celle de la fondation mixte.
Ce rsultat a t aussi confirm par les simulations.
KEYWORDS: piled raft foundations, numerical simulation, bearing capacity
1 INTRODUCTION the soil layers consist of fill, loam, clay, two types of sand and
silt. The N value around the pile is from 10 to 60 in the sand
A significant number of studies have been carried out on the layer. Cases 1, 2, and 3 correspond to the raft, pile, and piled
settlement and bearing capacity of pile, raft, and piled raft raft foundations, respectively. The raft has a square shape with 4
foundations. The designed bearing capacity for pile and piled m sides, and the pile is 12 m long.
raft foundations is considered to be the load at 10% settlement. No.1 No.2 No.3
In the present study, prototype vertical load simulations were Raft Pile Piled raft
carried out on such foundations to investigate the relationship 4m
between their settlement and bearing capacity at loads near their N Value 4m
designed limits. This paper reports the results of these 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0
simulations and compares them to experimental data. fill
In this research, a combined soil and pile analysis was loam
5
carried out. In the simulations, the SYS Cam clay model clay
developed by the Soil Mechanics Group of Nagoya University
10
was used as the constitutive mathematical model for the soil
Depth (m)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Void Ratio
400
that, even though the real raft shape was rectangular, a circular
raft was simulated. The raft had a radius of 2.257 m, giving it 2 Simulation
the same area as the real raft. The pile had a radius of 600 mm 200
and was straight, with no base enlargement. From the top Experimantal data
Simulation
surface, the simulated soil layers were clay 1 (4 m), sand 1 (4
m), sand 2 (13.5 m), clay 2 (6.5 m) and clay 3 (12 m), as shown 1 1
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
0
10 20
in figure 2. The material parameters were determined by Vertical Pressure (kPa) Axial strain ()
consolidation testing of clay 1 and drained triaxial compression (a) Clay 1 (b) Sand 2
testing of sand 2. Figures 3a (clay) and 3b (sand) compare the Figure 3: Experimental and simulation results
simulated and laboratory test results. For clay, the simulated and
experimental results agree well, but for sand, the initial 40
simulated modulus differs from the experimental data. This is
because the parameters of the simulated sand were chosen to
allow later simulation of a loading experiment. Table 1 shows
Height (m)
the soil material parameters. Due to the lack of experimental
data, some of the material parameters for clays 2 and 3 were set 20
to be the same as those for clay 1, but with different initial void
ratios. Similarly, some of the material parameters for sand 2
were set to be the same as those for sand 1. Table 2 shows the
pile material properties, which correspond to the typical linear
elastic parameters of pre-stressed high-strength concrete. Figure 0
1 2 3 4 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 100200300
4 shows the initial simulated soil profile. A load of 19.2 kPa Void ratio e R(=1/O.C.R.) State of structure Vertical Stress
v (kPa)
*
was applied to the soil surface at the raft position to simulate the R
load of the raft. Displacement of raft elements in the x direction Figure 4: Initial soil conditions
was restrained, but displacement in the y direction was allowed.
The stratified soil model was first prepared, after which Table 1: Material properties of soils
elements with properties corresponding to the pile material were
added. This was done while taking into account the force <Elasto-plastic
equilibrium between the soil and pile elements. After the excess Clay 1 Sand 1 Sand 2 Clay 2 Clay 3
parameter>
pore pressure dissipated, a vertical displacement was applied to Compression index 0.50 0.050 0.050 0.10 0.10
the pile elements for the three different cases: Case 1 models the Swelling index 0.02 0.012 0.012 0.015 0.015
raft alone, Case 2 models the pile alone, and Case 3 models the Critical state constant M 1.45 1.36 1.36 1.26 1.26
piled raft foundation. Figure 5 shows the step loading process NCL intercept N
followed during the actual physical experiment. The bearing 4.3 1.98 1.98 2.00 2.00
(at p = 98 kPa)
capacity is dependent on the loading speed as well as the load
Poissons ratio 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3
magnitude. In the simulation, even though cyclic loading was
<Evolution parameters>
not taken into consideration, the loading rate was set to a fixed
Degradation parameter
value of 0.01 mm/sec in consideration of the final 10 cm 0.8 2.2 2.2 0.8 0.8
of structure a
settlement (Kaneda et al. (2012)).
Degradation parameter 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
of structures b and c 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
11.9 m
2.257 m raft Degradation parameter
of overconsolidated state 5.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2
clay1 4m
2.257 m A element
m
0.3 m Evolution parameter br 0.001 1.00 1.00 0.150 0.150
sand1 4m
raft Limit of rotation mb 1.0 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.0
Permeability k (cm/sec) 1.0-7 4.0-3 4.0-3 1.0-7 1.0-7
Density s (g/cm3)
pile
pile 2.631 2.631 2.631 2.65 2.65
sand2
<Initial conditions>
13.5 m
Void ratio e 3.87
Overconsolidation ratio
6.5 17.0 3.0 2.0
1/R0
Degree of structure 1/R*0 3.0 2.5 1.0 1.7 1.7
clay2 6.5 m Degree of anisotropy 0 0.545 0.545 0.75 0.545 0.545
Coefficient of lateral
0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6
pressure K0
clay3
Table 2: Pile material properties
12 m
Pile
Elastic modulus E (kPa) 47360000
Poissons ratio 0.2
Density (g/cm3) 2.3
Figure 2: Boundary conditions
Coefficient of lateral pressure K0 0.0
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
100
Displacement (mm)
80 0.2
Case1
60 0.01
mm/sec
40
20
0 0.0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (min)
Figure 5: Experimental displacement versus loading time (c) Piled raft
Figure 7: Shear strain contours
4 COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTS AND
SIMULATIONS Figure 8 shows the axial force distribution for loads of 1,000,
2,000, and 3,000 kN on the head of the pile. For Cases 1 and 2,
Figure 6 shows both the experimental and simulated results for the simulations reproduce the experimental results. For Case 3,
the relationship between settlement and load at the center of the no increase in axial force occurs from the soil surface to a depth
load area. It can be seen that the simulation reproduced the of 2 m. As noted previously, this indicates that friction around
experimental results in each case, including the initial modulus the upper part of the pile is not effective in deforming the soil
and the inflection point for Case 2. Figure 7 shows the shear under the raft. Figure 9 shows the relationship between the
strain contours at a settlement of 10 cm. For Case 1, the vertical displacement at a soil depth of 1.0 m or 4.5 m and the
distribution of shear strain under the raft appears wedge shaped. raft settlement. The measurement point is shown in figure 1. It
For Case 2, the shear strain around the pile is high because of can be seen that there is good agreement between the
friction between the soil and the pile. Shear stain is also high at experimental and simulation results. At a depth of 1.0 m, the
the toe of the pile. For Case 3, although the shear strain under displacement is almost the same as that at the surface, whereas
the raft and around the pile is also high, the strain around the at 4.5 m, it is consistently less. This is probably due to
upper part of the pile is not. This is because the friction around horizontal compression or deformation of the soil at a depth of
the upper part of the pile is not sufficient to deform the soil 4.5 m.
under the raft into a wedge shape.
Axial Force (kN) Axial Force (kN)
0 0 0 0 0
Experimental data
Simulation 1000 kPa 2000 kPa 3000 kPa 2000 kPa 3000 kPa
1000 kPa
Settlement (mm)
Settlement (mm)
Settlement (mm)
Elevation (m)
Elevation (m)
Experimental data
10
Simulation
0.1
-1.0m
5
-4.5m
0.0
0
(a) Raft 5 10
Raft settlement (cm)
Figure 9: Relationship between vertical displacement at
different depths and raft settlement
0.3
5 COMBINED BEARING CAPACITY OF PILE AND
RAFT
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
they agree with the experimental results. In general, as into multi-layer soil systems, as well as the effects of soil
discussed above, the amount of settlement for the piled raft materials, will be necessary in the future.
foundation is less than the sum of that for the pile and the raft
because the friction around the upper pile is not effective. In this 0
Raft
case, in both the experiment and the simulation, the combined Pile
Raft+Pile
load of the pile and the raft is the same as that of the piled raft Piled raft
Settlement (mm)
foundation.
Figure 11 shows the distribution of the mean effective stress for
the raft, pile, and piled raft foundations. The stresses range from
0 to 300 kPa. The soil parameters around the pile are set to
represent clay 1, sand 1, and sand 2. An increase in the mean
effective stress can be seen in clay 1 for Case 1, sands 1 and 2
100
for Case 2, and sands 1 and 2 and clay 1 for Case 3. The stress
increase in sand 1 is particularly large for Case 3. The reason
why the combined load for the pile and the raft is the same as 0 1000 2000
Load (kN)
the load for the piled raft foundation is that the increased mean
effective stress is transmitted deeper into the ground by the Figure 12. Relationship between settlement and load
20 20
effects of both the raft and the pile. The mechanism by which Pile
0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 10 20
Shear strain () Mean effective stress (kPa)
Figure 13. Element behaviors
100 7 CONCLUSIONS
0 10000 Simulations of the bearing capacity of raft, pile, and piled raft
Load (kN) foundations were performed and the results were compared with
Figure 10: Relationship between settlement and load those obtained from experimental measurements. Material
parameters and initial conditions were determined by laboratory
testing of specimens collected in the field. The numerical
clay1 clay1
simulations were found to reproduce the experiment data well.
clay1
These results indicated that the combined load for the pile and
raft was the same as the load for the piled raft foundation, and
sand1
sand1 sand1
this was confirmed by both experiments and simulations. We
believe the reason for this is that the mean effective stress is
300kPa
transmitted to deeper parts of the ground by the combined
presence of both the raft and the pile. However, more detailed
numerical simulations will be required to fully clarify this issue.
sand2 sand2 sand2
8 CONCLUSIONS
The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the
0kPa
Geotechnical Research Group, Nagoya University, Japan for
their advice during the numerical analysis.
Figure 11: Distribution of mean effective stress
9 REFERENCES
6 CASE STUDY OF COMBINED BEARING CAPACITY
Asaoka, A., Nakano, M. and Noda, T. (2000): Superloading yield
In this phase of the research, additional case studies were surface concept for highly structured soil behavior, Soils and
performed on the combined bearing capacity between pile, raft Foundations, 40(2), pp. 99-110.
and piled raft foundations. Clay 1, which is considered a Asaoka, A., Noda, T., Yamada, T., Kaneda, K., and Nakano, M.
(2002): An elasto-plastic description of two distinct volume change
relatively soft naturally sedimented soil, is assumed for all soils
mechanisms of soils, Soils and Foundations, 42(5), pp. 47-57.
in Figure 12, which shows the simulation results. As can be Asaoka, A., Nakano, M. and Noda, T. (1994): Soil-water coupled
seen in the figure, the bearing capacity of the piled raft behavior of saturated clay near/at critical state, Soils and
foundation is slightly larger than that of the summation between Foundations, 34(1), pp. 91-105.
the pile and raft. Figure 13 shows the element behavior at the A Honda, T., Hamada, J., Tanikawa, T., Yamada, T., Tsuchiya, T. and
element of Figure 2, which is near the pile. The behavior near Yamashita, K. (2012): Large-scale load tests on bearing
the pile can be seen in the softening observed in both the pile capacity of piled raft foundations, Testing and Design Methods for
Deep Foundations, IS-Kanazawa, pp.497-502.
and piled raft foundations. As for the mean effective stress Kaneda, K., Shigeno, Y., Hamada, J. and Tanikawa, T. (2012):
space, it was found that the stress of the piled raft foundation Numerical Simulation of Load Tests on the Bearing Capacity of
was slightly larger than that of the pile. This is because the Piled Raft Foundations, Testing and Design Methods for Deep
confined effect of the raft is sufficient. It should be noted that Foundations, IS-Kanazawa, pp.491-496.
this is a relatively simple example and that additional research
2774
The Development and the Structural Behavior of a New Type Hybrid Concrete Filled
Fiber-Glass Reinforced Plastic Pile
Dveloppement
Dvlopment et et comportement
Comportment structural
Structural dun
d'un nouveau
noubeau type
type dede bton
Bton hybrideRempli
Hybride remplipar
de fibre
Pile de
verre renforc
Plastique par pile
Renforc enplastique
Fibre-Verre
Kang I.-K.
Vniel Consultant Co., Ltd.
Kim H.-T.
Hongik University
Baek S.-C.
Andong National University
Park S.-Y.
Korea Engineering Research Co., Ltd.
ABSTRACT: Concrete and reinforced Concrete are the most frequently used material due to the superior strength, durability and
affordability. But Concrete and reinforced Concrete are weak in a adverse external environment. Especially, corrosion and damage
from sea water cause the serious durability deterioration on marine structures, such as piles. To avoid corrosion of steel and
degradation of the durability of concrete, repair and reinforcement are needed. Fiber-glass Reinforced Plastic(FRP) material is widely
used because of the excellent corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance, light weight. In the study, in order to enhance the durability and
constructability of the pile foundation, a FRP pile is developed and its applicability considering construction is discussed. To improve
the axial and transverse load carrying capacities longitudinal reinforcement is also needed additionally, and hence a new type hybrid
Concrete Filled FRP Pile (HCFFP) is suggested. A new type HCFFP which is composed of pultruded FRP, filament winding FRP,
and concrete filled inside of the FRP tube is proposed to improve compressive strength as well as flexural strength of the HCFFP.
This paper studied compression structure behavior of Concrete Filled FRP Pile(CFFP) by using uniaxial compression test about
CFFP. The load-strain relation of CFFP is compared with result from finite element analysis program, as well, gained the properties of
FRP Pile and analyzed existing document relating to the study about CFFP. This paper proved the confinement effect comparing
between FRP Pile and CFFP. Prediction model for the strength and load-strain relation of CFFP is suggested. Also, we present the
results on experimental investigations pertaining to the structural behavior of HCFFP which is suggested in order to mitigate the
problems associated with the concrete filled steel-concrete composite pile (CFSP) and the concrete filled fiber reinforced plastic pile
(CFFP).
RSUM : Les btons concrets et renforcs sont les matriaux utiliss les plus frquemment cause de la force suprieure, la
durabilit et labordabilit. Mais, les btons concrets et renfors sont faibles dans un environnement externe dfavorable.
Particulirement, la corrosion et le dommage de leau de mer causent la dtrioration srieuse de la durabilit sur des structures
marines, par example, piles. Pour viter la corrosion de lacier et la dgradation de la durabilit du bton, la rparation et la renforc
sont ncessaires. Le matriel plastique renforc en fibre-verre (en anglais, Fiber-glass Reinforced Plastic, FRP) est utilis largement
cause de sa rsistance excellente contre la corrosion et la fatigue, et son poids lger. Dan cette tude, afin damliorer la durabilit et
la constructabilit de la fondation en piles, une pile en FRP est dvelop et son applicabilit sur la construction en site est discute.
Pour amliorer la charge axiale et transverale qui transporte les capacits du renforcement logitudinal est compos du FRP est
ncessaire plus, et donc un bton de nouveau type hybride remplie en pile FRP (HCFFP) est suggr. Un nouveau type de HCFFP, qui
est compos par le FRP pultrud, le filament enroulant par FRP et le bton rempli linterieur dun tube FRP, est propos pour
amliorer la force compressible et la force flextionnele du HCFFP. Cet article prsente le comportement compressible structural du
bton rempli par FRP piles (en anglais, Concrete Filled FRP Pile, CFFP) en utilisant un essaie de compression uniaxiale sur CFFP. La
relation entre la charge et la tension de CFFP est compare avec des resultats obtenus de lanalyse de la mthode des lments finis,
les proprits deu pile FRP, et lanalyse des documents existant relative des tudes sur CFFP. Cet article prouve lffet de la
dtention comparant entre le pile FRP et CFFP. Le modle de prdiction pour la force et la relation entre la charge et la tension de
CFFP est sugger. En outre, nous prsentons les rsultats sur les investigations exprimentales concernant le comportment structural
de HCFFP qui est propos afin dattnuer les problmes associs au bton rempli par le pile composite de lacier et le bton (en
anglais, concrete filled steel-concrete composite pile, CFSP) et le bton rempli par pile plastique renforc en fibre.
KEYWORDS: hybrid concrete filled FRP pile, FRP, fiber-glass reinforced plastic, pile, laboratory test
2775
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
When the reinforced concrete compression member (e.g., Creel Racks Tape Racks
reinforced concrete pile) is wrapped with the fiber reinforced
plastic, the axial load carrying capacity of the pile is increased
due to the confinement provided by the fiber reinforced plastic.
Such an effort to develop efficient concrete Column wrapped
with FRP has been continued from the early of 20th century. Tensioning Device
Hybrid FRP-concrete composite pile (HCFFP) is consisted
of pultruded FRP unit module, filament winding FRP which is
in the outside of mandrel composed of circular shaped assembly
of pultruded FRP unit modules, and concrete which is casted
inside of the circular tube shaped hybrid FRP circular tube as Horiz. &Vert. Carriage
Preforming Guides
shown in Figure 1. Therefore, pultruded FRP can increase the
flexural load carrying capacity, and the filament winding FRP Headstock Delivery Eye
tube and concrete filled inside of it can increase the axial load
carrying capacity. a
In this study, in order to use as the pile for foundation
construction, we estimated the structural performance of Spindle
Tailstock
HCFFP through the uniaxial compression tests. Mechanical Mandrel
properties of the FRP material are investigated. Based on the
reviews of previous research results and the experimental Cutting
studies conducted in this study, equation for predicting the b frp
ultimate axial compressive strength of the HCFFP is suggested.
d
tfrp
1 HYBRID FRP-CONCRETE COMPOSITE
COMPRESSION MEMBER
In this study, improved HCFFP system, an exterior filament Figure 2 Manufacture of the filament winding FRP specimen.
winding FRP layer component and an interior pultruded FRP
with concrete, is proposed as shown in Figure 1. Creel Mat
Racks Racks
Injection Puller
Pultruded Chamber Engaged
Moving Cutoff Saw
Filament
Concrete Winding
FRP
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
respectively. One of the failure modes of a tested specimen is It can be observed that the uniaxial compressive strength of
also shown in Figure 4. HCFFP is increased if the concrete strength and the thickness of
Table 1. Dimension of the FRP tube specimen exterior filament winding FRP tube is increased. This tendency
Number of Thickness Width is also similar to that of existing CFFP member used currently
Classification in practice.
specimen (mm) (mm)
3 2.8
Split disk
3 4.2 30
Filament test
3 5.6
winding
3 2.8
FRP Compressive L= 600
3 4.2
test D= 300
3 5.6
Tensile test
3 3.9 25.3
of inner arc
Pultruded Tensile test
3 3.7 28.5
FRP of outer arc
Tensile test
3 3.1 24.7
of rib
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Construction Technology
Innovation Program (CTIP) (code: 11CCTI-C053526-03) of the
Korea Institute of Construction & Technology Evaluation and
Planning (KICTEP). The financial support provided by the
KICTEP is acknowledged.
5 REFERENCES
An, D.J. 2011. Structural Characteristics of Hybrid FRP-Concrete
Composite Piles. Ph.D. Thesis, Hongik University, Seoul, Korea.
Choi, J.W., Joo, H.J., Nam, J.H., and Yoon, S.J. 2010. Development of
the Hybrid CFFT Pile. Journal of the Korean Society for Advanced
Composite Structures 1 (2), 20-28.
(a) 2.8mm FFRP Shin, K.Y. 2010. Estimation of Load Carrying Capacity of Hybrid FRP-
Concrete Composite Pile. Ph.D. Thesis, Hongik University, Seoul,
Korea.
2778
Ground displacements related to deep excavation in Amsterdam
Dformations du sol lies des excavations profondes Amsterdam
Korff M.
Deltares and Cambridge University
Mair R.J.
Cambridge University
ABSTRACT: This paper explores the ground displacements related to deep excavations for a case study from the Netherlands, the
construction of the North South Metro Line in Amsterdam. The overall goal of the analysis of the displacement is to study the
interaction of deep excavations with piled buildings. The response of buildings is governed by the soil displacements resulting from
the excavation. These displacements, at the surface level and at deeper levels, are described in this paper. The response of the piled
buildings is described in a second, related paper in this conference.
RSUM : Les auteurs ont analys les dformations du sol lies aux excavations profondes de la ligne nord/sud du mtro
Amsterdam. L'objectif principal de cette analyse des dformations est d'tudier l'interaction des excavations profondes avec les
btiments sur pieux. La rponse des btiments est rgie par les dformations du sol rsultant de l'excavation. Ces dformations, de sub
surface et de niveaux plus profonds, sont dcrites ici. La rponse des btiments sur pieux quant elle est dcrite dans un article
connexe de cette confrence.
KEYWORDS: deep excavation, ground displacement.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Table 1 Construction activities and dates for Ceintuurbaan Vijzelgracht Station this is 55% and for Rokin Station 74%. The
Construction activity End date percentage at Vijzelgracht is influenced by some leakage
Base monitoring start 2001 2003-11-01 incidents (Korff et al. 2011), showing a larger effect during the
Preliminary activities 2007-04-01 excavation period after 2007. The percentages for all the
Excavation to NAP 6.2m 2007-09-13 stations are somewhat higher than the actual values would be if
Excavation to NAP 15.3 m 2007-12-10 the displacements at the end of construction (after 2012) had
Excavation to NAP 19.4 m 2008-03-01
Excavation to NAP 24 m 2008-08-01
been taken into account, although additional displacements
Excavation to NAP 25.6 m, 2009-06-24 between 2009-2012 have been very small. Such a high
Floor construction, pumping test percentage of the settlements caused by preliminary activities
was also reported by Fernie et al. (2001) for a case study in
London (Harrods). The deflection of the retaining wall in a top-
down construction there caused only a small fraction of the
overall ground movements. The installation of a contiguous
piled wall of bentonite-cement caused up to 40% of the total
movement.
Eemclay
Intermediate sandlayer
Glacial clay
3rd sandlayer
2 SURFACE DISPLACEMENTS
In the Amsterdam deep excavations, the following construction
effects contributed to the displacement of the ground surface:
Installation of diaphragm wall including preliminary
activities
Excavation of the station box.
Figure 3 shows the measurements of the ground surface for
all three stations, Rokin, Vijzelgracht and Ceintuurbaan, for
various stages of the excavation. It should be noted that the
excavations had not finished at the time these measurements
were taken and so the long term consolidation settlement is not
completely included. The total period of the displacement
measurements was over 6 years (from 2003-2009). For each
stage, the excavation depth H is mentioned in the figures. From
Figure 3 it is concluded that the settlement profile found in
Amsterdam falls within the limit of Zone 1, as described by
Peck (1969), with the ground surface displacement falling
within 1% of the excavated depth. The main displacements
occur within 2 times the excavation depth as also suggested by Figure 3 Settlements normalized with excavation depth H, compared
Peck. More significant however is the effect of the excavation with envelopes by Peck (1969)
depth itself. In all three of the Amsterdam cases, the largest
effect on the ground surface can be attributed to the preliminary Clough and ORourke (1990) evaluated the maximum
activities, which took in total about 4 of the 6 years presented. displacement to be expected behind different types of retaining
For each station, the average contribution of the preliminary walls. In stiff clays, residual soils and sands the maximum
activities to the surface displacements has been determined. The ground displacement behind the wall is about 0.15% - 0.5% of
percentage of displacement caused by preliminary activities in the excavation depth, see Figure 4. The Amsterdam cases are
2003-2007 compared to the overall displacement between 2003- plotted in a similar way in Figure 5.
2009 or 2003-2010 for Ceintuurbaan Station is 70%. For
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2-3 times the excavated depth away from the wall. The shape
of the displacement fits the profile of Hshieh and Ou (1998)
best.
In all three of the Amsterdam cases, the largest effect on the
ground surface displacement can be attributed to the preliminary
activities, which include amongst others the diaphragm wall
construction, jet grout strut installation and construction of the
roof and took in total about 4 years. The actual excavation stage
caused only about 25-45% of the surface displacements, with
55-75% attributed to the preliminary activities. At larger
excavation depths the influence zone is significantly smaller
than 2 times the excavation depth.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was performed in cooperation with the Dutch
Centre for Underground Construction (COB). The authors wish
Figure 7 Measured surface displacements normalized with excavation to thank the city of Amsterdam for permission to use the data.
depth H for three Amsterdam deep stations at the deepest excavation
level available (2009-07-01), compared to settlement envelopes 6 REFERENCES
proposed by Peck (1969), Clough and ORourke (1990) and Hsieh and Aye, Z.Z., Karki, D. and Schulz, C. (2006) Ground Movement
Ou (1998). With: Prediction and Building Damage Risk-Assessment for the Deep
Excavations and Tunneling Works in Bangkok Subsoil.
International Symposium on Underground Excavation and
Tunnelling, Bangkok, Thailand
Clough and ORourke (1990) Clough, G. W. and O. Rourke, T.D.
Rokin (1990). Construction induced movements of insitu walls. ASCE
specialty Conference, ASCE Special Publication 25.
Hsieh, P. G. and Ou, C. Y. (1998) Shape of ground surface settlement
profiles caused by excavation, Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vijzelgracht Vol. 35, pp. 1004-1017.
Fernie, R., Shaw, S. M, Dickson, R. A, St John, H. D, Kovacedic, N,
Bourne-Webb, P. and Potts, D. M. (2001). Movement and deep
basement provisions at Knightsbridge Crown Court, Harrods, Int.
Ceintuurbaan Conf. Response of Buildings to Excavation Induced Ground
Movements. CIRIA, London..
Korff, M., Mair,R.J., Van Tol, A.F. and Kaalberg, F.J. (2011) Building
5 CONCLUSIONS damage and repair due to leakage in a deep excavation. Forensic
Engineering Volume 164 (FE4), 165177
The settlement measurements for the Amsterdam deep de Nijs, R.E.P. & Buykx. S.M. (2010). Instrumentation and
excavations have been compared to several, mostly empirical, Monitoring at Deep Excavation in Historic City of Amsterdam.
relationships to determine the green field surface displacements Design and Performance Analysis of Monitoring System at
and displacements at depth. Ceintuurbaan Station. ITA 2010. Vancouver
It is concluded that the surface displacement behind the wall Peck, R. B. (1969) Deep excavations and tunneling in soft ground, . 7th
is 0.3 1.0% of the excavation depth, if all construction works Int.Conf. Soil Mech. Fdn. Engrg, Mexico City, Sociedad Mexicana
are included. Surface displacements behind the wall can be de Mecanica de Suelos, A.C.
much larger than the wall deflections and become negligible at
Figure 8 Measured ground displacements at Ceintuurbaan Station (13044E, 13110E and 13110W). Influence zone as
described by Aye et al. (2006) but with D0=2He instead of 2.5He shown as diagonal line
2782
Drilled pile technology in retaining wall construction and energy transfer
Application de la technologie des pieux fors la construction des murs de soutnement et au
tranfert dnergie
Lehtonen J.
D.Sc.(Tech.), Turku University of Applied Sciences, Finland
ABSTRACT: The use of steel piles has grown substantially in the Nordic countries during the last few decades. The growth has been
supported by active research and development contributing a versatile collection of pile types and applications. Open section drilling
is an example of new micropile inventions. Drilled pile walls and energy transfer applications extend the use of drilled piles to sites
where conventional piling has previously not been seen as an option and where the drilled piles can be seen as hybrid structures
functioning partly as vertically loaded piles, partly as lateral capacity of the retaining wall, or a heating/cooling distribution system.
RSUM : L'utilisation des pieux en acier a connu une forte croissance dans les pays nordiques au cours des dernires dcennies.
Cette croissance a t soutenue par beaucoup de recherche et de dveloppement en contribuant une collection varie de types de pieux
et d'applications. Le forage section ouverte est un exemple de nouvelles inventions des micropieux. Les parois de pieux fors et les
applications pour le transfert d'nergie tendent lutilisation des pieux fors des sites o les pieux conventionnel n'ont pas t
considrs auparavant et o les pieux fors peuvent tre vus comme des structures hybrides qui fonctionnent en partie comme des
pieux chargs verticalement, et en partie comme la capacit latrale du mur de soutnement ou comme une installation pour la
distribution de chaleur /refroidissement.
KEYWORDS: steel pile, micropile, open section drilling, energy pile, drilled pile wall.
2783
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2784
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Motala, RD400 8-
Ruukki
30 12
Sweden 2010 E21
Tampere, test 3
modified
Finland RD170
WOM- 30
WOF 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2010
Sari Loppela-Rauha has translated the abstract to French, Olli
Nummela, test 12 Rahkala has contributed the Figure 4 and Ville Hyypp has fine-
modified
Finland RD400 tuned the lay-out of the paper.
WOM- 30
2010-2011 WOF
7 REFERENCES
Kiruna, RD500 10-
Ruukki Hyypp V., Hattara J., Lautkankare R. and Helmisaari J. 2012. FIN-
47 15
Sweden 2010 E21 C2M New Micropile Innovations in Underpinning. Proceedings
of IWM2012, Milan.
Kalasatama, RD600 3- ISM 2013. International Society for Micropiles. Retrieved 8 January
modified 2013 from http://www.ismicropiles.org/ism-background
Helsinki 14
WOM- 47/30 Lehtonen J. 2011. Underpinning project; owners views on technology,
2011-2012 WOF economy and project management. Aalto University publication
series, doctoral dissertations 80/2011, Helsinki.
Metro sites, RD400 16- Swedish Commission on Pile Research 2012. The pile delivery report.
modified Retrieved 1 December 2012 from
Helsinki RD600 20
WOM- 30 http://www.palkommissionen.org/web/page.aspx?refid=16
2011-2012 WOF Uotinen V.-M. and Jokiniemi H. 2012. RD pile wall a new way to
build micropile retaining wall structures. Proceedings of
IWM2012, Milan.
Messukeskus, RD170 6 Uotinen V.-M., Repo T. and Vesamki H. 2012. Energy piles ground
modified
energy system integrated to the steel foundation piles. Proceedings
Helsinki 30
WOM- of NGM2012, Copenhagen.
2011 WOF Uotinen V.-M. and Vesamki H. 2013. Case histories on drilled pile
walls in Finland, Sweden and Norway. Proceedings of
Terspaalupiv (steel pile day), Helsinki.
Tampere test 6
RM/RF 27 RD400
2012
Stockholm RM/RD 27
2012
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
ABSTRACT: To mitigate risk in geotechnical constructions by making borings and pile load tests that enable the elaboration of bi
and three-dimensional models, which assure the correct analysis and evaluation of the associated risks to design and to the
construction execution should be one of the targets of a Geotechnical Engineering. Generally, the analyses done in terms of design
level are conducted under some uncertainties, especially concerning geological-geotechnical formation which has a great influence on
the soil-foundation system, however, it has been looking for techniques that assure a good evaluation of such constructions, by the
elaboration and usage of three-dimensional models, based on data from geotechnical and geological survey. The organization,
treatment and specialization of soil data furnish models that help in the decision and mitigating process of risks involved in those
constructions. The obtained results by the usage of the referred methodology show that data interpolation during the three-
dimensional modeling process decrease uncertainties that come from the natural variability of the soil.
RSUM : Pour attnuer les risques dans les constructions gotechniques en faisant des essais de chargement sur pieux et des tests de
forages qui permettent l'laboration de modles bi et tridimensionnels, qui assurent la bonne analyse et la bonne valuation des risques
associs la conception et l'excution de la construction devraient tre l'un des objectifs de lingnierie gotechnique. En gnral,
les analyses effectues en terme de niveau de conception sont mens malgr certaines incertitudes, notamment en ce qui concerne la
formation gologique-gotechnique qui a une grande influence sur le systme sol-fondation, cependant, on a effectu des recherches
de techniques qui assurent une bonne valuation de ces constructions, par l'laboration et l'utilisation des modles en trois dimensions,
partir des donnes de l'enqute gotechnique et gologique. L'organisation, le traitement et la spcialisation des donnes du sol
fournissent des modles qui aident dans le processus de dcision et d'attnuation des risques lis ces constructions. Les rsultats
obtenus par l'utilisation de cette mthode montrent que l'interpolation des donnes pendant le processus de modlisation
tridimensionnelles diminue les incertitudes qui proviennent de la variabilit naturelle du sol.
KEYWORDS: bearing capacity, three-dimensional model, geotechnical risk.
MOTS CLES : capacit de portant, model tridimentionnel, risque gotechnique.
1 INTRODUCTION is, the one that best adapts itself to the local soil and to the
constructions expectations can skip from the natural variability
The estimation of the bearing capacity, the definition of the of the soil. Therefore, to understand such variability is the great
resistant surface, the tip elevation of the bases and the execution task of the geotechnical engineering, which is the key point of
control of the foundations are in many times defined under this article, which proposes a way, for not saying a new one, but
uncertain conditions which are caused by nature and by the efficient to organize, treat and specify in a bi or tridimensional
intrinsic characteristics of the soil and by the deficiencies and way the soil data, to furnish information that help in the
limitations of the preliminary studies which are the support for decision making process and in the mitigation of the risks which
the elaboration of a design. take part in the foundation constructions.
The ideal would be that the foundation could offer a To validate and measure the quality of the three-
minimum risk concerning the safety and the maximum economy dimensional methods, results from load testes were used which
about the costs. The satisfy such dual idea it is necessary to decreased in a good way the uncertainties concerning the real
have wide range and consistent preliminary studies for the execution condition and the foundations behaviors, in terms of
understanding of the geological-geotechnical behavior of the bearing capacity and deformability.
soil and its interaction with the foundation and the At the end, the obtained results from the three-dimensioning
superstructure Silva (2011). spacialization are shown throughout the proposed methodology.
To handle such problem, the elaboration and the usage of The results obtained from the application of the methodology
three-dimensional models, based on data from geotechnical, show that on the contrary of the traditional methods, the data
geological and geo-physical surveys start to gain a space in civil interpolation during the three-dimensional modeling process
engineering constructions, especially in foundation and reduced the uncertainties of the natural variability of the soil.
excavation constructions. Based on such philosophy, firstly the
design forces (loads) were defined; secondly, the sub-surface
model (resistant surface) (soil layers) that would be used in the
foundation solution was set.
It is known that to solve the referred problem there are
many dimensioning methods which result in many possible
foundation solutions. However not even the best method , that
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 1. Location of the borings. A simple procedure which requires
the name of the boring, The East and North coordinates (x,y)
2.1 Localization of the Study Area and the elevation of the top of the boring (coordinate z), besides
the total depth achieved by the drilling. If it is necessary, a
The refferred construction is located in an adjacent city called symbol can be added represent the borings in the generated bi-
Guar II, Braslia, DF. The design consists of two residential dimensional charts.
towers with an underpark garage excavated in such a way that
the three-dimensional spacialization of soil data was justified 2. After the location of the borings, the soil profile or the
because of the great soil variability and because of that the statigraphic log can be done. However, it is very important to
difficulty in executing the foundations. In such construction, 33 evaluate all borings and to establish which will be the soil
SPT borings were made in a piece of land with 60 m by 150 m profile to be used by the model, which procedure can be a
and lately load tests were also made which results were added to complex one because of the soil variability, and in some cases it
the three-dimensional models. The differential of that will be impossible to elaborate the statigraphic model due to
construction is that a three-dimensional model of bearing such variability.
capacity was proposed for it, which was calibrated by the field
load tests. 3. Description of the punctual numerical values. That concerns
The UTM coordinates which limit the area are: Xmin = to insert the numerical values described in the borings, normally
180.941 m, Xmax=181.001 m, Ymin= 8.246.782 m, the Nspt values.
Ymax=8.246.932 m, Zone 23, datum Astro-Chu with central 3 RESULTS
meridian of 45 WGr. Figure 1 shows the study area location.
The first step for the three-dimensional modeling is the data log
in a data bank of the computer software which will be
responsible for the modeling. The data log of the borings in the
RockWorks 15 software is done in a sequence as follows:
Figure 2. Hipsomtrica chart with the SPT borings location and the
constructions location.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Besides the wide red clay layer, observed in the SPT borings,
the soil presented a great variability in the Nspt resistance
values what justified the development of the modeling for such
construction.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Most of the piles of interest which were to be executed in execution, took new destinations when many piles start to
the construction had a depth of 20 m (length) with a prevailing present problems during the excavation. Figure 6 shows a
diameter of 50 cm for 100 tf of bearing capacity, had their section of interest for the construction in which some piles
execution in terms of depth defined by the elaborated models. presented execution problems.
The objective of the 2D sections of bearing capacity, which
in the beginning was just to do the depth control reached by the
Seo 1-1' - Cap. Carga Est. 50 cm
SP-20-Verano
1 1' Cap Carga(tf)-Est. 50cm
SP-18-Verano
SP-17-Verano
SP-12-Blanc
180
0.0
0.0
160
P206_P125
-2.0
-2.0
P223-C
P220-C
P217-C
P210-C
P207-D
P223-A
P212-B
P210-B
P210-A
P207-B
P17-C
P25-C
P17-B
P25-A
P324
P310
P236
P230
P224
P218
P212
P108
P443
P437
P431
P411
P405
P705
P2-C
P9-C
P2-A
PC2
140
-4.0
-4.0
10tf 10tf 10tf 10tf
120
-6.0
-6.0
10tf 10tf 10tf 10tf 10tf 10tf 10tf
10tf
100
-8.0
-8.0
20tf 20tf
20tf 20tf 20tf 20tf
20tf 20tf 20tf 20tf 80
-10.0
-10.0
20tf 40tf 40tf
60
-12.0
-12.0
40tf 40tf
40tf
40tf 40tf 40tf
40tf 60tf 60tf
40
-14.0
-14.0
60tf 40tf 40tf
60tf
60tf 60tf 80tf
20
-16.0
-16.0
60tf 60tf 60tf 60tf
80tf
80tf 80tf
80tf 0
-18.0
-18.0
100tf 80tf 80tf 80tf
80tf 80tf
-20.0
-20.0
100tf
Norte
0. 0 25. 0 50. 0
150. 0
150. 0
40tf
1'
100tf
120tf 100tf
100tf 120tf
-22.0
-22.0
125. 0
125. 0
80tf
120tf
120tf 120tf
100. 0
100. 0
120tf
-24.0
-24.0
40tf
Oes te
Les te
75. 0
75. 0
-26.0
-26.0
50. 0
50. 0
25. 0
25. 0
-28.0
-28.0
0. 0
0. 0
1
0. 0 25. 0 50. 0
Sul
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0 85.0 90.0 95.0 100.0 105.0 110.0 115.0 120.0 125.0 130.0 135.0 140.0 145.0 150.0
5 REFERENCES
DCOURT , L.; QUARESMA, A. R. Capacidade de Carga de estacas a
Partir de Valores de SPT. 6 Congresso Brasileiro de Mecnica dos
solos e Engenharia de Fundaes, Rio de Janeiro, anais, v. 1, pp 45-
53, 1978.
FARIA, A. (1995). Estratigrafia e Sistemas Deposicionais do Grupo
Parano nas reas de Cristalina, Distrito Federal e So Joo
Figure 7. Horizontal Section of Bearing Capacity for 20meters depth D'aliana - Alto Paraso De Gois. Tese de Doutorado, 4, Instituto
of the case study. de Geocincias, Universidade de Braslia, Braslia, DF, 199 p.
The choice of the 20 meters depth was due to the fact to SILVA, C.M. (2011). Energia e Confiabilidade Aplicadas aos
Estaqueamentos Tipo Hlice Contnua. Tese de Doutorado,
achieve most of piles in terms of bearing capacity and because Publicao G.TD - 070/11, Departamento de Engenharia Civil e
many piles did not reach longer depths, once they were getting Ambiental, Universidade de Braslia, Braslia, DF, 303p.
close to the maximum excavation limit of the equipment. SILVA, C. P. L. & SOUZA, N. M. (2009). Desenvolvimento de
Finally it can be observed how often the resistant surface Modelagem Tridimensional de Subsuperfcies. Livro
can vary in the construction and how can the models help in the Comemorativo dos Vinte Anos do Programa de Ps-Graduao em
problem analysis and in the search of more efficient solutions Geotecnia da Universidade de Braslia. Editora FT, ISBN 978-85-
for the construction. 60313-15-0, Braslia, DF, 441-470 p.
SILVA, C. P. L. (2011). Cartografia Geotcnica Tridimensional do
4 CONCLUSIONS Setor Noroeste de Braslia. Tese de Doutorado, Publicao G.TD-
072/2011, Departamento de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental,
The three-dimensional mapping of the soil has the target to Universidade de Braslia, Braslia, DF, 274 p.
obtain the maximum knowledge of the geotechnical conditions
of the construction location to make the engineers analyses
easier. On the contrary of traditional methods, the data
interpolation during the 3D modeling process decrease the
uncertainties of the natural variability of the soil.
2790
Full scale rapid uplift tests on transmission tower footings
Tests grandeur nature d'arrachement rapide sur les fondations d'une tour relais
ABSTRACT: This paper describes results from a series of full scale tests on transmission tower footing at a London clay site in Kent.
The testing series investigated the effects of rapid loading at field scale with footings founded directly onto clay or coarse granular
material, with a clay or coarse granular material backfill. It was shown that footings founded on London clay mobilised significantly
greater uplift capacities at smaller displacements than those with a breakaway condition. In a suite of centrifuge tests this enhanced
capacity was shown to originate from suctions that formed on the base of model footings (Lehane et al. 2008). Back analysis of the
field tests revealed that inferred normalised suctions were similar to those generated in the centrifuge tests. However the enhanced
uplift capacity was not sufficient to cause the uplift resistance to reach design capacity by the displacement serviceability limit state of
10mm.
RSUM : Cet article prsente les rsultats issus dune srie de tests grandeur nature sur les fondations dune tour relais bases sur un
terrain en argile de Londres (London clay), dans le Kent, Angleterre. Ces sries de tests ont t menes pour tudier les effets dun
chargement rapide en conditions relles avec une tour remblaye et fonde dans un sol argileux ou un matriau granuleux. Il a dj t
prouv que, pour de petits dplacements, des fondations bases sur de largile de Londres prsentaient une rsistance larrachement
plus importante que des fondations places sur une base en gravier. Des essais en centrifugeuse ont montr que cette rsistance
larrachement accrue provenait de succions sur la base de la maquette (Lehane et al. 2008). De nouvelles analyses sur le terrain ont
rvl que les forces de succion calcules taient similaires celles gnres durant les tests de centrifugeuses. Cependant cette
meilleure rsistance larrachement na pas t suffisante pour satisfaire la limite de rsistance impose par le cahier des charges pour
un dplacement fonctionnel de 10mm.
KEYWORDS: clays; footings; foundations.
2791
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
the pyramid is constructed of mass concrete. The footing is cast 2.1 Site layout
inside a large excavation which is typically backfilled using the
excavated or imported material. In each case, the embedment Five L4M footings were constructed at the Chattenden site in
(H) to width (B) ratio is typically between 1 and 1.5. August 2010. The footing geometry used is shown in Figure 1.
The footings were designed and constructed to TS 3.4.15 Issue
1.2 Uplift resistance of footings 2 (National Grid 2004). The design uplift resistance (Qdes) of the
footings using TS 3.4.15 was 420kN based on a 25o frustum
It is conventional to express the uplift capacity (Qu) of a footing angle as su>50 kN/m3 on the founding plane (Butcher et al.
as: 2009).
Q = Wf + q0 B2 (1) Each footing was installed with different base contact
where conditions and backfill material (see Figure 1.). These variables
q0 = Nucsu +HNus (2) allowed the contribution of each resistance mechanism to be
isolated. Footings 1 and 2 were backfilled with tumbled and
The contributions from any base tension and backfill are compacted London clay representing field/early construction
represented in Eq. 2 in the form of reverse bearing capacity practices. Footings 3-4 used DoT Type 2 backfill - a coarse
factors Nuc and Nus, respectively. The value of Nus may be granular material from recycled aggregate (Depart of Transport
quantified by a number of back analysed failure surfaces (e.g. 2009). All footings were directly cast on the underlying clay
Murray and Geddes 1987) or through the use of design charts apart from Footing 3, which had a Type 2 free drainage layer.
derived from parametric numerical analysis (e.g. Merifield and
Sloan 2006).
Early physical testing at quasi static uplift rates investigated
the variation Nuc with embedment ratio (H/B). There are
therefore many solutions available (e.g. Rao and Datta 2001).
However more recent centrifuge studies have shown that Nuc is
also dependent on uplift rate (vf) (Lehane et al. 2008). Under
rapid loading (vf = 30mm/s) it was found that a single footing
Backfill
founded on kaolin clay generated more than twice the capacity
in comparison to a slow uplift rate (vf = 0.3mm/s). The
difference in uplift capacities between vf = 0.1mm/s and vf =
30mm/s was proportional to the reduction of pore water
pressure below the footing base (Lehane et al. 2008). It was
proposed that the slow uplift rate allowed suction relief to occur
due to the gradual base/soil separation during uplift. This is
sufficient to relieve suctions and at approximately w/B6%
London clay
residual capacity was equivalent to a full breakaway condition.
At very fast uplift rates (vf > 30mm/s) base separation does
not occur due to the full development of suctions that eventually
cause a reverse bearing failure to occur in the clay. This type of
failure results in a clay wedge remaining adhered to the footing
base post-pullout and capacity is determined by the undrained
shear strength of the clay (fully bonded).
2 FIELD TESTS
Figure 1. L4M footing with a 25o frustum
The aim of the field tests was to reduce the uncertainty
surrounding the in situ performance of transmission tower
Table 1. Footing specifications
footings. Reduced scale physical model tests conducted in a
geotechnical centrifuge demonstrated that during continuous Footing Backfill Base
pullout out at increasing velocities that uplift capacity may be
1 Loose London clay London clay
significantly enhanced due to the development of suctions
occurring across the footing base. It was shown that uplift 2 Dense London clay London clay
capacity had a log linear relationship with the uplift velocity
(Lehane et al. 2008). The source of this contribution was the 3 Type 2 Type 2
formation of negative pore water pressures on the footing base.
However it is only at field scale that these effects can examined 4 Type 2 London clay
and quantified in the context of realistic in situ soil conditions
and construction variabilities associated with full scale 5 Type 2 London clay
footings..
To examine these issues a series of full scale tests were
commissioned at the Building Research Establishment's London
Clay test site at Chattenden, Kent (OS ref: TQ 75521 73987). 2.2 Ground conditions
The field tests aimed to bridge understanding of the load-
displacement, load-rate and suction behaviour of soils from The Chattenden site has been used extensively for
small scale and numerical modelling to field scale. By using foundation testing due to the presence of the deep and uniform
different construction backfill materials to replicate as-built London clay strata (e.g. Butcher et al. 2009). The depth of the
construction practices, uplift rate and base interfaces across five London clay strata is ~30m and it was evident that during the
L4M tower type footings (Footings 1-5) that different uplift construction of the footings that the top 3m was heavily
mechanisms at full scale could be revealed. weathered and fissured. The foundation tests were conducted
over a two week period in July 2012. The extremely wet
summer of 2012, particularly in the weeks prior to the field tests
resulted in the top layer of weathered clay became soft
(~su=10kPa). It was also evident that the excavations backfilled
2792
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
with granular material were fully saturated leading to extreme did not affect uplift capacity. The measured uplift capacities
softening (swelling) of the clay in the base of the excavations. were similar for both tests (<10% difference) during the first
A total of five ~10m deep CPTs were used to characterise 10mm of uplift and at peak there is a difference of 50 kN versus
the site and backfill. Using a Nkt = 20 (Butcher et al. 2009) the Test 1-A and 5-A.
variation of su and density () of the London clay below 3m (the Test 3-A was used to examine the difference that base
founding plane) corroborates with previous observations. A contact conditions at small displacements would have. Although
profile from Footing 5 is shown in Figure 2. the test did not reach its peak the stiffness response is
comparable with Footing 2-A. This implies that the base
condition contribution was similar to the footings tested on
London clay and that the blinding did not fulfill its purpose of
excluding suctions from uplift i.e. acted a free draining material.
Tests 3-B and 4-B indicated that the performance of Type 2
granular fill is extremely poor and could only mobilise ~50% of
Qdes at w=10mm. Large displacements were required for the
granular fill to mobilise sufficient strength to produce uplift
capacities equivalent to Qdes (w = 60mm Test 3-B and w =
80mm Test 4-B). It should be noted on Test 5-A reached Qdes
within a 10mm displacement.
3.2 Suction
5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In previous studies (e.g. Lehane et al. 2008) the degree of uplift
capacity enhancement may be estimated as the difference The authors wish to thank National Grid UK for the financial
between the suction and breakaway uplift resistances (Eq. 3). support required to conduct the field tests. The authors
When the uplift capacities are evaluated using the slope method gratefully acknowledge the work of Grid Line Foundations Ltd,
(BSI 1997) the average enhancement due to suction is 325 kN. Andrew Hewitt of Lankelma and PMC.
This is equivalent to a pore water pressure drop of 155 kPa from
hydrostatic. The magnitude of pore water pressure drop is 6 REFERENCES
similar to the values of pore water pressure measurements
observed during undrained uplift of model footings (Lehane et BSI 1997. Overhead lines - Testing of foundations for structures, BS EN
al. 2008). 61773:1997, London.
Butcher, A.P. et al. 2009. Comparison of behaviour of CFA piles in
London clay as determined by static, dynamic and rapid testing
Nuc = (Q Qbr)/suB2 (3) methods. In 5th International Symposium on Deep Foundations on
Bored and Auger Piles. London, 205212.
The effects of suction may be presented using a normalised Depart of Transport, 2009. MCHW Volume 1 SHW: Roads pavements -
velocity (V = vfB/cv) where cv is the coefficient of consolidation Unbound cement and other hydraulically bound mixtures. London
of the underlying London clay (0.24, Skempton and Henkel IEEE, 2001 Guide for transmission structures: Foundation design and
1957). The results from Lehane et al. (2008) are presented in testing, IEEE Std 691-2001, New York.
this manner against the undrained bearing coefficient Nuc. Qbr Lehane, B.M., Gaudine C., Richards, D.J. and Rattley, M.J. 2008. Rate
was defined as the average uplift capacity values for second effects on the vertical uplift capacity of footings founded in clay.
Gotechnique 58(1), 1321.
tests on Footing 3 and 4 using the slope method with Q the Merifield, R.S. and Sloan, S.W. 2006. The ultimate pullout capacity of
uplift resistance of the remainder. anchors in frictional soil. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 43(8),
852868.
Murray, E.J. and Geddes, J.D. 1987. Uplift of anchor plates in sand.
Figure 5. shows the similarity between the results of the Journal Of Geotechnical Engineering 113(3), 202215.
model tests at vf = 30 mm/s and the field tests results on London National Grid 2004. Overhead line support foundations, TS 3.4.15 Issue
clay. The range of Nuc of the tests on London clay is between 2. Warwick, UK.
3.3 - 3.9 compared to 3.7 4.1 for vf = 30 mm/s. The data point Rao, N.S. and Datta, M. 2001. A comparison of uplift and bearing
at Nuc = 1.9 corresponds to Test 3-A, which did not reach peak behaviour of plate anchors in soft clay. In Eleventh International
Symposium Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference.
but evidently mobilised a degree of suction. Stavanger. 560-565.
Skempton, A.W. and Henkel, D.J. 1957. Tests on London clay from
deep borings at Paddington, Victoria and the South Bank. In
Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering. London, 100106.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The series of field tests on a number of full scale L4M footings
has confirmed that base suction may contribute significantly to
footing performance. Preliminary analysis has shown that the
magnitude of suction developed is similar to that observed in
physical model tests conducted in a centrifuge.
The results have also shown that the design uplift
performance is not reached (in general) before the ultimate limit
state displacement criterion set by UK design guidance. This
includes the performance of footings were suction developed. In
the case where suctions did not develop, the uplift performance
of the footings was extremely poor. Such a poor performance
will require a re-evaluation of the use coarse granular material,
specifically Type 2, when used in excavations bounded by
London clay.
2794
Characteristics Values in Rock Socket Design
ABSTRACT: The substructure of the Gateway Bridge comprises 1.5 metre diameter bored piers socketed into sedimentary rock.
Characterisation of the rock strength properties, through goodness-of-fit tests, showed the use of non-normal distributions produced
realistic characteristic strengths, while comparable predictions based on a Normal distribution showed unrealistically low values
existed below the 20th percentile reliability. Since limit state codes imply characteristic design strengths should be derived from
conservative (low) percentile values, erroneous characteristic strength values may be produced due to an assumption of a Normal
distribution. Two land based test piles fitted with Osterberg cells tested the sedimentary bedrock for shaft capacity at the bridge site,
and Characteristic rock strengths required by various rock socket design methods to replicate observed pile shaft capacity have been
back-calculated. This paper assumes that all considered design methods are equally correct, and compares the required design
values (the selection of which are often subjective) to their relative location within the applied strength profile distributions.
RSUM : L'infrastructure du pont "Gateway Bridge" a des piliers fors de 1,5 mtre de diamtre ancrs dans de la roche
sdimentaire. La caractrisation des proprits de rsistance de la roche, fate par le biais de test d'ajustement, a montr que
l'utilisation de loi non-normale a produit des caractristiques de rsistance plausibles alors que des prdictions comparables bases sur
une loi normale pouvaient devenir artificiellement basses pour un degr de probabilit au 20ime centile. Certaines normes d' tats
limites suggrent que les caractristiques de rsistance devraient tre drives partir de valeurs (au bas mot) de bas centile, des
valeurs de caractristiques de rsistance errones pouvant tre calcules en assumant une loi normale. Deux piliers tests installs sur
terre-sche avec des cellules d'Osterberg ont t utiliss pour tester la capacit de la roche sdimentaire par rapport au pilier mais les
valeurs de rsistance caractristique de roche ncessites par les diverses conceptions d'ancrage sur roche ont t rtro-calcules afin
de reproduire la capacit observe des piliers. Cet article assume que toutes les mthodes de conception considres sont tout aussi
"correctes" et drive les valeurs caractristiques de conception requises (la slection desquels est souvent subjective) afin de
reproduire les capacits observes des piliers durant des tests grande chelle.
KEYWORDS: Rock socket, bored piles, characteristic design value, statistical distribution, Osterberg pile tests, sedimentary rocks
The Gateway Upgrade Project (GUP) was the largest road and Location / Key Geological Issue within
No. of Bored Piers
bridge infrastructure project ever undertaken in Queensland, Pier Rock Founding Layers
Australia. The six lane bridge structure spans 1.6 km between
Land 5 10 Dipping Coal seam layer within
abutments with a main river span structure of 520 metres. This
paper focuses on rock socket design procedures applied to two Southern (+ TP1) zone of influence of pier.
large-scale, land-based pile load tests conducted for this project.
River 6 24 Random Shear zones with
The rock founding conditions varied across the bridge
footprint as summarised in Table 1. Characterisation of rock River 7 24 varying length of piles
strength properties included the derivation of site-specific
correlation of Point Load Index (Is(50)) data with Uniaxial Land 8 10 Uncertain and inconsistent data
Compressive Strength (UCS) test results, and a statistical Northern (+ TP2) with possible weak zones
analysis of resulting datasets.
The two test piles (TP1 and TP2) installed with Osterberg 1.1 Background
Cells were constructed to investigate the rock socket behaviour
under high loads and identify any constructability issues prior to Whilst driven piles were used extensively across the GUP site,
construction of the two river piers. This paper considers various the river span of the Gateway Bridge is founded upon 1.5 metre
accepted methods of pile rock socket design and compares their diameter bored piers socketed into sedimentary rock. Piers 5
applicability to the load tests completed at this site. and 8 are located on the riverbank while Piers 6 and 7 are
Rock socket design methods typically have similar located within the river. River piers consisted of 24 piles that
formulations for the estimation of side shear capacity, but extended to a depth of over 50m below the river level, and each
produce varying results due to their method of derivation, and of the land based piers consisted of only 10 bored piers. Day et.
the available data or tested rock types used for formulation. al. (2009) provides further GUP foundation and project details.
While the rock type may be a governing factor, this paper For the bridge foundation the key geological features were:
assumes that all the methods produce correct pile designs, but o The basement rock consisted of Triassic aged material.
require varying characteristic design input values to produce This includes layers of sandstone, siltstone, mudstone and
equivalent results. Reliability theory implies a moderately low grade coal formed about 220 to 180 million years ago.
conservative or cautious estimate should be used as the This material does not have any significant folding, but is
characteristic design value, yet without a statistical basis the known to have faulting as a consequence of crustal
selection of appropriate characteristic values remains subjective. tension in the Tertiary period.
o Deposition of Quaternary Alluvium occurred in the recent
past. This site is located close to the mouth of the
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2796
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
rock socket of both test piles consisted of slightly weathered, Table 3. Unit side resistance formulas for considered rock socket pile
medium to high strength, Triassic aged sedimentary rock design methodologies, normalised with atmospheric pressure ( )
(interbedded layers of mudstone, sandstone and siltstone). Design Method Normalised Unit Side Resistance Equation
In both TP1 and TP2 the shaft resistance of the section of
Hovarth and Kenny
rock socket existing between the level of the installed Osterberg = 0.65 (1)
Cell and pile tip was observed to have become fully mobilised (1979)*
during the application of a peak load (up to 56.6MN, Meigh and Wolski
approximately 3.1 times the expected SLS load). = 0.55( ). (2)
(1979)
The maximum shaft capacity of the 2.66m length of shaft
that existed below the installed Osterberg Cell of TP1 was Williams, Johnson
= ( ) (3)
calculated to be 17.55MN, with a residual value of 16.4MN. and Donald (1980)
The residual value represented a 7% decrease from the Rowe and Armitage
maximum observed value. Similarly, the peak shaft capacity of = 1.42 (4)
(1987)
the 5.24m length of TP2 between the Osterberg Cell and pile tip
was determined to be 29.2MN.
Lower Bound: = 0.63 (5)
Carter and Kulhawy
3 ROCK SOCKET DESIGN PROCEDURES
(1988)
Upper Bound: = 1.42 (6)
Early work for rock socket design occurred in Australia by
Williams, Johnston and Donald (1980) who examined non-
Kulhawy and Phoon
linear pile design in Melbourne Mudstones, and Rowe and Pells = (7)
(1993)
(1980) who calibrated elastic pile design with Sydney
Sandstones and Shales. Horvath and Kenny (1979) undertook
Prakoso (2002) = (8)
similar field and laboratory testing on mudstones in Canada
while Meigh and Wolshi (1979) conducted comparable work in *
Also confirmed by Zhang (1999) and Reese and ONeill (1988)
Europe. Side slip design was subsequently detailed by Rowe
and Armitage (1987). 3.1 Back-analysis of rock socket design methodologies
Kulhawy and Phoon (1993) showed the discontinuity in shaft
friction between clays and various soft rocks (shales, mudstones By using the measured ultimate shaft frictional capacity as the
and limestone). Seidel and Haberfield (1995) extended that basis for back-analysis, characteristic quc input values could
work to demonstrate that rock socket performance is highly be determined for each considered rock socket design method.
dependent on shaft roughness and socket diameter; whereby pile Table 3 details the rock socket pile design methodologies
shaft friction reduces as the pile diameter increases. considered and the published formulae used in each to calculate
Generally, rock socket design is governed by serviceability dimensionless unit side resistance values ( ). These values are
conditions rather than ultimate load conditions, and the load transformed to rock socket design capacities via multiplication
deformation behaviour of the rock sockets are determined of the calculated value by the surface area of the segment of
largely by the rockmass deformation properties. The rockmass the rock socket that was loaded to capacity. In this study it has
modulus (m) value can be estimated from the modulus of intact been assumed that the pile socket is effectively smooth and that
rock (i) reduced for the frequency of rock defects. Relevant concrete strength does not limit the shear capacity of the pile.
theory is discussed by Zhang (2004). No factors of safety have been applied as field data is being
Various pile rock socket design procedures are now available fitted back to design equations.
which frequently calculate the design shaft capacity based on Notes relevant to the formulae presented in Table 3 include:
correlation with a characteristic compressive rock strength o Eq. (3) calculates shear capacity based on both the rock
(quc) value. A good summary of the shaft shear capacity strength value and a mass factor (j) which is defined as the
equations derived by design method researcher is provided in ratio of rock mass modulus to intact rock modulus. Based
Kulhawy et al. (2005). Gannon et al. (1999) described four of on the average logged RQD values (TP1 = 70%; TP2 =
these methods and showed, even when adopting consistent rock 55%), a mass factor (j) of 0.33 would be appropriate for
properties for design, the resulting design pile socket shear TP1 (j = 0.20 for TP2). Also, in Eq. (3) is directly related
capacities ranged widely. The longest pile socket lengths for the to the adopted quc, whilst is estimated from the j value.
example provided were predicted by the Carter and Kulhawy o Shaft capacity values for Eq. (4) are recommended to be
(1988) design method, while the Rowe and Armitage (1987) multiplied by a partial factor of 0.7 to ensure the probability
and Williams et al. (1980) procedures reduced the socket of exceeding design settlements is lower than 30%.
lengths by 40-60%. o The coefficient C in Eq. (7) is based on conservatism and
This paper aimed to provide guidance on two key questions: rock socket roughness; C = 1 provides a lower bound
o Which rock socket design method should be used? estimate, C = 2 for mean pile behaviour and C = 3 for upper
o What characteristic rock strength value should be selected bound estimates or for rough rock sockets.
(and does the selected method alter the required value)? o The approach used to derive Eq. (8) was cited by Kulhawy
Ng et al. (2001) showed that the correlations presented by et al. (2005) as providing the most consistent approach in
Rowe and Armitage (1987) and Hovarth et al. (1983) are evaluation of the constructed pile load dataset.
applicable for sedimentary and volcanic rocks respectively. 3.2 Back-calculation Results
Table 4 provides a summary of the various input UCS values
required to achieve the ultimate shaft capacity values observed
in each test pile. These values have been back-calulated via use
of the equations detailed in Table 3. The 5th percentile closest to
the required UCS value has been determined for both the
normal and non-normal distribution functions fitted to each test
piles strength data (refer Table 2).
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Table 4. Typical Correlations between UCS and shaft friction near the lower quartile of the UCS dataset is recommended.
Two large-scale instrumented test piles were loaded beyond
TP1 TP2 shaft capacity at the GUP site. Based on this test data, the
1.64 MPa 1.48 MPa required input UCS value has been back calculated for a number
Design Method
Percentile Percentile of pile design methods, and the indicative strength percentile
Equation UCS UCS reliability of the UCS value has been determined. Five of the
(MPa) (Pearson5 (MPa) (Log-Normal
examined methods have produced results that match the
/ Normal) / Normal) observed shaft capacities via the adoption of a design UCS
Hovarth and value close to the UCS lower quartile characteristic value.
62.6 80% / 85% 51.2 70% / 50%
Kenny (1979)
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Meigh and
28.3 70% / 45% 24.0 35% / 30% Some reliability concepts were formulated while the principal
Wolski (1979)
author was working on this project at Connell Wagner Pty Ltd
20.5 together with Vasanatha Wijeyakulasuriya of Queensland Main
Williams, 22.8
( = Roads. Fugro-Loadtest undertook the field trials discussed.
Johnson and 60% / 35% ( = 0.1) 30% / 25%
0.1)
Donald (1980) ( = 0.65) 6 REFERENCES
( = 0.8)
Carter, J.P., and Kulhawy, F.H., 1988. Analysis and design of drilled
Rowe and
13.1 60% / 30% 10.8 < 5% / 20% shaft foundations socketed into rock. Report EL-5918. Palo Alto:
Armitage (1987) Electric Power Research Institute, 190p.
66.6 85% / 85% 54.5 70% / 50% Day, R., Johnston, I. and Yang, D. 2007. Design of Foundations to
Carter and Second Gateway Bridge Brisbane. 7th Austroads Bridge
(Lower Bound Equation) Conference, Auckland, N.Z., 12p.
Kulhawy
13.1 50% / 30% 10.7 < 5% / 20% Gannon, J.A., Masterton, G.G., Wallace, W.A. & Wood, D.M. 1999.
(1988)
Piled Foundation in Weak Rock (CIRIA Report No.181).
(Upper Bound Equation)
Construction Industry Research & Information Assoc., UK, 80p.
52.9 43.3 Horvath, R.G. and Kenney, T.C. 1979. Shaft Resistance of Rock
Kulhawy and 85% / 75% 60% / 40%
(C = 1) (C = 1) Socketed Drilled Piers. Proc. Symp. on Deep Foundations, ASCE,
Phoon New York, N.Y., pp. 182214
13.2 10.8
(1993) 50% / 30% < 5% / 20% Horvath, R.G., Kenney, T.C. and Koziki, P. 1979. Methods of
(C = 2) (C = 2) improving the performance of drilled piers in weak rock. Canadian
Prakoso (2002) 26.5 70% / 45% 21.6 25% / 25% Geotech. Journal, 20(4), pp.758-772
Kulhawy, F.H. and Phoon, K-K. 1993. Drilled Shaft Side Resistance
in Clay Soil to Rock. Geotechnical Special Publication No. 38:
The results indicate that various researchers appear to have Design and Performance of Deep Foundations, pp. 172183
assumed a Normal distribution in developing shear capacity Kulhawy, F.H., Prakoso, W.A., & Akbas, S.O. 2005. Evaluation of
formulae, with a lower quartile to mean / median value Capacity of Rock Foundation Sockets. Proc. 40th U.S. Symp. Rock
generally adopted (20th to 50th percentiles). Higher (50th) Mechanics, G.Chen et al. (Eds.), Anchorage, Alaska, paper 05-767
percentiles were required to replicate the observed ultimate Look, B.G. and Griffiths, S. 2004. Characterization of rock strengths in
capacity values for lower bound (conservative) pile capacity South East Queensland. Proc. of the 9th Australia New Zealand
Conf. in Geomechanics, Auckland, N.Z., Vol. 1, pp.187194
formulas. As the adopted design UCS value is commonly above
Look, B.G. and Wijeyakulasuriya, V. 2009. The statistical modelling of
the point of equivalency between the Normal and non-normal rock strength for reliability assessment. 17th Int. Conf. on Soil
distribution (quc 25th percentile, refer Table 2), the Mechanics and Foundation Eng., Alexandria, Vol. 1, pp.6063
comparable back-calculated design strength percentiles are Meigh, A.C. and Wolski. W. 1979. Design parameters for weak rock.
generally higher for the non-normal distributions. Proc., 7th European Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Eng.,
However, the more accurate distribution function has been Brighton, UK, Vol. 5, pp.59-79
shown to be non-normal. Using the best fitting distribution, the Ng., C.W.W., Yau, T.L. Li, J.H. and Tang, W.H. 2001. Side resistance
derived UCS values required to replicate the shaft capacity of large diameter bored piles socketed into decomposed rocks.
observed in TP1 were consistently at, or above, the median Journal of Geotech. & Geoenvir. Eng., ASCE 127(8), pp.642-657
value. This suggests that all considered design methodologies Prakoso, W.A. 2002. Reliability-Based Design of Foundations on Rock
would, if the non-normal 50th percentile value was adopted, for Transmission Line & Similar Structures. PhD Thesis. Cornell
provide overly conservative shear capacity values for this site. University.
Reese, L.C. and O'Neill, M.W. 1988. Drilled shafts: construction
To avoid the inconsistencies associated with use of incorrect procedures and design methods. Report FHWA-HI-88-042.
distribution functions a characteristic quc value about the 20th to McLean: Federal Highway Administration.
30th percentile range was previously recommended. Using this Rowe, R. K. and Armitage, H. H. 1987. A design method for drilled
percentile range of the Normal and non-normal TP1 rock piers in soft rock. Canadian Geotech. Journal, 24(1), pp.126-142.
strength (UCS) datasets, or the larger Pier 6 datasets (also Rowe, R.K. and Pells, P.J.N. 1980. A Theoretical Study of Pile-Rock
assumed representative of TP1), the formula provided by Rowe Socket Behaviour. Proc., Int. Conf. on Structural Foundations on
and Armitage (1987), and upper bound equations from Carter Rock, Vol. 1, Sydney, Australia, pp.253-264
and Kulhawy (1988) and Kulhawy and Phoon (1993) calculate Seidel J.P. and Haberfield C.M. 1995. The axial capacity of pile sockets
pile shaft capacities closest to those observed. In the higher in rocks and hard soils. Ground Eng., 28(2), pp.33 38
strength rock profile of TP2, the capacity equations provided by Williams, A.F., Johnston, I.W. and Donald, I.B. 1980. The Design of
Meigh and Wolski (1979) and Prakoso (2002) displayed the Sockets in Weak Rock. Proc., Int. Conf. on Structural Foundations
on Rock, Vol. 1, Sydney, Australia, pp. 327347
closest match to the observed shaft capacity when the 20th, 25th
Zhang, L. 1999. Analysis and design of drilled shafts in rock. PhD
or 30th percentiles of the UCS datasets were adopted. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
4 CONCLUSIONS Zhang, L. 2004. Drilled Shaft in Rock: Analysis and Design. A.A.
Balkema Publishers
Statistical analysis of the available GUP rock strength data
shows that if a Normal distribution is assumed for characteristic
value determination, then errors may result. To minimise
inconsistencies associated with the use of ill-fitting distribution
functions to describe strength data, then the selection of values
2798
Safety theory in geotechnical design of piled raft
Thorie sur la scurit pour la ralisation de radier sur pieux.
ABSTRACT: A significant amount of literature describing and discussing the behavior of piled raft foundations have been produced
in the last thirty years; nevertheless, a method to introduce the safety in the design of this kind of foundation has not been established
yet. Hence, they have been omitted in most Standards and Codes around the world and have been used in just few cases. Until now,
the performance of piled rafts has been analyzed using a global factor-of-safety approach. The application of the Limit State Method
to geotechnical designs of this kind of foundation is presented with the purpose of establishing a methodology for the calculation of
the bearing capacity of piled rafts. The partial coefficients necessary to describe the safety in this method are defined for the ultimate
limit state. The application of the Safety Theory and probabilistic methods in the geotechnical design is presented, as well as the
mathematic formulation for its implementation in piled raft foundation. A methodology for the adjustment of partial coefficients (to
be used for the method of limit states) based on probabilistic methods is proposed. The expressions for the adjustment to be used in
piled raft foundations using the selected design method are finally presented.
RSUM : Une importante partie de la littrature dcrivant et examinant le comportement de radier sur pieux a t ralise au cours
des trente dernires annes. Nanmoins, une mthode pour introduire la scurit dans la conception de ce type de fondation n'a pas
encore t tablie. En consquence, on remarque son oubli dans la plupart des normes et des codes dans quasiment tous les pays et on
relve son utilisation dans trs peu de cas. Jusqu' prsent, la scurit du radier sur pieux a t analyse en utilisant un facteur global
permettant l'approche scuritaire. L'application de la mthode des tats limites pour la conception gotechnique de ce type de
fondation est prsente dans le but d'tablir une mthodologie de calcul de la capacit portante du radier sur pieux. Les coefficients
partiels ncessaires pour incorporer la scurit dans cette mthode sont dfinis pour les tats limites ultimes. L'application de la
thorie base sur la scurit et l'utilisation des mthodes probabilistes dans la conception gotechnique sont explicites, ainsi que les
formules mathmatiques pour sa mise en uvre en ce qui concerne les radiers sur pieux. Une mthodologie pour l'ajustement des
coefficients partiels ( utiliser pour la mthode des tats limites) bases sur des mthodes probabilistes est propose. Enfin, les
expressions pour l'ajustement utiliser dans le cas des radiers sur pieux, en utilisant une mthode de conception spcifique, sont
obtenues.
KEYWORDS: pile raft, safety theory, limit state, probabilistic method, partial coefficient.
2799
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
carried out a series of numerical analyses and proposed the where Q*UR and Q*PG are the raft and the piles design bearing
following equation:
capacity respectively, calculated separately from the soil design
QPR UR QUR ,ult QPG ,ult values.
(1) The overall vertical design load can be obtained as a sum of the
QPR , QUR and QPG are the ultimate bearing capacities of the PR, individual characteristic load weighted by a particular
the isolated raft and the isolated pile respectively; UR is a coefficient, as shown in the following equation:
coefficient introduced to affect the raft bearing capacity when it P* Pki fi (7)
is considered to be working in the pile-raft system. where Pki is the characteristic loads and fi are the weighting
Numerical models were generated inducing settlements of 10% coefficients for the loads.
of the raft width, which are considered to be capable of
mobilizing all the strength capacity of the system. The results
were used to make out a numerical correlation to obtain the
relation between UR and the geometry of the PR, which led to
the following expression:
A s
UR 1 3 G (2)
A d
where AG is the area enclosed by the piles; A is the raft area;
s and d are the pile spacing and diameter respectively.
2800
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
subsequently, Gonzalez-Cueto (2000) applied it to the design of As vP and vQPR ,ult are unknown, they can be expressed as:
shallow foundations in frictional soils. Lima (2006) used the
approach in the design of drilled caissons foundation and P
vP (20)
anchorages. P
The procedure to calibrate the weighting coefficients by this PR ,ult
methodology requires the calculation of the global safety factor vQPR ,ult (21)
QPR ,ult
( Fs , d ) and the optimal safety factor. The global safety factor is
where P and QPR ,ult are the standard deviation of the total
associated with the partial coefficients introduced in the design
by the LEM. The optimal safety factor is determined with the vertical load and the ultimate bearing capacity of the PR,
application of the probabilistic methods. respectively.
Taking into account that the total load is the result of the sum of
1.1 Global Design Safety Factor independent loads, which are values that represent random
variables, the standard deviation of the total vertical load can be
The weighting coefficient that are applied to adjust the soil obtained as the sum of the standard deviation of each load, as
specific weight and the mechanical properties of the soil can be shown by the following equation:
respectively calculated from equations 12 and 13.
P2 Pi2 (22)
1
gi (12) where Pi is the standard deviation of the i vertical load.
t v
1 i The bearing capacity of the PR is a function that depends on
ni
several random variables. This increases the complexity of the
1 calculation of the standard deviation. As shown in Lorenzo
gi (13) (2010), it is possible to apply the Taylor`s series method where
1 t vi
the linearization of the function is combined with application of
Where t is the t-student function value for = 0.95 at n-1 the general theorem of standard deviation. With this, the
degrees of freedom; vi is the coefficient of variation of the i soil standard deviation can be expressed by:
Q QPR , ult
2 2
2
property; ni is the amount of repetitions of the test where the i Q2PR ,ult PR , ult tan
soil property was obtained. tan C
The partial safety coefficient of the resistant loads can be Q Q
obtained from the following equation: 2 PR ,ult PR , ult tan C rC tan (23)
tan C
Q
g PR ,ult* (14) where rCtan is a correlation coefficient between the cohesion
QPR and the tangent of the friction angle.
Where g is the aforementioned coefficient. The derivatives on Equation 23 can be obtained from the
bearing capacity equations presented in (CTE 2006). This leads
*
to equations 24 to 29. In order to simplify the expressions, the
In order to calculate QPR ,ult and QPR Equations 1 and 6 can be depth coefficients of the bearing capacity equations are
used, respectively. considered to be 1. This does not introduce a significant error,
because the contribution of the soil above the foundation is a
The weighting coefficients of the loads can be calculated from small percent of the total load. Equations 24 to 26 can be used
equation 15. in a drained type analysis. These expressions become more
simple for cohesive soils in an undrained analysis, leading to
f P ki fi
(15) equations 27 to 29, as follows.
P 1 t v
ki i
QPR ,ult dN c dN q 1 dN
UR A C SC 1 d Sq B 2 S
Finally, the global design safety factor can be obtained as: tan d tan d tan 2 d tan
Fs , d f g s (16)
dN q
n AP Vp
'
AF V' k f (24)
1.2 Optimal Safety Factor d tan
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2802
Bored pile foundation response using seismic cone test data
Rponse des pieux l'aide des donnes de pizocne sismique
Mayne P.W.
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta GA USA
Woeller D.J.
ConeTec Investigations, Richmond, BC Canada
ABSTRACT: A closed-form elastic continuum solution is used to represent the upper and lower segment response of bored piles
subjected to bi-directional Osterberg load testing. For geotechnical parameter input, seismic piezocone tests (SCPTu) are a most
efficient and economical means because the penetrometer readings provide data for assessing the capacity of side and base
components, while the shear wave velocity provides the fundamental stiffness for displacement analyses. A simple algorithm for
modulus reduction is employed to allow nonlinear load-displacement-capacity behavior. A load test case study involving two levels of
embedded O-cells for a large bridge in Charleston, South Carolina is presented to illustrate the approach.
RSUM: Une solution analytique en lasticit est utilise pour reprsenter la rponse des sections suprieures et infrieures de
pieux fors soumis des essais de chargement bidirectionnel Osterberg. Les essais sismiques utilisant des pizocnes (SCPTu) sont
des moyens efficaces et conomiques pour obtenir des paramtres gotechniques. Les mesures du pntromtre sont gnralement
utilises pour lanalyse du frottement latral et de la capacit portante, tandis que les donnes de vitesse des ondes de cisaillement
donnent le module de cisaillement initial lors de lanalyse des dplacements. Un algorithme simple pour la rduction du module est
utilis pour lanalyse non-linaire du comportement charge - dplacement - capacit. Une tude de cas sur un essai de chargement
Osterberg deux niveaux effectu sur un grand pont situ Charleston en Caroline du Nord est utilise afin dillustrer cette
dmarche.
KEYWORDS: bored piles, cone penetration, deep foundations, elastic solution, load tests, shear modulus, shear wave velocity
2803
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
25
Cooper
30
Marl O-Cell A
35
40
45 O-Cell B
C27
50
C15
55
Figure 1.
60
Soil profile
Figure
with 1.representative
two Soil profile with two representative
seismic seismic(SCPTu)
piezocone soundings piezocone soundings
and (SCPTu)
O-cell setup and O-cell
for Arthur setup
Ravenel for Arthur
Bridge, Ravenel
Charleston, SCBridge, Charleston, SC
3 OSTERBERG LOAD TESTING For end bearing resistance of piles in clays, limit plasticity
solutions detail that:
A fairly comprehensive load testing program of large diameter
bored piles was performed at the site at the direction of the qb = Nc su (1)
South Carolina Dept. of Transportation (Camp, 2004). This
included 12 O-cell tests to measure static axial capacities and where Nc = bearing factor (Nc = 9.33 for circular pile) and su =
displacements. Three test sites were established to represent the undrained shear strength. For a mode corresponding to direct
conditions near Charleston, Drum Island, and Mount Pleasant. simple shear (DSS), the strength can be obtained from:
The test setup for bored pile load test (MP-1) at the north
end of the bridge at the Mt. Pleasant site had a constructed su = sin' OCR vo' (2)
diameter d = 2.6 m and embedded length L = 48 m. The upper
16 m was cased with large diameter steel pipe to restrict load where vo' = effective overburden stress, exponent = 1 - Cs/Cc
test results for pile side friction within the lower Cooper Marl. 0.8, Cs = swelling index, and Cc = compression index. In
Two levels of Osterberg cells were installed at depths of 30 and clays, an evaluation of the overconsolidation ratio from CPT
45 m to allow three-stages of loading. data using the expression:
The first stage involved pressurization of the lower O-cell
resulting in a downward movement of the lower pile segment (d OCR = Q (3)
= 2.6 m; L = 2.53 m) while essentially no movement occurred in
the upper shaft portions. Stage 1 involved base mobilization into where Q = (qt-vo)/vo' = normalized cone tip resistance. The
the marl to evaluate end bearing resistance plus a small portion CPT data indicate OCRs decreasing from 6 to 3 which are
of side friction. The second stage involved pressurization of the slightly higher than OCRs from the noted v' = 480 kPa.
upper O-cell with the lower cell ventilated (open). Stage 2 The effective stress friction angle in clays can be evaluated
resulted in a downward motion of the mid-section shaft (d = 2.6 from piezocone results using an effective stress limit plasticity
m; L = 14.0 m) with virtually no movements above the solution developed by Senneset, et al. (1989). A simplified form
elevation -30 m mark. As such, stage 2 solely involved can be expressed (Mayne, 2005):
mobilization of the side friction in the Cooper Marl.
Finally, stage 3 was conducted by closing the lower O-cell ' = 29.5Bq 0.121 [0.256 + 0.336Bq + log Q] (4)
and pressurizing the upper O-cell to push the top pile segment
upward. Essentially no displacements were recorded in the where Bq = (u2-u0)/(qt-v0) = normalized excess porewater
lower pile portions (below -30 m). Stage 3 data provided pressure. The equation is applicable for the following ranges:
information on the shear resistance in the Cooper marl in the 20 ' 45 and 0.1 Bq 1.0. For the Cooper Marl, the
non-cased zone from depth intervals from elev. -16 to -30 m. CPTu results indicate an effective ' 43, quite comparable to
values measured from laboratory CIUC triaxial tests on
4 EVALUATION OF AXIAL PILE RESPONSE undisturbed samples (Mayne 2005).
The corresponding calculated values of pile end bearing
4.1 Pile Capacity Assessment resistance using equations (1) through (4) are presented in
Figure 2 as a function of vo'. The qb increase from 2 to 4 MPa
For pile capacity, CPT data can be utilized either directly or and compare quite well with the measured values evaluated
indirectly to assess the end bearing and side components (e.g., from the O-cell test results.
Eslami and Fellenius 1997; Mayne 2007b). Herein, a rational or The pile side resistance (fp) can be expressed in terms of the
indirect approach was followed using the CPT data to evaluate lateral stress coefficient (K0) and interface friction between the
geotechnical parameters to determine the pile side friction (fp) pile surface and surrounding soil. As a first approximation, this
and base resistance (qb). "beta" method gives:
2804
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
lower P2 4 2 L 2
fp CM CK K0 vo' tan' (7) segment
(length L2) G s 2 ro 2 w 2 (1 ) 2 ro 2
Base
where CM = interface roughness factor (= 1 for bored cast-in-
place concrete, 0.9 prestressed concrete, 0.8 for timber, and 0.7 P = applied force w = pile displacement
for rusty steel piles) and CK = installation factor (= 1.1 for L = pile segment length = Poisson's ratio of soil
ro = pile shaft radius = Gs2/Gsb (Note: floating pile: = 1)
driven piles; 0.9 for bored piles).
Gs = soil shear modulus along sides = ln(rm/ro) = zone of influence
Calculated values of pile side friction are shown in Figure 3 Gsb = soil modulus below pile base rm = L{0.25 + [2.5 (1-) 0.25]}
and vary between 150 < fp < 250 kPa. These are comparable in
magnitude, and in some cases less than fb determined from the
O-cell load test series. Figure 4. Elastic continuum solution for O-cell loading of piles
50 Charleston The elastic continuum solutions for an axial pile foundation are
Drum Island detailed by Randolph and Wroth (1978, 1979) and Fleming et
100 qb from CPTu al. (1992) by coupling a pile shaft with a circular plate. This can
be deconvoluted back into the separate components to represent
the original O-cell arrangement or into stacked pile segments
150
for a mid-shaft O-cell as well as for multi- staged O-cell setups.
CPTu For the simple case of rigid pile segments, Figure 4 presents the
200 elastic solution for a mid-section O-cell framework.
The stiffness of the surrounding soil is represented by a
250 shear modulus (G). The initial fundamental small-strain shear
modulus of the ground is obtained from the shear wave velocity
O-Cells measurements:
300
G0 = T Vs2 (8)
350
where T = total mass density of the soil. This small-strain
400 stiffness is within the true elastic region of soil corresponding to
nondestructive loading. To approximately account for non-
Figure 2. Measured and calculated unit end bearing resistances linearity of the stress-strain-strength behavior of soils, a
modified hyperbola is adopted (Fahey, 1998):
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5 CONCLUSIONS
1
The upward and downward pile segments of an O-cell load test
0.9
Algorithm: G/G0 =1 (q/qmax )g can be conveniently represented by a versatile elastic continuum
solution. Results from seismic piezocone testing (SCPTu)
0.8
provide the necessary input data to evaluate axial side and base
Modulus Reduction, G/G0
0.2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
0.1
The writers thank Billy Camp of S&ME and the SCDOT for
0 providing access to the load test results.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
REFERENCES
Mobilized Strength, q/qmax = 1/FS
Camp, W.M. 2004. Drilled and driven foundation behavior in a
Figure 5. Modulus reduction algorithm for monotonic static loading calcareous clay. GeoSupport 2004 (GSP 124), ASCE, Reston,
Virginia: 1-18.
Camp, W.M., Mayne, P.W., and Brown, D.A. 2002. Drilled shaft axial
design values in a calcareous clay. Deep Foundations 2002, Vol. 2,
GSP No. 116, ASCE, Reston/Virginia: 1518-1532.
Shaft diameter Eslami, A. and Fellenius B. H. 1997. Pile capacity by direct CPT and
d = 2.6 m
CPTu methods applied to 102 case histories. Canadian
1m Depth Geotechnical J. 34 (6): 886-904.
100 0m
Fahey, M. 1998. Deformation and in-situ stress measurement.
Meas. Stage 1
L = 16.3 m
Geotechnical Site Characterization, Vol. 1 (Proc. ISC-1, Atlanta),
Meas. Stage 2 Balkema, Rotterdam: 49-68.
50 10 m
Displacement, w (mm)
Meas. Stage 3 Fellenius, B.H. 2001. The O-cell: an innovative engineering tool.
Casing
Geotechnical News Magazine, Vol. 19 (2): 32-33.
Fleming, W G K, Weltman A J, Randolph M F and Elson W K. 1992.
0 20 m Piling Engineering, 2nd Edition, Blackie /Halsted Press - Wiley &
L = 14.2 m Sons, London: 122-128.
Mayne, P W. 2005. Integrated ground behavior. in-situ and lab tests.
Upper 3 Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, Vol. 2 (IS-Lyon),
-50 30 m
O-Cell 2 Taylor & Francis Group, London: 155-177.
Mayne, P.W. 2007a. In-Situ Test Calibrations for Evaluating Soil
ElasticContinuum L = 14.0 m Parameters, Characterization & Engineering Properties of Natural
-100 Solutionwith 40 m Soils, Vol. 3, Taylor & Francis Group, London: 1602-1652.
SCPTuData Lower Mayne, P W. 2007b. Synthesis 368 on Cone Penetration Testing,
1
O-Cell L = 2.5 m National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP),
48 m
-150
National Academy Press, Washington, DC: 117 p. www.trb.org
0 10 20 30 40 Mayne, P.W. and Woeller, D.J. 2008. O-cell response using elastic pile
and seismic piezocone tests. Proc. Intl. Conf. on Foundations
O-Cell Load, Q (MN)
(Dundee), British Geotechnical Association, IHS BRE Press, UK.
O'Neill, M W, Brown, D A, Townsend, F C, and Abar, N. 1997.
Figure 6. Measured and calculated O-cell response for test shaft MP-1 Innovative load testing of deep foundations. Transportation
at Cooper River Bridge site Research Record No. 1569, Washington, D.C.: 17-25..
O'Neill, M W and Reese L C. 1999. Drilled Shafts: Construction
Procedures and Design Methods, Vols. I and II, Publication
FHWA-IF-99-025, Assoc. Drilled Shaft Contractors, Dallas: 758 p.
suggested for relatively insensitive clays, nonstructured soils, Osterberg J O. 1998. The Osterberg load test method for bored and
and uncemented quartzitic sands (Mayne 2007a). For the driven piles. Proc. 7th Intl. Conf. Piling and Deep Foundations
Cooper marl, the high calcium carbonate content would (Vienna), Deep Foundations Institute, NJ: 1.28.1-1.28.11.
implicate a rather structured geomaterial, therefore an Osterberg, J O. 2000. Side shear and end bearing in drilled shafts. New
appropriate exponent "g" = 0.5 can be considered characteristic. Technological and Design Developments in Deep Foundations,
Using the aforementioned elastic continuum solution and GSP No. 100 (Proc. GeoDenver), ASCE, Reston, Virginia: 72-79.
axial pile capacity determined from CPT results, together with Randolph M F and Wroth C P. 1978. Analysis of deformation of
the initial shear moduli obtained from the Vs profile, the vertically loaded piles. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
response of the three pile segments from the O-cell Division (ASCE), Vol. 104 (GT12): 1465-1488.
Randolph M F and Wroth C P. 1979. A simple approach to pile design
arrangements can be represented, as shown in Figure 6 for test and the evaluation of pile tests. Behavior of Deep Foundations, STP
shaft MP-1. A reasonable agreement is observed for all three 670, ASTM, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: 484-499.
loading stages of both O-cell jacks, including an approximate Senneset, K., Sandven, R. and Janbu, N. 1989. Evaluation of soil
nonlinear load-displacement-capacity behavior. parameters from piezocone tests. Transportation Research Record
If desired, a more realistic compressible pile solution is also 1235, National Academy Press, Washington, DC: 24-37.
available (Fleming et al. 1992), yet more complex as it involves
a hyperbolic tangent function. In that case, the developed curves
are quite similar to those shown herein.
2806
Energy and Reliability Applied to Continuous Flight Augern Pilings - The SCCAP
Methodology
nergie et fiabilit appliques l'excavation des pieux fors en continu - La mthodologie SCCAP
Medeiros Silva C.
Embre Empresa Brasileira de Engenharia e Fundaes Ltda
Camapum de Carvalho J., Brasil Cavalcante A.L.
Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Brasilia
ABSTRACT: The SCCAP methodology was developed to control the execution of Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) type foundation
works. The methodology SCCAP was based in the law of energy conservation, which is one of the basic fundaments from classical
physics and quantifies the required energy, or developed work, to excavate each of the piles from any particular foundation site. It
proposes formulations, routines and criteria for pile acceptance based on the statistical characteristics of the population or from an
energy sample taken from this one. It has been incorporated into the monitoring and execution software from CFA piles machines,
and it allows for local corrections on procedures and excavation depth at each executed pile from the site. Consequently it enhances
the reliability and mitigates involved risks to the geotechnical job. The SCCAP methodology has been validated through the
assessment that the necessary energy to excavate a particular pile is related to its bearing capacity, when the excavation process is
monitored.
RSUM : La mthodologie SCCAP a t dveloppe pour contrler l'excution des pieux fors en continu (CFA). La mthode
SCCAP est fonde sur la loi de conservation de l'nergie, qui est un des fondements de la physique classique et qui quantifie l'nergie
requise - ou le travail fournir - pour excaver chacun des pieux dans n'importe quel sol de fondation. Elle propose des formulations,
des procdures et des critres pour dfinir la conformit des pieux, bass sur les caractristiques statistiques de la population ou sur un
chantillon dnergie pris dans celle-ci. Cette mthode a t incorpore au logiciel de suivi et d'excution des machines foreuses de
pieux CFA et elle permet deffectuer des corrections locales sur les procdures et la profondeur d'excavation de chaque pieu. Par
consquent, elle amliore la fiabilit et rduit les risques encourus lors du travail dexcavation. La mthode SCCAP a t valide par
le fait que l'nergie ncessaire pour excaver un pieu particulier est en relation directe avec sa capacit portante, lorsque le processus
d'excavation est contrl par monitoring.
KEYWORDS: Energy, Methodology SCCAP, Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) and Reliability.
2807
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3 SCCAP METHODOLOGY
2808
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
control in real time and assure to the execution piling process little variability. Once the region to be sampled was chosen and
conditions for the piles to achieve individually the planed its size, the results are put together by class fitting them to a
bearing capacity, assuring quality and the design assumptions. It normalized distribution. By that way, the mean () and the
is very clear that the final behavior of the pile will also depend, standard deviation (), were calculated what made possible to
among other issues, for example, the concrete injection pressure establish reliability and acceptance criteria to applied in boring.
which depending on the type of soil and its value will have a From the beginning they proposed criteria tht should be chosen
great influence on the pile behavior, such fact observed by Silva by geotechnical variability basis and the existing quality control
(2011). in the construction, for example, it will be accepted the pile
Figure 2 presents the results obtained during the execution which when achieving the minimum design depth did during
of seven load tests, construction on the Parano Lake shore in excavation a required and measured work (w) greater than the
Braslia Brazil and the total required energy to execute each mean () of the work measured from the sample (W).
pile. It can be seen in Figure 2 that the measured energy in each
Tabela 2. Caracterizao Geotcnica Ensaio SPT
pile is proportional to its bearing capacity. In Table 1, the most SPT by Layer
Deep Type of
important geometric and monitored data of the tested piles are (m) SPT 01 SPT 02 SPT 03 SPT 04 Soil
shown. Moreover its also observed in Picture 2 that the 1 7 6 6 6
2 4 4 5 5
ultimate load is rampant with the required energy increase 3 2 4 2 5
during the excavation, independently of the failure criteria 4 2 4 4 7
adopted, the one from Brazilian norm criterion ( NBR 6122, 5 4 6 6 10
6 4 6 8 15 Clay
ABNT) or the conventional one which corresponds to 10% of 7 8 7 4 18
the pile diameter. In this case, all piles were excavated by a 8 7 7 13 13
9 5 11 30 7
same set machine/operator. 10 14 24 30 5
11 32 12 32 9
Table 1. geometric features of the piles (modified from silva, 2011). 12 58 31 56 14
Medium 13 52 18
Total 14 21
pressure of Diameter
Pile Length (m) Energy 15 19 Silt
concrete (cm)
(MJ) 16 24
(kPa) 17 27
E110BA 17,12 100 42 9,64 18 42
TC2BB 12,80 0-75 53 13,18 In Table 3 the required energies to excavate each pile are
E55AA 14,24 25-100 37 7,06
presented. The tip elevations of the pile bases were defined
based on the geotechnical characterization and its location in the
EPC1C 10,80 50 42 4,73 construction site and three different depths were adopted, 10, 11
GE 24C 20,92 0-50 52 13,36 and 13 m. It is important to mention that the piles were executed
from elevation -4,00m, which is related to the initial elevation
EE6B 20,08 100 54 14,27 of the borings because of the existence of an underground level.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
For the 40 centimeter pile sample, the data of the works 4 RELIABILITY
done, obtained during the excavation of 10,00 meter depth piles, Trying to measure the reliability of CFA pilings, Silva
once a load test was made on a pile with those characteristics, (2011) from a data file made with energy or wok done records
close to boring SPT 1 (Table 2), which results are marked with to execute each pile of the piling, he evaluated the reliability in
grey color in Table 2. Silva (2011) submited all the collected bored pilings. He considered the concept that the bearing
data to normality tests that evaluate if the frequency distribution capacity of each pile and its deformability are directly related
of a data group adheres to the Normal Distribution and verified with the measured energy or the required work to bore it, he
that the data adheres to the normal distribution. The central used the proposal of Ang & Tang (1984), which defined the
tendency measures, mean and median, the standard deviation continuous random variables, in the case, their probability
and the variance are presented in Table 4. distributions that define the demanding forces and piling
resistance: X= resistance or resistant capacity of the system; Y=
Table 4 Caractersticas estatsticas da populao e da amostra demanding load acting in the system.
Estacas Populao Amostra
The goal was to assure that the event (X > Y) happens
during the whole life of the foundation. This condition or
Mdia (MJ) 5,56 3,97
warranty can be verified in terms of the which represents the
Mediana (MJ) 5,70 3,80
piling reliability. On the contrary, the probability of failure is
Desvio Padro (MJ) 1,56 0,84 the measurement which corresponds to the completing event.
Varincia (%) 29 21
Once fixed to the shape of the demanding action curves
It is observed in this case that the mean and the variance of (loads on foundations) and of resistances (bearing capacity of
the sample was smaller than the population. Such fact was piles); and knowing their coefficients of variety and the global
expected for the mean once it refers to a very folded profile, the safety factor of the piling, the reliability index can be
load test was made on the pile with a small depth in favor of determined and the probability of failure of the piling,
safety. The smaller value of variance is perfectly justified interpreted by Cardoso e Fernandes (2001). From that proposal,
because in accordance with the methodology, a region with Silva (2011) showed that the reliability index () of the piling
small variability must be chosen what was assured, in the case, increased a great deal, going from 2,69 to 3,14.
by the sampling in a restricted area, on the contrary concerning
the piling which was executed taking all the area and
consequently all its variability. Then to assure that the bearing 4 CONCLUSIONS
capacity could be achieved, the SCCAP methodology was
applied during the piling execution, in the case, the first criteria The routines of quality control proposed by the SCCAP
by considering that the mean is a good representative of the methodology are showing their great importance in
population, the criterions are: constructions controlled by such technique, assuring quality for
It will be accepted the pile which when achieving the the whole process of excavation. Mainly because it can assure
minimum design depth did during excavation a required and that all design assumptions in terms of bearing capacity and
measured work (w) greater than the mean () of the work deformability are guaranteed through the decrease of the
measured from the sample (W); variability and the increase of reliability. Another important
It will be accepted the pile which when achieving the issue which was observed is that the SCCAP methodology
minimum design depth did during excavation a required and offers stopping criteria for the boring which has a
measured work (w) greater than the mean () plus the standard complementary and corrective role, contributing to risk
deviation () of the work measured from the sample (W+); reduction in the construction once it reduces the probability of
It will be accepted the pile which when achieving the failure and increasing the reliability..
minimum design depth did during excavation a required and
measured work (w) greater than the mean () plus two times the
standard deviation () of the work measured from the 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
population sample where they belong (W+2.).
The authors would like to thank the foundation company
Empresa Sul Americana de Fundaes S/A and Embre
For the analyses, hypothetical applications were done from Engenharia for the availability of the data files analyzed in this
the first and second criterion. Comparing the work done (W) in
study.
each pile during its excavation (Table 3) with the mean () of
the required work to execute the piles of the sample, first
criterion (W), it is observed that it would be necessary to 6 REFERENCES
correct or increase the depth of 4 piles with a diameter of 40 cm
for them to present a cumulative work smaller than the mean CARDOSO, A.S. & FERNANDES, M.M. (2001). Characteristic Values
obtained for the sample. By using the second criterion, which is of Ground Parameters and Probability of Failure in Design
more conservative, it is noticed that eliminating the piles which according to Eurocode 7. Geotechnique 51, 6: 519-531.
have been excluded from the previous analysis, even though 8 CLOUGH, R.W. & PENZIEN, J. Dynamics of Structures, 1st Ed., New
York-NW, McGraw-Hill, 634 p., 1975.
piles with a diameter of 40 cm would be refused.
SILVA, C.M. Energy and Reliability in Continuous Flight Auger Type
Once the results presented in Table 3 were set in the Foundation Works. PhD Thesis, Publication G.TD - 070/11, Civl
chronological execution sequence of the piling and knowing and Environmental Department, University of Brasilia, Brasilia,
that the piling was executed sequentially till the total area of the DF, 303p, 2011. (in portuguese).
construction was covered, it can be verified, for example, in SILVA, C.M.; CAVALCANTE, A.L.B.; CAMAPUM DE
Table 3, that the piles refused by criterions 1 and 2 are arranged CARVALHO, J. On Modelling Continuous Flight Auger Pilings by
in group, that is, those piles are neighbors and probably are means of Energy. International Journal of Science and Engineering
founded in regions with NSPT mean value smaller than what Investigations vol. 1, issue 9, October 2012, ISSN: 2251-8843.
was expected or they were founded on synclinal folds.
It is clear that the adoption of the SCCAP methodology gives
more reliability to the piling in terms of bearing capacity.
2810
Performance of a pioneer foundation of the skirt type for the Metro-Line 12 overpass
on the Mexico City soft clay
Comportement d'un nouveau type de fondations de type radier jupe, utilis pour les tronons en
viaduc de la ligne 12 du Mtro fonds sur les argiles molles de Mexico
ABSTRACT: Given the extension and importance of Mexico Citys Metro-Line 12, it was considered relevant to monitor the
behavior of the foundation of one of the supports for the overpass solution, which is laid on very soft clayey soils. This pioneer
foundation, a footing or foundation slab with long skirts, locally known as structural cell or inverted glass type, was used for the
first time in the city. Geotechnical sensors and accelerometers were included in the foundation to follow its behavior, not only during
its construction and long term operation, but to record significant variables during strong earthquakes. From measurements made to
date (two years after the beginning of construction) it stands out the effective coefficient K of earth pressure, reaching values close to
the unit, at the soil-concrete walls (cast in place) contact.
RSUM : Au vu des dimensions et de limportance de la Ligne 12 du Mtro de la ville de Mexico, il a t jug ncessaire de
procder lauscultation des fondations de lun des appuis du tronon de la ligne en viaduc, implantes dans des sols lacustres trs
mous. Les fondations, dun type nouveau Mexico, sont constitues par un radier avec une jupe de parois moules et sont connues
localement comme cellule structure ou verre renvers . Des jauges gotechniques et acclromtriques ont t insres dans les
fondations afin non seulement de suivre leur comportement durant la construction et long terme mais aussi denregistrer certaines
variables importantes durant les sismes intenses. Les mesures ralises ce jour mettent en vidence un coefficient de pousse des
terres K effectif de lordre de lunit au contact entre le sol et les parois de bton.
KEYWORDS: Foundations, Static and seismic performance, geotechnical instrumentation, soft clayey soils.
1 INTRODUCTION. that was integrated into the foundation, and the monitoring
carried out to learn about its geotechnical behavior, not only
Construction of Mexico Citys Metro-Line 12 has involved during construction and long term operation, but to record
tunnel, semi-deep box, surface and overpass solutions along 25 significant variables in the foundation precisely during a strong
km of development, connecting the southeast and southwest earthquake. The monitoring time period covers the constructive
zones of the countrys capital. Stratigraphic conditions along the process and its evolution over almost two years. It also includes
layout have demanded novel solutions, mainly at the portion static measurements before and after two earthquakes of
that runs into Lake zone subsoil consisting of very compressible moderate intensity.
and low strenght clayey lacustrine deposits. Such is the case of a
pioneering type of foundation in Mexico City, known locally as
structural cell or inverted glass which was used at the
supports of an overpass almost 1.7 km long located near the
Solar
Tlhuac terminal station. This reinforced concrete foundation
panel
consists of four perimeter walls, each 60 cm thick and 10.5 m
long, cast in place, that constitute the skirting, Figure 1. The Recording
precast footing-column unit is integrated to the four perimeter room
walls by casting in place the rest of the footings four sides, thus
forming what is known locally as an inverted glass.
The instrumented support is named ZP16, and is located
between the Zapotitln and Nopalera stations. The foundations Fill
behavior is exposed based on vertical pressures measured under
the footing, lateral pressures on the walls, and pore water
pressures at the contact between clayey soil and walls, for
which total pressure cells, push-in pressure cells, and Soft clayey
piezometers were used, respectively. With the objective to soil
improve our knowledge on the behavior since the construction
process, in the long term and during an earthquake, the adopted
instrumentation required long life trustworthy ad hoc equipment
with sufficient precision and immediate dynamic response
during seismic events. The latter required the adoption of an
automatic recording system for these geotechnical data and the Figure 1. Overpass for Metro-Line 12. Support ZP-16.
accelerations measured at the footing.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES was to measure pressures on the walls using jack-out pressure
cells, in order to ensure their contact with the soil walls at the
The instrumentations primary objective is to compare excavated ditch.
theoretical and semi empirical forecasts that have been assumed
during the design stages, refering to load capacity and its 5.1 Pressure cells at the soil-footing contact
movements, with the experimental results derived from
instrument monitoring. Specific objectives contemplate 1) The instrumentation included the installation of seven pressure
knowing the magnitude of total and effective lateral pressures in cells, Figure 2, under the thin bottom slab with which it is
static and long term conditions; 2) the same, but during possible to measure total vertical stresses immediately below
moderate and high intensity earthquakes; and 3) quantifying the the slab on which the footing-column unit gravitates temporally.
footing base contribution to the bearing capacity of the Six cells were of resistive type (SG), and one was of vibrating
foundation system against axial static loads. In this paper, field wire type (VW).
measurements and design forecasts will not be compared.
2812
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
B
Trace
axis
6.1 Evolution of the lateral pressures on the foundation walls
1
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3.50 7 CONCLUSIONS
3.00 South wall, 5.5 m depth below ground level The geotechnical sensors installed in this foundation have had
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure K
South wall, 9.1 m depth below ground level an excellent response to date. They provide consistent readings,
2.50 North wall, 9.1 m depth below ground level with well-defined tendencies over time, and will be the reason
for detailed analyses for a more extensive interpretation. The
2.00 Mw 6.5 earthquake,
geotechnical instrumentation attached or installed during
Mw 7.4 earthquake,
Dec 10, 2011 March 20, 2012 construction of the foundation consists of 18 electronic sensors
1.50
of SG type, connected to a digital recorder; and 3 of the VW
type, for monitoring with portable read-out box. The
1.00
accelerometers embedded in the footing will provide the time
series of the accelerations suffered by the foundation during
0.50
seismic events, and will activate the recording system of the
geotechnical sensors, following a master-slave arrangement.
0.00
At this first monitoring stage of the foundation we can point
out that vertical pressures under the footing clearly suffered the
increase due to the placement and weight of the footing-column
Date
unit, gravitating on the temporary slab at the bottom of the
Figure 6. Time history of the effective coefficient of earth pressure. excavation. Then, a pressure decrease is appreciated later,
which is interpreted as a transference process of that load
In this comparison we are aware that our clay is normally toward the perimeter walls that begin to work as a set by
consolidated, whereas London clay is pre-consolidated. adherence-friction with the surrounding soil. It seems that in the
Undoubtedly, these results are of great relevance to review structural cells behavior, an integral mechanism with the soil
assumed hypotheses at the geotechnical design stage of central core predominates, the core moving as a whole together
foundations (Martnez, 2012) consisting of structural cells. with the structural cell; an example of this is that pore water
pressure measured at the same depth inside and outside the
6.2 Regarding what was recorded with the first runs of the walls is practically the same.
Metro trains On the other hand, the push-in-cells installed at the contact
of the outside walls indicate surprisingly high lateral pressures,
During the first trial runs of the Metro-Line 12 trains, we had at least soon after being installed. Total horizontal pressures
the opportunity to record dynamically the different variables reach values higher than total vertical pressures, although after
that could potentially be monitored automatically. The result of two years, they diminish and reach finally an almost constant
these measurements is exemplified in Figure 7, with the value. These high lateral pressures are clearly beneficial for the
recording of the vertical pressure increase under the footing, foundations overall behavior against lateral actions and a
measured with pressure cell 1. rotating tendency imposed by seismic rocking moments.
The great sensitivity of the measuring equipment and digital We point out the high values obtained for the coefficient K,
recording stands out, which allows recording vertical pressure in terms of effective stresses, which was established based on
changes with a resolution of at least 0.05 kPa. The largest direct measurements of both total lateral stresses and pore water
recorded change reached a value of 0.6 kPa, and the average pressures. Initial K values of up to 3.4 are reached. Nonetheless,
value was of the order of only 0.32 kPa. If graphically such in a time period of almost two years after the walls were built,
vertical pressure increases under the footing seem significant, the K value at three points of measurement coincides
their real magnitude must be considered negligible when asymptotically with an almost unitary constant value.
compared to acting vertical pressures under sustained load. It is A first earthquake of low intensity on the foundation caused
thus clear that although the measuring systems record them very a sudden, reduced and transitory horizontal pressure decrease on
clearly, vertical pressure increases under the footing due to Line the walls, but a rapid recovery of the tendency shown with
12 trains runs are minimal, showing the efficiency of the sustained loads was observed.
foundation system, since the support work is evidently provided The Metro Line 12 trains runs impose no significant changes
by the adherence-friction on the periphery of the structural cell. in vertical pressure under the footing, nor on lateral pressures or
One arrives to those same conclusions observing the variations, pore water pressures on the sides of the perimeter walls.
upon the passing of the Metro trains, of the total lateral pressure
on the walls, or the pore pressure in that same contact, results
that are not included in this paper. 8 REFERENCES
30.60
30.55
Dunnicliff, J. (1988), Geotechnical instrumentation for monitoring field
performance, John Wiley & Sons, 608 pp.
Train front approaching ZP16 (50 m)
30.50
support Martnez, S. (2012), Method of simplified analysis for a new foundation
type in soft soils, Doctoral Thesis, UNAM, Mexico (in Spanish).
Trains end going far ZP16
30.45
30.35
Mexico City clay, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 40, No. 4, Japanese
30.30
Geotechnical Society, 143-154.
30.25
Train far from the ZP16
Mendoza, M. J. (2004) Behavior of a friction pile-box foundation in
30.20 support Mexico City, under static and seismic loading, Doctoral Thesis,
UNAM, Mexico (in Spanish).
30.15
Peck, R. B. (1969) Advantages and limitations of the observational
30.10
method in applied soil mechanics, Gotechnique 19, 2, 171-187.
30.05 Tedd P. y Charles J. A. (1982). In situ measurement of horizontal
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
stress in overconsolidated clay using push-in spade-shaped pressure
Time, s
cells, Technical Notes. Gotechnique 31, 4, 554-558.
Figure 7. Changes of the total vertical pressure under the footing due to Terzaghi, K. y Peck, R. B. (1967). Soil Mechanics in Engineering
Metro train transit. Pressure Cell SG1. Practice, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
2814
Improving the capacity of bored piles by shaft grouting
Amliorer la capacit portante des pieux fors par injection de coulis opre latralement
ABSTRACT: A project in Georgia involved the construction of two towers for residential, retail and hotel use with a two storey
basement. The development was near the Black Sea, with poor ground conditions below basement level. In order to carry the high
loads, the developments used deep bored piles installed by Bauer. The pile capacity was significantly enhanced by shaft grouting from
a number of tubes cast into the piles during construction. Instrumented pile tests were carried out on ungrouted and grouted piles.
Results from the strain gauges showed differences in the behaviour of the piles in different strata depending on the granular content of
the material.
RSUM : Dans le cadre dun projet en Gorgie, deux tours ont t construites pour des logements, bureaux et htels ainsi quun
sous-sol a deux tages. Le projet est situ prs de la Mer Noire, ou les conditions de sol en-dessous de la base du sous-sol sont
mauvaises. Afin de supporter les descentes de charges importantes, des pieux fors ont t installs par Bauer. La capacit portante
des pieux a t considrablement amliore par injection de coulis de ciment, opre latralement a travers plusieurs tubes couls dans
les pieux pendant la construction. Des essais instruments sur des pieux fors avec et sans injection ont t raliss. Les mesures
fournies par les jauges de dformations ont montres diffrents comportements des pieux selon la granulomtrie des couches de sols
rencontres.
1 INTRODUCTION sediment sequences with the more recent being associated with
marine sequences.
In the UK there has been significant work carried out on the
benefits of base grouting into Thanet Sand to improve stiffness
and capacity of deep bored piles, but limited information is
available on the use of shaft grouting. This paper will present
and discuss the results of shaft grouting that was carried out to
enhance pile capacity for a project in Georgia.
Ramboll UK provided structural and geotechnical design
services for a new development adjacent to the Black Sea in
Batumi, Georgia in 2009. The development comprised of a 17
storey residential tower and a 23 storey hotel tower surrounded
by a 2 storey podium building. A two storey basement underlay
the entire site footprint.
The findings of the ground investigation and resulting tender
pile design will be presented. The pile testing results will then
be presented giving commentary on the likely factors behind the
pile behaviour and the potential for carrying out shaft grouting
in other situations.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
strength of the material; it was therefore necessary to largely 3.1 Tender Design
rely on the in-situ SPT testing.
A high water table was present, at around 2 metres below Ramboll produced a piling scheme for tender to British
ground level, within the highly permeable gravel deposits. Standards. Load cases were considered to take into account:
different stages of the buildings construction; the effect of
Table 1. Summary of ground conditions. switching dewatering on and off; SLS loading; seismic loading
during construction and seismic loading during the buildings
Top of operation. A scheme adopting 1100mm diameter piles was
Key Assumptions for
Stratum Stratum developed.
Pile Design
(mASL) One of the challenges presented by the ground conditions
was that once into Loam B, lengthening the piles did not have a
Made Ground +2.2 N/A significant improvement on pile capacity. In addition to this, the
Gravel +0.4 N/A high tower loads required large groups of piles (86No. for the
Fine Sand -5.3 Granular: =34 hotel tower), which presented a challenge in terms of
settlement. In order to both minimise the number of piles
Loam A: Silty Sand -11.7 Granular: =31
beneath each tower and reduce the length of pile within Loam B
Cohesive: cu = it was therefore necessary to maximise the shaft resistance
Loam B: Clayey Silt -21.8
100kN/m2 provided by the Fine Sand and Loam A.
Ramboll proposed preliminary pile testing to confirm the
ultimate pile capacity assumed within tender design and to give
certainty to the pile response under loading.
2.2 Seismicity
4.1 Test Arrangement
The Caucasus region, in which the site is located (Figure 1), is
one of the most seismically active regions in the Alpine- Two test piles, both 35m long, were installed from ground level;
Himalayan collision belt. Review of recorded earthquakes in with the first 10m cased to exclude skin friction. Casing was
the southern Caucasus showed the seismicity of Batumi to be used to construct the piles between 10mbgl and 17mbgl and an
relatively low compared to central and northern Georgia, but uncased bore was used between 17mbgl and 35mbgl. Three
that two large earthquakes had occurred within 50km of the site. hydraulic jacks were used to apply load to the pile heads and
Following a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment, the design four reaction piles were used per test pile.
peak ground acceleration (PGA) was reviewed and a value of The ultimate proof load for the test was set at 16.5MN,
0.2g agreed with the Union of Building Affairs Experts in which was three times the predicted ultimate capacity for a 25m
Tbilisi, for an event with a 10% probability of exceedance in 50 pile (without shaft grouting). This load was chosen to allow for
years (later revised by agreement to 0.9g). Site investigation uncertainty in the improvement that may be provided by shaft
data was used to classify the site as Category C under Eurocode grouting. If the test piles settled more than 10% of the pile
8. diameter before the proof load was met this was to be taken as
failure and the test was to be terminated. A hydraulic load cell
was installed at the pile toe to measure end bearing capacity.
3 PILE DESIGN Test pile T1 was shaft grouted between 10mbgl and 35mbgl,
i.e. the full working length. Test pile T2 was not treated.
Most of the buildings locally are founded on shallow pads
within the dense near surface gravels. However, the new 4.2 Results of Pile Testing
basement necessitated excavation of much of the dense soils,
and the strength and compressibility of the underlying subsoil Neither pile reached the proof load of 16.5MN with T1 reaching
was such that piles rather than a raft were required. Between the 12.375MN and T2 reaching 10.1758MN before the test was
piles, a basement slab of between 1.75m and 0.9m was required terminated due to rate of settlement. Figure 3 presents the load-
to resist water pressures and spread the very high loads imposed displacement behaviour of the two piles as recorded during
by the towers. Additional piles were required around the testing.
perimeter of the basement to protect the waterproofing
membrane by pinning the slab down against water pressure.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
6 CONCLUSION
The pile testing acted to confirm the ultimate pile capacity and
the pile response under loading for both treated and untreated
piles. This case study also shows the benefit of pile testing in
unusual ground conditions in terms of validating design
assumptions.
The shaft grouting improved the skin friction of the strata
with a high sand and gravel content by a factor of between 2.2
and 2.4. Some improvement was achieved in material with as
little as 10% sand content. The shaft grouting improved the
load-displacement behaviour of the test pile with settlements
reduced by approximately 50%.
2818
Polymer pillar, a new innovation for underpinning.
Colonne de polymre, une nouvelle innovation comme support de fondation.
Perl A.
Powerpile Oy, Pirkkala, Finland
ABSTRACT: A new innovation, polymer pillar, has been developed for small and light weight buildings where the settlement of the
structure or the building must be stopped or the rate of settlement must be decreased. Polymer pillar is a patented product where
expanding high density geopolymer is injected inside a geotextile tube. Depending on the soil conditions, the polymer pillar can
establish geotechnical bearing capacity with several ways. The tip of the pillar can be extended to a hard soil layer for an end bearing
pillar. With thick sand and silt layers polymer pillars can be used as friction pillars. If there is a thick clay layer, they can be used as
cohesion pillars. Polymer pillar can also be used to compact loose friction soils. While injected, the pillars volume expands to one
hundred times the size of the pillar element. The soil around the pillar displaces and compacts. Polymer pillars have been used in
several underpinning projects around the world. The projects have taken place in many countries: The Great Britain, Finland, Sweden,
Australia, New Zealand, Belgium, The Netherlands and Germany. Totally there have been over 500 projects so far.
RSUM : Une nouvelle innovation, la colonne de polymre, a t dveloppe pour des btiments lgers et petits, afin d'arrter ou
diminuer le taux des tassements. La colonne de polymre est un produit brevet, dans lequel une gopolymre expansive de haute
densit est inject dans un tube gotextile. Selon les conditions du sol, la colonne de polymre peut tablir une capacit portante
gotechnique plusieurs faons. L'extrmit de la colonne peut atteindre une couche de sol dur pour une colonne qui porte les charges
la pointe. Dans les couches paisses du sable et du limon, les colonnes de polymres peuvent tre utilises comme des colonnes
travaillant en frottement. S'il ya une couche d'argile paisse, elles peuvent tre utilises comme des colonnes cohsives. La colonne de
polymre peut galement tre utilise pour compacter les sols lches. Pendant l'injection et l'expansion, le volume de la colonne
s'tend une centaine de fois de la taille de l'lment de base. Le sol autour des colonnes est dplac et compact. Les colonnes de
polymres ont t utilises dans plusieurs projets de support de fondations autour du monde. Les projets ont eu lieu dans plusieurs
pays: au Royaume-Uni, la Finlande, la Sude, l'Australie, la Nouvelle-Zlande, la Belgique, les Pays-Bas et en Allemagne. En total,
plus que 500 projets ont t raliss ce jour.
KEYWORDS: polymer pillar, PowerPile, geopolymer, underpinning.
1 INTRODUCTION metallic sleeves on both ends. The element can be bent. The
minimum radius of bending is around 1.5 meters. This enables
The need for underpinning houses and structures has been installation in very low spaces like old cellars.
increasing around the world. Most of the urban areas are close
to the waterfront, where the soil is usually soft (Lehtonen,
2011). Also the value of the land has increased, the good ground Injection tube
for construction has often already been used and the quality
standards for buildings have tightened. Top sleeve
Polymer pillar is a new innovation for underpinning. The
basic idea of polymer pillar is to accomplish underpinning for
old houses with minimal disturbance. The use of polymer pillars
minimizes the disturbance for the old foundation structures and Geotextile tube
also for the use of the building during the installation.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
During the installation the element is filled with expanding Table 1. Measures of the samples.
geopolymer. The geopolymer fills the geotextile tube and the 2 4 5
diameter of polymer pillar increases. After the installation the
diameter of the polymer pillar is approx. 330 millimeters. The Lenght L (mm) 850 589 499
final diameter depends on the counter pressure of the soil and
Diameter D1 (mm) 321 358 357
the amount of geopolymer injected.
Diameter D2 (mm) 320 263 264
1.3 Installation
2
Cross Section A (mm ) 80676 73948 74022
The polymer pillars are installed directly under the old
foundation. First there will be a hole drilled through the
foundation. The diameter needed for the hole is only 65 Sample 2 is from original pillar T7 and samples 4 and 5 are
millimeters. from original pillar T3.
After the hole has been drilled, the casing is installed The samples were slightly ellipse. Therefore the smallest and
through the hole to the ground. The casing is only temporary aid biggest diameter was measured and the cross section was
and it will be removed after the installation of pillar element. calculated with equation 1.
The casing can be made either from plastic or steel, depending
on the soil conditions. The steel casing is normally used on very (1)
soft clayey soils.
The injection of pillar is made through the injection tube 2.1 Stress-strain behavior
inside the element. The injection tube is pulled up The elastic behavior of polymer pillars was tested in laboratory
simultaneously with the injection. Therefore the element is of Turku University of Applied Sciences. The maximum
filled continuously from bottom to top. The amount of injected compression capacity of test facility was 450 kN. With that
geopolymer per linear meter can be adjusted by chancing the compression force the samples did not break.
pulling speed of injection tube. At the test the compression force was increased at the rate of
The injection is continued until it reaches the bottom of the 5 kN/minute. The test arrangement is shown in picture 2.
old foundation. The level of the old structure is monitored
during the injection. Usually injection will be stopped when
there is approx. 1 to 2 millimeters of raise in the structure.
2 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR
The structural behavior of polymer pillars has been tested with
three samples. The samples were cut from polymer pillars that
were dig from ground. The original polymer pillars were used to
test the geotechnical capacity of polymer pillars in Turku as
described in chapter 3. Figure 1. Stress-strain behavior of the samples.
The measures of the samples are shown in Table 1. The As shown in Figure 1, the elastic modulus of the material is
length of samples varies, because it was not possible to get not constant. It varies little depending on the stress level. The
original pillars from ground as whole. The grip between ground elastic modulus was determined at the stress range from 1.0
and pillars were so strong that the pillars got broken into two or N/mm to 2.0 N/mm. This stress range represents the average
more pieces. stress level of the polymer pillars in serviceability state.
The curve of sample 4 ends sooner than other curves. That is
because of a malfunction in a computer operating the hydraulic
jack. It suddenly just stopped the test and lifted the jack up.
Therefore there is no data from release.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Table 2. Elastic modulus at compressive stress range from 1.0 N/mm2 to of pillar and clay. The shear stress-movement curve is shown on
2.0 N/mm2. Figure 3.
2 4 5
2
E (N/mm ) 254 304 274
T6
T7
3 GEOTECHNICAL CAPACITY
T3 T2 T4
So far there have only been two load tests for the cohesive
polymer pillar. Both of the load tests have taken place in
Southwest of Finland. The first load test was in June 2010 in
city of Turku. The second load test was in November 2012 in
city of Salo.
Both of the load tests were made in co-operation with
Tampere University of Technology. The pillars were tested until
they could not hold the load any more.
The test pillars are named with a letter T or S depending on
the city and a number. Figure 2. Load-movement curves of the load test in Turku 2010.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The arrangement of the load test is shown in picture 4. The 4 MONITORING OF SETTLEMENT
basic idea of the arrangement was similar to the load test in
Turku. The loading was again achieved with hydraulic jack There have been monitoring of settlements in some test projects
against steel beam and counterweights. Applied load was in Finland. Unfortunately there is not any settlement history
measured with load sensor and the movement was measured as before the installation of polymer pillars, because these houses
relative to normal ground surface. are privately owned. Also the monitoring period after the
projects is still quite short. The longest monitoring period is
only less than two years.
The relative settlement of the houses show the settlement
slows significantly with cohesion polymer pillars. In these test
projects the polymer pillars have usually been installed under
only part of the building.
Pillars and settlement monitoring points of one test project
are shown in picture 5. The relative settlement of the monitoring
points is presented in Table 5. The first monitoring was made
before the installation and the second after the installation.
23.01.2012 0 -6 - 46 - 98 - 28
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
S1
The load tests presented were sponsored by TEKES the
Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation.
7 REFERENCES
Lehtonen J. 2011. Underpinning project; owners views on technology,
Figure 5. Shear stress-movement curve of the load test in Salo 2012. economy and project management. Helsinki.
The measured Cu value of the clay is shown with dashed line. Sauerwald M. 1994. Hygiene-Institut of the Ruhr Area. Evaluation of
effect on water quality. Gelsenkirchen.
The load steps in Salo were estimated a bit too high. Kwarteng W. and Fchtjohann L. 2011. HuK Umweltlabor GmbH.
Therefore there were only 3 steps before the failure of the pillar. Umweltunbedenklichkeitsuntersuchungen. Wenden-Hnsborn.
The ratio between shear stress and undrained shear stress of van der Wal A. 2010. Chemical resistance of Uretek Resins. Foxhol.
the clay was not as big in Salo as it was in Turku. Reason for
this is probably the size of the load steps.
2822
Identification of Test Pile Defects in a Super-tall Building Foundation
Identification des anomalies dans les essais de chargement de pieu pour les fondations d'une tour
de trs grande hauteur
ABSTRACT: As part of the foundation design verification process for a super-tall tower in South Korea, a program of pile load
testing was initiated. The test program involved vertical load tests on four piles and a lateral load test on two piles, jacked against each
other. The vertical load tests used the Osterberg cell method, with two sets of Osterberg cells installed in each pile, one near the pile
base, and the other about 6m above the base. In addition to the vertical load tests, sonic tubes were installed in the test piles to
examine the integrity of the constructed pile. The sonic tube testing revealed defects in one of the test piles, and the behaviour of this
pile under load was found to have a number of anomalies. This paper sets out the process by which the defects were identified, and
approach used to interpret the sonic logging data to produce tomographic images of the pile along its length. The consequences of the
defects and the irregularities in pile diameter on the inferred distribution of load along the pile are also described.
RSUM : Dans le cadre du processus de vrification de la conception des fondations dune tour de trs grande hauteur en Core du
Sud, un programme dessais de de chargement de pieux a t entrepris. Le programme dessais implique des essais de chargement
vertical sur quatre pieux et des essais de chargement latral sur deux pieux, vrins lun l'autre. Les essais de chargement vertical
utilisent la mthode dOsterberg, avec deux jeux de cellules dOsterberg installs dans chaque pieu, un prs de la base et l'autre
environ 6 m au-dessus de la base. En plus des essais de chargement vertical, des tubes acoustiques ont t installs dans les pieux pour
examiner leur intgrit. Les essais acoustiques ont rvl des dfauts dans l'un des pieux test, et le comportement de ce pieu sous
charge prsentait un certain nombre d'anomalies. Cet article dcrit le processus par lequel les dfauts ont t identifis, et lapproche
utilise pour interprter les donnes d'enregistrement acoustique pour produire des images tomographiques du pieu sur toute sa
longueur. On dcrit aussi les consquences des dfauts et des irrgularits du diamtre du pieu sur la distribution prsume de charge
le long du pieu.
KEYWORDS: analysis ; defects; foundations ; integrity testing ; piles ; tall buildings.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PILE LOAD TESTING
Figure 1 illustrates the proposed 151 storey Incheon Tower,
which is located in district 8 of the Songdo Incheon Free Introduction
Economic Zone in South Korea. The site lies entirely within an As part of the final design process, five pile load tests were
area of reclamation underlain by up to 20m of soft to firm undertaken, four on vertically loaded piles via the Osterberg cell
marine silty clay, which in turn overlies residual soil and a (O-cell) procedure, and one on a laterally loaded pile jacked
profile of weathered rock, which is underlain by a better quality against one of the vertically loaded test piles. For the vertical
rock referred to as soft rock. The tower is composed of pile tests, two levels of O-cells were installed in each pile, one
approximately 30 storeys of office floors, 8 storeys of hotel and at the pile tip and another at a level between the weathered rock
other supporting facilities, 100 storeys of residential floors, and layer and the soft rock layer.
several levels of mechanical plant. The base of the tower
consists of retail, a future subway station, and several levels of
parking. It is anticipated that the total area of the tower and the
base for Phase 1 construction will be approximately 412,000
m2. The structural system of the tower in the east-west direction
consists of a reinforced concrete core wall system linked to the
exterior mega columns with reinforced concrete or composite
shear panels. The tower superstructure is founded on a pile
supported raft foundation. The 5.5 m thick reinforced concrete
raft is supported on a total of 172 bored piles, 2.5 m in diameter,
with variable lengths, extending 5 m into the soft rock for added
stiffness and axial load capacity. Details of the geotechnical
conditions and the foundation design are given by Abdelrazaq et
al (2011).
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The results of three of the axial tests are summarized by A sonic logging survey was carried out for TP-03 on 28 May
Abdelrazaq et al (2011). However, the as-built records for one 2010, 6 days after concreting of the pile was completed. An
of the nominal 2.5 m diameter test piles, TP-03, indicated a assessment of the survey results could not be carried out using
variation in verticality, concrete quality and pile shape. The as- the standard sonic report sheets as poor correlation was
built records for TP-03 were reviewed ahead of the pile test, and observed with apparent changes in wave velocity (artefacts)
assessment was made of the the likely performance of the as- associated with subsequent observations of irregular pipe
built pile under the proposed pile test load sequence. The as- spacing, poor pipe verticality and possible de-bonding. The
built assessment was based on construction records for summary wave trace files were therefore obtained from the
excavation and concreting and the results of non-destructive testing sub-contractor and are summarized in Figure 2, which
testing (Koden and sonic logging). These records facilitated an indicates the large range in wave speed measured and variation
assessment of the pile shape, verticality and concrete quality. thereof over short and long depth intervals.
These characteristics were then used to assess the way in which An iterative process was adopted to exclude the artefact
load is shed along the test pile. effects mentioned above from the measured wave velocities,
Excavation of the pile hole to a depth of 34 m (within the and the results were resolved to provide sonic tomography
weathered soil) was carried out by reverse circulation drilling representations of the concrete quality along the piles length in
(RCD) between 10 and 11 May 2010. Further advance of the two sections at right angles to one another. The adjusted sonic
pile hole to the final depth of 47 m was carried out by RCD tomography plots showing variation along the pile length are
after a 3 day interval between 15 and 18 May 2010. shown in Figure 3.
2.2 Koden Survey and Pile Verticality Table 1. Summary of as-built concreting records
A Koden survey of the pile profile was carried out one day Casing Depth Casing Concrete Level
after excavation of the pile hole had been completed by RCD.
Range (m) Length (m) Drop (m)
The Koden results showed the following:
pile casing installed vertically with casing shoe located at a
depth of approximately 33 m (i.e. 14 m above the pile toe). 9 14 5 2.0
pile diameter variation in the range of 2.5 m to 3.2 m within
14 19 5 3.0
the weathered soil, weathered rock and soft rock.
pile profile inflection at an average depth of 37 m from near 19 24 5 2.0
vertical to 1(H):10(V).
socket profile over-break with short and long wavelength 24 29 5 2.0
variation of 0.4 m over approximately 4 m lengths and
superimposed shorter wavelength variation of 0.1 m to 0.2 29 35 6 6.5
m over 1 m lengths, respectively.
35 41 6 1.0
2.3 Pile Concreting Summary
41 47 6 0.5
Pile concreting was carried out on 22 May 2010 over a
period of approximately 12 hours (4 days after pile hole
excavation had been completed). A total of 282 m3 of concrete
was used to fill the pile hole to a depth of 4 m from the surface.
The theoretical concrete volume for a pile of 2.35 m net
diameter and 47 m in length is 204 m3. It was therefore
assessed that an additional approximately 38% concrete volume
was used for pile TP-03. The pile temporary casing was lowered
to the pile toe and then raised in 7 stages of 5 m and 6 m lengths
depending on casing section length, with measurements of the
concrete level taken prior to and after extraction of each section
of casing. Small changes in concrete level were noted during
extraction of the first two lengths of casing, indicating a
difference between theoretical and measured concrete volume
of approximately 3 to 6 m3. This reflected a deficit of about 10-
20% as compared with the Koden over-break measurements and
it was considered that water entrapment may have occurred as
the casing was lowered to the base of the pile at the start of
concreting; therefore the pile socket bond could have been
affected.
A large drop in concrete level (approximately 6.5 m) was
measured as a result of extracting the third length of casing.
This represented a significant over-break within the depth range
31.5 m to 36.5 m. The summary chart of concreting works
indicated that the tip of the tremie tube was located 2 m below Figure 2 Measured wave speed versus depth along pile
the fallen concrete level. Further drops in concrete level in the
range of 1.5 m to 3 m were measured for the extraction of the Figure 3 indicates that poor concrete quality (shown as the
remaining four sections of casing. darker zones) is restricted to discrete levels with abrupt and
The measured differences in concrete level for each casing pervasive boundaries. The concrete quality was also found to
extracted are summarized in Table 1. These measurements vary across the pile cross section. The information so derived
indicated a variation in the diameter of the pile with depth. was processed to estimate the percentage of good quality
concrete within various depth ranges, as summarized in Table 2
2.4 Sonic Logging Survey below.
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The strain measurements recorded during the pile load test Table 4. Summary of Finite Element Analysis Cases
were resolved to assess stress at levels within the pile based on Case Pile Overbreak Elevation of
the cross sectional area of the pile and the concrete modulus. A
uniform cylindrical pile shape was assumed but it was Diameter Diameter Overbreak Section
recognised that, where large over-breaks occurred, the stress (m) (m) (m EL)
within the pile at these locations could be underestimated, as the
pile stiffness is proportional to the square of the pile radius. 1 2.4 N/A N/A
The measurements taken during the pile concreting were
2 2.4 6.6 -30.2 to -31.2
limited to measurements every 5 m or 6 m and therefore did not
enable the pile profile to be accurately assessed. Table 3 gives 3 2.4 4.3 -28.2 to -31.2
an indication of the effect of pile over-break on pile stiffness,
for various length intervals, based on some of the diameters that 4 2.4 3.5 -25.2 to -31.2
may be possible on the basis of the concreting records. If the
pile diameter is not considered when the pile load results are
The geotechnical parameters used in the analysis are
analysed, capacities will be underestimated at over-break levels
summarised in Table 5. The pile load test was simulated by the
and overestimated where necking occurs. This phenomenon
application of a traction load of 7500kPa at depths of EL-34.4 m
may then appear as an apparent stress reversal within the pile.
and EL-34.8 m, which are similar to the elevation of the upper
O-cell and below the modelled pile over-break zones. The pile
3.2 Concrete Quality Effect on Strain Measurements
was modelled using linear elastic elements with appropriate
In interpreting pile load test data, the pile concrete quality is concrete stiffness parameters ascribed. A plate element with
generally assumed to be homogeneous throughout the pile and negligible axial stiffness was also modelled within the concrete
results are resolved from a single modulus value for the pile. to allow assessment of the normal force developed within the
The sonic logging results for TP-03 derived from the sonic pile due to the applied loading.
tomography showed that marked variation in the pile concrete The results of the PLAXIS analysis are summarised in
quality occurs at specific locations across the full cross section Figures 4 and 5. Figure 4 shows the assessed load distribution
of the pile, and also occurs non-uniformly along the pile. along the pile length resulting from the applied load. Figure 5
Variable strains are therefore likely to develop within the pile shows the calculated difference in pile stress at locations along
during testing, with measured differences in excess of 50% the pile as compared to the expected distribution for a pile of
anticipated. The sonic logging tomography assessment uniform cross-section. It can be seen from Figure 5 that the
facilitates reconciliation of the measured results with the presence of irregularities in the pile cross section results in
concrete quality and allows attribution of apparent bending to unusually high stresses being calculated within the pile section
concrete quality variation, rather than to changes in pile immediately below the pile over-break zones.
verticality or shape. In general, the stress at a particular level is
assessed based on an average of 2 or 4 strain gauge
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
REFERENCE
Abdelrazaq, A., Badelow, F., Sung-Ho Kim and Poulos, H.G. (2011).
Foundation design for the 151 storey Incheon tower in a
reclamation area. Geotechnical Engineering, Jnl. SEAGS, AGSEA,
Vol. 42, No.2, 85-93.
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Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
A review of pile test results and design from a London clay site
Un compte rendu sur les rsultats dessais sur pieux et leur dimensionnement sur un site dargile
de Londres.
Powell J.J.M.
Geolabs Ltd, UK (formerly BRE Ltd UK)
Skinner H.
Donaldson Associates Ltd, UK (formerly BRE Ltd UK)
ABSTRACT: A large number of different types of piles have been installed on a well-characterised stiff clay site. The capacity of
piles tested soon after installation has been assessed by maintained load tests. A simple total stress design method in regular use in the
UK has been used to compare the results from the different types of pile. The results have been used to make comment on the choice
of parameters within the design method and the Eurocode factors for pile resistance quoted in the UK National Annex.
RSUM : Un grand nombre de diffrents types de pieux ont t installs sur un site dargile raide bien caractrise. La capacit
portante des pieux tests peu aprs leur installation a t value par essais de chargement statique. Une mthode de dimensionnement
simple en contrainte totale, en usage au Royaume-Uni, a t utilise pour comparer les rsultats des diffrents types de pieux. Les
rsultats ont servis commenter le choix des paramtres pour la mthode de dimensionnement ainsi que les facteurs de lEurocode
utiliss pour la rsistance des pieux cits dans lannexe national britannique.
KEYWORDS: Piles, pile tests, pile design.
Three series of maintained load (ML) pile tests are Soft to firm, fissured,
yellow brown clay with
described and the data presented, on CFA, auger displacement, 2 occasional rootlets
driven and bored piles. These tests have given an opportunity Stiff, fissured, light
4 brown and light grey
for comparisons to be made between different pile types on the mottled clay
same site. 6
Firm to stiff, fissured, light
brown clay with occasional
8 yellow brown silt partings
2 THE SITE and scattered gypsum
Depth (m)
10
Very stiff light brown clay with
2.1 Location and geological setting occasional yellow brown silt
partings and scattered gypsum
12
The site is located at Chattenden, northern Kent, approximately
30 miles south-east of central London. The site is underlain by 14
Transition to stiff grey clay
high plasticity London Clay to a depth of at least 44m.
The ground slopes gently at about 1:10. Successive emergent 16
shear surfaces uncovered in trial pits indicate that there has been Figure 1. Chattenden soil properties.
down-slope movement to depths of 1.5m in the past.
A number of CPT profiles were carried out over the piling trial
2.2 The site and soil properties area, which showed that the strata were very uniform laterally
and vertically (Figure 1) with occasional claystone bands. In
The site has been used by BRE as a shrinkable clay and in situ
one area there was an increased shear strength over the upper
testing trial site since 1987. Dummy foundations pads, trench
5m, thought to be associated with the previous presence of trees.
fill and piles have been installed and monitored during seasonal
Figure 1 shows undrained shear strengths interpreted from the
and vegetation-induced changes in water content and
CPT (using Nkt=20) and laboratory UU and CU tests on 100mm
consequent soil movements. The site has since been used to test
samples; a general trend line is also shown through all data.
the behaviour of piles and pile installation and a number of in
situ test procedures.
3 THE PILES
2.2.1 Site investigation and soil parameters
Site investigations carried out over a number of years have 3.1 Piling trials
given information on index properties, stiffness, shear strength
(via in situ and laboratory tests) and in situ stresses. The Trials into the control of CFA drilling, pile types, ageing of
London Clay is of high plasticity, heavily overconsolidated and bored piles, pile improvements for reuse and pile testing
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
methodologies have been carried out. A general description is 3.4 Test Results
indicated in Table 1.
3.4.1 Definition of shaft failure capacity
Table 1. Piling Trials. The majority of the CFA and bored piles, at 300 to 450mm were
Trial Dates Piles anticipated to be essentially friction piles. These piles had
TOPIC 2001 CFA, Bored, Displacement relatively high length to diameter ratios; additionally no attempt
was made to clean the bases of the bored piles. As failure was
RuFUS 2001-2006 CFA, Bored achieved at relatively small displacements, typically less than
RaPPER 2007-2009 CFA, Driven 5/6mm this would appear to be a reasonable assumption. In
these cases, capacity was taken to be the maximum stable load
3.2 Pile Installation achieved. Given the tendency in brittle London clay for the pile
to shed load down its length as failure is initiated in the upper
A number of different pile types (commercial and
parts then a stable load was taken to be either the last
developmental) were installed at the site over 10 years. This
increment applied if this was maintained for some time before
paper focuses only on those types in current use, tested at an age
significant displacements occurred or the next to last increment
of up to 5 months, but mostly 2.5-3.5 months, by static
if the pile failed rapidly soon after application. The
incremental maintained load testing (ML). Other papers
interpretation of the failure load increment was more difficult
describe piles tested for other purposes (Skinner et al 2003,
for larger increments. The screw displacement piles, at 600mm
Fernie et al 2006, Powell and Brown 2006, Powell and Skinner
external diameter, and the driven piles were expected to
2006, Butcher et al 2008, Brown and Powell 2012) Tables 1 and
demonstrate rather more base capacity. For the driven piles
2 show the piles used in this study.
capacity was taken to be again the maximum stable load but
Table 2. The test piles. with an allowance for base capacity based on eqn (2). For the
Pile Date Dia. Effective larger displacement piles failure was taken as the load at
(mm) Length (m) which significant creep started to occur under load and this was
also checked based on Chin and Fleming constructions.
CFA (T33) 2001 300 10 Based on the failure criteria discussed above, the ultimate
CFA (T34) 2001 300 10
CFA (T14) 2001 300 10
capacity of each pile is shown in Table 3.
CFA (T13) 2001 400 7
CFA (T15) 2001 400 7
CFA (MC1) 2007 450 9.5* 4 PILE DESIGN
CFA (MC2) 2007 450 9.5*
Bored (T16) 2001 300 10 4.1 Design by calculation
Bored (T40) 2001 300 7
Bored (T46) 2001 300 5.8** In the UK, it is common to use a total stress method for the
Bored (T47) 2001 300 5.8** calculation of pile capacity in clay soils. For the purposes of the
Screw Dispt (T30) 2001 300/600 7 present paper the model for pile capacity has been taken
Displacement (T35) 2001 300 9 considering undrained behaviour and to be the sum of shaft
Displacement (T36) 2001 300 7 (Qsu) and base (Qbu) where:
Driven (TP1) 2007 275 10
Driven (TP2) 2007 275 10 Qsu = (qsu L As) (1)
* 1.5-11 m, ** 5.2-10.m Where; qsu is ultimate unit shaft friction; L the appropriate
section of pile length; As is surface area per unit length of pile
3.3 Pile testing
The Topic and RuFUS pile tests were undertaken using a Here : qsu = cu
combination of BRE load frames and a remotely operated where: is an empirical factor; cu is the average shear strength
hydraulic loading and control system The loading system over the length L
utilised closed loop control of the hydraulic jack, monitoring
displacement transducers and a load cell. Load was applied in and base capacity as: Qbu = Ab Nc cu base (2)
incremental steps; increments of 25kN were each held for a where: Ab is the area of the base of the pile, Nc is the undrained
minimum 1 hour and until the settlement rate reduced to bearing capacity factor generally taken as 9, cu base is the
0.1mm/ hr. Using this procedure it was hoped that the load at undrained shear strength at the base of the pile.
which rupture of the skin friction occurred would be approached This is used to calculate the pile capacity under BSEN1997-
relatively slowly. Tests were terminated once failure was clearly 1 (7.6.2.3), to which model and partial factors are applied to
defined, generally indicted by runaway displacement. identify the design pile resistance. Estimates of pile capacity for
For the RaPPER programme the test equipment was similar the different types of piles have been made for all of the piles
to that described above but operated on site. The test method using the cu method.
used complied with the ICE Specification for Piling and
Embedded Retaining Walls 2nd ed. (ICE 2007); the procedure 4.1.1 Results alpha values and soil parameters
was similar to that above but using 125kN increments There is an intimate link between selection of a value of alpha
throughout firstly up to 500kN, then an unload/reload loop () and soil strength. One has to ensure that when values are
before continuing until failure was established. The increments selected from the literature then the same method of shear
during loading were maintained for a minimum 30mins and strength derivation has to be used (sampling methods, sample
until the rate of settlement reduced to 0.1mm/hr. This criteria sizes and testing). Typically a design line for shear strength has
works well until failure is approached. been a mean value and that is what has been adopted here.
In the RaPPER project testing was also conducted by All values for (Table 3) were those based on shear strength
constant rate of penetration, dynamic and rapid load or profiles from CPTs to the piles correlated to UU triaxial.
statnamic means and is described elsewhere (e.g. Butcher et al, Although the main test area described was very uniform, the
2008, Brown and Powell 2012). area where the RaPPER piles were located was a little distance
away and seems to have undergone desiccation in the upper
layers although the CPTs come together below 5m.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Load / assessed shaft capacity and loose. The capacities found showed that there was an
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 increase in for a higher penetration per revolution (Table 3).
0 The value found could be related to installation (Figure 5). The
1 worst value obtained (TP13) gave an value close to that of the
2
bored piles! The change of for CFA piles has potential
benefits for challenging sites, but carries a warning that
3
Displacement (mm)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1
Table 5. R4 values for shaft resistance only.
Range for bored piles (Table 3)
back-calculated alpha
0.6
5 CONCLUSION
0.5 Total stress estimates for ultimate capacity in clay soils are
0
0.2 0.10.3 0.4 0.5 common in the UK. This paper shows pile tests on different pile
{depth / rev} / pitch types and the value associated with them on one uniform site.
Figure 5. CFA alpha related to installation. OBrien and Bown (2008) show, based on a large database
of pile tests, that the -cu approach is unreliable. In this study,
4.1.5 Results displacement piles- driven all the quoted sources of variation (shear strength, test
The square section driven piles (TP1 and TP2) gave an of methodology, failure definition) other than installation have
around 1.0 in Table 3. The normalized plots shown in Figure 5 been reduced as far as possible. Where the results shown here
are linear but with a slightly softer response than the bored piles are compared with other data, these other sources of varibility
but reaching capacity at a similar displacement of 3-4mm. must be considered.
All the found in this study are higher than the literature for
4.1.6 Results range of alpha for typical piles relevant pile and soil types. While this might be partly a
Various sources give values for for different pile types (e.g. function of shear strength, the selected values for shear strength
Burland et al 2012) and selected relevant values are shown are in accordance with tests on 100mm diameter samples, and
below in Table 4. Some sources vary the value so that it the higher capacity can better be explained by greater control.
decreases after a threshold with increasing shear strength, which The testing reported here shows greater variability was found
effectively creates a maximum value for the achievable shear for CFA compared with bored piles, not necessarily implied by
stress. Others vary with variations in the cu/vo. The values the R4 factors. Displacement pile capacity was similar to a CFA
quoted in Table 3 reflect the soil conditions and pile lengths and pile of relevant diameter (here the outer diameter). In addition
diameters on the test site. under these conditions the driven piles were seen to be very
effective.
Table 4. Typical values of alpha for London Clay (similar L/D)
Pile type Range of alpha
() 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Bored 0.45-0.5
CFA 0.6 The piles were installed and testing assisted by Cementation
Driven 0.8 Skanska and BBGE (Stent) under European, DTI and FBE
funded projects with BRE.
The tests on the various pile types reported here show:
Bored piles: tests on piles installed in well controlled
7 REFERENCES
conditions were at the upper range of the typical values;
CFA piles: showed variation dependent on pile Brown M.J. and Powell J.J.M. 2012. Comparison of rapid load pile
installation, and values varying from those close to bored testing of driven and CFA piles installed in high OCR clay. Soils
piles on this site to values much higher than ones typically and Foundations.
quoted for CFA; on average values for typical CFA piles Burland J., Chapman T., Skinner H. and Brown M. 2012. ICE Manual
on this site were some 30% higher than values normally of Geotechnical Engineering. pp1570. ICE Publishing.
quoted; Butcher A.P., Powell J.J.M., Kightley K. and Troughton V. 2008.
Auger displacement piles: showed values similar or Comparison of behaviour of CFA piles in London clay as
determined by static, dynamic and rapid testing methods. Proc 5th
slightly lower than the bulk of the CFA results, when an Int Symp on Deep Foundations on Bored and Augered Piles. 8-10
appropriate diameter was selected. For screw displacement Sept 2008. pp 205-212.
piles this was the outer diameter; Fernie R., Bourne-Webb P. Shotton, P. and Tester P. 2006.
Driven piles: showed very high values, significantly Observations of pile-to-pile and pile-cap interaction, at a well
above those typically quoted. calibrated RuFUS test site. Reuse of Foundations for Urban Sites:
Proceedings of International Conference, Watford, UK. A P
4.1.7 Results range of results compared with Eurocode 7 Butcher, J J M Powell and H D Skinner (Eds). pp 187-198. IHS
UK National Annex BRE Press, EP73.
The UK National Annex quotes resistance factors to be applied ICE 2007. ICE Specification for Piling and Embedded Retaining Walls,
2nd edition. Thomas Telford Publishing.
to the shaft capacity, for various pile types. These values are OBrien A.P. and Bown A.P. 2008. Piled Foundations Emerging
summarised in Table 5. Design Methods. Ground Engineering Conference, London.
The variation in R4 values between pile types could be taken Powell J.J.M. and Brown M.J. 2006. Statnamic pile testing for
to imply a difference in anticipated variability in capacity. foundation reuse. Reuse of Foundations for Urban Sites:
Based on the results found in these studies, a far greater Proceedings of International Conference, Watford, UK, October
variability is to be expected from CFA piles than bored piles. 2006. A P Butcher, J J M Powell and H D Skinner (Eds). pp 223-
However these piles were constructed under supervision and 236. IHS BRE Press, EP73
so should be well controlled and reflect the inherent variability Powell J.J.M. and Skinner H. 2006. Capacity changes of bored piles
of the construction methods and what can be achieved. with time. Reuse of Foundations for Urban Sites: Proceedings of
International Conference, Watford, UK. A P Butcher, J J M Powell
No comment can be made in this study as to the effects of and H D Skinner (Eds). pp 237-248. IHS BRE Press, EP73.
time to concreting for bored piles, test methodologies or driven Skinner H., Powell J.J.M., Morris J. and England M. 2003. Results from
piling, as the database is too small. a piling trial on bored, CFA and rotary displacement piles in stiff
clay. Proc ICOO3, Dundee, September 2003. pp 825 834.
2830
Effet du mode de mise en place sur le comportement statique de pieux dans l'argile
fortement surconsolide des Flandres
Effect of installation mode on the static behaviour of piles in highly overconsolidated Flanders clay
RSUM : Dans le cadre du projet national SOLCYP, des pieux instruments ont t installs par battage, forage et vissage dans
l'argile surconsolide des Flandres. Ils ont t soumis des sries d'essais de chargements statiques et cycliques jusqu' la rupture.
Cette communication est centre sur la comparaison des capacits ultimes et des frottements locaux obtenus sur les trois types de
pieux sous chargements statiques. On s'est particulirement attach montrer l'effet du mode de mise en place et de la nature du
matriau sur le comportement des pieux. Les rsultats sont compars aux mthodes prvisionnelles.
ABSTRACT: As part of the French national project SOLCYP, driven, bored and screwed instrumented piles have been installed in
the overconsolidated Flanders clay. Piles were submitted to series of static and cyclic load tests to failure. This paper focuses on a
comparison of the ultimate capacities and local skin frictions measured on the three types of piles under static loading. The effects of
the installation mode and of the nature of the material on the behaviour of the piles are emphasised. Results are compared to
prediction methods.
MOTS-CLS: SOLCYP, pieu battu, pieu for, pieu viss, capacit statique, argile surconsolide, argile des Flandres.
KEYWORDS : SOLCYP, driven pile, bored pile, screwed pile, static capacity, overconsolidated clay, Flanders clay.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1 et 2 tandis que les paramtres caractristiques qui seront Cu par la relation propose par Amar et Jezequel (1998) : Cu =
utiliss pour le calcul des capacits sont indiqus dans le pl*/12+30 avec Cu en kPa et pl* en MPa.
Tableau1.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
- une diffrence sur le comportement post-pic: le pieu battu compression indique par diffrence un effort de pointe de 200
est caractris par un radoucissement alors que les pieux 250 kN dans cette gamme de dplacements (voir courbe en
fors et visss montrent une rupture de type ductile. Les pointill).
essais de traction effectus sur le pieu battu B4 (Benzaria et
al., 2012) montrent que le radoucissement se poursuit 5 INTERPRTATION COMPARATIVE
jusque vers 80-100mm de dplacement ;
- le dplacement de la tte des pieux la rupture est de l'ordre Les donnes exprimentales - sous la forme des distributions de
de 6mm (environ 1.5% du diamtre) pour les pieux frottements locaux la rupture - sont confrontes aux
refoulants B1 et S1. Il est plus lev pour le pieu for F1 estimations des mthodes prdictives juges les plus pertinentes.
(environ 12mm soit 3% du diamtre). On a retenu:
Le comportement global est confirm par l'allure des - pour les pieux battus: 1) les mthodes bases sur
frottements locaux. La Figure 4 montre trois courbes-types de l'interprtation directe des essais in situ (pressiomtre et
mobilisation du frottement au mme niveau (entre 8,4 et 9,4m) pntromtre statique) telles que prsentes dans la nouvelle
dans chacun des pieux. Sur lensemble des rsultats, on note que norme Franaise NF-P 94 262, 2) la mthode API RP2 GEO
le dplacement local ncessaire pour mobiliser le frottement base sur une approche en contraintes totales et 3) la mthode
maximal est sensiblement plus faible pour les pieux refoulants ICP dveloppe l'Imperial College (Jardine et al., 2005).
(3mm pour B1; 4mm pour S1) que pour le pieu for (6mm). - pour les pieux fors seules les mthodes de la norme NF-P
94 262 seront considres.
. (1)
avec :
Cu : rsistance au cisaillement non drane
0.5 . si 1 et 0.5 . si >1
= Cu / 'v0 avec 'v0 = contrainte effective verticale
0,8 . (2)
Figure 4 : Courbes-types de mobilisation du frottement au mme niveau avec:f : angle d'interface sol-pieu mesur par des essais la
(entre 8,4 et 9,4m) dans chacun des pieux. bote de cisaillement annulaire simulant le niveau de contrainte
normale effective 'rc et la rugosit du pieu.
'rc : contrainte radiale effective agissant sur le ft du pieu
aprs dissipation des pressions interstitielles gnres par le
battage.
La contrainte radiale effective s'exprime par:
. (3)
avec:
Kc = [2 + 0.016 YSR - 0.870 Ivy] YSR 0.42 (h/R) -0.2
YSR est le degr de surconsolidation apparent (OCR)
Ivy = log10 St avec St = sensibilit
h/R est la distance normalise de la base du pieu par rapport
au point de calcul. Ce terme quantifie la dgradation du
frottement due au battage ("friction fatigue")
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
procdure dcrite dans Jardine et al. (2005). Les valeurs de pic Le pieu mtallique battu ferm, fortement refoulant, mobilise
pic et grands dplacements relatifs res sont respectivement de des frottements trs levs (> 150kPa) gaux ou suprieurs la
lordre de 21 et 14. Ces valeurs sont en bon accord avec les valeur locale de la cohsion draine du matriau.
valeurs obtenues par Bond et Jardine (1991) sur l'argile de Le pieu for la tarire creuse non refoulant mobilise des
Londres et les bases de donnes actuelles (Jardine et al., 2005) frottements nettement infrieurs (de lordre de 40kPa).
Les valeurs de frottements obtenues par la mthode ICP en Le pieu viss moul partiellement refoulant mobilise des
utilisant la valeur pic sont les plus proches des valeurs frottements sensiblement plus levs (de lordre de 60kPa)
mesures. Elles rendent compte des fortes valeurs mobilises La mthode ICP en contraintes effectives est la seule
dans largile des Flandres intacte au-del de 7m de pntration mthode considre qui permette, dans ce type de matriau, de
et de leffet de dgradation du frottement d au battage dans les rendre compte des trs fortes valeurs de frottement enregistres
couches suprieures entre 4 et 7m. sur les pieux battus.
Les mthodes de la norme franaise NF-P 94 262 bases sur
les essais in situ prdisent de manire assez raliste le
frottement des pieux visss et surestiment lgrement celui des
pieux la tarire creuse. Elles sous-estiment fortement les
frottements sur les pieux mtalliques battus ferms.
7 REMERCIEMENTS
6 CONCLUSION
2834
Analysis of Piles Supporting Excavation Adjacent to Existing Buildings
Analyse de pieux de btiments existant en cours de fouilles sous-jacentes
ABSTRACT: In urban environment, excavation adjacent to existing buildings is common. Supporting excavation is important to
prevent damaging of the adjacent buildings. There are many factors affecting the selection of the supporting system. Some of them are
soil behavior, type of foundation, foundation level of the adjacent buildings, and the budget of the project under construction. In order
to reduce the surrounding soil movement due to deep excavation, a three dimensional Finite Element (3D FE) study was carried out in
this paper, considering soil-structure interaction. A piled supporting system was selected because it is common and relatively
economic to use in cohesive soil in Egypt. A parametric study was performed to study the effect of the stiffness of the supporting
system on minimizing the ground deformation. From the results, some recommendations are given in terms of excavation depth, soil-
pile stiffness, and pile embedded depth.
RSUM : En milieu urbain, les excavations sous-jacentes aux btiments existants sont courantes. Soutenir les fouilles pour prvenir
des endommagements sur les btiments est donc trs important. Il y a plusieurs facteurs qui influencent les choix des systmes de
renforcement. Par exemple, le comportement du sol, le type de fondation, la profondeur des fondations et enfin le cot des travaux.
Afin de limiter les dsordres occasionns par une excavation profonde, une tude numrique tridimensionnelle (mthode aux lments
fins) a t ralise dans cet article en prenant en compte linteraction sol-structure. Un ensemble de pieux supports a t considr car
il est relativement conomique et trs commun dans les sols Egyptiens. Une tude paramtrique a t ralise pour tudier la rigidit
du systme qui minimise les dformations du sol. A partir des rsultats, des recommandations sont donnes en termes de profondeur
d'excavation, de rigidit sol-pieu, et de profondeur de fondation.
KEYWORDS: excavation, pile wall, clay, adjacent building.
1 INTRODUCTION Poulos and Chen 1997 and Leung et. al 2000. They studied the
failure of the excavation with no adjacent buildings or
In urban environment in Egypt most buildings in the same block additional loads close to the excavation. In other cases, they
area are adjacent to each other. No distance between buildings studied the effect of soil movement during the excavation on the
exists due to high population intensity along the river Nile behavior of adjacent existing piles. However, the design of
Valley. These conditions increased the tendency to build high supporting system for excavation adjacent to existing building
rise buildings. Most of these new high rise buildings are built founded on shallow foundation is not studied enough. Many
adjacent to old existing buildings. The adjacent old buildings parameters could affect the design of pile supporting
condition is usually critical either due to the weakness of the excavation. This includes excavation height, soil properties, the
structure system of the building or the foundation level is at foundation type and the foundation level of the adjacent
shallow depth. High rise buildings with basements need deeper building.
excavation than the foundation level of the adjacent building. The present study mainly aims to provide recommendations
With the presence of adjacent shallow foundation, the for the design of contiguous pile wall in cohesive soil. Three
excavation will cause large soil movement and damage to the Dimensional Finite Element Modeling (3D FEM) was used to
adjacent building, as shown in Fig. (1). Many failure cases were carry out the study. PLAXIS 3D Foundation software was used
observed due to unsupported excavations. It is common, in in the analysis. Different parameters were considered in the
Egypt, to use contiguous pile wall to support the excavation on study. The ranges of the selected parameters were limited to the
the adjacent buildings sides. Such type of wall is economic and common cases in Egypt and as recommended by the Egyptian
effective in cohesive soil. The excavation will cause lateral and Code of Practice (ECP).
vertical soil movement, the first component is considered to be
more critical for adjacent piles. The design of these excavations 2 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL (FEM)
should include an estimation of the ground movement as well as
stability check of the adjacent buildings. The lateral loads
resulting from the soil movements induce bending moments and 2.1 Geometry and meshing
deflections in the piles supporting excavation, which may lead FEM meshing and geometry is shown in Fig. (2). The figure
to structural distress or failure of both the existing building and shows a cut at the face of the excavation. Soil above the
the excavation supporting system. Indeed, several instances of foundation level was removed only to show footing shape in the
structural damage to piles have been reported in the literature, figure. However, it was included in the analysis. Model
for example, Hagertry and Peck 1971 and Finno et al. 1991, as dimensions were selected so that the boundaries are far enough
reported by Chen and Poulos 1997. to cause any restriction or strain localization to the analysis. The
Many theoretical and empirical methods have been excavation area is 10 x 10 m. For simplicity, the foundation of
established for solving certain types of excavation problems, for the adjacent building was assumed to be three strip footings of
example, Poulos and Chen 1995, Hashash and Whittle 1996, Ou 10 m length and 2 m width each and in between distance of 2 m.
et. al 1996, Poulos and Chen 1996, Chen and Poulos 1997,
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The foundation level was assumed to be at 1.5 m depth from the was activation of the pile wall in the soil. The third step was the
ground surface. The mesh was generated as fine mesh at piles excavation of the soil.
where the stresses are expected to be high. Coarse mesh was In the present paper, only bending moment of pile and pile
used at the boundaries of the model where the stresses are low. lateral displacement outputs were used in the analysis. All the
presented results are of the pile at the middle of the supporting
wall. It was found from the results that this pile is the most
critical in both lateral deflection and bending moment. The piles
at the ends of the wall have the lowest lateral deflection and
bending moment profiles. The stress on the foundation level
was assumed to be 100 kN/m2. This stress is corresponding to a
bearing capacity factor of safety of 2 for the soft to medium clay
case.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Ux, (m)
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 -4
0
Z, (m)
H=5m
-6
F.L.
4.5
-6 -12
-4
3.3 Effect of pile wall embedded depth
H=5m
Figures (4) and (5) show no change in the normalized lateral
Z, (m)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2838
Analysis and Design of Piles for Dynamic Loading
Analyse et conception de fondations par pieux en chargement dynamique
ABSTRACT: With the acceptance of Eurocode 8 in Hungary a new level of seismic design is now necessary. This paper outlines
some of the past history and present implementation of foundation design for seismic loading as practiced in Hungary. It shortly
describes the possibilities of modeling foundations (fix support, linear elastic support, non-linear elastic support) during the design of
the superstructure, and introduces the Hungarian practice. The influence of the different supports methods for the bearing
forces/stresses of a superstructure is analyzed on a typical reinforced concrete office building using SAP2000 finite element software.
The results of the calculation are compared through the moment of a column, the deflection and the support reaction.
RSUM : Il tait ncessaire de modifier les principes de dimensionnement des fondations par pieux, vis vis des charges sismiques,
depuis lentre en vigueur en Hongrie de lEurocode 8. Ltude donne un apercue des mthodes prcdentes et actuelles du
dimensionnement dynamique des fondations. Elle montre aussi les possibilits de modelisations des fondations profondes pratiqus en
Hongrie (rigide, lastique linaire, lastique non-linaire). La comparaison des differentes techniques de fondation est ralis par
elements finis sur une structure en bton arm et laide du logiciel SAP2000. La comparaison des diffrents rsultats est montr en
terme de moment, de dplacement et de force de raction dappuis.
KEYWORDS: pile foundation, seismic design, Eurocode-8
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
structuring type analysis to determine pile head impedance and restraints are applied. Finally, agreement is reached when the
foundation level input motions. pile head is restricted to only horizontal displacement and linear
Finally, a fully-coupled SSPSI analysis may be carried out to elastic soil is used. Care should be taken when adapting one set
define the complete system response. of analysis or field test results for another design approach.
Shake table and centrifuge models have offered a great deal While dynamic conditions may influence the value of
of insight into the kinematic and inertial interaction between stiffness, other authors have pointed out that the first
pile groups and soil, however, there remains a great deal of approximation to pile stiffness, especially in lower frequency
research yet to be done. ranges, is the static displacement profile (Gazetas and Dobry
1984; Blaney et al 1976; Novak and Nogami 1977). Damping
2.1 SPSI will also reduce response, but to a lesser extent and it primarily
shifts the pile response out of phase with the driving
Interaction of piles with structural components (inertial
(earthquake) forces.
interaction) is perhaps better understood. However, simplifying
assumptions to gain computational efficiencies and limit the
complexity of the design process are often adopted. This is a 3 APPLICATION TO BUILDING DESIGN
common practice when performing structural design
calculations when foundation alternatives have not been The primary focus of research has been to establish more
finalized. Most importantly, the design engineer wants to know precisely the effects of SPSI on structural design considerations.
what impact, if any, the foundation design will have on the To that end, an example design is used as a basis for study.
seismic response of the structure.
EC-8.2 and 8.5 recommend values for applying seismic
loading and estimating pile stiffness. The loadings and soil 3.1 Example Structure
reactions are then applied to pile elements and included in the
The structure is a 5-bay by 3-bay reinforced concrete frame with
overall structural analysis/design process. These stiffness
a ground floor, seven floors supported by columns, and a roof
formulae are similar to those discussed by Gazetas and Dobry
slab. Floor slabs are separated 3.2m c-c and columns are spaced
(1984) for low frequencies and typical ranges of pile-soil
uniformly 6.0 m c-c. Structural elements were dimensioned
moduli.
according to EC-2 using factors from the Hungarian National
Annex. While this is a common design, one unique, and
2.2 EC-8 Stiffness Formulae
problematic feature of Hungarian designs is the integration of
Eurocode 8 suggests formulae for estimating pile stiffness in continuous floor slabs with floor beams. This makes it more
seismic response analysis. One should note the effect of soil difficult to model beam-column connections and properly
profile on behavior, especially for lateral loading. Load account for stiffness distributions throughout each floor system.
displacement curves based on EC-8 formulae are shown in Columns are dimensioned 40x65 cm at the base and taper to
Figure 1 for sand (Es=20 Mpa) and clay (Es=5 Mpa). As one 40x40 at the top while beams are uniformly 40x90cm and slab
moves down the legend the responses get stiffer. The lines thicknesses are 20cm. Perspective and profile views are shown
marked with Cl or Sa are the clay and sand stiffness based on in Figure 2 a, b respectively.
linear distribution, square root distribution, or constant with
depth. Es values were adjusted so that the average E values for a
12-m pile were equal for the respective distribution profile.
Values for sand and clay are typical for Hungarian soils.
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Perspective and section view of RC frame. Note elastic
supports added to base of columns.
2840
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
2841
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
7 REFERENCES
Blaney G.W., Kausel E.and Roesset J. M., 1976. Dynamic Stiffness of
Piles. Second Intl Conf on Num Meth in Geomechanics, Vol II,
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Va. 1001-1012.
Dai W. and Roesset J.M. 2010. Horizontal dynamic stiffness of pile
groups: Approximate expressions Soil Dyn. & Eq. Engrg. (30) 844-
850.
Gazetas G. and Dobry R. 1984. Horizontal Response of Piles in Layered
Soil, Jour. Geotech. Engrg. 110 (1), 20-40.
Novak M, ElSharnouby B. 1984. Evaluation of dynamic experiments on
pile group. Jour. Geotech. Engrg. 110(6):73856.
Novak M. and Nogami T. 1977. Soilpile interaction in horizontal
vibration. International Journal of Earthquake Engineering and
Figure 5. Column bending moments for rigid- and spring-base Structural Dynamics (5) 263281.
conditions. Penzien, J 1970. Soil Pile Foundation Interaction, Chapter 14 in
Earthquake Engineering, R.L.Weigel ed., Prentice-Hall, 518 p.
Simonelli A.L. 2008. Fondazioni profonde in Metodi Innovativi per la
Progettasione di Oere di Sosteno e la Valutasione della Stailita dei
Pendii, Rete dei Laboratori Universitari di Ingegneria Sismica
(Reluis), 1-71.
Tth, L., Gyri E., Mnus P., Zsros T. 2006. Seismic Hazard in the
Pannonian Region. The Adira Microplate: GPS Geodesy, Tectonics,
and Hazards, Pinter N., Grenerczy G., Weber J., Stein S., Medak
D. (eds), Springer Verlag, NATO ARW Series 61, 369-384.
Wilson E. 2002. Three-Dimensional Static and Dynamic Analysis of
Structures. Computers and Structures Inc., Berkeley CA. 1-423.
Wolf J.P. 1985. Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction Prentiss-Hall NJ
2842
A new tool for the automated travel time analyses of bender element tests
Un nouvel outil pour les analyses automatises du temps de dplacement des essais
bender element
ABSTRACT: Whilst bender elements are increasingly used in both academic and commercial laboratory test systems, there still
remains a lack of agreement when interpreting the shear wave travel time from these tests. Given such interpretation is often
subjective, a software tool was developed to automate the interpretation process using a number of analysis methods recommend in
the literature. The tool resulting from this development is accessed through two easy-to-use Microsoft Excel Add-Ins, allowing any
digital bender element data to be interpreted. Initial assessment of the tool was provided by a series of tests conducted on a triaxial
specimen of Leighton Buzzard sand at a mean effective stress of 100 kPa, with variation of the source element frequency. Travel
times estimated from a time-domain cross-correlation showed relatively low scatter, equal to 7 s, across a frequency range of 3.3
kHz to 14.3 kHz, whilst times estimated from a frequency-domain cross-spectrum calculation produced much larger scatter, equal to
138 s. Finally comparisons with subjective observational analyses performed by a geotechnical academic showed good agreement,
suggesting the tool can provide accurate, automated interpretation of bender element shear wave travel times.
RSUM : Tandis que la technique des Bender Elements est de plus en plus utilise dans les laboratoires commerciaux et de
recherche, il subsiste encore une carence dans linterprtation du temps de parcours des ondes de cisaillement. Pour pallier ce manque,
un outil logiciel a t dvelopp pour automatiser le processus en utilisant un certain nombre de mthodes danalyses recommandes
dans la littrature. Cet outil est accessible par la simple utilisation de deux applications Microsoft Excel, permettant danalyser
nimporte quelle donne issue dun essai de type Bender Elements. Les premiers tests de cet outil ont t effectus sur un chantillon
triaxial de sable Leighton Buzzard pour une contrainte effective moyenne de 100 kPa, avec une variation des frquences de
llment source. Les temps de trajet estims partir dune corrlation temporelle ont montr une dispersion relativement faible gale
+/- 7 s pour des frquences de 3,3 kHz 14,3 kHz, tandis que les temps calculs partir dune corrlation spectre-frquence
indiquent une forte dispersion des rsultats gale +/- 138 s. Enfin, les comparaisons ralises avec des analyses classiques
effectues par un laboratoire de gotechnique acadmique ont montr de bonnes similitudes, suggrant que cet outil peut
vritablement fournir des rsultats prcis et automatiques des temps de parcours des ondes de cisaillement.
KEYWORDS: bender elements, shear wave travel time, automated analysis, cross-correlation, cross-spectrum.
2843
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1 d (2)
Figure 1. Interactive Analysis (left) and Batch Analysis (right) tg
parameter / data file input windows within Microsoft Excel. 2 df
Conversely the Batch Analysis tool is designed to analyse
1 T 1
multiple BE tests at a time, assuming the data is organised using
the GDS Bender Element System (BES) output format (.bes).
CCxy (ts ) X (T)Y(T ts )
T T 0
(3)
The tool is used by simple loading .bes files into the window
interface shown in Figure 1 and clicking Calculate. The time shift corresponding to the maximum value of CCxy
is used for the travel time estimate obtained from the TD
analysis (i.e. t = ts when CCxy = maximum), whilst a frequency
window running from 0.8 to 1.2 times the source signal
frequency is used to determine the group travel time tg = t
2844
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
(unless the user alters this frequency window when using the report the estimated travel times. Note the analysis was
Interactive Analysis tool). completed after approximately 45 seconds using a desktop PC
running Windows XP SP3 with a 2.93 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo
2.4 GDS Bender Element Analysis Tool output CPU and 2.00 GB RAM. Travel time estimates obtained from
this process are presented in Table 2.
Following the analysis process, BEAT produces two output tabs
within Excel: these are Travel Time Report and Graphs. The Table 2. Travel time estimates from the Batch Analysis tool.
Travel Time Report lists all relevant data numerically, including Shear wave travel time estimates, t (s)
the data filenames, travel time estimates obtained from the TD Observation of Received Signal
and FD analysis methods, and various analysis metrics. The Source f Cross- Cross-
(TD)
Graphs tab displays a number of plots for each data file, (kHz) correlation spectrum
Point Point Point Point
including the source and received wave signals with travel time (TD) (FD)
A B C D
estimates shown, frequency spectrums for each signal, the
14.3 221 635 651 675 662 620
unwrapped phase angle, and values of the cross-correlation
12.5 224 637 655 681 663 703
function. These outputs allow the user to further assess the
11.1 224 641 658 685 663 663
validity of the analysis, and to use the travel time estimates in
VS and G0 calculations. 10.0 225 643 662 689 662 641
8.3 227 646 667 698 662 697
6.7 226 652 671 706 661 678
3 BENDER ELEMENT TESTS ON LEIGHTON BUZZARD 5.9 278 650 671 712 662 613
SAND TRIAXIAL SPECIMEN 5.0 497 650 672 713 662 495
3.3 227 653 676 719 674 771
To initially assess the performance of BEAT, a series of bender 2.5 229 654 682 784 669 735
element tests were performed on a triaxial specimen of Leighton 2.0 488 655 690 828 657 767
Buzzard sand Fraction D. The triaxial apparatus used was a 1.7 450 657 696 846 645 642
GDS Dynamic Triaxial Testing System (DYNTTS), with
1.4 404 658 700 855 640 633
bender element tests conducted via a GDS BES. The specimen,
1.3 398 659 707 858 632 515
nominally 70 mm diameter by 144 mm in height, was prepared
1.1 442 658 716 862 632 325
using a moist-tamping method similar to that previously
employed by the authors (Rees 2010). Following saturation (B 1.0 443 659 744 868 640 235
value 0.95), the specimen was isotropically consolidated to Scatter
four mean effective stresses, p, with bender element tests being for f 138 9 13 22 7 138
conducted at each stress level. The data presented herein 3.3kHz :
focuses exclusively on the tests performed at p = 100 kPa using
a single sine-wave source. To compare the performance of BEAT with subjective
Properties of the specimen are presented in Table 1, analyses, a geotechnical academic at Warsaw University (WU)
including void ratio, e, and relative density, Dr. Note values of with previous bender element signal analysis experience was
the maximum and minimum void ratios used to estimate Dr sent the test data (from 12.5 kHz 1.0 kHz) and asked to
were 1.01 and 0.72 respectively (Klotz 2000), with L equal to provide travel time estimates using any observational, non-
the element tip-to-tip distance. automated analysis methods they considered appropriate. This
resulted in travel times being estimated with five separate
Table 1. Properties of the Leighton Buzzard sand triaxial test specimen. methods, including the first arrival or start-to-start method
p (kPa) e Dr (%) (t/m3) L (mm) (specified as point C in Figure 2) and the peak-to-peak
100 0.88 0.03 43 10 1.88 0.02 139.1 technique. Travel time estimates produced by BEAT and the
subjective analyses from WU were subsequently used to
The bender element tests were conducted by systematically calculate VS and G0 values, which are presented in Figure 4. It
varying the source wave frequency, as recommended by TC-29, should be noted a system delay of 42 s was subtracted from all
from the chosen values of 14.3 kHz to 1.0 kHz. For each test travel time estimates when calculating VS, and that G0 values are
frequency five separate source element triggers were applied to approximate ( 2 MPa) due to axis scaling when plotting both
the specimen, with the received signal output then stacked in the parameters in Figure 4.
time domain to remove random signal noise. Three examples of
source and received signals obtained during these tests are Point C (BEAT) Phase-angle (BEAT)
Sine: f = 10.0kHz
110
shear modulus, G (MPa)
Approximate small-strain
240
S
230
Sine: f = 5.0kHz
220 90
210
0
2845
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2846
Pseudo-static Pile Load Test: Experience on Pre-bored and Large Diameter Piles
Tests de chargement pseudo-statique sur pieux: experiences sur pieux fors de grands diametres
Rinaldi V.A.
National University of Cordoba, Argentina.
Viguera R.
Principal Engineer, CIM SRL consultants, Cordoba, Argentina
ABSTRACT: Pseudostatic load test is usually employed as an alternative to the conventional static load test for piles. Recent
developments showed that the well developed Statnamic tests can be substantially simplified by using a hanging weight falling over a
cushion system that allows increasing the time length of the generated stress pulse. This work describes the design of the test method
and a recently experience related to the application of the pseudostatic load test used to evaluate the bearing capacity of large diameter
piles. The performed test showed that using moderate loads from 10 to 20 tons falling from 10 cm to 120 cm and cushions prepared at
varied stiffness allowed to reach more than 800 tons of loading and the fully mobilization of the pile ultimate capacity. The main
advantages of the proposed pseudostatic tests respect to the conventional Statnamic tests is the possibility to apply load increments by
steps, the repeatability of each loading step and the simpler test setup required by the former.
RSUM : Des essais de chargement pseudo-statique ont t rcemment proposs comme alternative lessai de chargement statique
classique sur pieux. Les dveloppements exprimentaux rcents ont montrs que ces tests peuvent tre simplifis par lutilisation
dune masse suspendue qui tombe sur un systme amortissant. Ainsi cette technique permet daugmenter le temps de lapplication de
la charge impulsionnelle. Ce travail dcrit la conception de lexprience et les essais qui ont rcemment t effectus pour valuer la
capacit portante de pieux de grand diamtre. Les tests effectus ont montrs que lutilisation de charges modres de 10 20 tonnes
tombant dune hauteur de 10 120 cm sur des amortisseurs rigidits contrls, permettent de simuler plus de 800 tonnes de
chargement et datteindre la charge ultime du pieu. Les principaux avantages des essais pseudo-statiques sont la possibilit d'appliquer
des incrments de charge, une rptabilit de chaque chargement et un essai plus simple raliser.
KEYWORDS: Pile load test- Statnamic- pseudostatic test- bearing capacity-shaft resistance, tip resistance.
2847
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Dynamic Force
Fd c v k u ( M s M p ) a (9)
Fd Equation (9) allows determine dynamic influence on the
measured force at the point of where the velocity becomes zero
Mp and thereafter correcting the measured force by the dynamic
Damping + effect.
Spring
Force Ms
Force
Fc Fk 2 TESTING PROCEDURE.
c k
Figure 4 and 5 sketch the testing setup and electronic devices
used for the pseudoestatic load test. This loading design
Figure 2: Model for the soil pile interaction in the peudoestatic model. generates a time-controlled load which will depend on the
magnitude and height of the falling mass, and geometry and
To increase the application time of loading, a high strength elastic properties of the elastomeric cushion included between
resilient material is required to be placed on the head of the pile the mass and head of the pile. The force pulse is captured by a
in the area of impact. Assuming that the load is obtained by a load cell placed below the cushion. The displacement of the pile
falling mass of approximately 10% of the ultimate capacity of is obtained from the double integration of the signals captured
the pile (Fu) and also considering the charging triangular by two accelerometer placed on the shaft and below one
diagram of Figure 3, then: diameter from top of the pile. The weight of the mass to be used
0.1Fu ranges between 5% and 10% of the servicebility capacity of the
2 gh pile. The test requires the continuous increment of the height of
m 2 gh g 2h
t50 0.1 (3) drop of the mass. The output of the conditioners is then
Fu Fu g digitized by the dynamic analyzer and conveniently stored for
Where h is the falling height of the mass m. This cinematic subsequent laboratory analysis. In addition to the equipment
equilibrium equation is an approximation since restitution shown, a proximeter is placed to capture displacements and
forces has been overridden. permanent settlement of the pile. The maximum testing load is
The maximum forces that can be exerted on the pile tip obtained when a permanent displacement is generated or until
(Fmax) due to the falling mass on a cushion material of elastic the 50% of the service load is reached.
constant ke can be calculated as:
1 Falling Weight
mgh Fmax z max (4)
2 Cushion
Where zmax is the maximum deformation of the cushion Steel
Case Load Cell
material zmax = Fmax/ke. Then, replacing in equation (4),
Accelerometer Pile
Fmax 2 m g h ke (5)
Being the natural frequency of the mass-cushion system:
m
T 2 (6)
ke
Since t50 is half of the natural frequency and assuming a
triangular shape of the wave (see Figure 3):
m 2 m Figure 4. Testing setup for the pseudoestatic load test.
t 50 (7)
ke 3 ke
Load cell
Amplitude (KN)
Signals from
T
t50
Pile
Signal Conditioner
Equations (5) to (7) allows to evaluate the magnitude of Signal Processor Signal Recorder
the mass and the falling height to obtain a maximum force Fmax
according to the elastic constant ke of the cushion material. Figure 5. Testing electronic devices used for the pseudoestatic load test.
From Figure 2, the equilibrium equation can be derived
as: The impact mass can be made at the site usually employing a
concrete slab or a steel casing filled with concrete depending on
Fd Fc Fk ( M s M p ) a (8) its size. For the purpose of centering the load, steel bars are used
as guides for obvious safety reasons and ensuring the impact of
Where Ms and Mp are the mass of the pile and the soil the mass be centered avoiding the generation of moments. For
respectively and a is the acceleration of the movement. the purpose of preventing the damage of the pile by the
Equation (8) can be rewritten in terms the resistant forces as a application of impact on the mass, the shaft is increased (1.5 to
function of the dynamic parameter Fc = c v, and Fk = k u, being 2 times the diameter) by means of a steel case of the same
u and v the displacement and velocity of displacement diameter of the shaft. In all cases, the accelerometers must be
respectively: positioned below this extension or in a window made on it. The
2848
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Force [KN]
3000
This work describes the results of two pseudostatic load tests 1000 Model
performed on large diameter piles buit for a bridge over the 0
River Calchaqu on the state highway No 37, in the province of
0 50 100
Santa Fe, Argentina. For this bridge were projected sixteen
piles of 1.20 m in diameter and approximately 24 m long with time [mseg]
preload cell. The soil profile of the site is characterized by the
Figure 7. Force function for a falling weight of 25 tn from a drop height
presence of reddish-colored silty clays with interbedded more
of h=2.2 m
greenish layers. The compactness of the soil has significant
horizontally and vertically variations. At the foundation depth -15
Velocity [mm/seg]
of 24 m the penetration resistance is higher than 50 blows of the
-10 Model
normalized Standard Penetration Test. Ultrasonic cross hole
tests (ASTM D6760) were performed in all the piles on the six
-5
prospecting pipes before and after the load test. The service load
Measurement
of each pile was designed for 4800 kN and the falling mass was 0
25 tn. The mass was hanged and dropped using a free fall crane
(see Figure 6). 5
0 50 100
time [mseg]
0.00
-0.20
Settlement [mm]
-0.40
-0.60
-0.80
-1.00
-1.20
-1.40
-1.60
-1.80
-2.00
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Load [kN]
Figure 9. Load- settlement envelopes for the pile P2-S tested in this
Figure 6. Picuture of one of the piles tested at the site. work. Dotted line corresponds to the total envelop and filled line to the
corrected envelop by removing the dynamic effect.
Figures 8 to 10 show the typical curves of the recorded force,
velocity and displacement for a single drop of the mass. Note 0.00
that loading times exceed the 50 milliseconds which for the
present case can be considered pseudostatic.
Figures 9 and 10 show the curves of load-settlement -0.50
Settlement [mm]
obtained for the two piles tested in this work. Notice that in
these figures the results from all mass drops have been included.
The envelope correspond to the total envelop and the corrected -1.00
envelop to account for dynamic effect using equation (9) at the
point where the velocity is zero or where the maximum -1.50
displacement is attained.
-2.00
-2.50
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Load [kN]
Figure 10. Load- settlement envelopes for the pile P3-S tested in this
work. Dotted line corresponds to the total envelop and filled line to the
corrected envelop by removing the dynamic effect.
2849
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
. 5 REFERENCES
Notice that the maximum loads were around 8000 kN and
settlements were in between 1.4 mm and 1.50 mm for the Bermingham P. and Janes M., 1989. Innovative Approach to Load
maximum load imposed. At the service load is expected a Testing of High Capacity Piles, Proc. Int. Conference on Piling
settlement lower than 0.6 mm. and Deep Foundations, London, pp. 409-413.
The piles were also modeled by using the wave equation Goble G. and Likins G., 1996. On the Application of PDA Dynamic
model formulated by Smith (1960). The pile shaft was divided Pile Testing, Proc. 5th Intern. Conf. on the Application of Stress
Wave Theory to Piles, Orlando, FL.
in sections of one meter ant the soil was modeled as spring and
Matsuzawa K., Nakashima Y. and Matrsumoto T., 2008. Spring
dashpots. The dynamic constants were varied until the best
Hammer Rapid Load Tests Method and Its Validation, Proc. of
approximate of the model to the measurements were obtained.
the 2nd BGA International Conference on Foundations, Brennan
Figures 7 and 8 show the agreement of the modeled pile to the
A. And Knappedt J. Ed., pp.224-234.
measurements. The distribution of reaction forces along the pile Miyasaka T., Kuwabara F., Likins G. and . Rauche F., 2008. Rapid
shaft is shown in Figure 11. It seems that most of the load is Load Test on High Bearing Capacity Piles, Science Technology
taken by the shaft an only 900 kN are taken by the tip at the and Practice, Dos Santos J. Ed., pp. 5001-5006.
maximum load of the test performed. The behavior of pile-soil Schellingerhout A.J.G. and Revoort E., 1996. Pseudostatic Static Pile
systems corresponds to a quasi elastic phase with little plastic Load Tester, Proc. Of 5th international Conference of Stress
deformations. Wave Theory to Piles, Orlando, pp.1031-1037.
Smith, E. A. L. 1960. Pile Driving Analysis by the Wave Equation,
Reaction Force [kN]
1200
Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division , ASCE,
2.8m
Vol. 86, No. SM4, Proc. Paper 2574, pp. 35-61, Agosto, 1960
1000
2.6m
800
2.2m
600
400
200
1 6 11 16 21
Depth [m]
4 CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions of the work presented here can be
summarized as follow:
2850
Behavior of Vertical Piles Embedded in Sand under Inclined Loads near
Ground Slope
Comportement de pieux verticaux ancrs dans une couche de sable proximit d'une pente
ABSTRACT: Pile foundations are used to support structures exposed to different types of loads. Among these loads are
inclined loads which give axial and lateral loads. The main objective of the present paper is to investigate experimentally the
effects of inclined load on axial pile displacement and lateral pile response for piles embedded in the level ground and near
ground slope. The factors considered for this purpose are slenderness ratio for pile (L/D), relative density of sand (Dr),
distance of the pile head from the slope crest (B/D), and the inclination of the applied load with the vertical. The behavior of
the piles in the level ground was compared with the behavior of piles located near ground slope. Different results were
obtained for combined axial and horizontal loading. From test results, the inclination of the applied load has a significant
effect on the ultimate axial and lateral loads for pile, lateral pile deflection, and the bending moment along the pile shaft
especially near ground slope. The coefficient of horizontal modulus of sub-grade reaction decreased when the inclination of
the applied load increased.
ABSTRACT: Les fondations sur pieux sont envisages pour des structures soumises diffrents types de chargement parmi
lesquels on distingue ceux composante latral. Ce papier prsente une tude exprimentale qui analyse linfluence de
linclinaison dun chargement sur le dplacement vertical et la rponse latrale dun pieu ancr dans un sol proximit
dune pente. Les paramtres dinfluence sont llancement du pieu (L/D), la densit relative (Dr), la distance horizontale
sparant le pieu de la pente (B/D) et linclinaison de la charge par rapport la verticale. Le comportement des pieux dans un
massif horizontal est compar celui de pieux proximit de la pente partir de rsultats obtenus pour des chargements
composante verticale et horizontale. Il a t conclu que linclinaison du chargement une influence considrable sur la
capacit portante ultime sous charges verticale et latrale, le dplacement horizontal et le moment de flexion le long du ft
du pieu, en particulier proximit de la pente. Il a t galement vrifi que laugmentation de linclinaison du chargement
conduit une diminution du module de raction horizontale.
KEYWORDS: Vertical piles, inclined load, sand slope, axial and lateral displacement.
MOTS CLS: Pieu vertical, charge incline, pente en sol sableux, dplacemenst vertical et horizontal
1 INTRODUCTION element analysis, while the conventional elastic half
space and subgrade reaction methods of pile analysis
Pile foundation for several types of structures is often cannot consider this interaction.
subjected to simultaneous axial and lateral loading. According to Vankamanidi and Geoffrey (1999),
According to current practice, piles are independently the lateral soil pressure, bending moments, pile
analyzed first for the axial load to determine their bearing displacements at the ground surface have been
capacity and settlement and then for the lateral load to investigated. The results of these load tests are compared
determine the stresses and deflections. Several results of with theoretical estimates based on the concept of the
investigations on the behavior of piles subjected to effective embedment depth of equivalent rigid piles for
inclined loading have been reported in the literature, e.g. ultimate and elastic case. Reasonable agreement has been
by Chari and Meyerhof (1983), Sastry and Meyerhof found between the observed and the predicted behavior
(1990) and Abdel-Rahman and Achmus (2006). of flexible piles.
Poulos and Davis (1980) suggested that the From the above literature, lack in the knowledge
failure of a vertical pile exposed to an inclined load can about the behavior of pile under inclined loads near
be treated as the ultimate load capacity is a function of ground slope was noted. Therefore, the main objective of
both the lateral resistance and the vertical load capacity this paper is use experimental model to study the
of the pile. When the applied load deviates slightly from behavior of pile adjacent to a slope crest under inclined
the axial direction, the failure will essentially occur due loads.
to the axial slip while lateral failure will occur when the
inclination is large; that is the load becomes nearly 2 MODEL DESCRIPTION
perpendicular to the pile axis.
Six model tests were performed on aluminum Vertical and lateral loads were conducted on the model
closed-ended piles by Christos and Michael (1993) to pile in a rectangular steel test tank with the size of 1000
investigate experimentally any possible effects of lateral mm (length) x 500 mm (width) x 700 mm (height). The
loading on axial pile displacements and stresses as well vertical edges of the tank were stiffened by using steel
as the influence of axial loads on the lateral pile angle sections. The inner faces of the tank were
response. The main findings were the following: the graduated at 50 mm intervals to facilitate an accurate
effect of axial loading on the lateral pile response was preparation of the sand bed in layers. The front long side
rather limited. The interaction between axial and lateral was made of a 20 mm thick glass panel. The glass side
pile responses can be studied with a nonlinear finite- allows the sand to be seen during the preparation and to
2851
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
minimize friction between the tank wall and sand 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
minimize
particles. friction between the tank wall and sand 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
particles.Vertical loads were applied to the model pile by An experimental testing program was designed to study
using aVertical
hydraulic loadsjack.were
Theapplied
magnitudesto theofmodelapplied pileloads
by Antheexperimental testing
effect of inclined program
load was designed
on the behavior to study
of vertical pile
using
were arecorded
hydraulic withjack.theThe
helpmagnitudes of applied
of a pre-calibrated loads
sensitive the
in effect
sand onof inclined load on
level ground theadjacent
and behaviortoofground
verticalslope.
pile
were
provingrecorded
ring. with the helpload
The lateral of awaspre-calibrated
affected through sensitive a2 inThe
sand on levelofground
geometry and adjacent
the problem to ground
is illustrated in Fig.slope.
1. As
proving
mm diameterring. The lateral loadsteel
high-tension waswireaffected throughtoa the
connected 2 The
showngeometry
in thisoffigure,
the problem is illustrated
the height of groundinslope
Fig. (H 1. slope
As )
mm
pile diameter
cap usinghigh-tension
an eye bolt. The steelother
wire side connected
of the wireto the ran shown
equal toin 15
thiscmfigure,
and itsthe height ofprojection
horizontal ground slope
(Xslope(H) slope
equal)
pile
overcapsmooth
using an eye bolt.pulley
adjustable The otherwithside a 70 of mm
the wire ran
diameter equal
to 30tocm15tocm and itsslope
achieve horizontal projection
gradient (2H:1V).(XThe
slope)location
equal
over
and smooth
supported adjustable
a load plat pulleyform.withIn aorder
70 mm diameter
to record the toof30thecm to relative
pile achieve toslope gradient
the slope (2H:1V).
crest The location
is the distance (B).
and supported
correct verticala load plat form.
settlement In order
and lateral to recordofthe
deflection the of the pile relative to the slope crest is the distance (B).
correct
pile forvertical
each load settlement
increment andapplied,
lateral fourdeflection
sensitiveof thedial
pile for each
gauges of theloadleastincrement
measurement applied,
of 0.01fourmm sensitive dial
were used,
gauges
two forofvertical
the least andmeasurement
two for lateral of and
0.01their
mm average
were used, was
two for vertical and two for lateral and their average was
taken.
taken. A smooth steel model pile, with diameter of
10mm,Aand smooth steel 110,
total length model 210,pile,
310,withand 410diameter
mm were of
10mm,
used in andthis
totalstudy.
lengthThe 110,upper
210, 310,
10 mm and 410of themmpile wereis
used
screwedin this
part study.
and theThe otherupper
length10embedded
mm of in thesand.
pile The is
screwed
slenderness part and
ratiothe(L/D)otherwas
length embedded
chosen to be inused
sand.inThe this
slenderness
research equal ratioto(L/D)10, 20, was30,chosen
and 40. to Five
be used strainin gages
this
research
were stuck equal to tothe10, 20, 30,
surface of and 40. Five
the model pilestrain
with gages
L/D =
were
40. Thestuck to the surface
measurement of the model
of flexural strainspilecan with L/D =
lead directly
40. The measurement
to bending moment curve. of flexural strains can lead directly
to bending Themoment
cap was curve.
designed as flexible as possible and
the pile The wascapnot wasdeeply
designed as flexible
seated throughas it, possible
so thatand no
the pile was
restraint of the notpile deeply
head seated
rotationthrough it, so One
is available. that edge
no
restraint
of the cap of is
thebent
pileuphead rotation
to allow is available.
horizontal One edge
dial gauges to be The load-deflection curves were obtained by plotting the
ofmounted.
the cap isAtbent the upotherto allow
side ofhorizontal
the cap, adial 1.5-cmgauges
hook to was
be The load-deflection
relationship between curves were obtained
the vertical by plotting
and lateral loads andtheits
mounted. At the at
welded exactly other
the side of of
center thethis
cap, a 1.5-cm hook was
side. relationship betweenand
axial settlement the lateral
vertical deflections,
and lateral loads and its
respectively.
welded exactly at the center of this side. axial settlement
According and lateral
to Terzaghi (1942)deflections,
and Tomilson respectively.
(1980), the
3 SOIL PROPERTIES According
ultimate axialto Terzaghi
(Vu) and(1942)lateraland
(HuTomilson
) loads are(1980),
definedtheas
3 SOIL PROPERTIES ultimate
the loads, axial (Vu)cause
which and lateral (Huor
a vertical ) loads are defined
horizontal as
deflection
The soil used in this study for all of the tests is clean the
of loads,
one tenthwhich of cause a vertical
the pile diameteror horizontal
(i.e. 10% deflection
of the pile
The
sand, soilclassified
used in as thispoorly
study graded
for all sand
of theaccording
tests is clean
to the ofdiameter)
one tenth of the pile
to simulate thediameter (i.e.failure
geotechnical 10% of pile
in the soil.
sand,
Unified classified as poorly graded
Soil Classification System. sandTheaccording to the
moisture content diameter) to simulate the geotechnical failure in the soil.
Unified
(Wc) was Soilabout
Classification System. The
2%. The following aremoisture
the results content
of the 5.1 Ultimate capacity of pile in the level ground
(W c) was
sieve about test;
analysis 2%. The following
effective grainare sizetheD10 results
= 0.14 of themm 5.1 Ultimate capacity of pile in the level ground
sieve analysis test;
and uniformity effective Cgrain
coefficient size D10The
u = 4.357. = 0.14
sandmm was The ultimate axial load and lateral load of the pile
and uniformity
placed to achieve coefficient Cu = 4.357.
three relative densities. The The sand was
physical The ultimate
increased axialtesting
during load program
and lateralwhen loadtheofslenderness
the pile
placed to achieve
characteristics three soils
of these relative densities.
are shown The (1).
in Table physical increased
ratio (L/D) during testing program
was increased. As shownwhen in the
Fig. slenderness
2, for dense
characteristics of these soils are shown in Table (1). ratio
sand(L/D)
(soil was
C), increased.
a significant As shown
increasein for
Fig.ultimate
2, for dense
axial
Table 1. Physical Properties of the Tested Soils. sand
load (soil C), aincreasing
(Vu) with significant increase for
slenderness ultimate
ratio. But foraxial
loose
Table 1. Physical Properties of the Tested Soils. load
sand(V(soil
u) withA),increasing
the effect slenderness ratio. But
of slenderness ratiofor on
loose
the
Soil Condition A B C
sand (soilaxial
ultimate A), load
the found
effect to ofbeslenderness
small. The ratio
ultimateon axial
the
Soil Condition
Relative density Dr (%) A25 B45 C68
ultimate
load (Vuaxial load found
) decreased as theto inclination
be small. The ultimate
of the appliedaxial
load
Relative density D
Unit weight (kN/ m3)
r (%) 2517.5 45
17.8 68
18.3
load
with(V u) vertical
the decreased ()aswastheincreased.
inclination of the applied load
Unit weight
Voids ratio (e) m3)
(kN/ 17.5
0.56 17.8
0.52 18.3
0.48
with the vertical () was increased.
Voids ratio
Porosity (e)(n) 0.56
0.36 0.52
0.34 0.48
0.33 120
110 Angle of inclined load = 60 degree
Porosity
Angle of shearing(n) 31o
resistance () 0.36 34o
0.34 38o
0.33 120
Ultimate axial load Vu (N)
100
110 Angle
Angleofofinclined
inclinedload
load= =6030degree
degree
Angle of shearing resistance () 31o 34o 38o
Ultimate axial load Vu (N)
10090 Angle
Angleofofinclined
inclinedload
load= =300.0
degree
degree Soil (C)
9080
Angle of inclined load = 0.0 degree Soil (C)
4 PREPARATION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 8070
7060
4 PREPARATION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 6050
Before sand slope preparation, the model pile was then 5040 Soil (A)
4030
Before
placed sand
at a slope preparation,
specific position. the model
Then, modelpile sand
was then
slope Soil (A)
3020
placed
150- mm at ahigh
specific
with position.
slope angle,Then,, ofmodel o
26.56sand slope
(2H: 1V) 2010
150-
was mm high with
prepared slopeofangle,
in layers 50 mm , of 26.56
thick. o
The (2H: 1V)
proposed 10 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
0 L/D
was prepared
testing in layers
geometry of theofslope
50 mm wasthick.
first The
marked proposed
on the 0 10 20 30
2. Fig. Relationship
(Vu) A between (L/D) and
L/D for40soil and 50
C.
testing
walls ofgeometry
the tank of
for the slope was
reference. first marked
To obtain uniformon the
density
Fig. 2. Relationship between (L/D) and (Vu) for soil A and C.
walls
of theof soil
the tank fortank,
in the reference. To obtain
controlled uniform
pouring and density
tamping 60
A ngle of inclined loa d = 90 degre e
oftechniques
the soil in the atank,
using controlled
flat bottom pouring
hammer wereand tamping
applied. The
Ultimate lateral load Hu (N)
60
50 A ngleofofinclined
A ngle inclinedloaloa
d d= =9060degre
degree e
techniques using aand
pile was placed flat fixed
bottominhammer
its correctwereposition
applied.before
The
Ultimate lateral load Hu (N)
50 A ngleofofinclined
A ngle inclinedloaloa
d d= =6030degre
degree e S oil (C)
40
pile
the was placedofand
formation sandfixed
slopeintoitssimulate
correctnon position before
displacement A ngle of inclined loa d = 30 degre e S oil (C)
40
the formation of sand slope to simulate non displacement
piles. 30
piles. 30
20 S oil (A)
20 S oil (A)
10
10
0
0 10 20 L /D 30 40 50
0
0 10 20 L /D 30 40 50
Fig. 3. Relationship between (L/D) and (Hu) for soil A and C.
Fig. 3. Relationship between (L/D) and (Hu) for soil A and C.
2852
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
From Fig. 3, it is clear that, the ultimate lateral load (Hu) ygs = yzg x Hgs x T3 / Ep Ip (Valid for vertical pile only) (2)
dependent on the slenderness ratio (L/D). A significant where: ygs is the lateral deflection of the pile at ground
increase on ultimate lateral load with increasing (L/D). surface, yzg is a non-dimensional coefficient that depends
This can be explained by the embedded length, for small on the ratio, embedded length / T (for embedded length /
(L/D) is not sufficient to create the full fixation of the T > 4, yzg = 2.435), Hgs is the lateral load at ground
pile. Increasing the inclination of the applied load () surface, Ep Ip is the Flexural stiffness of the pile, and (T)
will increase the lateral load acting on the pile head. is the relative stiffness.
Therefore, the lateral piles displacement will increase and From load deflection curves and by using the
decrease the ultimate lateral load. above equation, the values of (nh) were calculated at each
deflection. The results show that the coefficient of
5.3 Bending moment along the pile length horizontal modulus of sub-grade reaction is significantly
dependent on the deflections at the low load levels and is
Figures 4 and 5 presents the experimental bending relatively insensitive to deflections at high load levels.
moments along the pile length with L/D = 40 in sandy Figure 6 shows the coefficient of horizontal modulus of
soil. The strain readings obtained experimentally are sub-grade reaction versus deflection in the free head case
converted to bending moment. In general, the shape of for pile with (L/D=40) and inclined load with ( = 30o).
the diagrams is compatible with the shapes investigated From this figure it is clear that the coefficient of
by Broms, 1964. It is obvious that, the increasing of () horizontal modulus decreases with the deflection
increased the maximum values of the bending moment increase. This conclusion agrees with that drawn by
along the pile length. The maximum bending moment in Alizadeh and Davisson, 1970. It is obvious from that;
case of ( = 90o) for pile in soil (A) is about 29 % and 9 relative density of sand has a significant effect on (nh)
% larger than that in case of = 30o and 60o respectively. values.
These percentages are about 13 %, 8 % respectively for
pile in soil (C). From the above mentioned figures, the 4.0
L /D = 40
bending moment may vanish before the end of the pile. Inc line d a ngle o f lo a d = 3 0 de gre e
D r = 25%
increases by increasing the inclination of the applied load D r = 45%
with vertical (). 2.0
D r = 68%
4
nh x 10
15
loads were applied to the pile head at ground surface for
20
pile near ground slope (2H: 1V). The test results from
25
Angle of inclined load = 90 degree
experimental model are presented. An important
30
Angle of inclined load = 60 degree
parameter defining the location of the pile head relative
35
Angle of inclined load = 30 degree to the crest of the slope (B/D) is considered.
40
100
Fig. 4. Experimental bending moment along the pile length
(N)
B/D = 0.0
for soil A. 80 L/D = 40
Vu
15
0
20 0 20 40 60 80 100
In clin ation of applied load (degree)
25
Angle of inclined load = 90 degree
30 Fig. 7. Relationship between load inclination and (Vu) for pile at
Angle of inclined load = 60 degree
35 crest of slope 2H:1V.
Angle of inclined load = 30 degree
40
50
Fig. 5. Experimental bending moment along the pile length
Ultimate lateral load Hu (N)
B /D = 0.0
for soil C. 40 L/D = 40
30
5.4 nh deflection relationship
20
analysis. The value of (T) can be obtained from the Fig. 8. Relationship between load inclination and (Hu) for pile at
following equation: crest of slope 2H:1V.
2853
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
50 Soil (A)
Soil (B)
of combined axial and lateral loading of vertical piles. 6th
40
Soil (C)
European Conference on Numerical Methods in
30
Geotechnical Engineering, Graz, Austria.
Broms, B.B. 1964. Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesionless
20 Soils. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations
L/D = 40 Division, ASCE, Vol. 90, No. SM3, 123 - 156.
10
inclination of applied load = 30 degree Chari. T.R. and Meyerhof G. 1983. Ultimate capacity of single
0 rigid piles under inclined loads in sand. Canadian
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 20, 849-854.
B/D
Christos A. and Michael G. 1993. Interaction of Axial and
Fig. 9. Relationship between (B/D) and (Hu) for pile near ground Lateral Pile Responses. Journal of Geotechnical
slope 2H: 1V. Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 119, No. 4, April.
Poulos, H.G. and Davis E.H. 1980. Pile Foundation Analysis
and Design. John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 10 presents the experimental bending moments
Reese, L.C. and Matlock H. 1956. Non-Dimensional Solutions
along the pile length for pile with (L/D = 40) embedded for Laterally loaded Piles with soil Modulus Assumed
in loose sand (soil A) and () equal to 30o, and 60o Proportional to Depth. Proceedings, Eighth Texas
respectively. From the above figure, increasing of () Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
will increase the maximum bending moment. For Engineering, Austin, Texas.
example from experimental results and at ( = 60o), the Sakr, M.A. and Nasr A.M. 2010. Behavior of pile groups
maximum bending moment is about 31% larger than that arrangement adjacent to a sand slope under lateral load.
in case of ( = 30o). It is clear that the depth of the point DFI 35th Annual Conference on Deep Foundations,
Hollywood, California, 12 15 October, 315 323.
of the maximum bending moment is about 25% from the
Sastry, V. and Meyerhof G. 1990. Behavior of flexible piles
pile length measured from the ground surface. under inclined loads. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.
Bending moment x 10-2 (N.m) 27, No. 1, 849-854.
-20.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 Terzaghi K. 1942. Discussion of the Progress Report of the
0.0 Committee on the Bearing Value of Pile Foundation. Proc.
5.0 ASCE, Vol. 68.
10.0 Tomilson M.J. 1980. Pile Design and Construction Practice. A
Depth (m x 10-2)
L/D = 40
15.0 Soil (A) View Point Publication, London.
P = 30 N Vankamamidi V.R.N. and Geoffrey G.M. 1999. Flexible Pile In
20.0 B/D = 0.0
Soil Layered Under Eccentric and Inclined Loads. Soil and
25.0 Foundations, Vol. 39, No. 1, Feb., 11 20.
30.0
Inclination of load = 30 degrees
35.0
Inclination of load = 60 degrees
40.0
2854
Semi-Analytical Solutions for Laterally Loaded Piles in Multilayered Soils
Solutions Semi-analytiques pour des pieux soumis des charges latrales dans les sols
multicouches
ABSTRACT: Piles subjected to lateral forces and moments at the head are often analyzed in practice with the p-y method. However,
the p-y method is not capable of capturing the complex three-dimensional interaction between the pile and the soil. The continuum
approach is conceptually more appealing but it requires the use of numerical techniques, such as the three-dimensional (3D) finite
element (FE) method. In order to save computational time, researchers have explored the development of closed-form solutions based
on linear elasticity that can be used to obtain lateral pile deflection with depth. In this paper, we present semi-analytical methods
developed to calculate the response of laterally loaded piles with general-shape cross sections embedded in multilayered elastic soil.
The displacement field of the pile-soil system is taken to be the product of independent functions that vary in the vertical and
horizontal directions. The differential equations governing the displacements of the pile-soil system are obtained using the principle of
minimum total potential energy and calculus of variations. The input parameters needed for the analysis are the pile geometry, the soil
profile, and the elastic constants of the soil and pile. The method produces results with accuracy comparable with that of a 3D FE
analysis but requires much less computational time.
RSUM : Les pieux soumis des charges latrales et des moments la tte sont souvent analyss dans la pratique par la mthode p-
y. Toutefois, cette mthode n'est pas capable de prendre en compte les interactions complexes trois dimensionnelles entre le pieu et le
sol. L'approche continue est conceptuellement plus attrayante, mais elle ncessite l'utilisation de techniques numriques, tels que les
des lments finis (EF) en trois dimensions (3D). Afin de gagner du temps de calcul, les chercheurs ont tudi le dveloppement des
solutions analytiques bases sur l'lasticit linaire qui peuvent tre utilis pour valuer les dplacements latrales du pieu avec la
profondeur. Dans cet article, nous prsentons des mthodes semi-analytiques dvelopps pour calculer la rponse des pieux chargs
latralement avec des sections transversales en forme gnrale incorpors dans le sol lastique multicouche. Le champ de dplacement
du systme pieu-sol est considr comme le produit de fonctions indpendantes qui varient dans les directions verticale et horizontale.
Les quations diffrentielles qui rgissent les dplacements du systme pieu-sol sont obtenues en utilisant les principes variationnels
et le principe de l'nergie potentielle totale minimum. Les paramtres d'entre ncessaires pour l'analyse sont la gomtrie du pieu, le
profil du sol, et les constantes lastiques du sol et du pieu. Cette mthode donne des rsultats d'une prcision comparable celle d'une
analyse par lments finis 3D mais ncessite beaucoup moins de temps de calcul.
KEYWORDS: laterally loaded single piles, elastic soil, continuum method, energy principles.
2855
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3 ANALYSIS where w is the lateral pile deflection; mn and mn are the stress
and strain tensors in the soil, respectively (summation is implied
3.1 Soil Displacement Field by repetition of the indices m and n); and s represents the soil
domain surrounding the pile that extends to infinity in the
A separable variable technique is used to define the horizontal horizontal directions and from 0 to + in the z direction, but
displacement fields in the soil, and the soil displacement uz in excludes the volume occupied by the pile. The first integral in
the vertical direction is assumed to be negligible. The horizontal Eq. (2) represents the internal potential energy of the pile, while
displacements for rectangular and circular piles are given by the second integral represents the internal potential energy of
the soil continuum. The remaining two terms represent the
( z )x ( x) y ( y ), u y 0
u x w for rectangular piles external potential energy.
The principle of minimum potential energy ( = 0) is used
r
u w
( z ) r ( r ) cos , u w ( z ) ( r ) sin for circular piles
(1) to obtain the differential equations governing the equilibrium
condition of the pile-soil system:
where w(z) is a displacement function (with a dimension of
d 2 w z d 2 w z
z Lp
1
E p I p dz mn mn d s
length) varying with depth z that describes the pile deflection,
x(x) and y(y) are dimensionless displacement functions z 0 dz 2
dz 2
2 s
varying along the x and y directions of the Cartesian coordinate
system used for the rectangular-cross section pile, and r(r) and dw z
Fa w z z 0 M a 0
(r) are dimensionless displacement functions varying along dz z 0
the r and directions of the cylindrical coordinate system used
for the circular-cross section pile (Figure 1). The dimensionless (3)
displacement functions describe how the displacements in the
soil mass (due to pile deflection) decrease with increase in The strain-displacement relationship for infinitesimal strains
horizontal distance from the pile. These functions are set to and the elastic stress-strain relationship, given by
unity at the pile-soil interface, which ensures perfect pile-soil
contact, and are set to zero at infinite horizontal distance from mn 2Gs mn s kk mn (4)
the pile center, which ensures that the displacements in the soil
due to the laterally loaded piles decrease as the horizontal are used in Eq. (3) to express the first variation of the total pile-
distance from the pile increases. soil potential energy in terms of the soil elastic constants and
the displacement functions described in Eq. (1). Thus Eq. (3)
contains the first variations of the displacement functions w, x
and y for rectangular pile and the first variations of the
displacement functions w, r(r) and (r) for circular pile. Since
these variations are independent, the terms associated with each
of these variations can be individually equated to zero, which
produces the differential equations and boundary conditions of
the displacement functions.
d 4 wi d 2 wi
E p I p 4
ti ki w
i 0 0 z Lp (5)
dz dz 2
2
t d wi
ki wi 0 z Lp
i dz 2
2 2
Gs ,i x y dxdy 4ab 0 z Lp (6)
ti
Gs ,i x y dxdy z Lp
2 2
Figure 1. Laterally loaded pile in a layered elastic medium (Modified
after Basu and Salgado 2008 and Basu et al. 2009)
d y
2
d 2 2
2
(7)
3.2 Potential Energy and its Minimization (s ,i 2Gs ,i ) dxx y Gs ,ix dy dxdy
ki
The total potential energy of the pilesoil system, including
both the internal and external potential energies, is given by: and, for circular piles:
2856
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
0
y
dy 2
y y
d
2
d
2
(s ,i 2Gs ,i ) r r dr Gs ,i r dr
ki where,
rp
dr rp
dr n 1 Hi
(16)
(9) p x (s ,i 2Gs ,i ) wi 2 dz y 2 dy
d d i 1
+2s ,i (r ) r dr 2Gs ,i (r ) dr
H i 1
dr dr n 1 Hi
d 2
q x Gs ,i wi 2 dz y dy
rp rp
(17)
1 i 1 H i 1 dy
+(s ,i 3Gs ,i ) (r )2 dr
r n 1 Hi
dw
2
rp
Gs ,i i dz y 2 dy
H i 1
The boundary conditions for the differential equations are i 1 dz
given below: n 1 Hi
(18)
At z = 0: p y (s ,i 2Gs ,i ) wi 2 dz x 2 dx
d 3 w1 dw1 i 1 H i 1
w1 w0 or E p I p dz 3 t1 dz Fa
(10) n1 Hi
d 2
and q y Gs ,i wi 2 dz x dx
dw i 1 H i 1 dx (19)
1 d 2 w1
or E p I p Ma n1 dw
Hi 2
dz 0
dz 2
Gs ,i i dz x 2 dx
H i1
i 1 dz
At z = Hi < Lp :
wi wi 1 The differential equations for the soil displacement functions
in the case of circular piles are given by:
d 3 wi dwi d 3 wi 1 dw (11) 2
2
E p I p dz 3 ti ti 1 i 1
d r 1 dr 1 2 r 3 d 1
2 2 2
Ep I p
dz dz 3 dz
dr 2
r dr r rp r dr r (20)
dwi dwi 1
dz dz d 2 1 d 2
2
2 d 4
2
6 r
2
d 2 wi 1 2 4 5
E I d wi
Ep I p dr r dr r rp r dr r
p p
dz 2
dz 2
where 12 ms 4 / ms1, ( 2 / rp ) 2 n s / m s1 , 3
2
( m s 2 m s 3 ) / m s1
At z = Lp , for free-base pile base: 4 2 ms 4 / ms
2 , ( 5 / rp ) s / ms 2 , 6
n ( ms 2 m s 3 ) / m s 2
2 2
and
wi wi 1
with
Hi
n 1
d 3 wi dw dw
(12)
m s1 ( s , i 2G s ,i ) wi 2 dz (21)
Ep I p 3
ti i ti 1 i 1 i 1 H i 1
dz dz dz n 1 Hi
d 2 wi ms 2 G s , i wi 2 dz (22)
Ep I p 0 i 1
dz 2 H i 1
n 1 Hi
ms 3 s , i wi 2 dz (23)
At z = Lp , for fixed-base pile base: i 1 H i 1
wi w i 1 0 n 1 Hi
(13)
dwi
ms 4 (s ,i 3Gs ,i ) wi 2 dz (24)
dz 0 i 1 H i 1
n 1 Hi 2
dw
ns Gs ,i i dz (25)
H i1
i 1 dz
As z,
As mentioned earlier, these displacement functions are equal
to unity at the pile-soil interface and they are equal to zero at the
boundaries of the domain at infinity.
wi 0 (14)
The above differential equations of the soil displacement
functions for rectangular piles can be solved analytically as
The above differential equations are solved analytically after shown in Basu and Salgado (2008), while the coupled
applying the boundary conditions to obtain the response of differential equations that govern the soil displacement
piles. The details of the solution can be found in Basu and surrounding the circular piles can be solved numerically using
Salgado (2008) and Basu et al. (2009). the finite difference method as shown in Basu et al. (2009).
As evident from Eqs. 5, 15, and 20, the responses of the pile
and soil to the lateral loading are interrelated. Therefore, these
differential equations are solved simultaneously following an
2857
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
iterative algorithm until they converge to a unique solution for a response under lateral loading even if the shapes of their cross
given soil profile, pile geometry and applied loading. sections are different. So, in summary, rectangular piles can be
analyzed for lateral loads by replacing them with circular piles
having the same second moment of inertia. However, this would
4 RESULTS work well for linear elastic soil in which knowledge of the
appropriate soil constants is presumed, but would not be
To illustrate the use of the analysis, a 15-m long drilled shaft justified for an analysis that takes full account of soil non-
with a diameter of 0.6 m and pile modulus Ep = 24 GPa, linearity in which knowledge of the operative values of the soil
embedded in a four-layer soil deposit with H1 = 2.0 m, H2 = 5.0 constants is not available a priori and must be obtained from
m, and H3 = 8.3 m; Es1 = 20 MPa, Es2 = 35 MPa, Es3 = 50 MPa the calculations themselves.
and Es4 = 80 MPa; s1 = 0.35, s2 = 0.25, s3 = 0.2 and s4 = 0.15
is considered (Esi and si are the soil Youngs modulus and
Poissons ratio for the ith layer). A horizontal force Fa = 300 kN 5 CONCLUSIONS
acts on the pile. The pile head and base are free to deflect and
rotate. Figure 2 shows the pile deflection profile obtained using Analytical solutions for laterally loaded piles with rectangular
the present analysis and an analysis performed using the 3D FE and circular cross sections embedded in multilayered elastic
method. media are obtained. The solutions produce the pile deflection,
Figure 2. Deflection of a circular cross-section pile of 15 m length slope of the deflected curve, bending moment and shear force as
functions of depth if the following are known: the pile cross-
sectional dimensions and length, thicknesses of the soil layers,
Youngs modulus of the pile material, the Youngs modulus and
Poissons ratio (or any pair of elastic constants) of the soils in
the various layers, and the magnitudes of the applied force and
moment. The governing differential equations for the pile
deflections are obtained using the principle of minimum
potential energy. The solution to all the governing differential
equations is obtained iteratively and depends on the rate at
which the displacements in the soil medium decreases with
increasing distance from the pile. The shape of the pile cross
section has a bearing on the pile response; however, it was
shown that the piles with the same second moment of inertia
produced the same response in elastic medium. The analysis
presented in the paper can be used to make realistic predictions
of the response of laterally loaded rectangular and circular piles.
6 REFERENCES
Anderson, J. B., Townsend, F. C. & Grajales, B. (2003). Case history
As shown in Figure 2, the results match those of the FE evaluation of laterally loaded piles. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Engng,
analysis closely. The difference in the head deflection obtained ASCE, 129( 3), 187196.
from the present analysis and FE analysis is 6.6%. Ashour M, Norris G. (2000). Modeling lateral soilpile response based
Analyses were also performed on a square pile of 0.53m on soilpile interaction. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Engng, ASCE,
0.53m (which has the same flexural rigidity as that of the 126(5):420428.
circular pile described above) embedded in the same soil profile Basu D, Salgado R., Prezzi, M. (2009). A continuum-based model for
analysis of laterally loaded piles in layered soils, Geotechnique
as of Figure 2. Figure 3 compares the response of the square
59(2), 127140.
cross-section pile and the circular cross-section pile. Basu D, Salgado R. (2008). Analysis of laterally loaded piles with
rectangular cross sections embedded in layered soil, Int. J. Numer.
Anal. Meth. Geomech. 32:721744.
Banerjee, P. K. & Davies, T. G. (1978). The behaviour of axially and
laterally loaded single piles embedded in nonhomogeneous soils.
Geotechnique 28(3), 309326.
Cox WR, Reese LC, Grubbs BR. (1974). Field testing of laterally
loaded piles in sand. Proceedings of the 6th Offshore Technology
Conference, vol. 2, Houston, TX; 459472.
Kim, B. T., Kim, N.-K., Lee, W. J. & Kim, Y. S. (2004). Experimental
load-transfer curves of laterally loaded piles in Nak-Dong river
sand. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Engng, ASCE, 130(4), 416425.
Poulos, H. G. (1971a). Behavior of laterally loaded piles: I single
piles. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. ASCE 97, No. SM5, 711731.
Poulos, H. G. (1971b). Behavior of laterally loaded piles: III socketed
piles. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. ASCE 98, No. SM4, 341360.
Randolph, M. F. (1981). The response of flexible piles to lateral
loading. Geotechnique, 31(2), 247259.
Reese LC, Cox WR. (1969). Soil behavior from analysis of tests of
uninstrumented piles under lateral loading. Performance of Deep
Foundations; 444:160176.
2858
Skyscrapers of Moskva-City Business Center - Tests of Bored Piles
Gratte-ciel du centre daffaires Moskva-City Essais de pieux fors
ABSTRACT: The Moscow International Business Center (MIBC) Moskva-CITY is a complex of 19 sky-scraper buildings. The
buildings are supported by 20-30 m long 1.2-1.5 m dia piles, spaced at 3-5 m. Behavior of a pile within such a group differs from that
of a standalone single pile. Therefore, analysis of such a footing requires prior determination of pile side and tip resistance. The paper
describes a known test technique, based on application of a jacking system, and specially developed for Moskva-CITY system, with
the test load applied downward with the help of a measuring system and jacks that act separately on the pile tip and on its side surface.
The obtained test data was used for the project design analysis to verify the applied analytical model and the respective soil parameters.
RSUM : Le Centre dAffaires International de Moscou Moskva-CITY est un complexe de 19 gratte-ciels. Les btiments sont fon-
ds sur des pieux de 20 30m de long, de 1,2 1,5 m de diamtre, espacs de 3 5 m. Le comportement dun pieu dans un groupe est
diffrent du comportement du pieu seul. Lanalyse de telles fondations demande dabord la dtermination du frottement latral et de la
rsistance de pointe. La communication dcrit un essai technique, bas sur lapplication dun systme de vrins, labor spcialement
pour le projet Moskva-CITY, avec la charge applique vers le bas grce un systme de mesure et des vrins qui agissent spar-
ment sur la pointe du pieu et sur sa surface latrale. Les rsultats obtenus ont t utiliss pour lanalyse de la conception du projet, afin
de vrifier la modle analytique et les paramtres du sol adopts.
2859
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The pile tip resistance for equal displacements was one or-
der of magnitude less than that of the side resistance and several
orders of magnitudes less than the analytical value. This fact
shows presence of mud on the borehole bottom, which could not
be removed during drilling operations.
Soil resistance below pile tip at other sites demonstrated its
strong dependence on the quality of the bottom face and on the
quality of special operations (soil grouting), e.g. on site 4 grout-
1 loading, 2 - unloading
ing was done to 5 m below the pile tip.
This shows the necessity for extra operations to clean and to Figure. 8. Pile tip test diagram
compact the bottom, e.g. by grouting the soil under pile tip, by
compacting the bottom, e.g. by ramming broken stone or stiff
concrete into the bottom, etc. (Petrukhin et al, 2011).
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Figure 10. Data from pile tests by Osterberg method, compared with
numerical simulation data.
1 loading, 2 - unloading
3 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF PILE TEST RESULTS Pile side and tip resistance rather than a single pile bearing
As was mentioned above, analysis of pile footings of MIBC capacity are important for designing MIBC Moskva-CITY
Moskva-CITY sky-scrapes mainly consists in determination of footings.
pile side and tip resistances (maximum values and their depend- Side and tip resistance can be determined by tests of pile
ence on displacements). Analysis of such piles can be done nu- fragments, separate side and tip tests by means of a specially
merically with the help of 3D software. developed method, described in the paper, or by means of pile
The analytical soil model, developed for such analysis, shall tests with gauges, installed in the pile body, to measure distribu-
be verified by solutions of test problems. The test problems in tion of forces along pile length.
this case are single pile tests. In the process of test solutions It is recommended to verify pile footing interaction with soil
design parameters are specified (side resistance as well as soil and to verify the analytical model, using single piles test data.
strength and deformation parameters). It is recommended to verify the values of design mechanical
Figure 10 gives analytical and test data of pile tests, obtained soil properties, obtained from geotechnical survey, by back
by submersible jacks at site 11.The numerical simulation was analysis, using single pile tests.
done with the help of PLAXIS 2D 8.2 software. The analytical It is admissible to adopt cast pile side surface resistance
model was the ideal elasto-plastic model with Mohr-Coulomb equal to 1,8P (180t/m2) for Suvorovsky and Podolsk-
strength criterion. Myachikovsky medium-strength and strong limestones.
The following assumptions and prerequisites were adopted In order to activate cast pile tips it is necessary to apply spe-
for the analysis: cial measures to clean and to compact borehole bottom face, e.g.
- the input values of physico-mechanical parameters of to grout pile tip soil interface, to compact the bottom face by
geotechnical elements were adopted as for the 2nd limit state filling rubble or by stiff concrete ramming, etc.
analysis;
- static loads alone were adopted for the analysis. 5 REFERENCES
Shock, dynamic, vibration and other technological loads and
Osterberg J. O. New Device for Load Testing Driven Piles and Drilled
actions due to construction operations were not taken into con- Shafts Separates Friction and End Bearing/ Proceeding: Internatio-
sideration; nal Conf. on Pilling and Deep Foundation, London, A.A. Balkena,
- pile material was considered elastic. 1989
In order to harmonize the results of tests and analyses there State Standard 5686-94 Methods of field pile tests
were used improved parameters of surrounding soil. 3 inter- Petrukhin V.P., Shulyatjev O.A., Kolybin I.V., Mozgacheva O.A., Bez-
linked parameters: E, and were selected. There were done volev S.G., Kisin B.F. Construction of MIBC Moskva-CITY/
several analyses, in which soil parameters were chosen as ap- Russian Architectural and Building Construction Encyclopedia,
proximation of experimental data by analytical data, which were v.XII. Underground Construction, 2008.
Kharichkin A., Syuljatjev O., Besvolev Stepan. Soil-Pile Interaction in
upper and lower jacks plates displacements and variation of Pile Foundation and Pile Reactions Monitoring/ International Con-
forces and deformations in the pile at different levels along the ference on Deep Foundations CPRF and Energy Piles. Frankfurt
pile length. am Main, 2009.
Final results are presented on Figure 10. Their comparison Analysis of a High-Rise Tower on Site 2-3 of MIBC Moskva-CITY.
with experimental data showed their sufficient proximity: the High-RiseBuildings. 1/11, 2011.
scatter does not exceed 10%. The analyses showed that with Zaretsky Yu.K., Karabajev M.I. Analysis of Test Piles-Ground Interac-
practically identical soil strength parameters the soil stiffness tion and Comparison with Test Data. Messenger of Moscow State
Construction University, 1, 2006.
modulus values, obtained from the analyses is times greater than
Duzceer R, Gokalp A., Adatepe S. Load Testing and Bearing Capacity
the one, obtained from geotechnical investigations, that was of Bored Piles in Limstone/ Proceeding of the 17 International Con-
further accounted for in soil analysis. ference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. Alexan-
dria, Egypt, 2009.
Petrukhin V.P., Shulyatjev O.A, Bokov I.A. Review of Pile Tip Pre-
stressing and Grouting Possibility and Applicability/Coll.Works
100 NIIOSP of Gersevanov, 2011.
2862
Cavity remediation for pylon foundation of the Transrhumel Viaduct in Constantine
Rsolution des problmes de cavit sous les fondations du Viaduc Trans-Rhumel de Constantine
ABSTRACT: The geology of Constantine, Algeria is highly influenced by previous seismic activities and the erosional feature by the
river Rhumel. The Transrhumel Viaduct is a new river crossing featuring a 749 m long cable stayed bridge with a main span of 259 m
and 80 m clearance. The soil/rock deposits are dominated by Marls of different strength underlain by Marlstone and very competent
Limestone. However, exploratory boreholes for the foundation piles of Pylon P4 indicated the presence of possible cavities of up to 1
m high within the Limestone at the base of the upper weathered zone. To save 15 m of time consuming drilling of the 14 2 m foun-
dation piles into competent Limestone it was decided to end the foundation piles above the possible cavity feature in the Marlstone.
The paper describes the innovative remedial measures carried out to safeguard the capacity of the individual foundation piles and en-
sure acceptable individual and overall displacements. The cavity feature was pressure grouted and transfer of axial load across the
cavity into Limestone was facilitated by insertion of grouted steel reinforcement assemblies. The success of the remedial measures
was proven by carrying out an O-cell load test on the pile positioned over the maximum recorded depth of the cavity.
RSUM : Les conditions gologiques de la ville de Constantine en Algrie sont pour une grande part le rsultat dvnements sis-
miques passs et de lrosion de loued Rhumel. Le viaduc Trans-Rhumel est un nouvel ouvrage qui traverse le court deau compre-
nant un pont hauban de 749 m avec une trave principale de 259 m place une hauteur de 80 m. Les sols de fondation sont majori-
tairement composs de marne de comptence variable supporte par des roches marno-calcaire et roches calcaires trs comptentes.
Les sondages par forages effectus au droit du pylne P4 ont cependant rvl la prsence de cavits dune hauteur jusqu 1 m dans
le calcaire la base de la zone rode suprieure. Afin dconomiser 15 m de forage onreux pour les 14 pieux de 2 m de diamtre
dans la roche calcaire, il a t dcid de stopper les pieux de fondation au-dessus de la zone de prsence probable des cavits des ro-
ches marneuses. Cet article dcrit les mesure innovantes mises en place pour assurer la capacit portante de chaque pieu de fondation
et garantir des dplacements globaux et individuels acceptables. Un coulis de ciment a t inject dans la cavit et le transfert des ef-
forts axiaux au travers de la cavit fut assur par linsertion dassemblages darmatures places dans le ciment. Le succs de cette m-
thode a t dmontr en excutant des essais de charges O-cell sur le pieu fich la hauteur maximale de la cavit.
KEYWORDS: natural hazards, cavity, bored piles, pile load test, pressure grouting, Marls, Limestone.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The borehole B4/03 at the location of Pile P4/3 indicates a 178 mm pre-drilling holes to the pile toe level within the foot
soil profile as summarized in Table 1. print of each pile.
Moreover, the exploratory boreholes indicated the presence
of cavities within the Limestone, at the base of the upper weath-
ered zone and with heights up to 1 m.
The indicators were severe water loss and/or a sudden drop
of the drill string.
Based on the observations the extent of the cavity feature
was hypothesized as shown in Figure 3.
2864
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Excessgrouttakeinmicropiles (m3)
95% upperlimit
40
30
The holes for pressure grouting (40 m deep) were drilled "de- 0
structively" from the ground surface using a 141 mm drill in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
the Marl (with casing) and a 105 to 115 mm drill to the full PileNumber
depth (without casing). The grout take was carefully measured
Figure 6. Excess grout take in "micropile" holes; (a) as function of se-
using the same type of grout as before, but now with a settling quence (2-6 weeks from grouting of fist to last pile); (b) accumulated
<5% after 2 hours. The uncased part passing through the cavity values per pile location
feature was pressure grouted using packers with 12 bar pressure.
The cased part was gravity grouted as the casing was with- 16
drawn.
14
Excessgrouttake(m3)
12
4 MONITORING OF REMEDIATION MEASURES
10
Based on the surface texture of the holes drilled for the piles
8
(very uneven surface) the actual consumption would be ex- average
pected to be higher than the theoretical consumption based on 6
the bore and grout hole diameters. The consumption of concrete 4
when casting the 2000 mm piles was:
Piles P4/5 to P4/8 (46 to 50 m length): 113% 3.7% 2
Remaining 10 piles (22 to 28 m length): 108% 1.8% 0
i.e. roughly 10% excess consumption.
P9bis
P1
P2
P6
P7
P8
P9
P4
P5
P3
P11
P16
P19
P18
P12
P13
P17
P10
P20
P15
P14
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
16 The principle of the test is shown in Figure 10. In this case two
870 mm O-cells were placed 1 m above the intended toe level
14 of the pile.
Excessgrouttake(m3)
12
10
8
average
6
0
SD
ST
SZ
SE
SM
SA
SS
SV
SF
SJ
SR
SL
SX
SB
SO
SK
SQ
SP
SN
SC
SU
SI
SW
SG
SY
SH
Secondarygrouthole
Figure 8. Excess grout take versus sequence for secondary grout holes
The excessive grout takes over the average value are by and Figure 10. O-cell load test for a bored pile. (a) schematic set-up; (b)
large concentrated in areas where a cavity feature had already load distribution in O-cell test; (c) load distribution in top down loading
been indicated by the "micropile" grouting. Furthermore, it is
clear that the grout take during primary grouting (1.9 m3 3.8 The 1 m pile length below the O-cells safeguards against tilting
m3) compared to the secondary grouting (1.1 m3 2.6 m3) is an of the cells, due to uneven strength/stiffness distribution at the
indirect confirmation of the success of the grouting scheme. toe of the pile. The pile length above the O-cell is 26.1 m.
Excluding the seven values exceeding the average value the Note that when loading top down (the design load situation)
excess grout take is 0.6 m3 0.5 m3 for primary and 0.4 m3 it takes the double axial load to mobilise the same shaft and toe
0.3 m3 for secondary grout holes compared to the minimum bearing as with the O-cell test and hence a greater elastic pile
theoretical grout take of 0.5 m3. compression will occur.
The tentative evaluation in terms of cavity feature extent, based For the test the pile was fitted with strain gauges, at six lev-
on the combined result in terms of excess grout take, is shown els in the Marlstone, and tell-tales at four levels including the
in Figure 9. The Figure lends credibility to the conclusion that toe in order to be able to get a detailed understanding of the
the horizontal extent of the cavity feature was relatively modest stress distribution along the shaft. Unfortunately, these meas-
and close to the hypothetical extent envisaged (Figure 3). urements were inconsistent and deemed unreliable except for
tell-tales 1 (level +560.5), 2 (level +565.3) and 3 (level +571.0).
These measurements were combined with reliable values of the
upwards and downwards displacement of the O-cell and the bi-
directional O-cell load with a maximum load of 40.1 MN in
each direction.
The capacity of the O-cell was higher, but in order to safe-
guard against any detrimental effect from the testing on the
working pile the Owner decided to limit the load on the pile to
1.5 SLS.
The load test included three step-wise loading unloading cy-
cles:
(i) to a level corresponding to the maximum SLS load in the
pile group i.e. 26.5 MN
(ii) to 1.5 SLS ~ 40.1 MN (which exceeds the highest ultimate
state load for earth quake of ULS-EQ = 32.4 MN for Pile
P4/3) and
(iii) to SLS = 26.5 MN.
Creep was observed for up to 120 minutes for the designated
loading steps and during shorter periods (typically 10 minutes)
for the unloading steps.
The downward displacement of the bottom plate of the O-
cells as a function of the gross downward O-cell load is shown
in Figure 11.
A load of some 3 to 4 MN is required before displacements
are initiated. This corresponds reasonably well to the tension
capacity of the concrete section less the O-cell area (1.95 m2)
assuming t ~ 0.06 c = 0.06 35.5 = 2.1 MPa and thus a
breaking load of 1.95 2.1 = 4.1 MN.
Figure 9. Tentative evaluation of the extent (shading) of the cavity fea-
This is slightly higher than the load required for breaking the
ture below Pylon P4. tack welds initially holding the O-cells closed (reported as 2.94
MN).
From Figure 11 it is apparent that the load-displacement
5 VERIFICATION BY PILE LOAD TESTING curve is almost linear until the maximum load of 40.1 MN ap-
plied.
To verify the capacity of the piles with pile toe in Marlstone the The creep rate increases with load level with a maximum of
most onerous pile in relation to the cavity, P4/3, was tested by 2.0 mm/log cycle of time for the maximum load.
means of an O-cell load test carried out by Fugro LOADTEST.
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
GrossOcellload[MN] 1.8
1.6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0 1.4
Displacement[mm]
InitialOcelldownward 1.2
5
EndofcreepOcelldown 1
Displacement[mm]
0.8
10
0.6
15 0.4
Marlstoneshortening initial
0.2
Marlstoneshortening endcreep
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
25 GrossOcellload[MN]
Figure 13. Shortening of the pile ("rock socket") in Marlstone between
30 tell tales 1 and 2 versus applied O-cell gross load.
Figure 11. Displacement of lower O-cell plate versus applied downward
gross O-cell load The recorded working curves for the upper pile shaft and the
lower pile segment may be fitted by "linear fractional" (hyper-
2.5
bolic) functions, i.e. y = (ax + b)/(cx + d). This facilitates ex-
trapolation of the working curves and production of synthesized
2 top load settlements curves.
The methodology by Fleming (1992) was used to produce
] the predicted top load settlement curve shown in Figure 14.
m 1.5
[m
t
n Pileheadload [MN]
e
m
e
ca 1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
l
sp
i 0
D
0.5 InitialOcellupward 10
Predictedpiletopsettlement[mm]
EndofcreepOcellup 20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 30
GrossOcellload[MN] 40
Figure 12. Displacement of upper O-cell plate versus applied upward
gross O-cell load 50
Elasticshortening
60 Totalsettlement
Considering, that the major part of the load below the O-cells is Predictedfrommeasuredvalues
taken by toe bearing the creep rate is acceptably low. The corre- 70
sponding creep rates for the top plate of the O-cells are an order
of magnitude smaller and hence insignificant. 80
The load-displacement curve for the upward O-cell dis-
placement is shown in Figure 12. The upwards displacements Figure 14. Predicted top load settlement curve for Pile P4/3
are significantly less than the downward displacements (Figure
11) and they are only initiated at an O-cell load of 7 MN after It is apparent from Figure 14 that a top loading of 26.5 MN
which the load-displacement curve is essentially linear. It is ap- (corresponding to the maximum SLS load in the P4 Pylon pile
parent that shaft stresses are locked into the system at unloading group) will cause a pile head settlement in the order of 6 mm.
resulting in a non-recoverable displacement of approximately 1 Twice the load, 53 MN (twice the SLS load and larger than the
mm after unloading from the gross O-cell load of 40.1 MN (net maximum ULS load of 45.5 MN in the pile group) will result in
load 38.8 MN after subtraction of pile weight). only 13 mm settlement.
From the readings of tell tales 2 and 3 it is apparent that the Thus, even for the ultimate limit state (ULS-EQ) loading of
displacements decrease very significantly with the distance the actual pile of 29.6 MN the predicted settlements are only
from the O-cells and that initiation of displacements requires slightly larger than the elastic part of the working curve.
significantly greater O-cell loads than needed to initiate down-
ward displacement.
Tell tales 2 are at the transition from Marlstone to Marl 2 and 6 EVALUATION OF ROCK SOCKET CAPACITY
hence the difference between tell tales 1 (top of O-cells) and 2
indicate the "rock socket" shortening in the Marlstone as shown The maximum toe and shaft design loads for pile P4/3 are 4.5 to
in Figure 13. 4.9 MN and 21.0 to 26.5 MN, respectively. The range reflects
This deformation corresponds to the accumulated displace- upper and lower bound soil stratification and soil spring as-
ment between pile and rock for developing the shaft resistance. sumptions. As seen from Figure 11 and Figure 12 the load test
As seen from the Figure the displacement is very small and al- indicates much higher values even within near elastic load-
most mirrors the upward displacement of the O-cell upper plate displacement behaviour.
(Figure 11). It means that the displacement between pile and For the toe bearing of the rock socket the mobilisation of the
rock at the top of the Marlstone is only 0.6 mm and thus the pile resistance may be assumed to vary roughly proportional to the
capacity is very significantly higher. square root of the mobilised displacement, where ult,t (toe bear-
ing) ~ 0.1D = 200 mm:
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2868
Integrating Nonlinear Pile Behavior with Standard Structural Engineering Software
Analyse non linaire de fondations par pieux laide dun code industriel
ABSTRACT: It is common in the practice of bridge design to analyze the superstructure, substructure, and foundation components
separately. Applying this kind of modeling, soil-structure interaction effects can only be approximated with moderate accuracy. The
foundation stiffness can greatly influence the internal forces, stresses, and displacements of superstructure. This is especially true for
portal frame and integral bridges. Better modeling of soil-structure interaction can use three-dimensional geotechnical FEM programs,
where the true soil-stucture environment can be analyzed. It is possible to use nonlinear constitutive models; capable of modeling soil
behavior accurately, however it is difficult, time consuming, and costly in day-to-day practice.
RSUM : Dans la pratique, le dimensionnement des structures et des fondations se fait dans des notes de calcul spares. En
consquence les interactions sols-structures ne sont dcrites quapproximativement. Par exemple, la rigidit de la fondation peut
affecte la rpartition des charges et les dplacements de la structure. Cela est dautant plus vraie dans le cas de fondations par pieux
rparties sur une ou deux ranges. Le recourt des codes de calcul tridimentionnel permet une approche plus raliste des interactions
sols-structures et la prise en compte de lois de comportement non linaire pour le sol. La presente tude vise comparer les rigidits
des fondations par pieux rparties sur une ou deux ranges laide dun code de calcul industriel.
Geotechnical and structural engineering software has evolved to This paper examines several simple examples of single piles
where most common design tasks are performed on the and pile groups that support a bridge abutment. The structural
computer. However, the levels of sophistication of these concept of the foundation is rather simple: vertical loading due
software packages are somewhat divergent. Geotechnical to structural loads, traffic, and other factors is generally small.
engineers prefer to consider soils as nonlinear materials with Lateral loading due to wind, braking forces, temperature, and
properties that vary throughout a site. These properties may also seismic contributions may control design. However, the
vary over time and loading conditions, yielding a highly geotechnical loading requirements can be quite demanding:
complex set of behaviors. While this is an encouraging trend, approach embankments add lateral stresses to the piles; soft
structural engineers are often required to take a step back from layers may exist in widely different thicknesses; and effects of
such a sophisticated and time-consuming approach. The need consolidation may need to be considered (Szp et al 2009).
for a timely and straightforward design that meets all aspects of Additionally, the determining design quantity may be
building code requirements as well as budget and time limiting lateral displacements. At the foundation, this will mean
constraints often forces structural designers to simplify both lateral translation and rotation are important. Such
geotechnical solutions. This is often reflected in structural deformations play an important role in the determination of
design software that use beam elements and elasto-plastic spring global stiffness, hence deformations and moment/stress
elements to represent soil support behavior. This paper distribution throughout the structure. This is especially true for
examines the methods to achieve these simplifications without types of bridges (portal bridges, integrated bridges) where the
creating an overly conservative or incorrect design. connection between the foundation and the superstructure is
Representing the full spectrum of three-dimensional soils- moment-resistant (Hetnyi 1964). In this paper we limit our
foundation-structure interaction is a laudable goal, but rarely investigation to determining how the stiffness of single row and
achievable within the present design environment, hardware, double row pile foundations compare. In other words, what is
and software. As a reasonable approximation, one may model the meaning of the common design approach, expressed in
the foundation system via sophisticated geotechnical software numbers, that the double row pile foundation is much more
(Plaxis, Midas, Flac) and produce a family of foundation rigid than the single row one.
response curves which can then be approximated in the To accomplish this task we used several methods; all
structural design model with simpler elements and material commonly used by structural and geotechnical designers.
behaviors (Strom and Ebeling 2001). However we try to specifically address the problem of moving
across the structural-geotechnical divide in the
analysis/design process. We combine the results of structural
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
analysis and geotechnical modeling software of varying levels 3 2-D ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
of sophistication, especially when it comes to the treatment of
piles and pile groups. The first level of analysis was a 2-D simplification of the actual
geometry. This is a common design and analysis simplification
2.1 Pile and Pile Cap Arrangements that allows the engineer to evaluate the effects of 1-row or 2-
row pile group as well as estimating the deflections, rotations,
Figure 1 shows the basic pile configurations studied here. A and bending moments generated within the model. Due to the
series of progressively more complex pile foundations were relative ease of analysis, many design alternatives can be
examined: one, two, three, and five piles in a single row, then considered on a trial basis, and decisions made to further refine
two, four, six and ten piles in a double row. Pile lengths and the design alternative or discard it. The two candidates for
center-to-center spacing were identical. analysis are shown above (Figure 2) with element meshes
generated by Plaxis. Material properties used in the analyses are
presented in Table 1. Pile dimensions are identical to those
2.0 2.8
12.0 =0.8
1.4
Figure 1. Model dimensions for pile study. Figure 2. Two dimensional model for 1-row and 2-row pile groups.
2870
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
5 COMBINING ANALYSES
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2872
Experimental Study on the Method of Rebound and Recompression Deformation
Calculation in Deep and Large Foundation Design
Etude exprimentale sur la mthode de calcul des dformations de rsilience et de recompression
pour les fondations larges et profondes
RSUM : Par une analyse de donnes dessai de compression sur sol intact, de test de portance, dexprimentation grande chelle,
et de mesure faites in situ, il est possible de proposer une mthode de calcul des dformations de rsilience et de recompression pour
fondation profonde et large sur la base de lhistoire des contraintes (conditions de chargement et dchargement lors de lexcution des
travaux). Les rsultats importants de cette tude se synthtisent comme suit: 1. lvolution de la rsilience et de la recompression du
sol de fondation se caractrisent par trois phases et la profondeur de rsilience calcule peut tre utilise pour dterminer celle de
profondeur critique; 2. La dformation de recompression du sol de fondation est calcule en deux phases; en fait au cours de la
ralisation des travaux les grandes dformations se produisent durant la phase o la charge excde la recharge critique; 3. La valeur de
la dformation globale de recompression est suprieure celle de dformation de rsilience; 4. Dans un cas rel de ralisation des
travaux, le calcu de dformation de recompression de sol de fondation se fait suivant les paramtres recueillis de lpreuve dite
compression-rebond-recompression avec un chantillon du sol original prlev in situ par sondage une profondeur convenable, ou
de lessai sapplique in situ soit chargement-dchargement-rechargement sur le bloc de charge du sol de fondation, avec ces
paramtres de rsilience et de recompression, on peut procder au calcul de dformation dans ltat rel des chargements de travaux.
Laffirmation des rsultats de lessai de modle et de lpreuve in situ, les paramtres obtenus par calcul de dformation de rsilience
et de recompression correspondent bien ceux recueillis par les essais in situ; dans ce cas-l, on peut dire que la prcision de
prdiction de dformation est acceptable.
KEYWORDS: deformation control design, rebound-recompression deformation, critical depth, critical reloading ratio.
1 INTRODUCTION with measured datum, and the accuracy of predicted
deformation is improved.
In the past decades, with the developing of engineering
technique, building foundation engineering in china shows
some new features such as bulky, deeply buried, large load 2 THE LAW OF REBOUND AND RECOMPRESSION
differences, multiple-storey buildings or high-rise buildings DEFORMATION
built on the basis of the same large area raft foundation. For this
kind of buildings, the deformation-controled foundation design 2.1 The Law of Rebound Deformation
is very important, and some deformation index should be pay
more attention to prevent structure from cracking or damaging,
such as overall deflection of main buildings, differential
settlement between the main and podium buildings, etc. In the
process of construction and normal service of this kind of
buildings, the foundation soil deformation unually includes
rebound deformation of foundation soil caused by the
excavation of deep foundation pit, recompression deformation
and consolidation deformation caused by addtional stress. The
deeper the foundation buried, the proportion of recompression
deformation to total settlement is larger. So the calculation of Figure 1. The typical e-p curves of soil.
foundation deformation is more complicated. There are some
mature methods to calculate consolidation deformation caused The typical e-p curves of soil by the consolidation-rebound-
by addtional stress, but the reasearch and calculating mathod to recompression test are shown as figure 1. The basic law of
rebound-recompression deformation are seldom reported. In this rebound deformation under unloading condition and
paper, the calculating methods of rebound and recompression recompression deformation under reloading condition, usually
deformation are proposed by analyzing the data from the can be described by some parameters such as unloading ratio R,
consolidation-rebound-recompression test of in-situ soil, modulus of resilience Ec, rebound ratio, critical unloading ratio
bearing test, model experiment and field measurement test. Rcr, limit unloading ratio Ru, and some new parameters[1, 2] such
According to model experiment and in-situ tests, the calculated as rebound proportion, reloading ratio R, recompression ratio r
rebound and recompression deformation has a well agreement are proposed, and some relation curves can be used to analyze
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
rebound deformation and recompression deformation, such as recompression is roughly euqal to the rebound deformation; v)
the relation curves of unloading ratio-rebound proportion, the for this kind of soil, as the reloading pressure is equal to the
relation curves of unloading ratio- modulus of resilience, the unloading pressure, the recompression deformation is 1.2 times
relation curves of reloading ratio-recompression ratio etc. to the rebound deformation. A large amount of testing data
(1) The relation curves of unloading ratio-rebound proportion show that, the recompression deformation is not equal to the
In the process of unloading, figure 2 shows that: i) as the rebound deformation in value as the reloading ratio is equal to
unloading ratio is less than 0.4, the rebound deformation is less 1.0. Generally the recompression deformation is larger, and the
increase proportion of deformation varies with different kind of
than 10% of the total rebound deformation; ii) as the unloading
soil[4].
ratio increases to 0.8, the rebound deformation is about 40% of
the total one; iii) as the unloading ratio increases from 0.8 to 1.0,
the rebound deformation is about of 60% of the total one. So
unloading ratio is the key influencing factor of rebound
deformation.
Figure 2. The relation curves of unloading ratio-rebound 2.3 Verification by Model experiment
proportion of clay soil sample
In order to verify the law of rebound and recompression, the
(2) The relation curves of unloading ratio-modulus of resilience model experiment was carried out in the laboratory of Institute
The modulus of resilience is not a constant, see Figure 3. It of Foundation Engineering, China Academy of Building
varies with the unloading ratio and exhibits three-phase Research. In the model experiment, soil deformation was
characteristics. For the soil of the same depth, the modulus of monitored during excavating and backfilling. The dimension of
resilience is varied according to the excavation depth. The the test pit is 13.0m5.3m, the excavation depth is 3.5m, and
relation curves of R-Ec can be divided into two line segments, the backfilling depth is about 3.5m. Rigid measure points were
see figure 3(a), and the unloading ratio of intersection of the two installed into the soil in different depth to measure the
line segments can be defined as critical unloading ratio Rcr. deformation during the model experiment[1, 5, 6].
When R<Rcr, Ec increases sharply and rebound deformation
could be negligible. The relation curves of R- lgEc also can be
divided into two line segments approximately, see figure 3(b),
and the intersection point of the two line segments can be
defined as limit unloading ratio Ru. When R>Ru, Ec decreases
sharply and the most rebound deformation occurs.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. The relation curves of R-Ec and R-lgEc of clay soil sample
2.2 The Law of Recompression Deformation Figure 6. The curves of reloading ratio-recompression ratio of soil at the
bottom of excavation
[3]
(1) The relation curves of reloading ratio-recompression ratio
In the process of recompression, the curves of reloading ratio- The curves of unloading ratio-rebound proportion of soil at the
recompression ratio of clay soil, see figure 4, shows that: i) as bottom of excavation, see figure 5, reflect the similar law of
the reloading ratio R is 0.2, the recompression deformation is rebound deformation with curves of soil tests, but the curves are
about 40% ~60% of rebound deformation; ii) as the reloading relatively flat, compared with the curves of soil tests.
ratio increases to 0.4, the recompression deformation is about In the process of backfilling, the curves of reloading ratio-
70% of rebound deformation; iii) as the reloading ratio recompression ratio of soil show as figure 6. The recompression
increases to 0.6, the recompression deformation is about 90% of deformation of soil can be divided into two line segments, and
rebound deformation; iv) as the reloading ratio reaches 0.8, the the reloading ratio of the intersection point of the two line
2874
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
segments is about 0.2, similar as the law of soil tests. As the rR1.0 - The value of recompression ratio, when R 1.0 . it is
reloading ratio is still low, the recompression deformation is equal with the increase proportion of recompression
obvious. As the reloading ratio of soil at the bottom of deformation.
excavation increases to 0.8, the recompression deformation is
roughly equal to the rebound deformation.
4 ENGINEERING APPLICATION
3 THE CALCULATION METHOD OF REBOUND AND In Beijing there is a 20-storeyed building with 4-storeyed
RECOMPRESSION DEFORMATION basement. The foundation area is about 6000 m2, and the
excavation depth is 19.1m. In the process of the buildings
3.1The Calculation Method of Rebound Deformation construction, research on rebound and recompression
The systematic analyzing method of rebound deformation is as deformation was carried out by Institute of Foundation
follow[1]: Engineering China Academy of Building Research. Rebound
i) get no less than 6 samples for each solum by investigation, deformation was monitored during the excavation, and
and then obtain the basic data of soil by consolidation-rebound- settlement was also observed in the process of construction.
recompression test;
ii) analyz the data by graphing curves of unloading ratio- 4.1 Calculation of Rebound Deformation
rebound proportion and curves of unloading ratio- modulus of According to the data of soil tests, the expression of R-Ec and R-
resilience, determine the value of Rcr; lgEc, and the value of Rcr, Ru of soil can be determined. For
iii) determine the calculation depth of rebound deformation example, for sample 1-3: Rcr=0.33, Ru=0.92, and the expression
according to Rcr, divide the calculation depth to several layers, of R-Ec is listed in table.1.
and calculate both unloading ratio R and modulus of resilience Table 1 The expression of R-Ec of sample 1-3
Ec of every layer; Condition of R expression
iv) calculate rebound deformation of every layer and add them 0 R 0.33 Ec 257533.3 386300 R
together to get the total rebound deformation.
0.33 R 0.92 Ec 181009.2 165111.8 R
The rebound deformation can be calculated as formula 1:
n
pc 0.92 R 1.0 Ec 219419.9 203110.2 R
sc E
i 1
( zi i zi i 1 ) (1) The rebound deformation can be calculated as formula 1. The
ci calculated deformation contour of the foundation pit shows as
Where figure 7. The rebound deformation of the foundation pit is not
the same, the maximum of rebound deformation is 35 mm in the
sc - rebound deformation of foundation soil, mm; center of foundation base, and it reduces gradually to 6 mm at
pc - gravity of soil upon foundation base, kPa, buoyancy the edge of foundation base. The measured rebound
deformation is about 32 mm.
should be deducted underneath ground water; 70
Eci - modulus of resilience, it can be determined from soil test
directly or calculated from the relation curves of R-Ec and R- 60
Width of foundation pit (m)
lgEc;
n number of layers which the calculation depth is divided; 50
zi, zi-1 distance between foundation base and the bottom of No. 40
i , No. i-1 layer
30
i , i 1 additional stress coefficient of No. i , No. i-1 layer.
20
In this method, both Ec and Rcr must be determined by
corresponding stress state of soil and stress history. This method 10
is not only simplifying the process of calculation but also
improving accuracy. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Where:
sc - recompression deformation of foundation soil, mm;
sc - rebound deformation of foundation soil, mm;
r0 - the critical recompression ratio. The curves of reloading
ratio-recompression ratio of soil can be divided into two line Figure. 8 the rebound deformation distribution along depth
segments. The recompression ratio of intersection of the two The rebound deformation distribution along depth is shown as
line segments is critical recompression ratio, and its value can figure 8. The curve of calculating deformation by this method is
be determined in the curves of reloading ratio-recompression approximate to the curve of measured deformation. The
ratio from soil test; rebound deformation beneath 12.0m depth under foundation
R - the critical reloading ratio. Similar to r0 , the reloading base is less than 30% of the total deformation.
ratio of intersection of the two line segments is critical reloading
ratio, and its value also can be determined in the curves;
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2876
Deep Basement Construction of Bank of Thailand Along Chao Phraya River closed
to Tewavej Palace and Bangkhumphrom Palace
Construction du sous-sol profond de la Banque de Thalande le long de la Chao Phraya prs des
palais de Bangkhumphrom et Tewavej
Teparaksa W.
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
ABSTRACT: The Bank of Thailand (BOT) head office is a large building constructed in the inner Ratanakosin Island of Bangkok
along Chao Phraya River, a main river of Bangkok, where high-rise building construction with more than three stories is not
permitted. The BOT building consists of five basements with excavation depth of 15.8 meters and only three stories of super structure.
The basement construction was constructed only five meters away from Tewavej Palace and ten meters away from Bangkhunphrom
Palace. The damage assessment by means of Finite Element Method (FEM) with simulation of basement construction method was
carried out to predict the influence on both palaces. Finally, the top-down construction method was selected for basement construction
with one meter thick and 20 meters long of diaphragm wall which was designed together with the 50 meters long bored pile to support
the whole building. The full set of instrumentation was installed at the palaces, diaphragm wall and ground surface for monitoring the
field performances during and after basement construction. The field measurement and FEM prediction will be compared and the time
dependent of lateral wall movement will be discussed. The construction was completed without any damage or effect to both palaces.
RSUM : Le sige social de la Banque de Thalande (BDT) est un grand difice construit sur l le intrieure de Rattanakosin dans
Bangkok le long de la Chao Phraya, un fleuve principal de Bangkok, ou la construction de btiments haut de plus de trois tages est
interdite. La BDT est constitue de cinq niveaux de sous sols avec excavation jusqu' 15.8 mtres de profondeur et seulement trois
tages de superstructure. La construction du sous-sol a t effectue seulement cinq mtres du Palais de Tewavej and dix mtres
du Palais de Bangkhunphrom. Lvaluation des dgts par simulation de la construction du sous-sol par mthode des lments finis
(MEF) a t effectue afin de prdire limpact sur les deux palais. Enfin, la mthode de construction du haut vers le bas a t
slectionne pour la construction du sous-sol ainsi quune paroi moule dun mtre dpaisseur et 20 mtres de long qui a t
dimensionne avec des pieux fors de 50 mtres de long pour supporter lintgrit du btiment. Les mesures sur le terrain ainsi que les
prdictions par MEF sont compares et la dpendance en temps du mouvement latral du mur est discute. La construction a t
effectue sans quil n y ait de dgts ou dimpacts sur les deux palais.
KEYWORDS: Deep Basement, FEM Analysis, Deep Excavation, Historical Building, Palace.
1 INTRODUCTION palaces to monitor the safety and stability of the palaces. The
behavior of diaphragm wall movement will also be discussed
The demand for deep underground basement construction is and compared with FEM prediction.
increasing in Bangkok city especially in the inner zone due to
the optimized land use for underground car park and retail of
the department store. The design and construction of deep
basement in the large city have to take the impact of the nearby
structure as well as public utilities into account. The designs of
the deep basement in Bangkok subsoil done by the author are
the Bai Yok II tower with 12 m. deep (Teparaksa, 1992),
Library of Thammasat University with 14 m. deep (Teparaksa,
1999a), Central World with 9 - 14 m. deep and Millennium
Sukhumvit hotel next to Bangkok Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)
Tunnel with 14 m. deep (Teparaksa, 2007).
The head office, Bank of Thailand (BOT) is located in the
inner Ratanakosin Island where high-rise building construction
more than three stories is not allowed. The location of the new
head office of BOT is planned along Chao Phraya riverbank and
closed to two historical palaces; Tewavej Palace and
Bangkhunphrom Palace as shown in Fig. 1.
The design and construction of the deep basement for head Figure 1. The location of new head office, Bank of Thailand (BOT) and
office of the BOT consists of five basements for underground the surrounding palaces.
car park with 15.8 m deep excavation and three floors of head
office above ground surface.
The analysis and the diaphragm wall design as well as the 2 SOIL CONDITIONS
impacted assessment of two palaces were carried out by Finite
Element Method (FEM) analysis by simulating the full method The soil conditions at BOT site based on nine boreholes soil
of excavation and construction in the model. The investigation consists of 12.5 m. thick soft dark grey clay and
instrumentation was installed in both diaphragm wall and at the followed by medium stiff clay and stiff to hard clay until
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
reached the first dense sand layer at about 28.5 m. deep. The
second very dense sand where the pile tip of the building is
seated is found at about 46 m. deep below ground surface. Table
1 presents the soil condition and the engineering properties.
2878
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
shown in Fig. 5. The relationship of the Eu/Su and strain level 6 INSTRUMENTATION AND PERFORMANCE OF
presented in Fig. 6 is the modulus of soft and stiff Bangkok clay DIAPHRAGM WALL
based on the results of self-boring pressuremeter test during
construction of MRT Subway Blue Line in Bangkok city. Fig. 7 The full set of the instrumentation was proposed to monitor the
presents deformed mesh of the FEM analysis at the final stage behavior of the diaphragm wall and surrounding palaces as
of excavation at 15.6 m deep. presented in Table 2 and Fig. 2. The results of the piezometer
The result of FEM analysis presents the envelope of lateral monitoring by pneumatic type in soft clay was constant with
movement of D-wall at final stage of excavation in the order of hydrostatic pore water pressure of ground surface water at 1.00
28.2 mm. and maximum ground surface settlement of 23.7 mm. m. below ground surface.
This maximum ground surface settlement behind the D-wall and
lateral movement of the D-wall was set as the trigger level to Table 2. Instrumentation at the Palaces and Diaphragm Wall.
control the method of excavation as well as the stability of Instrumentation Location Purpose
Tewavej Palace. Vibration Sensor At Tewavej Palace and Vibration at the
Bangkhunphrom Palace. palace
+/-0.00 Tiltmeter At Tewavej Palace and Tilt of the palaces
1.75 2W350@4m
TF1
-1.20m Bangkhunphrom Palace.
0.45
Strut TF1 Ground Surface Ground Surface Ground Surface
Settlement point Settlement
2W350@4m TP1 -4.70m Inclinometer In the Diaphragm Wall Lateral
Strut TP1 0.3 D-Wall movement
Piezometer Outside the D-Wall Ground water
2W400@4m TP2 -7.70m level
D-Wall RemoveStrut TP2 0.3
TP3 -10.70m
0.3
-13.70m
P4 1.3
Lean0.15m
1.0
-19.925m
Figure 3. Typical section of underground basement.
F1 C.L. -1.2 F1 C.L. -1.2 F1 C.L. -1.2 F1 C.L. -1.2 F1 C.L. -1.2 F1 C.L. -1.2 F1 C.L. -1.2
Layer 1: Silty Clay G.L. -1.75
P1 C.L. -4.7
Layer 2: Soft to
Medeum Clay
DW DW DW
P2 C.L. -7.7 P2 C.L. -7.7 P2 C.L. -7.7 P2 C.L. -7.7 P2 C.L. -7.7
G.L. -8.1
P4 C.L. -13.7 P4 C.L. -13.7 P4 C.L. -13.7
G.L. -15.2
Layer 3: Stiff to
Very Stiff Silty DW DW DW DW
Clay
-20.0 -20.0 -20.0 -20.0 -20.0 -20.0 -20.0 -20.0 -20.0
Layer 4: Medium
to Very dense Leg pile Leg pile Leg pile Leg pile Leg pile Leg pile Leg pile Leg pile Leg pile
sand
Layer 5: Dense to -50.0 -50.0 -50.0 -50.0 -50.0 -50.0 -50.0 -50.0 -50.0
Very dense sand
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2880
Creep and long-term bearing capacity of a long pile in clay
Fluage et capacit portante long terme dun long pieu dans de largile
ABSTRACT: A rheological equation is proposed to describe shear deformations in party saturated hardening-softening clay soil,
based on modification of Maxwell rheological model. It is shown that the proposed equation describes creep, relaxation and kinematic
shear with identical parameters, including decaying, stable and progressive creep, depending on shear stress intensity.
RSUM : Une quation rhologique est propose pour dcrire les distorsions au sein dune argile partiellement sature, avec
durcissement et radoucissement, base sur une modification du modle rhologique de Maxwell. Il est montr que l'quation propose
dcrit le fluage, la relaxation et le cisaillement cinmatique avec des paramtres identiques, y compris la diminution stable et
progressive du fluage, en fonction de l'intensit de la contrainte de cisaillement.
KEYWORDS:long-time bearing capacity, hardening, softening, kinematic shear,stress relaxation, progressive creep.
1 INTRODUCTION
(c)
Fig.1. Rheological curves:
) creep and long-term strength, (1< 2<7 critical values
of in case of cr = const);
b) shear stresses (t) for different shear rates const , and
1 2 3 4 ;
c) stress relaxation for different values of (right) and limit
straight line of residual (long-term) shear strength (left)
The paper presents a rheological equation to describe shear
deformations of clay soil with strong rheological properties and
Maxwell rheological creep threshold * for strengthening and
softening, depending on accumulated shear strain (Fig. 2).
(a)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
* e e
(1)
(t ) a b G
2882
elastic, viscoelastic, elastic-plastic and viscous.
)
1
generated by force R (t )(13) is also
differential
stresses (see Fig.1, c, on the1 left2 side).
4 STRESS RELAXATION and > > 3 > 4 determined from a1
solution b1 for a circular stiff plate, pressed in
p 2 p2 P(t ) p1Q(t ) (16)
elastic medium The rate of settlement, generated by force R (t ) is also
Equation (1) demonstrates a stress relaxation process
54SOME
STRESS RELAXATION
PROBLEMS OF APPLIED SOIL MECHANICS with
1 2 K1for a circular 2stiff plate, pressed
determined from a solution in
for 0 i.e., with t 0 const and with initial ST p 2 0 Dt 1 K1 a0 lnb0 (14) a0
Equation (1) ofdemonstrates a stress relaxation process
elastic medium B ( t )
P (t ) a 1 KA , Q4Gt
2 ; A ;
0 0 * and (t ) const . Solution (1) in this case looks, as
The problem a pile interaction with rheological soil 4G2 2l theGdepth
t 0regularities
ST Kp 2(lA) 01 as coefficient,
With accounting for 1
for be 0reduced
can i.e., with to determining const of constant
and with force N
initial
2 1 (14) of
ln bthe 4G a0 pp1 ln- bapplieda0 stress and rate
follows: * between side resistance and bottom resistance
B t ; Dt 2
a0 to 2
aplate;
0 and
load application
distribution 0 0 p 0 (17)
0tN and
2
(fig.5)
(t ) tconst
R (t1)eT(At
. Solution (1) in this case looks, as
) 0e At (9) With K2l(l ) 11tas
of its changing. coefficient, 1t
2l accounting for the depth of
res
follows: condition
p 2 (14) stress
load application to thefor plate; - applied and rate
By comparing
Solution (16) eq. (12)
initial p2and eq. pwith
2 (0) the 0 ,account
obtained of
with N a02 pi , T G 2ea2
0Atl0 , Re a002p2 , a0 , b0as pileradius and
t
with Ares 1 e
0 e At , res f (9)
(10) eq. (11)
of itsthe
with we
changing.
help obtain:
of MathCad software, yielded that p varies versus
a b
2
G e 0 e 0
a02 p1with
time By lncomparing
p2different rateseq.aand lnb0and
2(12)tends
a0 eq. (14)
a 1with
to constant 2valuesthe account
(Fig. 6). of
with b0 a0 pis 2 0 p 2 from eq,
K 1 (15)by
2l1t
as residual
A strength , f (10) eq.
The (11)
pile we obtain:
settlement also determined (14),
a b
res res 2lG1 4G2
Let us determine the limit curve of residual strength a02 p1 After
introducing p2 p 2 some(t ) instead a02 ln
of p 2b(t0) .a0 wea 1get 2the
lnb0 a0 p2 transformations K1 following
resas residual
p2
(15)
from relaxation curves strengthfor different values of compressive 2 l
differential
1 t equation: 2 lG 1 4 G 2
stresses Let (see usFig.1,
determine c, on the theleftlimitside).curve of residual strength
from relaxation curves for different values of compressive p 2 p2 Psome
After (t ) ptransformations
1Q(t )
we get the (16) following
differential equation:
SOMEPROBLEMS
5stresses (see Fig.1, c,OF on APPLIED
the left side). SOIL MECHANICS with
p 2 p2 P(t )
B (t ) , Qt Dt ; A 1 K1 a0 lnb0 a0 ;
p1Q(t ) 2 (16)
5 SOME The problem ofOF
PROBLEMS a pile
APPLIEDinteraction SOILwith rheological soil
MECHANICS P (t )
with
A 4G2 2l G1
Dt
A
can be reduced to determining regularities of constant force N 1 2 K1 a0 lnb0 a0
P(tt)a0 ln b, 0Qat 0 ; D
B ( t ) ; Aa0 p1 lnb0 a0
At
distribution between ofside
The problem a pile resistance
interaction andwith bottom resistance
rheological soil ;
B G1(17)
2l A 1 t 1t
4G2 2l
(fig.5)
can beand reducedN R (to t ) determining
T (t ) regularities of constant force N 2l
a ln b a0 initial acondition p lnb a
distribution between side resistance and bottom resistance
N a02 pi , T 2a02l , R a02 p2 , a0 , b0as pileradius and B t 0 (16)0 for
Solution ; Dt 0 1 0 p 20(0) 0 , obtained (17)
2l 1 t 1t
with
(fig.5) and N R (t ) T (t ) with the help of MathCad software, yielded
2l
that p2 varies versus
pile influence area; l as pile length, p , p as stresses at pile Solution
different(16) forand initial tendscondition ) 0 , (Fig.
obtained
with N a02 pi , T 2a02l , R a02 p2 , a10 , 2b0as pileradius and time with rates to constant p 2 (0values 6).
head and und er its tip respectively. The
with pilethe help settlement
of MathCad is also software, determinedyielded from that p2eq, (14),
varies versus by
time with different
introducing p 2 (t ) instead ratesofand p 2 (tends
t ) .(a)to constant values (Fig. 6).
Fig.5 Principal schematic of interaction between pile The pile settlement is also determined from eq, (14), by
and 2-layer soil massive, where G, , c are parameters of
introducing p 2 (t ) instead of p 2 (t ) .
deformation, strength and viscosity respectively
6 CONCLUSIONS
7 REFERENCES
Vyalov S.S. 1978. Rheological bases of soil mechanics.[in Russian],
Vysshajashkola, Moscow.
ZaretskiyYu.K. 1988. Visco-elastic behavior of soil and calculations of
structurers. [in Russian], Stroiizdat, Moscow.
Osipov V.I. 1979. Nature of strength of clay soil.[in Russian] Moscow
State University, Moscow.
Ter-Martirosyan Z.G. 2010.Soil Mechanics. [in Russian], ASV,
Moscow.
Ter-Martirosyan A.Z. 2010. Interaction between foundations and
rheological soil under cyclic and vibration loads.[in Russian]
Author's abstract of dissertation for Ph.D. degree, Moscow.
Skempton A.W. 1964. Long-term stability of clay slopes.
(a) Geotechnique.Vol. 14.- 2. - P.p. 77-101.
Murajama S. and Sibata T.1961.Reological properties of clay. // Proc. 5-
th ICSMFE. Paris, Vol. I. - P.p. 269-173.
(b)
2884
Compressive resistance of piles, an update
Rsistance la compression des pieux, une mise jour
ABSTRACT: The research consortium Delft Cluster/CUR recently published the results of a study of axial pile capacities. It emerged
that the capacity of displacement piles calculated using the Dutch method considerably overestimates the actual capacity measured in
static pile load tests. The identification and quantification of any concealed safety factor is a possible way of preventing the reduction
of the pile capacity factors that could follow from the test results at least in part. This paper presents the results of a study of
concealed safety factors. The conclusion of the study is that it is useful to examine time effects in greater detail, primarily focusing on
the quantification of the effect and the determination of the impact of load variations. It is recommended to continue with research
into the impact of compaction on pile-base capacity in combination with the sequencing of installation of displacement piles.
RSUM: Le consortium de recherche Delft Cluster/CUR a rcemment publi les rsultats d'une tude sur la capacit axiale des
pieux. Il est apparu que la capacit des pieux de dplacement calcule l'aide de la mthode nerlandaise surestime considrablement
la capacit relle mesure lors des essais de chargement statique. L'identification et la quantification des facteurs de scurit cachs
est un moyen de prvenir la rduction des facteurs de capacit dans la mthode NEN, du moins en partie. Cet article examine les
rsultats d'une tude des facteurs de scurit cachs. La conclusion de l'tude est qu'il est utile d'examiner les effets du temps plus en
dtail, en se concentrant principalement sur la quantification de l'effet et la dtermination de l'impact des variations de charge. En
outre, nous recommandons la poursuite des recherches sur l'impact de la compaction sur la capacit de la base du pieu en combinaison
avec le squenage de l'installation de pieux de dplacement.
KEYWORDS: pile capacity, displacement pile, set-up, group effect.
1 INTRODUCTION 1.6
1.4
Research looking at the axial capacity of foundation piles (van
Tol et al., 2010) has shown that calculating the capacity using 1.2
the method set out in the Dutch standard (NEN 9997-1, 2012)
perfect fit
results in a considerable overestimation of the capacity as
compared to measurements in load tests. The study referred to
measured/calculated
0.8
properly equipped load tests conducted in France, Belgium and
0.6
the Netherlands in which it was possible to distinguish between
pile-base capacity and shaft capacity. It emerged that adequate 0.4
tests for the reliable validation of the design rules (French,
0.2
Belgian and Dutch) were available only for driven, soil-
displacement, prefabricated piles (concrete and close-ended 0.0
tubular piles). Calculations of the shaft capacity in accordance 0 5 10 15 20 25
with the NEN standards proved to be a good match for the Length/Diameter in sand
values generated by load tests, although the coefficient of Figure 1. Comparison of measured and calculated pile-base capacities as
variation is large at approximately 30%. The measured pile-base a function of penetration in the sand (Stoevelaar et al. 2011).
capacities, however, proved on average to be only 70% of the
predicted values. The overestimation of capacity increased with
the depth driven in the sand, see Figure 1. Piles located at a 2 IMPROVEMENT OF CAPACITY IN TIME
depth of more than 8 D in the sand layer were found to have a
pile base capacity of 60% of the predicted value. Extensive research has been conducted into the increase of pile
Since the capacity calculation is too optimistic, and since no capacity over time. In the past, it was mainly thought that this
failures have been observed in practice, it is thought that there phenomenon was a factor related to piles in clay, but it has also
must be concealed safety factors in the system. The emerged that the capacity of piles in sand increases with time.
identification and quantification of those factors may prevent a Most research involved steel tubular piles and the load tests
future reduction of the installation factors in the Dutch standard were usually conducted under tension loading. Axelsson (2000)
in whole or in part. conducted a study of time effects in prefabricated concrete piles
This paper will focus primarily on the results of the literature loaded in compression. This study will be discussed further
study looking at concealed safety factors. It will discuss the here.
following areas: i the improvement in capacity over time ii In predominantly silty sand, an instrumented prefabricated
residual stresses in the pile iii limit values iv group effects and v concrete pile with a cross-section of 235 x 235 mm was driven
wind load in relation to negative skin friction. to a depth of 13 m below ground level. The pile was equipped
with a pressure sensor at the pile base, and pressure sensors at
2885
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
the shaft. Static load tests were conducted 1, 5, 8, 141 and 667 Soil humidity: very high set-up is observed in unsaturated
days after the installation of the pile. Figure 2 shows the load- sand
displacement curves for the load tests. This shows that the total Stress level: at high stress levels, dilatant behaviour is a
capacity of the pile increases substantially over time. The more significant factor
increase in the pile-base capacity is at maximum approximately Installation process determines the stress conditions after
10%. The increase in capacity is therefore mainly caused by an installation and therefore set-up
increase in the shaft capacity. Diameter of pile: higher set-up with smaller diameter
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
Capacity (kN)
1,000
Axelsson B, 2002
800
600
Q0= 989 kN
400 A = 0.374
200 t0 = 1 day
0
10-2 10-1 100 101 102
time (days)
Figure 3. Measurements from Axelsson, 2000, fitted with equation (1)
2886
approved in other, foreign, standards (Foray et al., 1998; with soil-displacement (driven) piles is much more complex
Bustamente et al., 2009). than in an approach complying with NEN 9997-1 (2012).
In addition to compaction, there is also an increase of
5 GROUP EFFECTS stresses. If the initial density is already high, the increase
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique
of stresses will 212 actually be dominant with respect to
Group effects include both the effect of the installation and the compaction.
consequences of the higher load in the ground as a result of the Not the full volume of the pile is involved in compaction;
loading of the piles. Both effects are taken into account when soil is also moved upwards.
calculating the capacity of tensile piles according to the Dutch In the immediate vicinity of the pile shaft, in stead of
standard. The installation effect of soil-displacement piles with compaction there is also dilatant behaviour. However, in
factor f1 and the effect of the load (in the case of tensile piles, the immediate vicinity of the shaft, there may also be
this
isThe a negative
literature effect)
that was withexamined
factor f2.confirms the current limit relaxation,
advisable in a design which guideline,
is known asparticularly friction fatigue becauseasany a result
over-
Factor
value f1for (NEN
base 9997-1, 2012)
resistance (API, is2007;
determined
Foray et by converting
al., 1998). of
estimate the of up-and-down
the effect will movement
only be of
noticedthe shaft
during during
the the pile-
execution
The literature that was examined
the volume of the piles into compaction combined with an confirms the current limit advisable in a design guideline, particularly because any over-
Thevalue
limitfor valuebasefor shaft friction seems
resistance to be onetthe al.,low of the driving.
work,ofwith
estimate theall the associated
effect will only be consequences.
noticed during the execution
empirical relationship that, at a(API, constant 2007;vertical
Foray stress, 1998).
links ofIt Particularly
should
side.
density The
to
Higher
conelimit shaft resistances
value
resistance forqc. shaft friction have been seemsmeasured
to be on and the lowalso the work,bewith pointed
in all theout
dense sands, thatcrushing
associated theconsequences.
actual
occurs, installation
and the effect
approved
side. in other, foreign, standards (Foray et al., 1998; with soil-displacement
increase
It should of stresses
be pointed (driven)
is therefore
out piles
that the is
limited. much
actual more
installation complex effect
Factor f1 Higher
is the shaftratio resistances
of increased have to been
initial measured
qc, andand also
it is than in an approach with complying with NEN 9997-1 (2012).
Bustamente
approved et
in al.,
other,2009).foreign, standards (Foray et al., 1998; The
with conclusion
soil-displacement respect
(driven) to thepiles group
is mucheffect more is that, in
complex
included in the Dutch standard calculation method of the shaft than In in addition to compaction, there isNENalso an increase ofdriven
principle, the
an compaction
approach factor
complying f1
withcan also be
9997-1 used for
(2012).
capacityBustamente
of a tensile etpile. al., In2009).
principle, this factor should also be
5 GROUP
included when EFFECTS
calculating the compressive shaft capacity of stresses.
piles loaded inIfcompression.
In addition theto initial density isthere
compaction, already is also high,an theincreaseincrease of
The following,
of stresses
stresses. will
If themore
actually
initial specific,
be dominant
density topics
is with
already must respect
high, therefore
the toincrease be
5 GROUP
jacked or driven EFFECTS piles. It is under discussion whether
Group effects include both the effect of the installation and the studied in
compaction.
of more
stresses detail
will related
actually to bethedominant
factor f1:with respect to
compaction
consequences also of occurs
the to this
higher load extentthebelow theas level of theofpile
baseGroup
andof toeffects
whatpiles.include
depth, andboth theineffect
therefore
ground
of thethis
whether
a result
installation
factor can
thethe
andbe
Does f1 also
Notcompaction.
the apply toof
full volume thethe pile-base capacityin
pile is involved and, if so,
compaction;
loading
consequences the of theBothhighereffects load are
in taken
the groundinto account
as a result whenof the down
soil Notis to
also
thewhat moved
full depth
volume below
upwards. of the pile
the pileisbase does compaction
involved in compaction;
included
calculating in thethe capacity
calculation of the piles
of tensile pile-base capacity. For this
loadingthe
purpose, of the depth piles. to Both
which effects areaccording
compaction takenextendsintotoaccount
the Dutch
mustwith when
be occur
In thesoilandimmediate
is also whatmoved role isupwards.
vicinity played of the bypilepile-driving
shaft, in stead sequencing? of
standard.
calculating The installation
the capacity effect
of of
tensile soil-displacement
piles according piles
to the Dutch Does
compaction f1 also apply
there is to small,
also highly
dilatant compact,
behaviour. groups
However, ofofin
determined, In the immediate vicinity of the pile shaft, in stead
factor f1 andas
standard. Thethemusteffect theofeffect
installation theeffect of the
load of
pile-driving
(insoil-displacement
the case of tensile sequencing. piles,
piles with piles?
thecompaction
immediate vicinity of the shaft, there may also be
Upward pile movement has been noted during the driving of there is also dilatant behaviour. However, in
thisfactor
is a negative effect) with factor f2. (in the case of tensile piles, Is the
piles close f1toand pilesthe effect
that have of already
the load been installed; the piles in the value
relaxation, immediate of f1 affected
which is knownof
vicinity byasthe
the properties
friction
shaft, there of
fatiguemay theas sand
also a result
be
Factoris af1 (NEN effect)9997-1,with 2012) is determined by converting such asup-and-down
particle-size distribution, form, strength andthe
this
place
the volumemove negative
upward.
of (NENthe pilesThis into factor
have f2.
couldcompaction a negativecombined effectwith on the an
of therelaxation, which movementis known asoffriction the shaft during
fatigue asthe silt
apile-
result
pile-baseFactor f1
capacity. 9997-1, 2012) is determined by converting concentration?
driving.
of the up-and-down movement of the shaft during the pile-
empirical
the relationship that, atinto a constant vertical stress, with links
The volume
density compaction
to cone
of the factor
resistance
pilesf1
qc.
compaction
determined combined
as described above an Particularly
driving. in dense sands, crushing occurs, and the
may empirical
result inrelationship
a considerable that, increase
at a constant in cone vertical stress,and
resistance links increase
Particularlyof stresses in dense is therefore
sands, crushinglimited. occurs, and the
Factor to
density f1 coneis the ratio ofqc.
resistance increased to initial qc, and it is 6 TheWIND LOAD AND NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION
consequently of shaft capacity. conclusion with respect
increase of stresses is therefore limited. to the group effect is that, in
included Factorin the f1 Dutch
is the standard
ratio of calculation
increased method
to initial ofqc,theand shaft it is
Figure 4 shows, for a symmetric pile field, factor f1 as a principle,
The the compaction
conclusion with factor
respect f1 can
to thealso be used
group effect forisdriven
capacity
included of aintensile
the pile. standard
Dutch In principle, this factor
calculation shouldofalso
method the be
shaft In the current design approach, wind load is transferred tothat,
the in
function of the centre-to-centre distance between the piles. For a piles loaded
principle, the in compression.
compaction factor f1 can also be Netherlands,
used for driven
included when
capacity ofpile calculating
a tensile the compressive
pile. aIncentre-to-centre
principle, this factor shaft capacity
should of load-bearing sand layer. In the western part of the
symmetrical fieldpiles.
with distance of,also
swhether for be where The loaded
piles following, more specific, topics must therefore be
in compression.
jacked
included
example,
or when
4Deq,
driven
f1 calculating
is
It the
approximately
is compressive
under discussion
1.5, with a shaft variation
small capacity of studied the in
Pleistocene
more detail
sand is covered by a thick layer of
related to the factor f1: must therefore be
compaction also occurs to this extent below the level of the pile Holocene The clay following,
and peat morelayers, specific,
piles are topics
subjected to negative
due jacked
to or driven
differences in piles.
initial density.It isThe under
compactiondiscussion percentagewhether Does in f1 more
also apply to the pile-base capacity and,friction
if so, can
base and to what depth, andtotherefore whether this factorofcan bepile studied
skin friction. The detail
loads related
generated to the
by factor
negative f1:skin
compaction
expressed as also
pile occurs
surface to this
total extent
surface below
is 5% the level
here, which the is down to what depth below the pile base does compaction
included
base and in to thewhat calculation
depth, and of therefore
the pile-base whether capacity.
this factor For canthis be be very Does f1 also apply
considerable, risingtoto themore pile-base
than capacity
30% of the and,total if so,pile
occur down and towhat
what role
depth is major,
played by pile-driving
below temporary,
the pile basecomponent doessequencing?
compaction
purpose,
includedthein depth to which ofcompaction
the calculation the pile-base extends
capacity. must Forbethis load.
Wind
Does f1
load
also
is another of the
determined, as must the effect of the pile-driving sequencing. total load, occur and apply
particularly what in tothe
role small,
iscase
playedhighly
of by compact,
pile-driving
high-rise groups
buildings. of
sequencing?In the
purpose, the depth to which compaction extends must be piles?
Upward pile movement
determined, as must the haseffect
been of noted
the during
pile-driving the driving
sequencing. of of
case Does
piles in f1 which
also apply negative to small, skinhighlyfriction compact,
is fully groups developed, of
piles close to piles that havehas already piles in of wind Isload
the
piles? value
will ofinitially
f1 affected result by the in properties
the pile ofbeing the sand pushed
Upward pile movement been been notedinstalled;
during the the driving
such
place
pilesmovecloseupward.
to piles This that havecouldalready have abeen negativeinstalled;effecttheonpiles the in downwards,
Is the value of f1 affected by the properties ofand
as particle-size
decreasing thedistribution,
amount of form,
negative strengthskin the the
friction.sandsiltA
pile-base capacity. number concentration?
suchof as calculations
particle-size have
distribution, been conducted
form, strength for
and this
the silt
place move upward. This could have a negative effect on the
The compaction
pile-base capacity.factor f1 determined as described above phenomenon using an interaction model. Figure 5 shows a
concentration?
may result in a considerable
The compaction factor f1 increase
determined in cone as resistance
described and above calculated result for the fluctuation of forces in a pile shaft, first
6 WIND LOAD AND NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION
consequently
may resultofin shaft capacity. increase in cone resistance and when the pile is subjected only to a permanent load of 1000 kN
a considerable
and6 550 WIND LOAD AND
kN negative NEGATIVE
skin friction. Then SKIN FRICTION
Figure 4 shows,
consequently for acapacity.
of shaft symmetric pile field, factor f1 as a In the current design approach, wind loadthere is an additional
is transferred to the
function of the4 centre-to-centre
Figure shows, for a symmetric distance between pile field, the factor
piles. For f1 as a a temporary
load-bearing wind load
sanddesign of 600
layer. approach, kN.
In the western Negative part skin
ofisthe friction
Netherlands, drops
symmetrical pile field with a centre-to-centre distance s of, for In
from the
550 current
to 300kN. In other wind
words, load
(550-300) transferred / 600 to=the
function of the centre-to-centre distance between the piles. For a where the Pleistocene
load-bearing sand layer. sand In is
the covered
western by aofthick
part the layer of
Netherlands,
example,
symmetrical 4Deq,pile f1 isfieldapproximately 1.5, with a small
with a centre-to-centre distance variation approximately
s of, for Holocene 40%
clayPleistocene of the
and peat layers, wind load is transferred to the upper
where layers. the sand piles is coveredare subjected by a thick to negative layer of
dueexample,
to differences4Deq, inf1initial density. The1.5,
is approximately compaction
with a small variation Holocene
percentage skin friction. clay
Holocene The and loadspeat generated
layers, by
piles negative
are skin friction
subjected to can
negative
expressed as pile surface
due to differences in initialto totaldensity.surface Theiscompaction
5% here, which percentage is This
be skin factor
very friction.
considerable, can therefore
risinggeneratedcertainly
to more by not be
thannegative neglected
30% ofskin the total and, in
pile
notexpressed
an extremeasvalue. this case, represents The aloads
concealed safety factor in current friction
design can
pile surface to total surface is 5% here, which is load. be Wind load is another
very considerable, risingmajor, temporary,
to more than 30% componentof the total of thepile
practice.
total load, particularly in the case of temporary, high-rise buildings. In the
Figure 4. Compaction factor f1 for a pile in a symmetrical pile field load.
However, Wind itload
should is another
be keptmajor, inskinmind that wind component
load makesofathe
case of load,
total piles in which negative
particularly in the casethe friction
of high-rise is fully developed,
buildings. In the
significant
wind contribution only when height of the building
The densification was checked in several projects by caseload
exceeds of40 piles
m.
willin initially
The which
contribution
result skin
negative in
in the
the friction
total
pile isbeing
load infullythat
pushed
developed,
case is
downwards,
wind loaddecreasing will (so the amount
initially result ofinnegativethe inpile skinbeing friction. A
pushed
conducting CPTs before and after the installation of the approximately 10% much smaller than the example of
number
downwards, of calculations
decreasing thehaveamount beenof negativeconducted skin for this A
friction.
displacement piles, (van Tol & Everts, 2003). It emerged that figure 5). Thisusing meansan thatinteraction
the wind load transferred to5 the upper
phenomenon
number of calculations have model. been Figure
conducted showsfor athis
the value f1, as determined in NEN 9997-1 (2012) is a safe layers is therefore only a concealed safety factor in specific
calculated
phenomenon result for using the an fluctuation
interaction of forcesmodel.in Figure a pile shaft, 5 showsfirst a
estimate of the installation effect; the compaction found in conditions of high buildings.
when the pile
calculated is subjected
result for the only to a permanent
fluctuation of forces load in a pile of 1000 shaft,kN first
practice is usually higher than the predicted value. This is
andwhen
550 the kN pile negative skin friction.
is subjected only toThen a permanentthere is load an additional
of 1000 kN
temporary
and 550 wind kN negative load of skin 600 friction.
kN. Negative Then skin there friction
is an additionaldrops
from 550 to wind
temporary 300kN. load In of other
600 kN. words,Negative (550-300)skin friction / 600 drops =
approximately
from 550 to 40% of the wind
300kN. In other load words,
is transferred (550-300) to the/upper 600 =
Holocene
approximately layers. 40% of the wind load is transferred to the upper
This factor
Holocene can therefore certainly not be neglected and, in
layers.
not an extreme value. this case,
Thisrepresents
factor cana therefore concealedcertainly safety factor not be in neglected
current design and, in
not an extreme value. practice.
this case, represents a concealed safety factor in current design
Figure 4. Compaction factor f1 for a pile in a symmetrical pile field However, it should be kept in mind that wind load makes a
practice.
Figure 4. Compaction factor f1 for a pile in a symmetrical pile field significant
However, contribution
it shouldonly be kept when in themindheight that wind of theload building
makes a
The densification was checked in several projects by exceeds
significant 40 m.contribution
The contribution only in when the total
the height load inofthat thecase is
building
conducting CPTs beforewas
The densification and checked after thein installation
several projects of the by approximately
exceeds 40 m. 10% The(socontribution
much smaller in the than total in load
the example
in that case of is
displacement
conducting piles, CPTs(van Tol &and
before Everts,
after 2003). It emerged of
the installation thatthe figure 5). This means
approximately 10%that (sothe much windsmallerload transferred
than in the to the upper of
example
thedisplacement
value f1, as piles, determined in NEN 9997-1 (2012)
(van Tol & Everts, 2003). It emerged that layers is a safe figure is 5).
therefore
This means only that a concealed
the wind load safety factor intospecific
transferred the upper
estimate
the value of the f1, as installation
determined effect;
in NEN the 9997-1
compaction (2012) foundis a in safe conditions
layers isoftherefore high buildings. only a concealed safety factor in specific
practice
estimate of the installation effect; the compaction foundis in
is usually higher than the predicted value. This conditions of high buildings.
practice is usually higher than the predicted value. This is
2887
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2888
A design verification method for pile foundations used in combination with solidified
improved columns
Une mthode de vrification de la conception des pieux en combinant avec des colonnes de sol
amliors
Tomisawa K.
International member, Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region
Miura S.
International member, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Engineering
ABSTRACT: In this study, research and development were conducted on a method of forming composite ground around piles mainly
with solidified improved columns and reflecting the increased shear strength in pile design to support progress with a new foundation
type for application in soft ground. The use of this approach, which is referred to as the composite ground pile foundation method, in
line with site conditions is expected to reduce construction costs and improve the earthquake resistance of foundations. To
systematize the technique, the study examined a design verification method based on the results of a large-scale model experiment.
RSUM : Dans cette tude, une mthode de lamlioration du sol autour des pieux laide des colonnes solidifies amliores a t
dveloppe. Leffet de laugmentation de la rsistance au cisaillement dans la conception des pieux a t tudi pour un nouveau
systme de fondation dans les sols mous. L'utilisation de cette approche, appel la mthode fondation composite, avec les conditions
du site devrait permettre de rduire les cots de construction et d'amliorer la rsistance au sisme des fondations. Afin de
systmatiser la technique, l'tude a port sur une mthode de vrification de la conception base sur les rsultats d'une modle
exprimentale grande chelle.
2889
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Design-related problems: (1) group pile design method, (2) bearing capacity of piles depending on arrangement, (3) bending rigidity of
footing
Problems with other methods: (1) lightweight embankment method: seismic performance; (2) inclined pile foundation: axial force,
bending stress
[Composite ground pile foundation]
Concept: reduction of foundation size and improvement of seismic performance based on the use of piles in
combination with ground improvement
(Site example) Cast-in-place pile foundation
Pile diameter 1,200 mm / 2 or more rows
1/ or more
Solidified improved column
Key points of design: (1) composite ground design method, (2) range of 1/ or more, = 45 + /2), (3) strength: qu = 200 to 500 kN/m2
Key points of the actual design method:
(1) Normal conditions: elastic subgrade reaction method (sliding/horizontal subgrade reaction verification)
(2) During Level-1 earthquake motion: seismic coefficient method (permissible horizontal displacement/cross-sectional force of piles at
the boundary)
(3) During Level-2 earthquake motion: verification of horizontal load bearing capacity during earthquakes (permissible response
ductility), dynamic nonlinear analysis
Figure 1. Comparison of the conventional design method for pile foundations in soft ground and composite ground pile foundations
piles were the point-bearing steel pipe type simulating the actual the maximum horizontal displacement of piles at the road
2890
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Table 1. Experiment cases Table 2. Modulus of subgrade reaction in the horizontal direction k and
horizontal subgrade reaction PH in Case 2
Experiment Unconfined compressive
Ground condition strength qu (kN/m2) Remarks
Experiment case
Pile displacement at
the ground surface
No improved Modulus of Horizontal Modulus of Horizontal
Entire layer: natural
CASE-1 ground (natural subgrade reaction subgrade reaction
ground 1.00 m subgrade in the horizontal subgrade
ground) in the horizontal
direction reaction direction reaction
Upper layer: solidified k (kN/m3) PH (kN/m2) k (kN/m3) PHU (kN/m2)
improved columns 0.50 200 Standard
CASE-2 m (= 1/); lower layer: Composite
(actual strength: 223) strength
natural ground 0.50 m 0.5 [0.5%] 383,466 191.7 ground with
solidified Upper-limit
Upper layer: solidified Varied improved
improved columns 0.50 1000 value for
CASE-3 m (= 1/); lower layer: improvement 1.0 [1.0%] 233,577 233.6 columns
CASE-2
(actual strength: 1,440) 395,642 solidified
natural ground 0.50 m strength
improved
Natural
Upper layer: solidified Varied columns
2.5 [2.5%] 121,290 303.2 ground with an
improved columns 0.25 200
CASE-4 m (= 1/2); lower layer: improvement N value of 334.5
(actual strength: 205) around 10
natural ground 0.75 m depth 5.0 [5.0%] 73,880 369.4
110,165
surface y (1) 0.5 mm, (2) 1.0 mm, (3) 2.5 mm and (4) 5.0 mm, Table 3. Modulus of subgrade reaction in the horizontal direction k and
which was set at the time of design to simulate normal and horizontal subgrade reaction PH in Case 3
earthquake conditions.
The large-scale part of the model experiment was conducted
Pile displacement at
the ground surface
for the four cases listed in Table 1. Case 1 involved natural
Modulus of Horizontal Modulus of Horizontal
ground with no improvement and an N value of 10 for the entire
subgrade reaction subgrade reaction
layer. Case 2 involved two-layered ground where the subgrade in the horizontal subgrade
in the horizontal
unconfined compressive strength of the solidified improved reaction direction reaction
direction
columns in the upper layer qu was close to the standard value of k (kN/m3) PH (kN/m2) k (kN/m3) PHU (kN/m2)
qu = 200 kN/m2 (223 kN/m2 in actual strength) and the
improvement depth was 1/ = 50 cm in accordance with the Composite
basic design method for composite ground pile foundations. 0.5 [0.5%] 2,150,363 1,075.2 ground with
Case 3 involved two-layered ground where the improvement solidified Upper-limit
depth of solidified improved columns in the upper layer was 1/ improved
columns value for
= 50 cm and the unconfined compressive strength qu was 1.0 [1.0%] 1,056,491 1,056.5
CASE-3
solidified
around 1,000 kN/m2 (1,440 kN/m2 in actual strength), which 3,098,529
was about five times as large as that of Case 2 (ratio in actual improved
Natural
strength: 1,440 kN/m2 / 223 kN/m2 6.5 times). Case 4 2.5 [2.5%] 412,912 1,032.3 ground with an columns
involved two-layered ground where the unconfined compressive N value of 2,160.0
strength of solidified improved columns in the upper layer was around 10
5.0 [5.0%] 202,867 1,014.3
similar to that of Case 2 (205 kN/m2 in actual strength) and the 110,165
improvement depth was half (1/2 = 25 cm).
Table 4. Modulus of subgrade reaction in the horizontal direction k and
3.2 Results of horizontal subgrade reaction experiment horizontal subgrade reaction PH in Case 4
Tables 2 to 4 summarize the experimental results regarding the
(ratio to pile diameter)
Pile displacement at
the ground surface
Here, C1 and C2 are the integral constants of the pile head 240,555 solidified
fixation condition, is the characteristic value of piles (m-1) Natural
improved
= 4 (kD) / 4EI , D is the pile diameter (m) and EI is the pile bending 2.5 [2.5%] 104,641 261.6 ground with an columns
rigidity (kN/m2). The measured horizontal subgrade reaction N value of 307.5
PH was set as the product of the modulus of subgrade reaction in around 10
the horizontal direction k and the displacement of piles at the 5.0 [5.0%] 66,922 334.6
110,165
ground surface (maximum displacement).
The design modulus of subgrade reaction in the horizontal PHU aS qu a p (2)
direction k was calculated as the modulus of deformation E for
the solidified improved columns. The design horizontal Here, S is the correction factor for composite ground in
subgrade reaction PHU was assumed to be the upper-limit value which solidified improved columns are used, and was set as 1.5
of the horizontal subgrade reaction, which is the passive earth as in the calculation for cohesive soil ground in consideration of
pressure strength of composite ground with solidified improved related physical properties.
columns as calculated using Eq. (2) (Japan Road Association The experiment results were examined as described here.
2002). First, the modulus of the subgrade reaction in the horizontal
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
direction measured in the large-scale model experiment k was value k is smaller than the passive earth pressure strength
compared with the design value for the upper layer of composite of composite ground given by solidified improved columns
ground with solidified improved columns k. In Case 1 with to provide inner stability and ensure column soundness.
natural ground whose N value was 10 for the entire layer, the The use of this index is expected to help prevent cracking in
measured value k roughly corresponded to the design value k improved columns and other types of damage caused by pile
when the permissible horizontal displacement was 1.0% of the behavior in normal conditions and during Level-1
pile diameter, which is the standard value set in existing design earthquakes.
methods (Japan Road Association 2002, Architectural (3) To sustain the reaction effect and ensure the external
Association of Japan 2001). In Case 2 where the improvement stability of solidified improved columns in composite
depth was 1/ and the unconfined compressive strength qu was ground pile foundations, the permissible horizontal
used as the standard strength, the k and k values were similar displacement of piles in normal conditions and during
for pile displacement at the ground surface when the storms and Level-1 earthquakes should be reduced to 0.5%
displacement was 0.5% of the pile diameter (y = 0.5 mm). of the pile diameter instead of 1% (or 15 mm) for natural
However, when displacement at the ground surface was 1% or ground. The elastic subgrade reaction design method for
more of the pile diameter, the measured value k did not satisfy piles can be considered feasible when the above design
the design value k. While the measured value satisfied the verification method is applied.
design value at the same displacement in Case 4 where the In this paper, a new design verification method for
improvement depth was 1/2, pile strain increased in the bottom composite ground pile foundations with consideration for the
layer of the solidified improved columns because no binding limit state of solidified improved columns was presented based
effect could be expected from them in the deep section, and the on past results from research on pile foundations used in
measured bending moment of piles tended to be underestimated. combination with solidified improved columns. Using these
In Case 3 where the unconfined compressive strength of results and the outcomes of discussions by a technical
solidified improved columns qu was extremely high, the exploratory committee consisting of foundation engineering
measured value did not satisfy the design value at all experts from the government, universities and industries,
displacement levels. In other words, although a certain degree guidelines on design and construction methods for composite
of reaction effect can be expected, the elastic subgrade reaction ground pile foundations have been established (Civil
design method for piles is not feasible if solidified improved Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region 2010).
columns are very strong.
Accordingly, to enable application of the basic design
method for composite ground pile foundations, the 5 REFERENCES
improvement depth should always be 1/, and qu = 200 kN/m2
Architectural Institute of Japan 2001: Recommendation for the Design
should be set as the standard value for the unconfined of Building Foundations, pp. 173 326.
compressive strength of solidified improved columns. At the Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region 2010: Guidelines
same time, the permissible horizontal displacement of piles used on design and construction methods for composite ground pile
for composite ground pile foundations should be reduced to foundations in Hokkaido, pp. 1 189.
0.5% of the pile diameter instead of 1% (or 15 mm) for natural Japan Road Association 2002: Specifications for Highway Bridges V
ground. aseismic design, pp. 4 118.
Next, the measured horizontal subgrade reaction PH in Cases Japan Road Association 2002: Specifications for Highway Bridges IV
2, 3 and 4 was compared with the design value PHU. It can be substructure, pp. 348 433.
seen from the table that the measured PH in Cases 2 and 4 Japanese Geotechnical Society 2010: Method of horizontal loading test
of piles and instruction manual, pp. 22 28.
satisfied the design value PHU when pile displacement at the Public Works Research Center 2004: Design and construction manual
ground surface was up to around 2.5% of the pile diameter (y = for the deep mixing method in work on land, pp. 76 127.
2.5 mm). However, the measured PH in Case 3 was less than Tomisawa, K. and Nishikawa, J. 2005: A design method concerning
half of the design value PHU at all displacement levels, horizontal resistance of piles constructed in improved ground, 16th
indicating that the elastic subgrade reaction design method for International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
piles is not feasible when the strength of solidified improved Engineering, pp. 2187 2192.
columns is extremely high as seen in the examination of the Tomisawa, K. and Nishikawa, J. 2005: Pile design method in composite
modulus of subgrade reaction in the horizontal direction. ground formed by deep mixing method, Journal of the Japan
Society of Civil Engineers No. 799/III-72, pp. 183 193.
Tomisawa, K., Nishimoto, S. and Miura, S. 2009: Evaluation of
4 CONCLUSION mechanical behavior and examination of seismic performance of
pile foundation in composite ground, Journal of Structural
Based on the results of a large-scale model experiment, the Engineering Vol. 55A, pp. 1182 1195.
Tomisawa, K. and Miura, S. 2007: Mechanical behavior of pile
following findings were obtained in regard to a design foundation constructed in composite ground and its evaluation,
verification method for pile foundations used in combination Soils and Foundations, Vol. 47, No. 5, pp. 961 972, 2007.
with solidified improved columns (i.e., composite ground pile Tomisawa, K. and Miura, S. 2010: Method of evaluating the seismic
foundations): performance of piles in composite ground, Society of Materials
(1) In the basic design method for composite ground pile Science, Japan, Material Vol. 59, No. 1, pp. 26 31.
foundations, specifications for solidified improved columns Tomisawa, K., Miura, S. and Watanabe, T. 2008: Influence of the
should be based on engineering grounds, the improvement improved strength and the range of improvement of composite
depth should be based on the characteristic pile length 1/, ground on the seismic behavior of piles, Journal of the Japan
and qu = 200 kN/m2, with which constitutive laws of soils Society of Civil Engineers, C, Vol. 164, No. 1, pp. 127 143.
(Public Works Research Center 2004) can be followed,
should be applied as the standard value for the unconfined
compressive strength of solidified improved columns.
(2) While the limit state of damage to solidified improved
columns in composite ground pile foundations is assumed to
be reached within the range of pile deformation to around
2.5% of the pile diameter, it should be verified that the
design horizontal subgrade reaction PHU calculated as a
product of the design pile displacement y and the design
2892
Influence of multiple helix configuration on the uplift capacity of helical anchors
Influence de la configuration des hlices sur la rsistance l'arrachement de pieux hlicodaux
ABSTRACT: The uplift capacity of multi-helix anchors usually depends on the helical blades configuration (including the number
and the diameter) and the soil characteristics. An evaluation of those parameters is based on the results obtained from two different
experimental programs. The first experiments were performed in centrifuge on dry Fontainebleau sand. For the second testing
program, tension load tests were carried out in field at So Carlos in Brazil in a tropical soil. The geometrical effect (cylindrical or
tapered helices) is also presented.
RSUM : La capacit portante en traction des pieux hlicodaux dpend de la configuration des hlices (dont le nombre et le
diamtre) et des proprits du sol. Deux programmes exprimentaux permettent dclaircir linfluence relative de ces paramtres.
Lun est ralis sur modles rduits centrifugs dans du sable sec de Fontainebleau, lautre est mis en uvre in situ sur un site test
Sao Carlos au Brsil, constitu de sols tropicaux. Leffet de la gomtrie (hlices inscrites dans un cylindre ou dans un cne) est
prsent.
KEYWORDS: helical anchor, tension capacity, centrifuge modeling, field load tests.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
different experimental programs were performed to this aim. Table 1. Dimensions of model anchors (M) and prototype anchors (P).
Initially, centrifuge model experiments were carried out on N Shaft Helix Prototype
scaled models of helical anchors with different dimensions in Pile diameter diameter tip depth
of helix
sand, at the French Institute of Science and Technology for dM (dP) mm) DM (DP) (mm) (m)
Transport, Development and Networks (IFSTTAR) in Nantes, P1 1 3.0(64.3) 10(214) 3.1
France, to investigate the variability of the rate of capacity gain P2 2 3.0(64.3) 10(214) 3.1
due to the addition of one more helix to a helical anchor. P3 3 3.0(64.3) 10(214) 3.1
Considering that the use of helical anchors as tower P4 1 4.5(97.7) 15(326) 4.6
foundation has being increased in Brazil, and tropical soils P5 2 4.5(97.7) 15(326) 4.6
covers a significant part of the Brazilian territory, the second P6 3 4.5(97.7) 15(326) 4.6
experimental program of the present investigation was carried
P7 1 6.0(132) 20(440) 6.2
out at a site of tropical soil, to evaluate the influence of the
P8 2 6.0(132) 20(440) 6.2
helical anchor configuration on the installation torque and on its
uplift capacity. P9 3 6.0(132) 20(440) 6.2
P10 - 3.0(64.3) 10(214) 3.1
2 EXPERIMENTS P11 - 4.5(97.7) 15(326) 4.6
P12 - 6.0(132) 20(440) 6.2
2.1 Centrifuge testing modeling
Table 2. Sand properties.
A centrifuge model program was performed at the IFSTTAR, in
France, to verify the influence of the diameter and number of Property Value
helices on the multi-helix anchor uplift capacity in sand. The Unit weight of soil particles (kN/m3) 25.90
purpose of centrifuge modeling is to reproduce a full-scale Maximum dry density (kN/m3) 16.68
response, with the possibility of comparisons between helical Minimum dry density (kN/m3) 14.13
anchors with different dimensions, as the model anchors were Maximum void radio 0.834
installed in a uniform sand mass. Minimum void radio 0.550
Nine small-scale anchor models (Figure 2; Table 1) were Maximum porosity 0.455
tested in two different samples of dry NE34 Fontainebleau silica Minimum porosity 0.355
sand (Table 2), with relative densities of 56% (container 1) and Container 1
85% (comtainer 2), respectively. The samples were prepared by Unit weight (kN/m3) 15.46
the air-pluviation technique in two containers with dimensions
Density index (%) 56
of 1200 mm 800 mm in plan area and a height of 340 mm.
Friction angle ( ) 31
Container 2
Unit weight (kN/m3) 16.30
Density index (%) 85
Friction angle ( ) 41
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
the Qh results of double-helix and single-helix anchors with three times is significant. Differently, for the looser tested sand,
same helix diameter and tip depth. A similar procedure was after anchor installation, the final relative densities of the sand
used to calculate the Qh fractions of middle and upper helical above the three helices are similar. This hypothesis is detailed in
plates of triple-helix anchors, and these results are included in Figure 5.
Tsuha et al. (2012). Figure 4 shows the fractions of helix
bearing capacity related to the second helix (FQh2) of the double
and triple-helix anchors tested in this investigation.
The results of tests performed on the model anchors with Figure 5. Hypothesis for sand disturbance after installation of a three-
helix anchor: (a) loose sand; (b) dense sand (Tsuha et al. 2012).
helix diameter of 214 mm in the looser sand are influenced by
some local heterogeneity. For this reason, the contribution of
the second helix of the anchors P2 installed in the container 1, 2.1.4 Effect of helix diameter
was not shown in Figure 4. The efficiencies of the second plates of the tested anchors
decrease with the increase in helix diameter, as observed in
Figure 4. This fact indicates that the effect of the helical anchor
installation on the sand mass is more significant for helical
anchors with larger plates. As the region of disturbed sand
around the cylinder circumscribed by the anchors helices after
installation is larger for larger helix diameter (increases with the
helix diameter), the failure surface mobilized during the anchor
loading is more distant from the undisturbed sand.
Consequently, the efficiency of the second helix of cylindrical
helical anchors decreases with the increase in diameter.
2895
(multi-helix anchors with the same plate diameter and with New Y
increasingly larger diameter helices up the central shaft) were Tsuha, C.H
installed and tested at the CRHEA site of the So Carlos School However, from the comparison between the third helix
contribution to the total capacity (FQh3) of three-helix anchors Physica
of Engineering, So Carlos city, Brazil. Physica
A3, B3, and C3, it could be observed that the efficiency of the
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Pariseven
2013for the Tsuha, C.H
third helix decreases with the third plate diameter, Evaluat
tapered anchors. A similar trend was observed in the centrifuge centrifu
tests presented in this paper. However, further investigation is 1114.
needed to confirm this behaviour.
Wang W., Wu J.
Department of Underground Structure & Geotechnical Engineering, East China Architectural Design & Research Institute
Co., Ltd. Shanghai, China
Li Y.
Department of Geotechnical Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
ABSTRACT: In China, super-long bored piles are commonly used as deep foundations to support very heavily loaded super high-rise
buildings. This paper presents some aspects of design and construction of super-long bored pile foundation together with a brief
description of bearing behaviors of super-long bored piles. The issues of selection of pile type and pile tip bearing stratum, load test
pile design, single pile design, pile foundation design, key construction technique and pile quality inspection are discussed with some
engineering practices of super-long pile foundation. These will provide reference and help for futural engineering practice of super-
long pile foundation for super high-rise building.
RSUM : Les pieux de trs grandes longueurs sont gnralement utiliss en Chine pour les fondations profondes afin de supporter
les immeubles de grandes hauteurs. Cet article prsente certains aspects du dsign et de la construction de ce type de pieux au travers
notamment de leurs caractristiques de chargement. La mthode de slection de ces pieux, les tests de chargement, le dsign du pieu
lui-mme, les aspects cl de la technique et enfin la mthode dinspection sont discuts sur la base de certains cas pratiques. Cette
discussion pourra apporter une rfrence et une aide pour les prochaines utilisations des pieux de trs grandes longueurs.
KEYWORDS: super-long bored pile ; super high-rise building ; field load test ; double steel sleevs ; post grouting technique
Until now the experience of design and construction of pile foundation, which are summarized and analyzed in this
super-long pile foundation is very limited. Many of the paper, can provide some valuable experience, reference and
traditional methods cannot be applied with any confidence since help for future super high-rise building foundation projects.
they require extrapolation well beyond the realms of prior
experience. Therefore, geotechnical engineers are being forced
to summary engineering experience and utilize more 2 BEARING BEHAVIORS OF SUPER-LONG BORED
sophisticated methods for design and construction of super-long PILE
pile foundations (Poulos, 2009).
Base on some engineering practices of super-long pile Super-long bored piles mainly refer to piles with length larger
foundations of super high-rise buildings in China, this paper than 50m and slenderness ratio larger than 50. Both theoretical
presents some aspects of design and construction of super-long research and engineering practice show that the bearing
bored pile foundation. Some bearing behaviors of super-long behaviors of super-long bored piles are different from those of
piles will be reviewed firstly. Then selection of pile type and short and middle long piles. The vertical loads supported by
pile tip bearing stratum, design of field load test pile and pile super-long bored piles are substantial. There are many soil
foundation will be discussed. Moreover, some key construction layers around the pile shaft. The soils characteristics are usually
techniques and pile quality control inspection standards are also complex. Construction of super long bored piles is complicated.
presented. The methods and technical measures of super-long It is difficult to control the construction quality. Furthermore,
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
because of the large length and slenderness ratio of the super- length of the pile, save engineering quantity, and achieve
long bored pile, the stiffness of pile-soil system is relative small. optimization design of pile foundations.
This directly influences the bearing characteristics of the super-
long bored pile. According to the analysis of filed load tests
results (Zhang and Liu, 2009), the basic bearing behaviors of 4 FIELD LOAD TEST PILE DESIGN
super-long bored piles can be summarized as follows:
1. The pile load versus settlement curve (Q~s curve) has no Static filed load test is a basic and reliable method to obtain the
significant change in slope if sediment under the pile tip is bearing behaviors of the super-long bored pile. It is also a
cleaned up or the pile tip is post grouted. necessary link of inspection and optimization design of the pile
2. Under the ultimate bearing load, the pile top settlement is foundation. As a design principle of the test pile, test data and
mainly caused by pile shaft compression, especially the technical parameters should be got as many as possible for
compression of the upper half pile shaft. Moreover, the pile design and construction of pile foundation. Besides the general
shaft presents large plastic compression deformation under contents, double steel sleeves, pile head, construction and
very high load. measurement requirements should be especially concerned
3. The mobilization of the pile shaft friction is asynchronous. In during the test pile design process.
other words, the pile shaft friction in the shallow soil layers
is mobilized before that in the deep layers. In the shallow 4.1 DOUBLE STEEL SLEEVES DESIGN
soil layers, due to the large relative displacement between The base rafts of the super high-rise buildings are often deeply
the pile shaft and the around soils, the pile shaft friction buried. Therefore, it is necessary to concern how to reasonably
usually reaches ultimate value, and is prone to softening. The deduct the pile shaft friction in the excavation segment when
mobilization of the pile shaft friction in the deep soil layers the load test is carried out at the ground surface. The pile test
and the pile tip resistance is hysteretic due to the small with double steel sleeves isolating pile-soil contact in the pit
relative displacement between the pile shaft and the around excavation segment can reasonably reflect the bearing behaviors
soils. The pile tip resistance is difficult to be mobilized of pile (Wang et al, 2011). Double steel sleeves have been
adequately due to the small pile tip deformation. The pile applied in the pile load tests of several super high-rise building
shaft friction resistance occupied a fairly large proportion of projects, such as the Shanghai Center Tower, The Tianjin 117
the pile ultimate bearing capacity. Therefore, super-long Tower, The Wuhan Green land Tower, et al. The design
bored pile can usually be identified as friction pile. diagrams of double steel sleeves for the test piles of the
4. The mobilization of the pile shaft friction is correlated with Shanghai Center Tower project are shown in Figure 1.
support condition at the pile tip. Not only the pile tip bearing
capacity is low but also the pile shaft friction resistance can
be cut down severely, when the bearing stratum is soft or the
sediment is thick under the pile tip. However, both the pile
tip resistance and pile shaft friction can be increased
significantly after the support condition is improved by post
grouting at pile tip.
Considering post grouting or not, super-long bored pile can be Figure 1 Design diagrams of double steel sleeves for the test piles of the
divided into normal pile, tip post grouted pile and tip and shaft Shanghai Center Tower project
post grouted pile. It is difficult to guarantee the bearing
performance of the normal bored pile usually due to the 4.2 PILE HEAD DESIGN
problems of pile shaft mud cake and pile tip sediment. The
sediment problem can be effectively solved by pile tip grouting Super-long bored test piles often bear very large loads. For
technique, which can help to improve the bearing behaviors of example, the load applied to the field test pile of Wuhan Green
the pile tip and pile shaft, and accordingly, the bearing capacity Land Tower reached 45000kN. Therefore, the test pile head
of the pile can be greatly increased. Therefore, the pile tip need to be special designed. According to loading condition and
grouting technique is recommended for super-long bored pile. test requirements, the pile head should be formed to provide a
When the pile tip is embedded very deeply, or soils around the plane surface which is normal to the axis of the test pile and
pile shaft are soft or settlement control of the pile is very strict, large enough to accommodate the loading and measuring
pile shaft grouting can be implemented, which can further equipments. The pile head should be adequately reinforced or
improve bearing behaviors of the pile shaft and increase the pile protected to prevent damage caused by the concentrated loads
shaft friction. Post grouting technique was adopted for all the applied from the loading equipment. The pile head should be
projects listed in Table 1. concentric with the pile. The strength of the joint between the
Although super-long bored pile is usually identified as pile head and the pile should be equivalent to that of the pile. If
friction pile, the pile tip bearing condition has a great influence the double steel sleeves are adopted for the test pile, measures
on the mobilization of the pile shaft friction and the bearing should be made to ensure that the head and the external sleeve
capacity and deformation characteristics of the pile. Therefore, would not connect together during the construction process.
the deep and solid soil layers, such as rock, gravel layer and Figure 2 shows the design schematic diagrams of the test pile
sand layer, are often selected as bearing stratums for super-long head for the Shanghai Center Tower project. The anchor pile-
bored pile tip bearing stratums. As bearing behaviors of the soil cross beam reaction devices were used in this field test. The
at the pile tip and the pile bearing capacity are improved by post maximum load was 30000kN, which was applied using 8
grouting, the shallower solid soil layer can be possibly selected hydraulic jacks. The capacity of each jack was 5000kN.
as bearing stratum. The depth of pile tip extended into the
bearing layer can also be decreased for this reason. Thus post
grouting technique has expanded the range of selection of pile
tip bearing stratum. This technique is benefit to shorten the
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Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
0
30
30
0
strength concrete is helpful to achieve this object. As shown in
Table 2, in order to make the piles shaft strength meet the piles
Figure 2 Design schematic diagrams of the test pile head for the bearing capacities requirements, Grade C45 and even Grade
Shanghai Center Tower project C50 concrete were adopted for the foundation piles of several
super high-rise buildings in China. Meanwhile, concrete
strength can be enhanced by the effect of stirrup constraint.
4.3 CONSTRUCTION AND MEASUREMENT
Thus, the spacing of spiral stirrups at the pile top within a scope
REQUIREMENTS
of about 3D~5D (D is the pile diameter) should be appropriate
Practical construction conditions should be simulated in the reduced to increase the bearing capacity of pile shaft.
construction process of the test piles. Artificial drilling fluid and Table 2 Pile shaft strength of several projects in China
desanding device should be used when the borehole is drilled
through the deep sand layers. Vertical deviation of the borehole Concrete UCS
Project name
should be not more than 1/250. Thickness of the sediment at the strength grade (MPa)
borehole tip should be less than 50mm after the secondary tip Shanghai Center Tower C50 40.0
cleaning. If post grouting technique is adopted for the test pile, Shanghai magnolia square C45 44.3
the grouting construction parameters should be determined. The Tianjin 117 Tower C50 59.3
construction machineries, techniques and parameters are also Wuhan Center Tower C50 54.6
need to be determined to form a guideline for pile construction. Note: UCS is the average unconfined compressive strength of the
Measurement items of super-long bored pile load test are concrete drilled from the shaft.
illustrated as follows: (1) Drilling fluid density, viscosity, sand
content and other technical indexes in different depth of the Pile shaft compression is a part of the pile top settlement
borehole. These parameters should be continuously monitored deformation. It is often estimated by the following empirical
for not less than 36 hours in the construction process. (2) formula:
1 L
Q0 d qs z dz dz e 0
Concrete quality of the test pile, including pile shaft integrity z QL
AEp 0
S (1
and concrete strength. (3) Sediment and grouting effect under 0 AEp
the test pile tip. (4) Ultimate bearing capacity of the test pile. (5) )
Pile shaft axial force and pile shaft friction. (6) Pile shaft Where Q0 is the load applied at pile top; L is the pile length; A is
deformations, including deformations of pile top, pile tip, the pile section area; Ep is the elastic modulus of the pile shaft;
section at the rock surface, and other pile shaft sections under e is the pile shaft compression coefficient. For friction pile,
each load level. =1/2~2/3.
e
According to measured data of nearly 40 super-long bored
5 SINGLE PILE DESIGN test piles from 15 sites, diagram of the relationship between the
measured values of the pile shaft compression and the
calculated value of Q0L/AEp was drawn, as shown in Figure 3.
5.1 PILE ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY As can be seen from the graph, under the working loads, the pile
shaft compression coefficients are less than 1/2. Therefore, the
The ultimate bearing capacity of super-long bored pile is value of e for calculating super-long bored pile shaft
determined by filed load test. If the load versus settlement curve compression by formula (1) should be not larger than 1/2.
of the test pile shows a slowly change in slope, the load 100
corresponding to the pile head settlement of 40mm~60mm or 90
e=1/4
5% of the pile diameter can be used as the ultimate bearing 80
capacity of the pile. For pile foundation under a condition of 70
Q0L/EpA (mm)
60 e=1/2 e=1.0
deep excavation, some factors, such as the soils gravity and pile 50
shaft friction in pit excavation segment and unloading rebound 40
of the soil at the bottom of the pit, should be concerned to 30
determine the ultimate bearing capacity of engineering pile 20
10
(Wang et al, 2012).
0
Due to the problems of pile shaft mud and pile tip sediment, 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Measured value of pile shaft compression (mm)
measured values of the ultimate bearing capacities of the normal Figure 3 Diagram of the relationship between the measured values of
super-long bored piles are often lower than the values estimated the pile shaft compression and calculated values of Q0L/AEp
by empirical methods. Test results of 10 field test piles from 5
different sites in Shanghai district were collected by the authors.
It illustrates that the ratios of the measured values of the
ultimate bearing capacities of the piles to the values estimated 6 PILE FOUNDATION DESIGN
by empirical method range from 0.5 to 0.97. The average ratio
The synergism of the superstructure, foundation soils and pile
is 0.69. The pile bearing capacity can be greatly improved by
foundations should be considered in the design calculation of
post grouting technique. Measured data of 28 post grouted piles
pile foundations for super high-rise buildings. According to this,
from 9 Shanghai project sites indicate that the average ratio of
a practical method for analysis and calculation of the pile
the measured values of the piles ultimate bearing capacities to
foundation is given in this paper. The theoretical framework and
the values estimated by empirical method is 1.32. Therefore, the
procedures of this method are illustrated in Figure 4. The
post grouting technique should be adopted for super-long bored
general calculation process is shown in Figure 5.
piles in deep soft soils.
Design calculation of the pile foundation consists of four
parts, including foundation settlement calculation, bearing
capacity calculation of the grouped piles, bending stress
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
calculation of the raft, punching and shearing capacities Land Tower project, the rotary drilling rig was adopted for clay,
calculation of the raft. The wind and earthquake actions need to sand and intense weathered mud rock layers, while the slightly
be considered in the process of design calculation of the pile weathered mud rock and sand rock were drilled by percussion
foundation for high rise building. The following load cases drilling machine. In the process of the borehole drilling, sand
should be considered in the design. (1) Gravity load (dead load content in the drilling fluid should be strictly controlled.
and live load); (2) Combination of gravity load and wind load; Moreover, the density of the drilling fluid should be increased
(3) Combination of gravity load and frequently earthquake load; appropriately to ensure the stability of the super deep borehole
(4) Combination of gravity load, wind load and frequently wall. For example, in the Shanghai Center Tower project, the
earthquake load; (5) Combination of gravity load and boreholes need to be drilled through about 60m thick sand
fortification intensity earthquake load. layers. The indexes of the drilling fluid used in this project are
shown in Table 3. If the borehole is very deep or located in
coarse grained soil layers, the technique of pump suction or air-
lift reverse circulation need to be utilized in the drilling
construction process.
Table 3 Drilling fluid indexes of the Shanghai Center Tower project
index Value
Figure 4 Theoretical framework and procedures of a practical method Density (g/cm3) 1.1~1.2
for analysis and calculation of pile foundation Viscosity (s) 16~20
Sand content (%) <4
2900
Case Studies of Cost-effective Foundation Design in Rock
ABSTRACT: In the Sydney region of Australia, the design of rock socketed piles in medium to strong rock is generally governed by
settlement criteria, and designs are typically carried out using presumptive serviceability values quoted in the literature. The
benefits of using a load-settlement performance rock socketed pile design method, rather than using presumptive values, are
presented via two case studies in the Sydney region. On one site underlain by medium to high strength shale, dynamic pile load
testing was carried out, and on another site underlain by high strength sandstone, Osterberg Cell (O-Cell) testing was carried out to
validate the designs. The case studies presented clearly demonstrated that better understanding of load-deformation characteristics of
pile foundations will lead to more cost-effective designs. Project owners have a tendency to resist spending money on testing, but the
savings that can be achieved by adopting shorter rock socket lengths on medium to large projects far exceed the cost of pile load
testing. The adoption of shorter rock socket lengths is generally the objective of project owners and contractors, but at the same time,
has the benefit of preserving natural resources and reduction in CO2 emissions.
RSUM : Dans la rgion de Sydney, de l'Australie, la conception des haldes encastrs dans un milieu forte rock est gnralement
rgie par critres de rglement, et conceptions sont gnralement ralises en utilisant les valeurs prsumes fonctionnalit cits
dans la littrature. Les avantages de l'utilisation d'un rocher de rendement de charge-tassement encastrs conception de pieux
mthode, plutt que d'utiliser les valeurs prsumes , est prsente par l'intermdiaire de deux tudes de cas dans la rgion de
Sydney. Sur un mme site sur des moyennes et schiste de haute rsistance, essai de chargement de pieux dynamique a t ralise, et
sur un autre site sur des grs de haute rsistance, Osterberg cellules (O-) essais a t ralise pour valider les modles. Les tudes de
cas prsentes a clairement dmontr que meilleure comprhension des caractristiques de contrainte-dformation des fondations sur
pieux aboutira des conceptions plus rentables. Matrise d'ouvrage ont tendance rsister dpenser de l'argent sur les essais, mais
les conomies qui peuvent tre obtenus en adoptant plus rock socket courtes sur moyens et grands projets bien dpassent le cot des
tests de charge de pile. L'adoption de plus courtes longueurs de douille de roche est gnralement l'objectif de la matrise d'ouvrage et
les entrepreneurs, mais en mme temps, a l'avantage de prserver les ressources naturelles et la rduction des missions de CO2.
KEYWORDS: Rock sockets, bored piles, dynamic load test, Osterberg cell test, Sandstone, Shale, Serviceability
The design of pile foundations in Sydney Sandstone and Shale Serv. Typical
Typical Ult. Ult.
in Australia has been carried out largely on the basis of recipe Sandstone Base, Field
UCS Base, fbu Shaft, fsa
Class(1) fba Modulus, E
book approach, using the well-known references of Pells et al (MPa) (MPa)(2) (MPa)
(MPa) (GPa)
(1978) in Working Stress format, and Pells et al (1998) in Limit
State format. Virtually in all cases, piles founded in rock are I > 24 12 > 120 3 >2
governed by serviceability limit (i.e. settlement criteria) rather
II > 12 12 60 - 120 1.5 - 3 0.9 - 2
than strength limit. Yet, there is little information on the
deformation characteristics of piles founded in Sydney III >7 6 20 - 40 0.8 - 1.5 0.35 - 1.2
Sandstone and Shale. The use of presumptive design values
quoted in references often leads to conservative designs. 0.25 -
IV >2 3.5 4 - 15 0 .1 - 0.7
0.8
Table 1. Design Values for Shale based on Pells et al (1998) V >1 1 >3 0.15 0.05 - 0.1(3)
Serv. Typical
Typical Ult.
Shale Base, Ult. Shaft, Field (1) Rock Classification also depends on defect spacing and amount of
UCS Base, fbu
Class(1) fba fsa (MPa) Modulus, seams
(MPa) (MPa)(2)
(MPa) E (GPa) (2) Not more than 0.5 x UCS for Classes I, II and III Rock
I > 16 8 > 120 1 >2 (3) Not sure why this is less than modulus values for shale
2901
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
may take a majority of the load and the mobilized shaft However, the accurate prediction of pile settlement relies
resistance,
may take aparticularly
majority of towards
the loadthe top andofthe the mobilized
pile shaft, shaft may heavily on knowledge
However, the accurateof the foundation
prediction material
of pile stiffness
settlement in
relies
reach close particularly
resistance, to the ultimate towards values.
the top of the pile shaft, may addition on
heavily to adopting
knowledge appropriate evaluationmaterial
of the foundation methods.stiffness
Therefore,in
reach It close
can be seenultimate
to the from Tables values. 1 and 2 that in conventional the author
addition is of theappropriate
to adopting opinion that using a methods.
evaluation performance based
Therefore,
working
It canstress be seen terms, fromthe Tables
ratio of1ultimate
and 2 that end bearing value to
in conventional design,
the withis pile
author loadopinion
of the testing that
to validate
using athe load-deformation
performance based
the serviceability
working stress terms, valuethewould
ratio give rise to end
of ultimate equivalent
bearingfactors
value of to responsewith
design, assessed,
pile load is testing
more likely to achieve
to validate cost-effective
the load-deformation
safety
the of about 3 value
serviceability for thewould
poorergive quality
rise torock, to 10 orfactors
equivalent more for of designs, and
response increaseis confidence
assessed, more likely of meeting design
to achieve objectives.
cost-effective
Class IofShale
safety aboutand Sandstone.
3 for the poorerWhile qualityit rock,
may be to safe
10 or more to adopt for This performance
designs, and increase based design approach
confidence of meetingis design
illustrated in two
objectives.
the presumptive
Class I Shale andserviceability
Sandstone. While valuesit based
may be onsafe
the notion
to adopt that case studies
This described
performance below.
based design approach is illustrated in two
settlement
the presumptive will be less than 1% values
serviceability of the basedminimum on thefooting
notionsize, that case studies described below.
there is no will
settlement assessment
be less on how
than 1%much of theless than 1%.
minimum Also,size,
footing 1%
of a relatively
there is no assessmentsmall diameteron how pile
much(say less
0.6mthan dia.)1%.
would be very
Also, 1% 2 CASE STUDY 1
different
of to 1%small
a relatively of a 2m squarepile
diameter footing
(say 0.6m(i.e. <dia.)
6mm compared
would be very to 2 CASE STUDY 1
< 20mm settlement). The first case study involves the testing of a 600mm diameter
different to 1% of a 2m square footing (i.e. < 6mm compared to
The difference between conducting a design based simply on continuous
The first case flight augered
study involvespile the
socketed
testinginto of weathered
a 600mm diameterAshfield
< 20mm settlement).
presumptive serviceability values a and Shale in Campbelltown,
continuous flight augered pile an socketed
outer south-western
into weatheredsuburb Ashfieldof
The difference between conducting designa based moresimply detailed on
assessment ofserviceability
load-deformationvalues response Sydney.in The
Shale testing was carried
Campbelltown, an outer out south-western
using dynamicsuburb technique of
presumptive andof aa more 1.8m diameter
detailed
pile socketed with waveThe
Sydney. matching
testingusing the CAPWAP
was carried out using method.
dynamic technique
assessment of 6m into rock (1m response
load-deformation in Class V of Sandstone,
a 1.8m diameter 2m in
Classsocketed
pile IV Sandstone,
6m into rock and (1m 3m in in Class
ClassV III Sandstone)
Sandstone, 2m in is withThewave subsurface
matchingstratigraphy
using the CAPWAP at this site comprised 7.3m of
method.
illustrated stiffThe
to very stiff compacted
subsurface stratigraphy clayatfillthis
andsite
residual
comprisedsoil, underlain
7.3m of
Class IV in a Figure
Sandstone, 1 below.
and 3mIn bothClass
in cases, IIIthe ultimate shaft
Sandstone) loadis
may take
capacity
majority
ofinparticularly
the pile was
of the
assessed
load
using
and
the
the
same
mobilized
values by aHowever,
stiff tothin
very veneer thecompacted
stiff accurate
(0.3m) of prediction
very lowand
clay fill tooflowpilestrength,
residual settlement relies
highly
soil, underlain to
illustrated
resistance, Figure 1 below.
towards Intheboth topcases,
of the thepile shaft,(fload
ultimate may
su of heavily
a thinon
moderately
by knowledge
weathered
veneer of
of the
(0.3m) shale very foundation
(Class
low toIVlow material
Shale),
strength, stiffness
followed
highly by in
to
0.1MPa,
capacity
reach close 0.5MPa
of the
to the and
pile was0.8MPa
ultimate assessedin Class
values. usingV, theIVsame
and III Sandstone
values (fsu of addition to to adopting appropriate evaluation methods. Therefore,
respectively, medium
moderately high strength
weathered shale(Class
shale with Point Load
IV Shale), Strength
followed Index
by
0.1MPa,
It can0.5MPa be and
seen fbufrom
and of 20MPa
0.8MPa
Tables for
in Class
1 and theV,2Class
IV IIIIII
thatandin Sandstone).
Sandstone
conventional the author
typically
medium is ofstrength
tobetween
high the opinion
0.5MPa andthat
shale using
Point aLoad
1.5MPa.
with performance
Based based
on a typical
Strength Index
Using these
respectively, parameters,
stressand fbu of the ultimate
the20MPa offor theload endforbearing
Class IIIthis pile
Sandstone). was design, with pile load testing
working
assessed
Using to
these be
terms,
70MN.
parameters,
ratio
However,
the
ultimate
ultimatethe load-deformation
load for this
value
pile curves
was
to correlation
typically factor
between of 20
0.5MPa andtoSydney
for validateShale
1.5MPa. the
Basedload-deformation
andon Sandstone
a typical
the serviceability value would give rise to equivalent factors of response assessed,
(although
correlation the
factor rangeofis 20more
may forbe likely to Shale
between
Sydney achieve
10 and cost-effective
and 30), the
Sandstone
were
safetyinofone
assessed to case70MN.
be 3assessed using the
for theHowever, method
the described
to 10 orbymore
load-deformation Poulos
curves designs, and increase
(1979),
about poorer quality rock, for approximate
(although the range confidence
unconfined be of
compressive
may meeting
strength10design
between of and objectives.
the medium
30), the to
Class I Shale and Sandstone. While it may be safe to linear
were in while
one casein the
assessedother case
using as
the an extrapolation
method described of
by aPoulos
adopt This strength
high performance
approximate shalebased
unconfined design toapproach
is 10MPa
compressive 30MPa,
strength isand
illustrated
of themedium
the rockin was
two
to
line
(1979),betweenwhile zero andother
the assessed
in serviceability
the case as ultimate
an basedload,
extrapolation with
of athelinear
line case studies
the presumptive
intersecting an assumed
values
settlement of 1%
on the
at the
notion
pile
that
load classified
high strengthas described
Class
shaleII is below.
Shale
10MPa basedtoon30MPa,
Pells et and al (1998).
the rockThe was
test
line between zero and the assessed ultimate
settlement will be less than 1% of the minimum footing size, load, with the line
computed pile was socketed
classified as Class II0.3m Shale through
based on thePells
very etlow to low The
al (1998). strength
test
there is nousing
intersecting the presumptive
an assumed
assessment settlement
on how serviceability
much of
less1% thanat1%. design
the pile
Also, values
load
1% shalewas
pile and socketed
penetrated0.3m onlythrough
0.1m into thethevery
medium
low to to high strength
low strength
given
computed by Pells
using et al
the (1998).
presumptive serviceability design values 2 aleCASE STUDY
of a relatively small diameter pile (say 0.6m dia.) would be very sh
shale so that
and its end 1bearing
penetrated only 0.1m pressure
into thecanmedium
be readily assessed.
to high strength
given by Pells
different to 1%etofal a(1998).
2m square footing (i.e. < 6mm compared to
80 sh
The The
ale sodynamic
first that
case load
itsstudy
end testingpressure
bearing
involves was
the carried
can be
testing out ausing
ofreadily
600mm an 11
assessed.tonne
diameter
< 20mm settlement). dropThehammdynamic er and loada purpose
testing built testing outframe
using as an shown in
The80 continuous flight augered pilewas carried
socketed into weathered 11 tonne
Ashfield
70difference between conducting a design based simply on Figure
drop 2.
hamm er and a purpose built testing frame as shown in
presumptive serviceability values and a more detailed Shale in Campbelltown, an outer south-western suburb of
70 Figure
igure 2.2.Dynamic
FSydney. pile load
assessment60
of load-deformation response of a 1.8m diameter The testing wastest set up in
carried outCase Study
using 1
dynamic technique
60
Fwi
igure 2. Dynamic pile load test
th wave matching using the CAPWAP method. set up in Case Study 1
pile socketed
50 6m into rock (1m in Class V Sandstone, 2m in
The subsurface stratigraphy at this site comprised 7.3m of
Load(MN)
3 CASE STUDY 2 structural springs could be adopted for the piles in his
structural model of the superstructure, to include modeling of
This is a recent case study associated with the Barangaroo South the piles due to the varying pile lengths on the project.
Stage 1A Development located on the western fringe of the
Sydney CBD, on the eastern shoreline of Darling Harbour. Table 3. Design Values Adopted for Design (Case Study 2)
The site is situated over reclaimed land in an eroded and
infilled paleovalley, with rock ranging in depth from 0m to 30m Ultimate
Ultimate
as shown in Figure 3. As such, most of the weathered rock has Elastic End
Sandstone Poissons Shaft
been removed during the erosional process, and replaced with Modulus* Bearing
Rock Class Ratio Friction
overlying Holocene alluvial sand, silt, clay, and manmade fill. (GPa) Pressure
(MPa)
(MPa)
2903
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
RSUM: La ralisation des pieux fors de 2m de diamtre et de 100 m de profondeur dans la vase de Tunis (cas des
fondations principales du pont haubans Rades-la-Goulette Tunis) ont poss de srieux problmes aux diffrents stades de
leur excution : notamment lors du forage, mais galement lors du curage du fond du pieu, lors de la descente de cage
darmature et puis lors du btonnage. Larticle dcrit les causes des difficults rencontres ainsi que les dispositions
constructives adoptes en vue de valider les pieux contestables moyennant les calculs justificatifs ncessaires.
ABSTRACT : The achievement of 2m diameter, 100 m deep bored piles in the specific compressible soft clay soil of Tunis (the
main foundations case of the cable-stayed Rades-la-Goulette bridge of Tunis) has posed serious problems at different execution
steps: particularly during drilling, when cleaning the bottom of the pile, during the reinforcing cage drop, and then during
concreting. The paper describes the causes of encountered difficulties and the adopted constructive arrangements to validate the
debatable piles through the necessary supporting calculations.
KEYWORDS: deep piles, drilling, concreting, reinforced piles, loading test, bearing capacity
MOTS CLS : pieux profonds, forage, btonnage, pieux renforcs, essai de chargement, capacit portante
1 INTRODUCTION d'paisseur ne dpassant gure le mtre. On rencontre en
moyenne de haut en bas :
Le pont Rades-La-Goulette reliant la Goulette Rads et la - sous le TN (cote +1 NGT environ), un horizon
banlieue Nord la Banlieue Sud de Tunis, est l'un des plus superficiel I de vases trs molles paisse de 8 m ;
grands ouvrages dart en Tunisie. Cet ouvrage permet de - une premire couche II de sables et sables argileux
desservir galement trois dpartements: Tunis, l'Ariana et moyennement denses, paisse de 8 9 m ;
BenArous. - une couche III d'argiles moyennement compactes,
Ce pont hauban, le premier du genre en Tunisie, et en paisse de 7 8 m ;
Afrique est d'une hauteur de 20 mtres au-dessus du niveau de - une deuxime couche IV de sables fins plus ou moins
la mer (Figure 1). Il est fix par deux tours d'une longueur de argileux trs denses, paisse de 10 12 m ;
45 mtres chacune, reposant sur les deux piles principales P12 - une couche profonde V d'argiles plastiques
et P13 distantes de 120m. Ces piles, dans le projet initial moyennement raides raides, de compacit croissante
dappel doffre, taient prvues fondes chacune sur un avec la profondeur, depuis 35 m de profondeur jusqu'
groupe de 8 pieux de 2m de diamtre et ancrs 100 m de la base des sondages (115 m).
profondeur. Les deux autres piles de rive P11 et P14 sont
prvues fondes sur un groupe de 6 pieux de 1.5m de
diamtre et de profondeur 60m de profondeur. Le
dimensionnement des pieux a t bas sur les mthodes
pressiomtriques (Baguelin et al. 1986 ; Bustamante et al.
2009 ; Frank et Zhao 1982 ; Frank 1994 ; Melt 1991). Seuls
les pieux profonds de la pile P12, excuts en premiers,
(pieux C et G) ont fait lobjet de difficults dexcution. Nous
prsentons dans cet article le cas du pieu G, les diffrentes
difficults rencontres ainsi que la dmarche de calcul
justificatif en vue de simuler leffet mcanique sur la portance
et les dispositions constructives de renforcement adoptes.
Cot Lac
de Tunis Canal cot Rades
2905
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2906
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
surdimensionnement (Qadm/Q+W) un coefficient rducteur Le graphique suivant (Figure 6) montre que le groupe de
sur les pressions limites not r(%) a t effectue : pieux reste justifi vis--vis de la charge de service mme en
considrant un coefficient rducteur de 100% sur les valeurs
r(%) = 1 - (Pl rduite / Pl initiale ) (2) de Pl, donc sur qs. En effet, la capacit admissible du groupe a
avec Qadm : la mobilisation du sol, Q : charge de service et une rpartition entre les efforts de pointe et de frottement
W : poids du pieu djaug du sol encaissant (pour les pieux de latral tout fait diffrente de celle du pieu isol. Alors que
grandes dimensions, le poids propre a une influence non dans le pieu isol la charge admissible en tte est
ngligeable quil faudrait intgrer la descente des charges). essentiellement reprise par le frottement latral, il nen est
On distingue pour la suite ri et rg, respectivement les plus de mme dans le groupe o la pointe est beaucoup plus
coefficients rducteurs pour le pieu isol et pour le groupe. sollicite. Ce calcul de pieu quivalent est justifi dans la
Dans le cas du pieu isol, cette tude conduit au graphique mesure o le rapport de lentraxe des pieux leur diamtre est
suivant (Figure 4), qui montre que la rduction sur les valeurs infrieur 3, ce qui conduit ce que les pieux et le sol quils
des pressions limites du terrain encaissant ne doit pas enserrent aient un comportement peu prs monolithique
dpasser 23% pour que le pieu soit justifi vis--vis de la (Schlosser et al. 2009).
portance, avec :
2907
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4 DIFFICULTS LORS DU BTONNAGE DES PIEUX HA 50 ont t rparties sur la section du pieu G et ont t
scelles au coulis de ciment, en mme temps que le
Lopration de btonnage du pieu G a galement pos des comblement des cavits.
difficults aprs reprise du forage. Un boulement de la
couche de sable a eu lieu. Des essais dauscultation soniques 4.3 Amlioration de la portance en pointe
ont rvls une anomalie au sens de la norme, trs marque
et dont lpaisseur est importante qui a affect lintgrit du Le sol sous la pointe du pieu a t inject en vue damliorer
pieu G vers 40 m de profondeur. Cette coupure de bton a t la portance pour se placer du ct de la scurit. En effet, ce
confirme par des sondages carotts (prsence de sable et traitement a permis dviter un mauvais curage du fond de
gravier). Ce pieu a ncessit un traitement particulier de forage du pieu qui tait jug inefficace avec la mthode RCD
renforcement.
Deux carottages dans le pieu ont t raliss et ont t Les dplacements de la paroi du forage peuvent tre
descendus sous la pointe du pieu. Par ailleurs, les six tubes importants dans les argiles lorsque le temps de forage sous
mtalliques prvus pour lauscultation soniques ont t percs bentonite est trs long comme fut le cas pour le pieu G de la
par un procd spcialement conu cet effet : perage par pile P12 du Pont Rades-La-Goulette. La dgradation de la
oxycoupage au plasma (Figure 7). rsistance du sol par suite de ces dplacements de paroi a
affect leffort de frottement latral, mais pas leffort de
pointe. Si cet effet peut tre important sur le pieu isol, il est
pratiquement sans effet sur la portance du groupe de pieux
dans lequel leffort de frottement latral nest plus du tout la
part essentielle vis--vis de leffort de pointe, comme cest le
cas pour la charge admissible du pieu isol. Seule, la raideur
peut en tre sensiblement affecte.
6 RFRENCES
Baguelin, F., Bustamante, M., Frank, R. 1986. The pressuremeter for
foundations: French experience. Proc. Conference on the Use of
In-Situ Tests in Geotechnical Engineering, Blacksburg, VA,
ASCE, Geot. Special Pub(6),31-46.
BUSTAMANTE, M., Gambin, M., Gianeselli, L. 2009. Pile Design at
Failure Using the Mnard Pressuremeter: an Up-Date, Proc.
IFCEE 09, ASCE.
Combarieu, O. 2006. L'usage des modules de dformations en
Figure 8. Procd de perforation par oxycoupage au plasma gotechnique. Revue Franaise de gotechnique,( 114), p. 332.
Frank, R., Zhao S.R. 1982. Estimation par les paramtres
pressiomtriques de l'enfoncement sous charge axiale des pieux
fors dans les sols fins. Bull. Liaison Labo P. et Ch., n (119),
17-24.
Frank, R. 1994. The new Eurocode and the new French code for the
design of the deep foundations. Proc. Int. Conf. Design and
Construction of Deep Foundations. Orlando. Florida. FHWA(1),
279-304.
Guilloux, A., Berthelot, P., Zaghouani, K., Schlosser, F., 2009. Les
fondations du pont de Rads La goulette (Tunisie) ;
reconnaissances, conception et essais de pieux. 17th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering (17th ICSMGE) October 2009, Alexandria, Egypt.
M.E.L.T.1991. Design Rules for Foundations, Tender Documents for
Public Works. CCTG, Fasc. n 62, TitreV (in French).
Imprimerie Nationale Paris.
Schlosser, F., Gouilloux, A., Zaghouani, K. Berthelot, P. 2010.
Rades Bridge Drilled Shafts Designed and Tested Using Menard
Pressuremeter. International Foundation Congress and
Figure 9. Essai pralable de perforation sur un tube extrieur Equipment Exhibition, Expo IFCEE 09, Orlando, Mars 2009
Ainsi, au travers les perforations multiples (Figure 9) le
long des tubes mtalliques dauscultation, et des sondages
carotts, on a procd au nettoyage des cavits avec la
circulation deau sous pression.
Une auscultation endoscopique par une camra, au travers
les carotts dans le pieu, a permis de sassurer de la qualit
du nettoyage des zones danomalies.
2908
Load Tests on Full-Scale Bored Pile Groups
Essais de chargement sur des groupes de pieux fors
ABSTRACT: Pile groups are commonly used in foundation engineering. Due to the difficulties and cost of full-scale load tests, most
pile group tests are scaled down regardless of whether performed in the field or laboratory. Very limited experimental data are
available on the loading of full-scale bored pile groups in the field. This paper reports the results of axial static load tests of both full-
scale instrumented pile groups and single piles. Experiments vary in the number of piles in the group, the pile spacing, the type of pile
groups and pile length. All piles have a diameter of 400 mm. Two-pile groups, four-pile groups and nine-pile groups with pile lengths
of 20 m and 24 m are tested. Since the isolated piles and some piles in the pile groups are instrumented, the load transfer curve and the
load-settlement curve of both of piles in isolation and individual instrumented piles in the groups are obtained. The interaction
coefficient for each pile in the group is back-calculated from the measured data by optimization. The interaction coefficients are
shown to depend on pile proximity, as usually assumed in elastic analyses, but also on settlement and on the size of the group.
RSUM : Les groupes de pieux sont couramment utiliss dans les travaux de fondation. En raison des difficults et du cot des
essais de chargement grande chelle, la plupart des essais de groupe de pieux sont raliss petite chelle indpendamment de la
ralisation des essais en laboratoire ou in-situ. Trs peu de donnes exprimentales sont disponibles sur le chargement en pleine
chelle groupes des pieux fors in-situ. Cet article prsente les rsultats d'essais de chargement statique axial grande chelle des
groupes de pieux et des pieux simples instruments. Les expriences varient en nombre de pieux dans le groupe, l'espacement des
pieux, le type de groupes et de longueur des pieux. Tous les pieux ont un diamtre de 400 mm. Des groupes composs de deux, quatre
ou neuf pieux, avec des longueurs de 20 m et 24 m sont tests. Comme les pieux isols et quelques uns des pieux dans les groupes
sont instrumentes, la courbe de transfert de charge et la courbe de charge-tassement des pieux isols et en groupe sont obtenus. Le
coefficient d'interaction pour chaque pieu dans le groupe est valu par calcul inverse partir des donnes mesures par
l'optimisation. Il a t montr que les coefficients d'interaction dpendent de la proximit des pieux, comme habituellement suppos
dans des analyses lastiques, mais galement du tassement et de la taille du groupe.
KEYWORDS: pile groups, load transfer, interaction coefficient
2909
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
properties for each layer at this test site are given by Dai et al
(2012). Q(kN)
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
0
10
20
w(mm)
DZ1:B=0.4m,L=20m
30
DZ1L:B=0.4m,L=24m
40
50
60
Figure 3. Load settlement curves for single pile tests.
Figure 4 and Figure 5 show the axial load transfer curves for
DZ1 and DZ1L throughout the loading process. There is
Figure 1. Layout plan of test piles and pile groups ( all dimensions in significant transfer of load from the pile to the soil between 2.6
millimeters). m and 17.5 m for both DZ1 and DZ1L, which makes the
resistance at the pile base for both DZ1 and DZ1L
Depth(m)
qc(MPa) qc(MPa) qc(MPa) qc(MPa) comparatively small. At the end of the test, the pile head load
for DZ1 is 1440 kN while the pile base load is 31 kN. For
Loose f DZ1L, the corresponding numbers are 1540 kN and 62 kN.
Stiff plastic clay
These results suggest minimal and potentially zero base
mobilization, which means that essentially all of the loads
Mediumdense silt applied at the pile head are carried by shaft resistance. So both
pile DZ1 (L/B = 50) and pile DZ1L (L/B = 60) derive their
resistance from shaft resistance at values of relative settlement
Mediumdense silt conventionally associated with the ultimate load. Complete
intermixed with silty sand
shaft resistance mobilization in friction piles crossing soft soil
layers may require large pile head settlement because of large
axial pile compressibility.
Soft clay
Load(kN)
10 720kN
test piles (all dimensions in meters). 840kN
15 960kN
1080kN
The piles were installed using the slurry method. A 0.4-m-, 1200kN
20
0.8-m- or 1.2-m-thick reinforced concrete cap was subsequently 1320kN
poured on the pile groups and single piles. Figure 1 shows a 25 1440kN
layout plan of the test piles and pile groups. The pile caps rested Figure 4. Axial force distribution for 20m-long single pile.
on the ground and may be considered rigid for practical
purposes. The pile spacing was 2.5B in groups QZ2, QZ4 and Load(kN)
QZ9 and 3.0B in groups QZ2L, QZ4L and QZ9L. 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
The axial loads transferred along the instrumented piles were 0
280kN
measured by strain gauges, which were installed evenly at each 5 420kN
cross section for all test piles. There were 6 instrumented 560kN
700kN
Depth(m)
2910
Technical Committee 212 / Comit technique 212
Q(kN)
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Q(kN) resistance mobilized along the entire pile is less than the limit
0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 0
shaft resistance.
10 10 The pile head and base loads versus pile group load are
20 20 shown in Figure 9 for piles of the 9-pile groups under different
DZ1 DZ1L
30 30 load levels. The corner piles have the largest pile load, followed
w(mm)
w(mm)
QZ2 QZ2L
40
40
QZ4 QZ4L by side and then central piles. This confirms intuition based on
50 QZ9L
50 QZ9 elasticity solutions that if the pile cap is flexible and the loads
60
60
70
on every pile are as a result the same, the center pile with lowest
70
stiffness would be expected to settle the most, showing that it
(a) (b) has the lowest stiffness. When imposing the same settlement on
Figure 6. Load-settlement curves for the single pile and the average all piles, we would therefore expect the center pile to carry the
load-settlement curves for the pile groups: (a) L = 20 m; (b) L = 24 m.
smallest load, as indeed observed. The experimental results
seem to capture an aspect of pile group response that is not
Figure 7 (a) and (b) show group settlement ratio Rs, the ratio often commented on. The base of the pile located towards the
of the settlement of a pile group to that of single pile at the same center of the group is more constrained because of the
average load per pile (Poulos and Davis 1980).The values of Rs surrounding piles, which may lead to a greater base resistance.
of both four-pile group and nine-pile group tend to increase with 1200
1400
QZ91:top
settlement. The single pile settlement is generally smaller than QZ9L1:top
Piletoporbaseload(kN)
1000 QZ91:base 1200 QZ9L1:base
Piletoporbaseload(kN)
QZ94:top
the corresponding pile group settlement at the same average 800 QZ94:base
1000
QZ9L4:top
QZ9L4:base
load per pile when the load is relatively large. The Rs values for 600
QZ95:top
QZ95:base
800 QZ9L5:top
QZ9L5:base
600
the two-pile groups are however close to unity. The initial
400 400
values of Rs (at small loads) are also close to unity, indicating 200
200
little interaction between the piles. 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
7 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 Pilegroupload(kN)
QZ2 7
6 Pilegroupload(kN)
QZ4 6 QZ2L
5
SettlementratioRs
QZ9 5
QZ4L (a) (b)
SettlementratioRs
4 QZ9L
4 Figure 9 Pile head and base loads versus pile group load for the nine
3
3 pile groups: (a) L = 20 m; (b) L = 24 m
2 2
1 1
0 0
Because of symmetry, the head and base loads for piles in
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30 40
Pilegroupsettlement(mm)
50 60
Pilegroupsettlement(mm)
two-pile and square four-pile groups are expected to be the
same. However, that is not the case for the piles in the nine-pile
(a) (b)
groups. The ratio Qi/Qav of the individual pile load to the
Figure 7. Settlement ratio Rs versus pile group settlement for all pile
groups: (a) with L = 20 m; (b) with L = 24 m. average individual load in the group is shown in Figure 10. The
load on the outer piles of each group is observed to be greater
Figure 8 shows the distributions of unit shaft resistance both than the average load Qav.
1.40 1.40
for the single pile DZ1L and for some instrumented piles in 1.20 1.20
groups QZ2L, QZ4L and QZ9L at intermediate load steps 1.00 1.00
during the load tests. 0.80 0.80
Qi/Qav
QZ9- 1
Qi/Qav
Unitshaftresistance(kPa) QZ9L1
Unitshaftresistance(kPa) 0.60 QZ9- 4 0.60
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 QZ9- 5 QZ9L4
0 0 0.40 0.40 QZ9L5
0.20 0.20
5 5
400kN 0.00 0.00
Depth(m)
Depth(m)
10 280kN 10 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
1200kN
700kN Qav(kN) Qav (kN)
15 15 1800kN
1120kN
1540kN
2400kN (a) (b)
20 20 3000kN Figure 10 The ratio Qi/Qav of the individual pile load to the average
25 25 individual load in nine pile groups: (a) L = 20 m; (b) L = 24 m.
(a) (b)
Unitshaftresistance(kPa) Q(kN) Q(kN)
Unitshaftresistance(kPa)
0 20 40 60 80 0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 0 20 40 60 80 100
0 0 0
10
5
5 10
720kN 20
1440kN 20
Depth(m)
Depth(m)
10 10
1800kN 3600kN 30
w(mm)
DZ1L
30
w(mm)
The limit shaft resistances were calculated by using the pile Figure 11 shows individual pile load versus group settlement
design methods proposed by Salgado et al. (2011), which curves for QZ9 and QZ9L. For comparison, the load-settlement
capture the dependence of the unit shaft resistance on the clay curves of DZ1 and DZ1L are also shown in Figure 11. For small
undrained shear strength, the normal effective stress on the pile group loads, for which linear elastic solutions would be most
shaft and the difference between the critical-state friction angle applicable, a random load distribution is obtained, with no
and the minimum residual friction angle. Figure 8 shows that definite pattern. When Q10% is approached, there is a
the unit shaft resistance is close to a limit value at shallower redistribution of the load, and position of the pile within the
locations, but that is not the case for deeper locations along the group begins to influence the load it carries. Generally, at the
pile. In practical terms, this means that the end of the load tests same settlement, the load on an individual pile within the group
on the single piles corresponds to state at which the shaft is always less than the load for the corresponding single pile.
2911
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4 IMPLIED INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS with different pile lengths and pile spacing) installed in a soil
profile with mixed layers of clay and silt. Based on the analysis
This interaction between piles is expressed through the concept of the field test results, the following conclusions can be
of the coefficient of interaction ij, which is equal to the ratio of reached:
the settlement of pile i to the settlement of pile j when pile j is
loaded. Using this concept, the settlement of any pile i in a (1) Based on the traditional 0.1B relative settlement criterion,
group with a rigid cap is expressed through (Salgado 2008) the two single piles DZ1 (L/B = 50) and DZ1L (L/B = 60)
n Qj mobilized essentially only shaft resistance, with loads measured
wi = ij (1) at the strain gauge level closest to the pile base accounting for
j=1 K tj only 2.2% of the total load for the 20-m-long pile and 4% of the
total load for the 24-m-long pile.
where wi is the settlement of pile i, ij is the influence factor
(2) The general response of an individual pile in the 2-pile
between i and j. Qj is the load acting on pile j, and Ktj is the
groups was observed to be very close to that of the
stiffness of pile j (in the sense of how much load is required to
corresponding single pile, suggesting minimal interaction
have unit pile head stiffness). Details on how to obtain the
between piles in the two-pile groups.
interaction coefficients using these equations by linear
(3) The values of settlement ratio of both the four-pile and nine-
optimization can be found in Dai et al. (2012).
pile groups tended to increase with settlement. The single pile
The influence coefficients versus pile group settlements are
settlement was observed to be generally smaller than the
shown in Figure 12. In general, with the increase of group
corresponding pile group settlement at the same average load
settlement, the interaction coefficient increases, with an
per pile when the load was relatively large.
inflection point for small settlements (marking the transition
(4) Group effect was more pronounced for QZ4 than for QZ4L
from little interaction for small settlements to a higher level of
and for QZ9 than for QZ9L, showing that the impact of the pile
interaction) and later a tendency of stabilization at large
spacing is greater than that of the pile length on group load
settlements, which is consistent with more intense localization
response.
of shear strain around the piles at large settlements, which leads
(5) The load at the top of the corner piles was observed to be the
to a reduction in the interaction for incremental settlement.
largest, followed by side piles and then center piles. However,
The results for the 2-pile groups QZ2 are inconsistent with
the load differences were not large, particularly for side versus
the other results, with the interaction coefficient being
corner piles.
practically zero. This may be because of spatial variability of
(6) The interaction coefficient was seen to be a function of
the soil or other variability in the pile installation or pile cap.
settlement and the size of the group. With the increase of group
For the four-pile groups, the pile spacing has a larger effect on
settlement, the interaction coefficient was observed to increase.
interaction than pile length, which is to be expected. The
interaction coefficient in group QZ4 with sp = 2.5B and L = 20
m is on average larger than that of group QZ4L with sp = 3.0B 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
and L = 24m. For the nine-pile group, the interaction
coefficients are distributed proportionally to pile center-to- The research was supported by the National Natural Science
center spacing. The interaction coefficients for the piles in the Foundation of China (Grant No.50908048) and a project funded
four-pile group are larger than comparable coefficients (at the by the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu
same spacing) for the nine-pile group. The presence of Higher Education Institutions (PAPD).
additional piles around interacting piles likely interferes with
load or settlement transmission between the interacting piles.
1
0.9
1
0.9
7 REFERENCES
Interaction coefficient
0.8 0.8
Interaction coefficient
0.7 0.7
0.6
0.5
12 0.6
12
Dai, G., Salgado, R., Gong, W., and Zhang, Y. 2012. Loads tests on
0.5
0.4 0.4 full-scale bored pile groups. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2 accepted.
0.1 0.1
0 0
Leung, Y. F., Soga, K., Lehane, B.M. et al. 2010. Role of linear
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Pile group settlement (mm) Pile group settlement (mm)
elasticity in pile group analysis and load test interpretation. J.
(a) (b) Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 136 (12), 1686 - 1694.
1.2 Poulos, H. G. 1968. Analysis of the settlement of pile groups.
1.20 1.1
1.10 1 12 Geotechnique, 18 (4), 449 - 471.
Interaction coefficient
1.00 0.9
0.90 0.8 14 Poulos, H. G., Randolph M. F. 1983. Pile group analysis: a study of two
Interaction coefficient
0.80 0.7
0.70
0.60 12 0.6
0.5
methods. J. Geotech. Eng., 109 (3), 355 371.
0.50
0.40
14 0.4
0.3
Poulos, H. G., and Davis, E. H. 1980. Pile foundation analysis and
0.30
0.2
0.20
0.10 0.1
design, Wiley, New York.
0
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Poulos, H. G. 1989. Pile behave theory and application. Geotechnique,
Pile group settlement (mm) Pile group settlement (mm) 39 (3), 365 - 415.
(c) (d) Randolph, M. F. 2003. Science and empiricism in pile foundation
1
0.9
1 design. Geotechnique, 53 (10), 847 - 875.
0.9
1
0.8 0.8 1 Randolph, M. F. and Wroth, C.P. 1978. Analysis of vertical deformation
Interaction coefficient
0.7 2
Interaction coefficient
0.7 2
0.6 3 0.6
3
of vertically loaded piles. J. Geotech. Eng., 104 (12), 1465 1488.
0.5 0.5
0.4 4
0.4 4 Randolph, M. F. and Wroth, C.P. 1979. An analysis of the vertical
0.3 5 0.3
0.2 0.2
5
deformation of pile groups. Geotechnique, 29 (4), 423 - 439.
0.1
0
0.1
0
Salgado, R., Prezzi, M., Tehrani F. S. 2011. Soil Property-Based
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Methods for Design of Nondisplacement Piles. 2011 Pan-Am CGS
Pile group settlement (mm) Pile group settlement (mm)
Geotechnical Conference.
(a) (b) Salgado, R. 2008. The Engineering of Foundations. McGraw-Hill.
Figure 12.Interaction coefficients versus settlement in each pile group:
(a) QZ2; (b) QZ2L; (c) QZ4; (d) QZ4L; (e) QZ9; (f) QZ9L.
5 CONCLUSION
A field pile load testing program was carried out on isolated
bored piles and bored pile groups (with two, four, and nine piles
2912
General Report of TC 214
Soft soils
Rapport gnral du TC 214
Sol mous
Ovando-Shelley E.
Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico
Rangel-Nez J.L.
Universidad Autnoma Metropolitana
ABSTRACT: The papers in the Soft Soils session cover almost comprehensively the main topics related to soft soil engineering. The
15 papers that were submitted came from countries located in at least four continents, thus demonstrating that soft soils are widely
spread and that research into their properties and characteristics is still of paramount importance for an increasing large number of
geotechnical engineers worldwide. Theses papers will provide readers an opportunity to learn many aspects of soil engineering from
the experiences shared by other colleagues around the world. In almost all of the papers the importance of characterizing soft soils
properly is highlighted. It is also evident that thorough soil exploration as well as field and laboratory testing are necessary to achieve
this purpose. The papers also show the extensive and extended use of exploration techniques that were rare only a few decades ago. It
is also notable that most contributions refer to case histories in which basic soil mechanics concepts have been successfully applied
and in which instrumentation was used judiciously to monitor and interpret soil behavior. Also, improved field instrumentation
systems have had a positive influence on the development of many projects.
RSUM : Les articles de cette session sur les sols mous couvrent presque compltement les principaux sujets lis la gotechnique
des sols mous. Les 15 communications qui ont t prsentes proviennent de pays situs dans au moins quatre continents, dmontrant
ainsi que les sols mous sont largement rpandus et que la recherche sur leurs proprits et caractristiques est toujours d'une
importance capitale pour un grand nombre croissant d'ingnieurs gotechniques dans le monde entier. Ces documents donneront aux
lecteurs l'occasion de dcouvrir de nombreux aspects de l'ingnierie des sols partir des expriences partages par d'autres collgues
travers le monde. Dans la plupart des articles est mise en lumire l'importance de la caractrisation des sols mous, et il est donc
ncessaire d'avoir une reconnaissance et des essais sur le terrain et en laboratoire d'excellente qualit. Les documents montrent
galement l'utilisation intensive et prolonge de techniques d'exploration qui taient rares il y a seulement quelques dcennies. Il faut
aussi noter que la plupart des contributions se rfrent des tudes de cas dans lesquels les concepts de base de mcanique des sols
ont t appliqus avec succs et dans lequel l'instrumentation a t utilise bon escient pour contrler et interprter le comportement
du sol. En outre, l'amlioration des systmes d'instrumentation sur le terrain ont eu une influence positive sur le dveloppement de
nombreux projets.
KEYWORDS: Soft soils, soil improvement, historical cases, characterization of soft soils, analysis, numerical modeling & fracturing.
2915
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
the Cherry Island Landfill, located in the USA, in Wilmington, 4 DETERMINATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Delaware. OF SOFT SOILS
Mller and Larsson (2013) investigate and discuss the
differences between six of the available analytical models to Two papers were presented regarding about this issue:
evaluate the average degree of consolidation U describing the Equihua-Anguiano and Orozco-Caldern (2013) estimated
characteristics of the disturbed zone around prefabricated the undrained shear strength of marine soft soils based on the
vertical drains (eq 1), and evaluate the influence on the results vertical penetration of a horizontal cylinder of 3.35 to 9m long
of the variables incorporated in these models. and 1 to 2m in diameter, using steel and PVC tubes. An
experimental program was carried out to validate the results of
8xTh this device using a large rigid tank where a reconstituted marine
soft soil was placed. The undrained shear strength was
U =1e F
(1) estimated from the analysis of the penetration of the cylinder
and from miniature vane shear tests. The results show that the
where T = c td is the time factor for horizontal two methods yield similar values of the undrained shear
consolidation, c = k M is the undisturbed horizontal strength.
coefficient of consolidation in the clay, t is the consolidation Bobei and Locks (2013) present the results and
time, d is the diameter of the assumed unit cell dewatered by a interpretations of data collected during the procurement phase
single drain and the expression F is dependent on the model. of a motorway upgrade in New Zealand. The strength and
consolidation characteristics are investigated for a soil identified
The influence of each variable xi (i.e. F, Th and ) on can be
as a sensitive soft soil, Late PleistoceneHolocene marine
assessed through the parameter :
sediment. The estimate of undrained shear strength based on
empirical methods is found to have limitations to predict the
=
(2) undrained shear strength of the sensitive soil. The authors
propose that one-dimensional compression response of the
virgin sensitive may be estimated using a relationship between
the liquidity index and the vertical effective stress. The
The authors concluded that although more realistically predictive capability of this relationship is demonstrated by
models may capture the nature of the smear zone, the impacts numerical simulations of settlement monitored during the
on the assessment of U of the more complex models are construction and post-construction phase of the original SH16
insignificant under the assumptions made in this paper. motorway embankment. The soil sensitivity represents an
Hansbos simplified model is still useful for practical indicator of soil micro-structural bonding or development of
engineering purposes due to its simplicity. They also state that inter-particle forces between particles or their aggregates. The
it is more important to put an effort into reducing the disturbance to the soil structural bonding during loading could
uncertainty in ch the trying to investigate s and m in ordinary have some serious consequences such as: (a) strength reduction;
engineering projects. and (b) changes in the overall soil behaviour due to an increase
Jurez-Badillo (2013) applies his general time-settlement in soil compressibility properties.
equation (eq 3), provided by his principle of natural The measure of soil sensitivity (St) adopted in this study is
proportionality on the evaluation of settlements in soft soils for based on the ratio between peak undisturbed strength (su) and
the Kansai International Airport. the remould strength (sr) when the soil reaches its residual state.
The results of shear vane tests were interpreted to determine the
=
(3) strength sensitivity manifested by virgin AH soil as shown in
Figure 1b.
(3)
where t*=t at S=1/2ST, and ST and d are parameters which Liquidity Index - LI e/eo
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15
may be obtained from experimental data. Using experimental 0.0
-0.5
data from Kansai International Airport and calibrating his
BH22A: RL=-0.9m
equation, his estimates of total settlements in the long term tend -2.5 -2.0
Relative Level: RL (m)
Relative Level - RL (m)
BH31C: RL=-3.2m
to be similar to the observed data. Newland (1955): RL=-3.9m
-4.5
-4.0 DH423: RL=-6.3m
-8.5
(a)
Good to Fair
-10.5
concrete piles as a method for improving soft soils. They
Poor
2916
Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
demonstrated by numerical simulations of the Plaxis computer software, using the soft soil model for the
settlement monitored during the construction and clays and the hardening soil model for sandy strata. Their
post-construction phase of SH16 motorway analyses included indirectly the presence of PVDs. To achieve
embankment. this, the authors used an equivalent vertical permeability for the
soft clay stratum. The back analysis yielded a value of this
5 CASE HISTORIES equivalent permeability which turned out to be almost six times
larger than the original permeability of the soft soils.
Eight papers on case histories were presented: Tashiro et al. Compression Re-compression Over Consolidation Preconsolidation Undrained Shear Atterberg Limit with
Bulk Density
(2013), Kim et al. (2013), Tan et al. (2013), Popovic and Stanic Ratio (CR) Ratio (RR) Ratio (OCR) Pressure (PC) Strength (Su) Water Content
0
(2013), Massad et al. (2013), Ooi et al. (2013), Asiri and 1
Depth (m)
6
7
Tashiro et al. (2013) study the case of a large field test 8
9
performed on a trial embankment (150 by 27m) resting over a 10
peaty soft soil deposit 50m thick. Upon the application large 11
12
The authors analyzed several strategies for reducing settlement =- Remoulded Y- Water Content
y - Liquid Limit
in the trial embankment and its surroundings by means of either Figure 2. Mechanical properties of the trial embankment (Tan et al.
sand drains or card board drains (wick drains). Field 2013).
observations and comprehensive soil testing was carried out to Popovic and Stanic (2013) analyze soil-structure interaction
characterize the soft soil. and effectiveness of soil improvement through back-analyses
The effects of countermeasures to prevent excessive based on measurements conducted during the early stages of the
deformations and settlements such as ground improvement with construction of a new container terminal in the port of Ploce in
sand drains, replacement of the existing embankment with Croatia. The soil profile is formed by a surface layer of silty
lightweight materials, and reduction of the loading rate, were sand and low plasticity silt of 8m of thickness followed by a
also investigated using numerical analysis. These analyses were low to high plasticity clay that reaches 33m of depth. After that,
performed using the soil-water coupled finite deformation a low plasticity poorly graded silty sand is founded. Subsoil
analysis program GEOASIA, in which the SYS Cam-clay treatment consisted in dense and sparse stone columns
model was mounted as the constitutive equation for the soil (triangular grid 2x2m and square grid 2.8x2.8m, respectively).
skeleton. The results showed that improvement of the mass Back analyses were performed based data on soil settlement
permeability and the slow or lightweight banking are effective and pile displacement measured with instruments installed to
means of improving the stability during loading and reducing monitor the progress of construction. The objective of back
the residual settlement after entry into service. The results analyses was to establish actual soil parameters and the
analyzed in this paper were applied to the actual construction condition of internal forces and displacements in the structure.
design of a culvert and the lightweight embankment The authors were able to verify the efficiency of planned works
surrounding it. aided by the geotechnical measurements described in the paper.
Kim et al. (1013) present a case history about the expansion Finally, the results of numerical models were used as a
of the second branch of the Namhae Expressway in Korea means for controlling the construction processes. The authors
which overlies a 53m thick soft soil deposit. The original design point out that it is necessary to perform back analyses during
plans were reviewed, problems were discussed and solutions for and after the construction of complex projects in difficult
the problems were proposed. With the improved plan, it was not geotechnical environments on the basis of measurements and
necessary to dispose of soil and asphalt concrete removed from through the collaboration of structural and geotechnical
the existing road. The constructability of the project would be engineers.
improved because the sequence of activities would be simplified The paper by Massad et al. (2013) is based on data from a
and issues related to the difficulty of installing PBD (Plastic work in Santos Harbor, in So Paulo State, Brazil, in which
Board Drains) by drilling on the slope of the existing road could three experimental fills were built and monitored, one of them
be avoided. The improved plan reduces the construction cost. partially with geodrains. The monitoring of earth fills built on
Installation of PBD beneath the existing road would involve soft clays has been done frequently through the Brazilian
additional costs for drilling or removing gravel and crushed coastline. As the most common measurement is the settlement
stone underneath the existing road. In addition, there would be a along time, the interpretation of the results is usually done by
cost for disposal of the waste asphalt concrete. If PBD is used to Asaokas Method, generally involving extrapolations that have
improve the soil under the existing road, it is expected that given rise to doubts (for instance, about the secondary
coupled settlement will occur near adjacent structures due to the consolidation effect) and to a double interpretation, and even to
soil settlement. The improved plan does not involve controversies, especially when it comes to evaluating the
improvement of the soft soil and consequently protects the effectiveness of vertical geodrains to accelerate settlements.
stability of structures located near the existing road. The uppermost soil stratum is the SFL clay, a sedimentary
Tan et al. (2013) studied another trial embankment material (fluvial-lagoon-bay) of the Pleistocene that has become
constructed over a 15m thick deposit of very soft clay whose lightly overconsolidated due to erosion, sea level oscillations
relevant mechanical properties are shown in Figure 2. Pre- and dune action. The authors describe and comment on the
fabricated vertical drains (PVD) were installed in the soft soil results of extensive soil exploration as well as field and
deposit following a triangular pattern (1.2 m separation). The laboratory testing with which a detailed and thorough
trial embankment was 50m long and 14.2m wide, a 50cm thick characterization of the SFL clay was possible, for the sites at the
sand layer was placed at the bottom of the embankment as well three trial embankments.
as a geotextile sheet. In the first experimental site an earth fill was placed in area
The embankment was instrumented with inclinometers, reclaimed from the sea. Application of loads was carried out in
displacements markers, extensometers, vibrating wire three stages and that made it possible to apply Asaokas
piezocones, settlement gauges, stand pipes. Experimental Method, as shown graphically in the paper. A second
observations were used to back analyze the embankment using experimental fill (Pilot Embankment 2) was built with a
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
maximum height of 5.2m. The values of the end of primary Vacuum consolidation was applied using band drains with a
settlement (f) and cv/H2d were determined from instrumental spacing of 1m. Primary consolidation settlements were
data for the two loading stages. The authors interpreted compensated and secondary consolidation deformation
measurement to find equivalent cv values, after roughly 5 minimized by applying a vacuum pressure of 70kPa. There were
months when at least 95% of the primary settlement was places where it was not possible to apply vacuum and in those
reached. In the third experimental fill, with a maximum hight of cases, soil improvement was carried out by applying surcharge.
6.7, they also inferred cv values from instrumental observations. The continuous assessment of the improvement of soft
A third experimental fill (Pilot Embankment 3), built also in ground was carried with field instruments: settlement plates,
Area 3, with a maximum height of 6.7m, behaved in a similar pyrometers, a vacuum pressure monitoring unit and a water
way, with cv/H2d averaging 1.8.10-2/day; the EOP settlement discharge meter. The decision to remove the surcharge was
was ~80 cm and 95% of this value was reached after ~6 month. made on the basis of the monitoring data obtained during the
Due to the relatively high OCR values of the SFL Clays, the surcharge period. The aim was to eliminate 100% of the
cv were also high, of the order or 10-2cm2/s. As a consequence, primary consolidations settlement and enough secondary
there was no need to use geodrains in the Embraport site. settlement.
This conclusion was supported by instrumental observations De Silva and Fong (2013) describe and discuss the case of
in three experimental earth fills without geodrains and, more the Cotai Landfill, the main receiving facility in Macau for
important, by the monitoring of settlements in the area where building construction waste. As the dumping site is underlain
temporary surcharges were used. These results show that with a thick layer of very soft to soft marine clay deposits, the
controversies that after arise about the use of geodrains can be uncontrolled end-tipped material has generated mud waves and
overcome with proper characterization of soils present in the they were encroaching the piles supporting the Macau
field and from thorough and careful interpretation of International Airport taxiway nearby. In order to prevent future
instrumental observations from properly instrumented trial fills. potential damage to the taxiway, the Macau Government
The paper by Ooi et al. (2013) discusses the development of commissioned the design of a containment bund adjacent to the
geogrid applications in soft ground in Malaysia starting in 1984 taxiway to retain the waste and to prevent further generation of
when a road pavement field trial was first carried out. Other mud waves that would affect the taxiway.
experiences followed in the following years and in this paper This paper presents the design approach of the containment
they report another project in which geogrids with geocells were bund including the results of a limit equilibrium stability
used. They compare the performance of three cases in which analysis and the numerical analyses carried out that
geogrids were used, a fabrication yard, a heavy duty working demonstrated that the solution is appropriate as the bund will
platform and a container yard working platform. They compare contain the landfill with minimal impact on the taxiway bridge
and assess the pavements used in them and the magnitude of piles. The analyses also demonstrated that the impacts during
settlement they underwent under construction and later construction are also negligible. The sustainable design
operations. All the three platforms were built over soft clays 4.5 comprised the installation of vibrocompacted stone columns
to 10m thick and applied stresses due to heavy equipment was installed in over 20m thick, very soft to firm, moderately
as high as 500kPa and axial loads of heavy vehicles reached sensitive marine clay and alluvial clay, as the foundation to the
105tonnes. Granular fill of varying thicknesses were used in all waste retention bund, thereby avoiding the dredging and off-site
three working platforms. The authors state that mechanically disposal of a significant volume of dredged sediments. This
stabilized soils using biaxial and triaxial geogrids with granular paper presents the design approach and construction of the stone
fill with or without geocell mattress performed satisfactorily in columns and the behaviour of the completed seawall.
terms of platform settlement performances to support the The authors show instrumental observations to monitor
heavily loaded platforms. during the taxiway and seawall during construction. Survey
The case history presented by Asiri and Masakasu (2013) results indicated that the installation of the stone columns and
deals with the design and performance of a highway construction of the bund had minimal impact on the taxiways
embankment constructed in Sri Lanka over very soft soils and foundation piles. The seawall was been completed in November
alluvial clays. The project required that settlements be limited to 2011.
less that 15cm after three years and those residual differential
settlements be less than 0.3%. Soils were improved by means 6 SOIL FRACTURING
of wick drains, heavy tamping, pre loading with surcharges and
vacuum consolidation. The soil improvement method was Auvinet and Mendez (2013) present updated information
adjusted depending local geotechnical conditions. The major concerning land subsidence and associated soil fracturing in
steps in ground improvement method and illustrated in Fig 3 Mexico City. Subsidence was estimated from the evolution of
are: a) placing surcharge loads with or without drains for soft the elevations of 2064 benchmarks and other references located
clays of shallow thickness; b) removal of peaty soil, replacing it in former Texcoco Lake. Geodesic and topographic surveys
rock fragments; c) applying heavy tamping or, alternatively, carried out in the middle of the XIXth century proved to
vacuum consolidation for deeper strata. Heavy tamping was constitute an excellent initial reference for subsequent
only effective down to 3.5 to 4.0m measurements of land subsidence. Extensive use was made of
new geocomputing tools to process these data. Results of
surveys of soil fracturing associated to subsidence are also
presented and discussed
The demographic development in Mexico City has created
an accelerated demand of services, mostly of potable water. One
of the cheapest ways to meet this demand has been the
exploitation of the local aquifer by pumping water from deep
wells. This has produced a water pressure drawdown in the
subsoil that in turn is causing general subsidence of the former
lacustrine area and soil fracturing. This problem has been
around for almost a century but is now reaching new worrying
dimensions. Although regional land subsidence is an old
phenomenon, it has not been possible to control it. In fact, it is
Figure 3. Major steps in heavy tamping ground improvement method expected to continue in the future for many more years since,
(Asiri and Masakasu , 2013) due to the high cost of other alternatives, water pumping from
2918
Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
the local aquifer cannot be suspended. Studies and analyses are 8 REFERENCES
thus necessary to rethink criteria and strategies to mitigate
future effects Karunawardena A. and Toki M. 2013. Design and Performance of
The authors describe the efforts of their research group to Highway Embankments Constructed Over Sri Lankan Peaty Soils.
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soils
monitor the subsidence phenomenon of the lacustrine zone of Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, International Society for
Mexico City, as well as of others aspects of the problem, like Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris.
soil fracturing. A Geographic Information System was Auvinet G., Mndez E. and Jurez M. 2013.Soil fracturing induced by
developed to this end, using as a support a similar system land subsidence in Mexico City. Proceedings of the 18th
developed previously by the authors. Up to now, 868 fracturing International Conference on Soils Mechanics and Geotechnical
sites have been documented. About 45 sites where cracks had Engineering, International Society for Soil Mechanics and
been reported were discarded when, during the field visits, it Geotechnical Engineering, Paris.
became evident that no fracturing could be detected and that Bobei D.C. and Locks J. 2013. Characterization of Sensitive Soft Soils
defects in the soil surface could be attributed to other factors for the Waterview Connection Project, New Zealand. Proceedings
of the 18th International Conference on Soils Mechanics and
(mainly scour). Geotechnical Engineering, International Society for Soil Mechanics
and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris.
De Silva S. and Fong L. T. T. 2013. Design and Construction of a
Landfill Containment Bund cum Seawall Supported on Stone
Columns Installed in Very Soft Marine Mud in Cotai, Macau.
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soils
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, International Society for
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris.
Equihua-Anguiano L. N. and Orozco-Caldern M. 2013. Estimation of
undrained shear strength of soft soil obtained by cylinder vertical
penetration. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on
Soils Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, International
Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris.
Espinoza, D., and Chunling Li 2013. The Application of a Novel Design
Approach for Construction over Soft Soils: The Hybrid Undrained-
Drained model. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference
on Soils Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, International
Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris.
Espinoza R.D., Houlihan M.F., and Ramsey, T.B. 2011. Design of high
soil berm over soft soil. Geo-Strata, March-April, pp 52-54.
Figure 4. A dramatic example of soil fracturing in a site near Mexico Jurez-Badillo, E. 2013. Kansai International Airport. Theoretical
City settlement history. Proceedings of the 18th International
Engineers and practitioners as well as local and federal Conference on Soils Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
authorities will surely profit for the crack and fissure maps Engineering, Paris.
produced by the authors, not only for assessing the feasibility of Jurez-Badillo, E. 1985b. General volumetric constitutive equation for
specific projects but also in the planning of urban development geomaterials. Special volume on Constitutive Laws of Soils. XI
schemes or land usage regulations. International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering. San Francisco. Japanese Society for Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo, pp 131 135.
7 CONCLUSIONS Kim, K.H., Jung, T.M., Jung, J.H., Kim, T.H., Kim, S.R. and You, S.H.
2013. Design improvements for expansion of a roadway on a thick
The papers in the session cover almost comprehensively the layer of soft soil. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference
on Soils Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, International
main topics related to soft soil engineering. The 15 papers that Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris
were submitted came from countries located in at least four Lui, H.L., Kong G.Q., Ding X.M., Yu, T. and Yang G. 2013. Case
continents, thus demonstrating that soft soils are widely spread study on X-section cast-in-place pile-supported embarnkment over
and that research into their properties and characteristics is still soft clay. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soils
of paramount importance for an increasing large number of Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, International Society for
geotechnical engineers worldwide. Sharing experiences with Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris.
problems associated to soft soils is also very important. The Massad F., Henriques Teixeira A., Carvalho C. T. and Grang Luiz F.A.
papers submitted to the session will provide readers an 2013. Settlements of earth fills on thick layers of overconsolidated
soft clays without geodrains. Proceedings of the 18th International
opportunity to learn many aspects of soil engineering from the
Conference on Soils Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
experiences shared by other colleagues around the world. International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
In almost all of the papers the importance of characterizing Engineering, Paris.
soft soils properly is highlighted. It is also evident that thorough Mller, R., and Larsson, S. 2013. Aspects of the modelling of smear
soil exploration as well as field and laboratory testing are zonaes around vertical drains. Proceedings of the 18th International
necessary to achieve this purpose. The papers also show the Conference on Soils Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
extensive and extended use of exploration techniques that were International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
rare only a few decades ago. Engineering, Paris.
It is also notable that most contributions refer to case Ooi, T.A., Tee, C.H., Chan, C.B. and Ong, R. 2013. A review of
geogrid working platform in soft ground in Malaysia. Proceedings
histories in which basic soil mechanics concepts have been
of the 18th International Conference on Soils Mechanics and
successfully applied and in which instrumentation was used Geotechnical Engineering, International Society for Soil Mechanics
judiciously to monitor and interpret soil behavior. Also, and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris.
improved field instrumentation systems have had a positive Popovic, N., and Stanic, B. 2013. Container terminal on soft soil.
influence on the development of many projects. In this respect, Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soils
the submitted papers, especially those presented in the case Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, International Society for
histories, show different manners in which the observational Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris.
method can be applied successfully, under a wide range of
geotechnical conditions and within the context of a variety of
problems.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2920
Soil Fracturing Induced by Land Subsidence in Mexico City
Fracturation des sols induite par la subsidence de la ville de Mexico
ABSTRACT: Updated information concerning land subsidence and associated soil fracturing in Mexico City is presented. Subsidence
was estimated from the evolution of the elevations of 2064 benchmarks and other references located in former Texcoco Lake.
Geodesic and topographic surveys carried out in the middle of the XIXth century proved to constitute an excellent initial reference for
subsequent measurements of land subsidence. Extensive use was made of new geocomputing tools to process these data. Results of
surveys of soil fracturing associated to subsidence are also presented and discussed.
RSUM: On prsente des donnes rcentes sur la subsidence et la fracturation des sols Mexico. La subsidence a pu tre value
grce des levs topographiques portant sur 2064 points de nivellement et dautres repres situs dans lancien lac de Texcoco. Les
relevs godsiques et topographiques du milieu du XIXme sicle constituent une excellente rfrence initiale pour les mesures
suivantes. On a utilis de nouveaux outils informatiques pour traiter ces donnes. Des rsultats de relevs concernant la fracturation
des sols sont galement prsents et comments.
KEYWORDS: Subsidence, soil fracturing, soft clays, surveys, geocomputing.
1 INTRODUCTION.
The demographic development in Mexico City has created an
accelerated demand of services, mostly of potable water. One of
the cheapest ways to meet this demand has been the exploitation
of the local aquifer by pumping water from deep wells. This has
produced a water pressure drawdown in the subsoil that in turn
is causing general subsidence of the former lacustrine area and
soil fracturing. This problem has been around for almost a
century but is now reaching new worrying dimensions.
Today, the subsidence phenomenon, at eighty years from
Roberto Gayols discovery (1925), and at more than sixty years
from its scientific explanation by Nabor Carrillo (1947), persists
with cumulative effects through time which cause differential
settlements in colonial and modern structures of Mexico City.
Installations as important as the subway system, the Gran Canal,
and the water system network are also severely affected. Figure 1. Crack in Chalco
During the last decades, an increasing number of soil
fractures have been detected in Mexico City valley. Such cracks
are a matter of growing concern for the population and 1 LAND SUBSIDENCE
authorities since they have caused a series of accidents and
serious damage to constructions and public services. It is now 1.1 Assessing regional subsidence
acknowledged that the soil fracturing problem is an important
risk factor and that the best scientific tools and techniques Although regional land subsidence is an old phenomenon, it has
should be mobilized to define prevention and mitigating not been possible to control it. In fact, it is expected to continue
measures. in the future for many more years since, due to the high cost of
Soil fracturing can occur as a consequence of any condition other alternatives, water pumping from the local aquifer cannot
leading to large tensile stresses or extension strains in the soil. be suspended. Studies and analyses are thus necessary to rethink
Accordingly, cracks in the soil have different origin, including criteria and strategies to mitigate future effects.
contraction of compressible clays by drying, stresses induced by
the weight of constructions, hydraulic fracturing of soft soils 1.2 Local values of subsidence
(Auvinet & Arias, 1991, Figure 1), seismic movements, etc.
However, the largest and more destructive fractures are Thanks to the historic information which was gathered with
generally a direct consequence of land subsidence associated to the support of different institutions among which stands out the
pumping of water in the local aquifer. Water System of Mexico City (SACM) of the Federal District
Government (Pineda & Pelaez, 2009), the subsidence history in
three sites of the Historic Center of Mexico City could be
reconstituted (Figure 2).
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
In the figure 2, it is observed that the subsidence rate reached Information System (SIG-BN) to process the data obtained from
a 29cm/year peak during the 1947-1957 period, and is still of surveys of the existing benchmarks. Geodesic and topographic
the order 10cm/year for these three sites. surveys carried out in the middle of the XIXth century were
The accumulated settlement since the end of the XIXth reviewed and proved to constitute an excellent initial reference
century is of the order of 10m for these sites but, in other points for subsequent measurements. From the contour map obtained
of the valley, accumulated subsidence values as high as 13.5m by geostatistical methods it was possible to develop a model of
have been observed (Prez, 2009). the present configuration of the surface relief of the bottom of
Some physical evidences of the general subsidence such as the former lakes of Mexico valley (Figure 4).
former well casings protruding from the subsiding surrounding
soil can be observed in the city (Figure 3). The authorities have
been asked to protect such evidences.
PLAZA DE LA REVOLUCIN
7.20cm/year
1950 Original 2007
Superfac
1907
Coupling
7.23m
Coupling
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
2923
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4 REFERENCES
Auvinet, G. & Arias, A. (1991) Propagacin de grietas. Memoria,
Simposio sobre "Agrietamiento del suelo", Sociedad Mexicana de
Mecnica de Suelos, pp. 21-31, august, Mxico, D. F.
Auvinet, G. et al. (1995) Sistema de Informacin Geogrfica para
Sondeos Geotcnicos, Proceedings, Xth Pan-American Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 1, pp. 312-
324, Guadalajara, Mexico.
Carrillo, N. (1947) Influence of Artesian Wells on the Sinking of
Mexico City. 2nd Internation Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineeering, Nederland.
Gayol, R. (1925) Estudio de las perturbaciones que en el fondo del valle
de Mxico ha producido el drenaje de las aguas del subsuelo por las
obras del Desage, y rectificacin de los errores a que ha dado
lugar una incorrecta interpretacin de los hechos observados.
Revista Mexicana de Ingenieros y Arquitectos. Vol. III, Number 2,
Mexico, D.F.
Figure 7. Crack in an abrupt transition area. Marsal, R. & Mazari, M. (1959) The subsoil of Mexico City.
Contribution to Ier Pan-American Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Initially, fracturing was only observed in the sediments of Enginering Conference, Facultad de Ingeniera, UNAM, Mxico.
former Texcoco lake but, in the last years, the phenomenon has Reedited (spanish-english) in 1969.
been widely reported in five areas of Mexico Valley: a) South Prez, D. (2009) Modelado del hundimiento de la zona lacustre del valle
zone: Xochimilco, Tlhuac and Chalco; b) East zone: Iztacalco, de Mxico. Aspectos estratigrficos y piezomtricos. Master degree
thesis, Escuela Superior de Ingeniera y Arquitectura, IPN, Mxico
Iztapalapa, Nezahualcoyotl, Chimalhuacan and Los Reyes; c) D.F.
Center area: Peon de los Baos and Venustiano Carranza; d) Pineda R. & Pelaez T. (2009) Procedimiento de medicin del
North-West zone: Naucalpan, Azacapotzalco and G. A. Madero hundimiento de la ciudad de Mxico, Geotechnical Engineering in
and e) North-East zone: former Texcoco lake. urban areas affected by land subsidence, Proceedings, workshop
organized by ISSMGE TC36, Instituto de Ingeniera and Sociedad
Mexicana de Ingeniera Geotcnica, Mexico, D.F.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Land subsidence is an ongoing process that affects the former
lacustrine zone of Mexico City. Soil fracturing associated to
land subsidence causes serious problems to the citizenship and
the infrastructure of the metropolitan area of Mexico valley.
Until now, actions in this regard have been isolated, and only
short term solutions have been implemented without really
trying to understand the problem in greater depth and to
evaluate the true efficiency of these solutions.
Efforts by different groups, in particular by the
Geocomputing Laboratory of II UNAM to achieve a better
monitoring of the subsidence phenomenon of the lacustrine
zone of Mexico City, as well as of others aspects of the
geotechnical problematic, like soil fracturing, have allowed to
obtain useful results but they just constitute the first stage of a
huge monitoring work which should be followed on in a
systematic way in the future. Institutional will to give continuity
to these studies and availability of the required resources for its
realization are essential to obtain satisfactory and up to date
results.
2924
Characterization of Sensitive Soft Soils for the Waterview Connection Project, New
Zealand
Caractrisation de sols mous sensibles pour le projet de raccordement Waterview en Nouvelle-
Zlande
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the results and interpretations of data collected during the procurement phase of SH16 motorway
upgrade. The strength and consolidation characteristics are investigated for a soil unit, labeled AH, which is identified to manifest a
response typical for a sensitive soft soil. The estimateof undrained shear strength based on empirical methods is found to have
limitations to predict the undrained shear strength of the sensitive AH soil. The one-dimensional compression response of the virgin
AH soil is proposed to estimate using a relationship between the liquidity index and the vertical effective stress. The predictive
capability of this relationship is demonstrated by numerical simulations of settlement monitored during the construction and post-
construction phase of the original SH16 motorway embankment.
RSUM : Cet article prsente les rsultats et les interprtations des donnes recueillies lors de la phase de projet de mise niveau de
lautoroute SH16. La rsistance et les caractristiques de consolidation sont tudies pour un type de sol, not AH, qui est
reprsentatif dun sol mou sensible. L'estimation de la rsistance au cisaillement base sur des mthodes empiriques est peu adapte
pour prdire la rsistance au cisaillement non draine du sol sensible AH. La rponse en compression unidimensionnelle du sol vierge
AH est modlise par une relation entre l'indice de liquidit et la contrainte effective verticale. La capacit prdictive de cette relation
est dmontre par des simulations numriques des tassements mesurs pendant la phase de construction et post-construction du
remblai original SH16 de l'autoroute.
KEYWORDS: clay, sensitive soil, critical state soil mechanics, SHANSEP, settlement.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
RelativeLevel RL(m)
4.5
The undrained shear strength was assessed by in-situ testing (a) (b)
methods such as: (a) field shear vanes; and (b) piezocones 5.5
St 8
(CPTu). 6.5
The field shear vanes are commonly used to determine the 7.5
undrained shear strength (su) of soft to medium stiff clays. In
8.5
this project, a typical field vane was used with a diameter of 50
to 65mm and a height to diameter ratio of 2. 9.5
trend with depth in accordance with a linear relationship that 6.5 BH31B: RL=-7.7m
VGoodExcellent
(a) (b)
Good toFair
su 6 1.9 depth (1) 10.5 -8.0
VeryPoor
Poor
12.5
-10.0
Figure 2. (a) Variation of liquidity index with depth; (b) Sample quality
5 SOIL SENSITIVITY
assessment based on (Lunne et al. 1997) classification system.
The soil sensitivity represents an indicator of soil micro-
structural bonding or development of inter-particle forces
between particles or their aggregates. In this study these effects 7 SAMPLE DISTURBANCE
are referred to as structural bonding. The disturbance to the soil An evaluation of the soil sample quality is essential, as
structural bonding during loading could have some serious disturbance may lead to a laboratory measured soil behaviour
consequences such as: (a) strength reduction; and (b) changes in that is different from its in-situ response. Efforts were made to
the overall soil behaviour due to an increase in soil minimize the sample disturbance, but it inevitably occurs due to
compressibility properties. stress changes associated with soil sampling.
The measure of soil sensitivity (St) adopted in this study is (Lunne et al. 1997) proposed to estimate the quality of soil
based on the ratio between peak undisturbed strength (su) and samples based on the ratio e/e0, where the change in void ratio
the remould strength (sr) when the soil reaches its residual state. e is measured during soil re-consolidation phase to in-situ
The results of shear vane tests were interpreted to determine the vertical stress v0 with consideration of void ratio e0at the
strength sensitivity manifested by virgin AH soil as shown in beginning of this phase.
Figure 1b. Figure 2b presents an assessment of soil sample quality of
Several classifications of soil sensitivity have been proposed reliable oedometer tests (i.e. sample designation falling in the
in the technical literature. According to (Rosenqvist 1953) the range of good to excellent). Given the very soft consistency of
AH soil falls in the range of a Very Sensitive soil (i.e. 4 < St< the virgin AH soil, a significant number of samples were found
8). to have an undesirable quality.
For brevity and clarity of the paper presentation these values
6 ATTERBERG LIMITS have not been included in Figure 2b, and the associated
oedometer and triaxial test results have been discarded from
The consistency limits, liquid limit (LL) and plasticity limits further consideration.
(PL), besides serving the basic means of soil classification, they
have also been shown to provide estimates of strength and
deformation parameters via empirical correlations (Wroth and 8 OEDOMETER TESTS
Wood 1978, among many others). The tests were carried out using a fixed-ring oedometer with
For this project, the method to assess the LL has adopted the drainage allowed at top and bottom of the test soil sample. The
fall cone method for the AH soils. The PL was determined by soil samples were 31mm in diameter and 16mm in height. The
the method of thread rolling according to BS 1377-2:1990. settlement of the soil sample was monitored by a Linear
Figure2a shows the liquidity index (LI) for a soil profile at Vertical Displacement Transducer (LVDT). Each load
Chainage 1,860m. The values of LI are generally greater than 1 increment was applied over a time period of 24 hours, with the
which is indicative of a soil micro-fabric that is able to end of primary consolidation determined using the square-root-
accommodate additional resistance over the remoulded state due of-time method (Taylor 1942).
to development of structural bonds.
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
An AH sample was vigorously remoulded on a glass plate of soil under loading. It was firstly introduced by (Roscoe et al.
using a spatula to form a soil slurry at a water content equal to 1958) to describe the behaviour of remoulded clays, and
the liquid limit (Burland 1990). nowadays the concept was extended to represent a more general
The results of AH oedometer tests are presented in Figure 3 framework of soil behaviour for: (a) Sands (Been et al 1991);
in a semi-logarithmic plot of void ratio, e, against the logarithm and(b) Combinations of sand with various percentages of plastic
of the vertical effective stress, log(v). The virgin AH soil and non-plastic fines (Bobei et al. 2009).
manifests initially a negligible amount of compression before The results of undrained triaxial tests conducted on AH soil
reaching the pre-consolidation stress, p. When the stress are interpreted in the framework of critical state as illustrated in
values exceed p, the consolidation curve displays a non-linear Figure 5. The soil samples were considered to reach the critical
response with a gradient significantly higher compared to the state when the following conditions are satisfied: dq=0, dp=0,
remoulded sample. At high pressures, the compression curve of du =0 while dq0.
virgin soil is seen to approach the remould consolidation line in The CS is found to plot along a linear relationship. On
an asymptotic trend. consideration of initial soil state being located above the CS
line, and the contractive behaviour manifested during undrained
4.5 loading (refer to Figure 4), the virginAH soil appears to fully
BH22A:RL=0.9m conform to the framework laid out by CS.
4.0
BH31C:RL=3.2m
3.5 Newland(1955):RL3.9m
3.5 CriticalState
VoidRatio e
DH423:RL=6.3m
3.0 BH31B:RL=7.7m UndisturbedAHSoil
RemouldSample 3.0 RemouldedAHSoil
2.5 NaturalSoilConsolidationLine
2.5 RemouldedSoilConsolidationLine
VoidRatio:e
2.0
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
10 100 1,000
VerticalStress 'v (kPa) 1.0
Figure 3. One-dimensional consolidation test results.
0.5
1 10 100 1,000
9 TRIAXIAL TESTS MeanEffectiveStress:p'
Figure 5. Critical state and soil state of AH soil before undrained
The triaxial tests were carried out on virgin soil samples of
loading.
diameters varying between 50 and 70mm. For all the tests the
sample saturation was achieved by raising the back pressure to a
maximum of 300kPa. Over the duration of saturation, the stress 11 SHANSEP PROCEDURE
state was maintained at an effective stress of 20kPa. Full
saturation was achieved when Skemptons pore pressure SHANSEP (Stress History and Normalized Soil Engineering
parameter B has achieved a value equal or greater than 95%. Properties) was proposed by (Ladd and Foot 1974) as an
On completion of soil saturation, the samples were empirical method to adopt in engineering practice to estimate
isotropically consolidated before the start of undrained shearing. the undrained shear strength on consideration of stress history
The undrained shearing was conducted in a deformation effects arising from geological unloading. The over-
controlled mode to large axial strains between 15 to 20%. consolidation ratio (OCR = p/v) is chosen as a parameter to
Figure 4 presents the results of undrained shearing as plots encapsulate the stress history effects, with the OCR values
of effective stress paths: deviatoric stress q = 1-3 vs. mean determined by high quality oedometer data. In mathematical
effective stress p = (1+23)/3. terms, SHANSEP correlates the undrained shear strength with
the soil OCR as follows:
200
DH522: RL=-4.3m
Deviatoric Stress: q (kPa)
su su
DH503: RL=-4.4m '
S OCR m OCR m (2)
150
DH525: RL=-5m v'
v OCR 1
100 where: S = intercept with vertical axis at OCR = 1; and m =
gradient of linear relationship.
50 A plot of undrained shear strength ratio (su/v) with OCR
based on CPTu data is shown inFigure 6. The CPTu data was
found to manifest a linear response, with slope gradients within
0
0 100 200 300 400
the bounds of linear relationships shown with dashed lines. In
Mean Effective Stress: p' (kPa) the normally consolidation range, all linear relationships
Figure 4. Effective stress paths of AH soil samples in undrained intersect the vertical axis at a constant (su/v)OCR=1 = 0.35.
shearing for a range of confining pressures p0 = 75 to 300 kPa.
The behaviour manifested by the virgin AH soil is of a
contractive type. The stress paths climb to a maximum
deviatoric stress, qmax, before plummeting towards the origin of
the stress path. The strain softening past qmax is a distinctive
feature of this suite of tests.
10 CRITICAL STATE
The critical state is a fundamental concept in soil mechanics as
it represents a reference state to assess the state and behaviour
2927
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
10.0
CP601 Time (days)
9.0
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
500
CP604
8.0
0
CP606 0 5.0
7.0 CP609 4.5
6.0 SHANSEP
200
4.0
Settlement (mm)
5.0 400
Monitoring Point - MP1
3.5
4.0 Monitoring Point - MP2
3.0
Monitoring Point - MP3
3.0 600
2.5
Prediction Primary Settlement
2.0 2.0
800 Fill Thickness
1.0 1.5
0.0 1,000
1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1,200 0.5
OCR
0.0
Figure 6. Interpretation of CPTu data based on SHANSEP
Figure 8. Settlement prediction at the centerline of motorway
normalization procedure.
embankment.
DH423:RL=6.3m 15 REFERENCES
1.2 BH31B:RL=7.7m
1.0
RemouldSample
Prediction Been K. and Jefferies M.G. 1985. A state parameter for sands,
0.8
Gotechnique, 35 (2), 99-112.
0.6 Bjerrum L. 1973. Problems of soil mechanics and construction on soft
0.4 clays, Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Soil
0.2 Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Moscow, 3, 111-159.
0.0 Bobei D.C. Lo S. R. Wanatowski D. Gnanendran C. T. and Rahman, M.
10 100 1,000 M. 2009. A modified state parameter for characterizing static
Vertical Stress 'v (kPa) liquefaction of sand with fines, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 46
Figure 7. Prediction of non-linear oedometer compression curves. (3), 281-295.
Burland J.B. 1990. On the compressibility and shear strength of virgin
clays, Gotechnique, 40(3), 329-378.
Ladd C.C. and Foot R. 1974. New design procedure for stability of soft
13 SETTLEMENT PREDICTION clays, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE,
The embankment construction progressed gradually on the 100(7), 767-787.
surface of soft marine muds to form a series of containment Lunne T. Berre T. and Strandvik S. 1997. Sample disturbance on soft
cells, to be later in-filled with granular (sand and shell) and low plastic Norwegian clay, Proceeding of the International
cohesive clay material. Symposium on Recent Developments in Soil and Pavement
Mechanics, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 25-27.
An in-house spreadsheet was developed to incorporate the
Roscoe K.H Schofield A.N. and Wroth C.P. 1958. On yielding of soils,
non-linear relationship (3) to describe the compression response
Gotechnique, 8, 22 - 53.
of the virginAH soil.The main features embedded into the
Rosenqvist I. Th. (1953) - Considerations of the sensitivity of
spreadsheet include: (a) multi-layered soil configuration; (b) Norwegian quick clays, Gotechnique, 3(5), 195-200.
vertical stress increase with depth calculated based on 2D Skempton A.W. and Northey R.D. 1952. The sensitivity of clays,
embankment geometry; (c) reduction in v due to submergence Gotechnique, 3, 30-53.
of fill embankment below the ground water table; (d) Taylor D.W. 1942. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, New York, Wiley
calculation of primary consolidation using Terzaghis 1-D Publishers, 229-239.
consolidation theory; and (e) calculation of creep settlement. Wroth, C.P. and Wood, D. M. 1978. The correlation of index properties
The prediction is found to simulate considerably well the with some basic engineering properties of soils, Canadian
magnitude and rate of settlement development with time as Geotechnical Journal, 15(2), 137-145.
shown in Figure 8.
2928
Design and Construction of a Landfill Containment Bund cum Seawall Supported on
Stone Columns Installed in Very Soft Marine Mud in Cotai, Macau
Conception et construction dun remblai de depts avec une enceinte sur des colonnes ballastes
installes dans un sol marin trs mou Cotai, Macao
ABSTRACT: The Cotai Landfill is the main receiving facility in Macau for building construction waste. As the dumping site is
underlain with a thick layer of very soft to soft marine clay deposits, the uncontrolled end-tipped material has generated mud waves
and they were encroaching the piles supporting the Macau International Airport taxiway nearby. In order to prevent future potential
damage to the taxiway, the Macau Government engaged AECOM Asia Co. Ltd.(AACL), to design a containment bund adjacent to the
taxiway to retain the waste and to prevent further generation of mudwaves that would affect the taxiway. The sustainable design
prepared by AACL comprised the installation of vibrocompacted stone columns installed in over 20 m thick, very soft to firm,
moderately sensitive marine clay and alluvial clay,as the foundation to the waste retention bund, thereby avoiding the dredging and
off-site disposal of a significant volume of dredged sediments. This paper presents the design approach and construction of the stone
columns and the behaviour of the completed seawall.
RSUM : La dcharge de Cotai est la principale installation de rception de dchets de chantiers de construction Macao. Comme
le site d'immersion repose sur une paisse couche de dpts d'argile marine trs molle molle, les matriaux en vrac ont gnr des
coulements de boue et ils interpntraient les pieux soutenant les voies de circulation de l'aroport international de Macao. Afin
d'viter des dommages potentiels futurs la voie de circulation, le gouvernement de Macao a engag AECOM Asie Co. Ltd.(AACL),
pour concevoir une enceinte de confinement adjacente la voie de circulation pour retenir les dchets et prvenir une nouvelle
gnration de coule de boue qui aurait une incidence sur la voie de circulation. La conception durable tablie par AACL comprend
l'installation de colonnes ballastes installes dans des couches de plus de 20 m dpaisseur, constitues dargiles marines de
consistance trs molles ferme, moyennement sensibles et dargile alluviale, comme la fondation de lenceinte de rtention des
dchets. Ceci permet d'viter le dragage et l'limination hors du site d'un volume significatif de sdiments dragus. Cet article prsente
l'approche de conception et la construction des colonnes ballastes ainsi que le comportement de lenceinte termine.
KEYWORDS : Soft Clay, Ground Treatment, Stone Column, Mudwaves, Seawall.
Mudwaves Landfill
Taxiway Bridge Coloane Power
Station
This paper present the work for the initial phase of the
Figure 2. Site Layout Plan
protection measures against the mudwaves along the STB of
2929
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2 SITE GEOLOGY columns and soft clay (Barksdale, R.D. & Bachus R.C. 1983)
will be stronger and stiffer and capable of carrying a larger load
The superficial deposits within the study area comprise marine originating from the landfill behind,preventing the formation of
deposit (MD) of the Holocene age overlying a layer of alluvium mudwaves. The stone columns will also act as vertical drains
of the Pleistocene age. Underlying the alluvium is the saprolitic within the soft clay facilitating the rapid dissipation of the
soil consisting of completely decomposed granite (CDG). The excess pore pressures allowing it to quickly consolidate and
solid geology comprises coarse-grained granite of Jurassic- gain in strength, thus further increasing the stiffness of the
Cretaceous age. Fill material has been subsequently placed over composite soil mass over time.
the marine soft clay deposit by the landfilling activities. The strength of the composite ground depends on the
Figure 3 shows the typical geological section of the site. Table 1 percentage of soil replaced by the stone columns, i.e. the
shows the typical thickness and constituentcy of the strata. replacement ratio,as, as defined by (1) and illustrated in Figure 4.
Table 1. Summary of Geological Strata 2
D (1)
a s C1
Strata Thickness
Constituent s
(m)
D - Diameter of the compacted stone column
Fill 4 to 7 C&D waste comprised disturbed mud, silty s - Centre to centre spacing of stone columns
clayey, sand, concrete, bricks, wood, steel C1 - Constant depending on stone column configuration pattern
Marine 13 to 28 Very soft to soft, dark grey, clay to silty
Mud clay with occasional shell fragments. D
Alluvium 0 to 58 Soft to stiff, mottled yellowish brown light
average grey to brown, silty CLAY, CLAY/SILT
30 Medium dense to very dense, yellowish
brown to yellowish grey, silty fine to
0.866s
coarse SAND.
s (2)
n
c
s= stress in the stone column
c= stress in the surrounding cohesive soil
The stresses over the soft soil and the stone column in term
of asfrom (1) and the average overall stress on the ground
surface, , is illustrated in a unit cell concept in Figure 5.
Figure 3. Typical Geological Section
s
Fictitious
3 DESIGN OF THE SEAWALL c roller
2930
Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
Formation Level
for landfill at about +7.5 MCD
the diameter being adopted (LECM 2008b). The model
10.0 Original sea bed
at ~-0.5 MCD
of seawall
at about +3.5 MCD
10 kPa
simulates the full history of the site including the original
7.5
5.0 Low Tide
Rockfill
(0, 40)
10 kPa
Mud Spoil
ground conditions, formation of the STB, installation of the
2.5 at +0.5MCD
Fill (0, 33) 1.5 kPa
stone columns, formation of the seawall and landfilling
Elevation (mCD)
0.0
MD 3.5 kPa Stone Column (c=2.8 kPa, o'=20.4) MD 3.5 kPa
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
MD 6 kPa
MD 9.5 kPa
Stone Column (c=4.8 kPa, o'=20.4) MD 6 kPa
operation behind it.
Stone Column (c=7.5 kPa, o'=20.4) MD 9.5 kPa
-10.0
-12.5 MD 16 kPa Stone Column (c=12.7 kPa, o'=20.4) MD 16 kPa
The results from numerical modeling show that the
-15.0
-17.5 Base of MD Alluvium (4, 28) 1.2 m diameter Stone Column
maximum additional bending moment due to stone column
-20.0
-22.5
at about -14.9 MCD at 2.5 m Trianglar Pattern
installation, seawall construction and landfilling activities is
-25.0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 only 6 kNm near the top of the STB piles and the total load of
Figure 6. Geological Model for Slope Stability Analyses the pile is still within the acceptable limit of the original design.
To maintain the seawall stability, a 50m wide stone column The additional shear force is considered to be not significant.
treatment zonewas required. The seawall revetment and the The maximum predicted movement of the nearest piles to the
seawall is about 8 mm (Figure 9). This predicted lateral
landfill embankment slope profileswere proposed at a gradient of
1V:2H. A toe bund is provided as counterweight to stabilise the movement is likely to span across a few spans of the taxiway
rockfill revetment. A typical section is shown in Figure 7. and the actual magnitude of relative movement between each
span of taxiway structure is unlikely to be a concern
asmovement joints have been provided between the taxiway
spans and it should be capable of withstanding this relative
movement.
2931
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Figure 11. Stone Column Plant for Wet Bottom Feed installation
This paper is published with the permission of the Head of
Gabinete para o Desenvolvimento de Infra-estruturas of the
Macau SAR Government.
6 REFERENCES
Barksdale, R.D. & Bachus R.C. 1983. Design and Construction of Stone
Columns Volume 1. US department of Transport.
Laboratrio de Engenharia Civil de Macau 2008a. Inspection Report of
Southern Taxiway Bridge Piles. LECM, Macau
Figure 12. Site Trial Establishingthe Acceptance Criteria Laboratrio de Engenharia Civil de Macau 2008b. Numerical analysis
report on the landfill mudwaves impact to Southern Taxiway
Bridge.LECM, Macau
2932
Estimation of undrained shear strength of soft soil obtained by cylinder vertical
penetration
Estimation de la rsistance au cisaillement dun sol mou en conditions non-draines obtenue par la
pntration verticale dun cylindre
Equihua-Anguiano L.N.
UPAEP University, Puebla, Mexico
Orozco-Calderon M.
Geotechnical consultant, Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexico
Foray P.
Laboratoire 3SR,Grenoble, France
ABSTRACT: Determination of undrained shear strength (su) in cohesive soils is essential for the design of the offshore
pipelines/flowlines, especially when burial depth is small (in the order of twice of the pipeline diameter). This paper presents
experimental results of the undrained shear estimation, obtained by the vertical penetration of a cylinder in a soft normally clay with
deep water characteristics. Results obtained were compared with analytical solution for a cylinder embedded in a cohesive soil, as
well as with experimental su values obtained using laboratory vane test. The results between the two techniques are very close
RSUM : La dtermination de la rsistance au cisaillement en conditions non-draines des sols est ncessaire dans le design des
conduits/flowlines offshore, particulirement dans le cas o profondeur denfoncement est de lordre de deux fois le diamtre du
conduit. Cet article prsent les rsultats dune tude exprimentale conduisant la dtermination de la rsistance au cisaillement non
draine dun sol argileux trs mous, en utilisant lenfoncement dun cylindre. Enfin, concernant laspect modlisation, une solution
analytique correspondant lenfoncement dun conduit dans un sol cohrent a t utilise. Les rsultats ont t compars avec ceux
obtenues avec un scissomtre du laboratoire et montrent une bonne approximation.
KEYWORDS: undrained shear strength, deep water, offshore geotechnics, pipeline, vane test..
2933
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The equation (1) can be represented by an expression of type 3 CYLINDER MODELS AND SETUP
power, in function of depth penetration z, the radius r0,
coefficient a and exponent b, as follows: 3.1 Cylinder models and setup
b
Two cylinder models with different geometrical and material
Fv z characteristics were used: a steel pipe model with a diameter of
a (2) 100 mm and a length of 335 mm, the second pipe model in PVC
2r0 c 2r0 with 200 mm diameter and 900 mm length.
Tests were performed in the tank VisuCuve of Laboratoire
From the above equations, it follows that it is possible to 3S-R in Grenoble. Its internal dimensions are 2m-length, 1m-
obtain the resistance undrained shear if the vertical force Fv width and 1m-depth. For the experimental tests it was filled
required to penetrate the pipe is known. Considering equation only 0.4 m-depth with the soft soil.
(1) as the theoretical solution, experimental values and The vertical force Fv was applied on the cylinders using an
resistance undrained shear as the unknown value, namely: electromechanical actuator. The vertical force and
displacements were recorded during the penetration test via a
Fv F control and data acquisition system (Fig. 2).
v (3) The large rigid tank VisuCuve was used in others laboratory
0 theoretical 2r0 su experimental
2 r c studies to visualize in order to visualize the failure mechanism
around a mini penetrometer T-bar (Puech et al. 2010) and study
The su value for each depth of the cylinder penetration is models anchor plates (Equihua-Anguiano et al. 2012).
represented by the equation (4). The undrained shear strength
average for the entire depth z is represented by equation (5),
where N=total values of cylinder penetration during the
laboratory test.
Fv
2r0 experimental
su i (4)
Fv
2r0c theoretical
Figure 2. VisuCuve setup and electromechanical actuator used to
N
s
penetrate a pipeline model vertically into a soft soil.
u i
su 1 (5) 3.2 Tested soil
N
The reconstituted soil used in this study was composed of a
Another alternative to obtain su for the entire depth (z) of the mixture of bentonite and kaolin in equal proportions (50B/50K)
cylinder penetration is solving the equation (3), applying with w=110% and 200%, wL=163% and PI=132%. Its
numerical methods, for instance the least squares method. characteristics are very similar of deep water (Gulf of Guinea
In this case, the adjustment evaluation is minimizing the sum w=150-200%, wL=170% and PI=125%). In the same way, this
of squared residuals (E), which corresponds to the squared reconstituted soil has been used in other researches, for example
distance of the experimental values and the theoretical curve a study of T-bar penetrometer and soil-pipeline interaction
based on their, as shown in equation (6). (Orozco-Calderon 2009).
2
N F F
3.3 Experimental program
E
v
v
(6)
i 1 2r0 su i 2r0c i Table 1 shows nine experimental tests program. For the pipe
model of 100 mm diameter two soils were tested (su=6 kPa and
3 kPa). In the case of pipe 200 mm diameter only two
where: Fv / 2r0 su corresponds to the values obtained penetration tests were performed in a soil with su=3 kPa.
experimentally and su is an unknown; Fv / 2r0c is the vertical
Table 1. Dimensions of the pipe models used in the experiments.
collapse load normalized by the pipe diameter and the soil shear Pipe Material
Test Pipe Soil w su
strength for different values of (Murff et al. 1989). No. model
diameter pipe
No.
Substituting equation (2) into (6) it is possible to obtain E (mm) model (%) (kPa)
(equation 7) with three unknowns values: the undrained shear 1 10-110-1 100 Steel 1 110 6
strength su, coefficient a, and the exponent b. 2 10-110-2 100 Steel 1 110 6
2 3 10-110-3 100 Steel 1 110 6
N b 4 10-110-4 Steel 1 6
Fv Fv
100 110
E
i 1
su a
2r0 i 2r0
(7) 5
6
10-150-5
10-150-6
100
100
Steel
Steel
2
2
150
150
3
3
i
7 10-150-7 100 Steel 2 150 3
8 20-150-8 200 PVC 2 150 3
Solution of equation (7) represents the value of su for the 9 20-150-9 200 PVC 2 150 3
entire depth (z), where the values a and b allow to fit the
experimental data to approximate the theoretical solution
(equation 1). 4 RESULTS
Using the expressions (4), (6) and (7) it is possible to obtain
su. Calculated values of su by these equations were compared Results for numerical and experimental testing are presented in
with experimental values as shown in next sections. the next sections.
2934
Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
4.1 Force vertical and depth penetration of pipe model tests For the results in Figure 3(c) the adjustment takes into
account the values of z/2r00.5, which represents an advantage
Figure 3 shows some typical experimental results and a over the equations (4) and (6), and the solution corresponds to a
comparison with those calculated from equations (4), (6) and unique value of su, also at the same time, a and b values were
(7). calculated.
Results presented in Figure 3(a) correspond to the curves of
type su-z/r0 (solution of equation 4) which represent undrained 4.2 Calculated undrained shear strength
shear strength for each depth of the penetration. The results of
Figure 3a the equation (5) could be used to obtain an average Results of undrained shear strength of all tests are summarized
value of the su throughout the depth analyzed. in Figure 4. Figure 4(a) represents the mean value of the su
The second type of curves, Figures 3(b) and 3(c), calculated with equation (5) for the typical results included in
corresponds to the vertical force Fv normalized respect to the Figure 3(a). Interpretation of the results takes into account the
diameter of the pipe and the undrained shear strength (Fv/2r0su) variation of pipe surface. It can be noticed immediately the
versus the penetration normalized respect to the radius or difference in the results for soils with different undrained shear
diameter. The use of these curves represents the solution of the strength.
equations (6) and (7). Results are concentrated around the soil resistance obtained
In the case of Figures 3(a) and 3(b) the calculated values with miniature vane shear test. In case of analysis with =0 the
correspond to depths of z/2r0 0.5, since the theoretical solution estimated values su are higher than corresponding to a rough
is used for normalized force (Murff et al. 1989, equation 1),
4 9
Soil 1
4 2 =0
Fv/2r0su
=1 3
su , kPa
su*sualfa
z/r0
, == 11
su*sualfa
(a) 6
Soil 1 Vane test
= 1
6
su= 2.7 kPa 3
Soil 2
4 =0
Fv/2r0su
0
su= 3.4 kPa 0 2 4 6 8 10
2 Test No. (b)
Test 10-150-5
Murff et al. solution 9
0
Shear strength su, kPa
susregresion
u , Powerde tipo
0 1 2 Soil 1 potenciafunction
z/r0 6 solution
(b)
20 Soil 2
Test 10-150-5 Vane test
3
15
su = 3.3 kPa
Fv/2r0 , kN
10 a = 5.44 0
b = 0.31 0 2 4 6 8 10
Test No.
5 (c)
Power function solution Figure 4. Undrained shear strength obtained from the equation (5) for a
0 penetration depth of z/2r0 0.5 (a). Values of su calculated from the
equation (6) and the solution Murff et al. (equation 1) for =0, =1 and
0 0.5 1
z/2r00.5 (b). Values of su calculated from the equation (7) whereas the
z/2r0 (c) total depth of penetration of the pipe model (c).
Figure 3. Estimating of undrained shear strength using a vertical
penetration of a cylinder (Test No. 5). Solution using the equation (4) in
(a). Calculated values of su considering the solution Murff et al. for =0
surface (=1). Horizontal lines included in the Figure 4(a)
and =1 (equation 4) in (b). Value of su by fitting set of experimental represent the average value of considering all the values of each
data with a power function solution (equation 7) in (c). soil and roughness. The experimental pipe models used had a
surface intermediate, therefore it is expected that the
valid for a penetration less than or equal to the radius of the corresponding su value is between two limits.
pipe. Values of the undrained strength calculated considering Figure 4(b) shows the results for the case of the estimated
two types of surface, while the surface of the laboratory model value from the equation (6). Their values are grouped for each
was the same during the tests, and that can be interpreted as the soil and the tendency of behavior is similar to the results of
minimum and maximum values. Figure 4(a), the difference is clearly distinct between the two
2935
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
undrained shear strength. Similarly, the horizontal line Experimental tests were performed on two soils with
represents the mean value su estimated of each soil. different undrained shear strength, the results are close to the
The calculated results from Equation (7) are included in value of su obtained with a laboratory miniature vane.
Figure 4(c). Values are generally higher than those of the The standard deviation of the experimental results of this
preceding Figures 4(a) and 4(b), this can be understood as such paper is relatively high, which encourages study with a larger
calculation does not take into account the theoretical solution number of soils.
(Equation 1), and the roughness of the pipeline is implied by the One limitation of the test is the depth shallow for soil
value of the coefficient a and the exponent b of the numerical characterization, however it is considered appropriate for the
curve fitting. In this case, the average value of the coefficient is case of marine pipeline design.
a=5.12 with a standard deviation of 0.48, to the exponent
average value of b=0.32 and 0.09. Figure 5 shows the
variation of a and b values. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The estimated values of the undrained strength and standard
deviation for each soil are included in Table 2. There are The authors acknowledge the GO team of the Laboratoire
similarity of the values calculated from equations (4) and (6) 3S-R at Grenoble, France, for the facilities and support to
and roughness respectively. For the type of power adjustment, perform the experiments.
which represents a simple solution compared to the strict
theoretical equation, the values are generally higher. It is
important to note that the value of the standard deviation is 7 REFERENCES
high, which encourages to study this alternative to estimate
AFNOR. 1990. Essai scissomtrique en laboratoire, sols:
experimental undrained shear strength with a large number of reconnaissance et essais, Norme NF P 94-072, Association
experimental test for different soils with different undrained Franaise de Normalisation, Paris, La Dfense, 325-337.
shear strength. Aubeny C.P., Shi H. and Murff J.D. 2005. Collapse load for cylinder
The technique using cylinders penetration in order to obtain embedded in trench in cohesive soil, International Journal of
the soil shear strength provides good results, one limitation is Geomechanics, Vol. 5(4), 320-325.
consider the undrained strength constant with depth. Equihua-Anguiano L.N., Orozco-Calderon M. and Foray P. 2012.
Numerical finite element method and experimental study of uplift
capacity anchors, Seventh International Conference on Offshore
8 0.8 Site Investigation and Geotechnics, OSIG 2012, London, U.K.
a b Hansbo S. 1957. A new approach to the determination of the shear
6 0.6 strength of clay by the fall-cone test, Stockholm: Royal Swedish
Exponent b
5 CONCLUSIONS
2936
The Application of a Novel Design Approach for Construction over soft soils: The
Hybrid Undrained-Drained model
L'application d'une nouvelle mthode de conception pour des constructions sur sols mous: le
modle hybride non drain - drains
Espinoza D.
Espinoza D., Li C.
Geosyntec Consultants, Columbia, Maryland, USA
Li C.
Geosyntec Consultants, Columbia, Maryland, USA
ABSTRACT: The number of case histories of construction of high mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) berms over soft foundations,
such as dredge disposal sites, is limited for obvious reasons: it is difficult to build without risking foundation instability. The purpose
of this paper is to describe the challenges of designing and building embankments over extremely soft foundations using innovative
design and construction techniques. The case history site for this paper is located in Wilmington, Delaware, where a 2400-m long,
21-m high MSE berm was completed in July 2010. The completion of this 1.5-million-cubic-meter berm represents a significant
engineering achievement considering the size of the embankment and the 30-m deep layer of very soft soils (undrained shear strength
as low as 10 kPa) over which the berm was constructed. The project was recently selected by the American Society of Civil
Engineering among the five finalists for the 2012 Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award.
RSUM : Le nombre d'tudes de cas de construction de digues en terre compacte (MSE) sur des couches de fondations molles,
comme le sont les sites de dpts de dragage, est limit pour des raisons videntes : il est difficile de construire sans risquer
l'instabilit de la fondation. Le but de cet article est de dcrire les dfis de la conception et de la construction sur des fondations
extrmement molles en utilisant une conception innovante et des techniques de construction appropries. Le site de cette tude de cas
se trouve Wilmington, dans le Delaware, o sur 2400 m de long une digue de 21 m de haut a t acheve en Juillet 2010. La
ralisation de cette digue d1,5 millions de mtres cubes reprsente une ralisation technique importante compte tenu de la taille du
remblai et la couche de 30 m dpaisseur des sols trs mous (rsistance au cisaillement non draine voisine de 10 kPa) sur laquelle
louvrage a t construit. Le projet a t rcemment choisi par la Socit amricaine de gnie civil parmi les cinq finalistes pour le
prix d'excellence 2012 des ralisations de gnie civil.).
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
improvement took place (2006), cement prices were 3 VIRTUAL SAND PILES: HYBRID DRAINED-
significantly higher because of global demand, and the UNDRAINED MODEL
estimated cost for the DSM option was estimated to be $150
million (2011 US dollars). The centerpiece of innovation for the design and construction of
this massive MSE berm was the improvement of the weak
2 PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS FEASIBILITY dredge/alluvium foundation material using the concept of
STUDY virtual sand piles, also described as the Hybrid Drained-
Undrained (HDU) model (Espinoza et al., 2011).
Installation of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) is a cost- The virtual sand pile concept is illustrated Figure 2. As
effective foundation improvement technique at sites where a shown in this figure, the closer the dredge is to the PVD the
surcharge load will be applied (e.g., an MSE berm). In general, smaller the generated excess pore pressure and the faster that
PVDs are installed in soft soils to improve the drainage are dissipated. Hence, depending upon the speed of
characteristics hence accelerating the dissipation of excess pore construction, it can be assumed that there are two distinct zones
pressures generated during stage construction of embankments. with different shear strength characteristics during loading: a
The time it takes for pore pressures to dissipate depends upon drained zone, near the PVDs, and an undrained zone further
the permeability of the dredge and the spacing between PVDs from the PVDs. This concept constitutes a significant departure
and it can be estimated using well known radial flow equations from standard design of soft cohesive soils with PVDs and it is
(e.g., Barron, 1948). the central element of the design. The development of the novel
Initially, the use of PVDs to improve the foundation HDU design methodology for PVD design, to analyze the
strength appeared unfeasible due to the massive weight of the strength characteristics of the soft foundation soils during
proposed 21-m high MSE berm which was required to gain the construction made the use of PVDs feasible for the CIL Project.
needed airspace. Typically, the maximum height of an MSE Subsequently, a more realistic model was developed to
berm on soft soils is dictated by the undrained shear strength of consider that: (i) the soils located closer to PVDs dissipate
the underlying soft material. At the CIL site, the maximum excess pore pressures generated during construction to more
height that could have been built using standard design quickly than the soils located farther away from PVDs (Figure
techniques would have been on the order of 7.5-m (i.e., about 2); and (ii) the rate of construction influences the maximum
13.5 m shorter than required to achieve the target airspace of 17 excess pore pressure that could be generated (i.e., pore pressures
million cubic meters). dissipate as the soil lift is placed). To simplify the model
Standard design techniques assume that when PVDs are development, the rate of berm placement construction was
installed in soft soils: (i) the excess pore pressures generated assumed constant and equal to Rc. For each lift of soil, it was
between PVDs during loading is uniform; and (ii) only assumed that excess pore pressures starts to dissipate soon after
undrained shear strength is mobilized during loading. The it was placed (see Figure 3). Assuming an exponential decay
maximum excess pore pressures (Umax) generated after function, the resulting excess pore pressure equation as a
placement of a soil lift (i.e., 3 m for the CIL project) is function of time is:
1 e
estimated assuming that the soil lift is placed at once and it Rc t
generates excess pore pressures (i.e., the pressure of the water
u (t ) for t tp (1)
stored within the dredge) approximately equal to the weight of
the soil lift. Although it is recognized that excess pore pressures where: tp is the time that takes to place the fill and is a
at the PVD location is nil and increases with radial distance parameter that is related to Barrons Equations (1948)
from the PVD (Figure 2), it is typically assumed that excess developed for sand drains:
pore pressures between PVDs are uniform and equal to Umax.
2 c (2)
v2
Fn ri
n2 3n 2 1 (3)
Fn ln(n)
n 1
2
4n 2
ri
n (4)
re
andcvis the coefficient of consolidation; ri is the radius of
influence of the PVDs; and re is the equivalent radius of the
PVD. The maximum pore pressure takes place at t = tp. It
follows that after fill placement, it is assumed that excess pore
pressure dissipates according to the same decay function, then:
u (t )
Rc
1 e e
t p ( t t p )
for t tp (5)
Figure 2. Pore Pressure Model
Because piezometers are located to monitor the maximum 4 SELECTING THE DIAMETER OF THE VIRTUAL
pore pressure, the radial variation is usually neglected. SAND PILE
However, this conservative assumption made for computation
and monitoring expedience not only neglects the fact that the Equations (1) through (5) were used to select the appropriate
excess pore pressures is not uniform but also does not take into PVD spacing along with the corresponding rate of construction
consideration how PVDs change the dredge response to loading. such that the soils near the PVDs would generate significantly
In theory, drained parameters could be used to represent the smaller pore pressures that would allow to model the dredge
shear strength of soft soils with PVDs if the applied loads (i.e., around the PVD as a virtual sand pile. This meant that these
construction of the MSE berm) are imposed slowly enough to soils could be considered to have a drained response during
allow all excess pore pressures to dissipate as loading takes loading. The modified procedure consists of selecting the
place. In practice, this could not be implemented because the magnitude of excess pore pressure that would have negligible
rate of loading would need to be too slow to be feasible. effect on MSE berm stability and then back-calculate the
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
the monitoring data do not indicate the stability condition of the to continue uninterrupted work. Eventually, the original plan of
MSE berm directly. building a 3m-thick lifts over 600m to 900m length of the berm
Several finite element models (FEM) were developed for every 90 days evolved into construction of lifts in thicknesses as
evaluating the stability of the MSE berm during construction thin as 1m and/or berm lengths as short as 300m, which were
using PLAXIS software. The soil consolidation parameters patched together as review of geotechnical data would allow.
obtained from laboratory and pilot tests were used as an initial The contractors ability to reorganize its efforts to construct the
model calibration. These parameters were adjusted during the various sections of the berm based on week-to-week feedback
initial 3-m lift placement and then used to predict pore from the designer became a critical piece of the success of the
pressures, lateral and vertical displacements during construction project. In this way, by August 2010, 36 months after starting,
for subsequent lifts. The calibrated FEM models were used to MSE berm construction was completed. A detailed description
closely monitor the construction of the MSE berm. After of the berm construction is presented by Espinoza et al (2008)
construction of each stage, the predicted horizontal and vertical and (2011).
displacements and excess pore water pressure were compared to
the measured values at selected cross sections to verify 8 CONCLUSIONS
whetherthe MSE berm was performing as expected. In The completion of this 1.8 million cubic meters MSE berm (see
addition, using ashear strength reduction method, factors of picture below) represents a significant engineering achievement
safety (FS) at each stage of construction was estimated by the considering the size of the embankment, the deep layer of very
FEM model. The procedure consisted of reducing the soil shear soft soils over which the berm was constructed, and the amount
strength parameters by a factor in an iterative procedure until of settlements during construction. The successful design and
large displacements of the FEM model were observed. The construction of a 2,400m long, 21m high MSE berm over
ultimate factor achieved represented the factor of safety against extremely soft dredge using innovative design and construction
instability using PLAXIS.Figure 5 shows an example of the techniques opens opportunities not only for extending the
comparison between the measured and predicted pore pressures. capacity of existing disposal facilities over dredge disposal sites
but also for very cost effectively raising levees and dykes at
40.00
2nd Lift 3rd Lift 4th Lift 5th Lift 6th Lift
(5 baskets)
critical locations prone to flooding.
FS=1.45 FS=1.39
FS=1.33
35.00 FS=1.55
Comp.
Berm FS=1.30
1st Lift
Excess Pore Water Pressure (ft)
30.00
FS=1.87
25.00
FS=1.51 FS=1.41
FS=1.63
20.00 FS=1.80
FS=2.05
15.00
10.00
FS=2.21 FEM Prediction
FS=2.23
5.00
Corrected Mornitoring
Data
0.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (days)
2940
Land reclamation on soft clays at Port of Brisbane
Construction dun terre-plein sur des sols argileux dans le port de Brisbane
ABSTRACT: Land reclamation work is being carried out for the Port of Brisbane (PoB) Future Port Expansion Project, in the State of
Queensland, Australia, which would develop a new reclaimed area of 235 ha. The mud excavated during maintenance dredging
operations is pumped into the containment paddocks within the reclamation area. The dredged mud is soft and fine grained in nature,
placed in a remoulded dilute slurry form at water content of at least 200%. The reclamation site is underlain by weak Holocene clays
of depths up to 30 m. With such a large compressible thickness of both dredged fill and the underlying in situ Holocene clays, the
total settlement under development loads during the primary consolidation will be significant. The secondary compression will be
another considerable component of settlement to deal with. This paper briefly addresses the maintenance dredging works and the
background of the PoB land reclamation project. It mainly focuses on the site conditions, the design of surcharge loading and
installation of vertical drains to accelerate the consolidation settlement and minimize the post construction secondary compression.
Furthermore, the in-situ and laboratory tests undertaken and the soil parameters obtained from these tests are discussed along with
empirical correlations used to estimate appropriate soil parameters.
RSUM : Des travaux damnagement sinscrivant dans le cadre du Future Port Expansion Project (Projet dextension du futur
port) sont mens dans le Port de Brisbane, dans lEtat du Queensland en Australie. Ce projet prvoit la cration dune tendue de terre
de 235 ha gagnes sur leau. Les boues issues des oprations de dragage de maintenance sont pompes vers des bassins au sein mme
de la zone amnage. Ces boues naturellement molles et fines forment une suspension dilue contenant au minimum 200% deau. Le
site repose sur des terres argileuses datant de lHolocne sur une profondeur allant jusqu 30 m. Avec une telle paisseur dargile
compressible dorigine in-situ ou provenant du dragage, le tassement total d aux charges de dveloppement lors de la consolidation
primaire sera significative. La compression secondaire constituera une composante supplmentaire prendre en compte pour le
tassement. Larticle prsente brivement les travaux de dragage de maintenance et le contexte du projet de terre-plein dans le Port de
Brisbane. Il se concentre principalement sur les caractristiques du site, la conception des supplments de charge et linstallation de
drains verticaux pour acclrer la consolidation de linstallation et minimiser la compression secondaire lie la construction. Les
tests mens en laboratoire et sur le site ainsi que les paramtres du sol obtenus partir de ces tests, et les corrlations empiriques
utilises pour estimer ces paramtres sont galement abords.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
used for the recent dredged mud fill is given. In addition, 2.1 Design Parameters of dredged mud fill
laboratory tests results are discussed which were conducted on
reconstituted dredged mud specimens prepared simulating the The design strength and consolidation parameters of dredged
sedimentation and consolidation process at the reclamation site. mud fill used at the site are estimated from both in-situ and
laboratory tests. In the absence of the above, correlations with
physical properties of the clays are used for the preliminary
assessment of properties. Atterberg limit values of dredged mud
are in the range of 80-85% (Liquid limit- LL), 34-37% (Plastic
limit- PL), 18-19% (Linear shrinkage- LS) and 44-46%
(Plasticity Index- PI). The major constituents in the PoB
dredged mud are 50% clay and 40% silt. From the Atterberg
Brisbane River
Containment paddocks limits and particle size distribution, the PoB dredged mud can
be classified as high plasticity clayey soil.
The undrained shear strength of recent dredged fill is
evaluated from in situ vane shear and piezocone (CPTu)
dissipation tests. In some instances, the shear strength
Containment bunds parameters are estimated from the following empirical
correlations incorporating PI values.
Seawall
cu / v = 0.11 + 0.0037 * PI (1)
Figure 1: Aerial view of land reclamation site at Port of Brisbane, Sin = 0.8 - 0.094 * ln (PI) (2)
Queensland, Australia
where cu and are the undrained shear strength and drained
friction angle respectively.
2 SITE CONDTIONS Piezocone dissipation test results are also used to estimate
the consolidation properties such as coefficient of consolidation
The Holocene clay layers include upper and lower Holocene cv or ch and approximate permeability. The cv values calculated
clay layers. The upper Holocene layer consists of sand layers from the in situ tests are verified from the back calculations
with interspersed soft clays and silts, thus the pore water using Asaokas method from field monitoring. A cv value of 1
pressure dissipation and the settlement rate is relatively fast. m2/yr is used for the dredged mud fill and the coefficient of
The lower Holocene clay layer, where the sand and silt layers consolidation in the vertical and horizontal directions (cv and ch)
are relatively few, controls the rate of settlement at the site are assumed to be equal.
because of its large compressible thickness. As both the in-situ At the PoB reclamation site, there are insufficient records yet
Holocene clays and dredged mud fill are highly compressible,
for long time period settlements, thus the secondary
settlement due to filling alone could be as high as 2 m even
compression parameters are estimated only from the laboratory
before any service loads are imposed. It is predicted that it
tests and correlations. The subsoil is subjected to preloading
would take as much as 50 years for the area to be consolidated
considering preloading as the only soil treatment option. higher than the expected post construction design load. As a
Therefore vertical drains are incorporated to speed up the result, the underlying soil will generally be in an over
consolidation process. Ground improvement by combined consolidated stage under design loads. The coefficient of
preloading and vertical drains is designed to accelerate the secondary compression Ce depends on the over consolidation
majority of expected primary settlement and limit the long term ratio (OCR), and it drops quickly with a small increment in the
postconstruction settlement. According to the design OCR ratio (Ameratunga et al. 2010b; Alonso et al. 2000; Wong,
requirement of the Port of Brisbane, the long term residual 2007). For the reduction of Ce with the OCR the following
settlement should not exceed 150 mm over a period of 20 years exponential law has been adopted (Eq.3).
for applied pressures up to 50 - 60 kPa in areas where the
Holocene clay thickness is less but the settement limit is greater Ce(OC) /Ce(NC) = [(1-m)/e(OCR-1)n]+m (3)
for the deeper Holocene clay areas (Ameratunga et al. 2010a).
Maximum vertical stress exerted under the development m is taken as 0.1, which is equivalent to ratio of Cr/Cc
loads (i.e buildings, traffic) can vary over the site between 15 (Mesri,1991) and n is equal to 6. At the PoB reclamation site
kPa and 60 kPa depending on the different purposes the land the underlying soil is generally over consolidated to an OCR
would be used. In addition, the total thickness of compressible ratio of 1.1-1.2. An average value of 0.008 was adopted for
clays is variable over the site. The above two factors decide the design Ce.
amount of preloading to be applied at the ground level. The design compression ratio CR, given by Cc/(1+eo) (eo -
Preloading is applied by both sand capping and vacuum Initial void ratio), is taken as 0.2 to 0.3 based on laboratory
preloading. Thickness of sand capping layer varies from 6 m to tests. Recompression ratio RR (= Cr/1+eo) is generally taken as
9 m across the site. Initially, a number of vacuum trials was 0.1 times the compression ratio.
conducted at several test sites within the reclamation area itself
in order to assess the effectiveness of wick drains to be used as 3 LABORATORY TESTS
a ground improvement measure (Ameratunga et al. 2010b)
The subsoil layers at the reclamation site is subjected to a The sedimentation and consolidation of dredged mud were
preloading higher than the expected post construction design simulated in the laboratory using the dredged mud samples
load, so that the underlying soil will generally be in an over obtained from the PoB reclamation site. The objective of the
laboratory tests is to evaluate some of the consolidation
consolidated state under design loads. In the over consolidated
parameters (cv and ch) and compressibility properties (CR and
stage (recompression range), the settlements in both the primary
RR) of reconstituted dredged mud sediment and make
consolidation and secondary compression range are
comparison with the design values. In addition, potential
significantly less than in the normally consolidated stage, which anisotropy that can exist between the horizontal and vertical
will be discussed later. coefficients of consolidation and permeability was investigated.
Series of oedometer tests were conducted in the present
laboratory studies.
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
R3
Notations
V3
R2
VVerticalconsolidation
V2 RRadialconsolidation
R1
V1
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
R1 0.378 0.035
7 NOTATIONS
V2 0.153 0.019
Cc - Compression index
R2 ch - Horizontal/ Radial coefficient of consolidation
0.219 0.062
CR - Compression ratio
V3 Cr - Recompression index
0.204 0.029
cu - Undrained shear strength
R3 0.159 0.020
cv - Vertical coefficient of consolidation
Ce - Coefficient of secondary compression
e0 - Initial void ratio
kh - Horizontal permeability
4 CONCLUSIONS kv - Vertical permeability
In the paper, a review of the Port of Brisbane land reclamation LL - Liquid limit
works is given including the site conditions, design of vertical LS - Linear shrinkage
drains and soil parameters. The sedimentation and consolidation NC - Normally consolidated
process of the dredged mud at the reclamation site was OC - Over consolidated
simulated in the laboratory. Standard vertical and radial OCR Over consolidation ratio
consolidation tests were conducted on the reconstituted dredged PI - Plasticity index
mud specimens. PL - Plastic limit
The results show that a large degree of anisotropy can exist RR - Recompression index
between the horizontal and vertical coefficients of consolidation v - Effective vertical stress
and permeability in young clay sediment. The cv values - Drained friction angle
obtained from the laboratory tests were found to be 5 to 10
times smaller than the field values. The compression ratio CR
and recompression ratio RR are in good agreement with the
design values.
2944
Kansai International Airport. Theoretical settlement history
Aroport international de Kansai. Historique thorique du tassement
Jurez-Badillo E.
Graduate School of Engineering National University of Mexico
ABSTRACT: The settlements measured in the last eight years 2004-2011 in the Kansai International Airport are compared with the
theoretical curve provided by the Principle of Natural Proportionality and published by the author in the 16th International Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Osaka 2005, in the paper"Kansai International Airport, future settlements".
RSUM : Les tassements mesurs au cours des huit dernires annes 2004-2011 sur le site de l'aroport international de Kansai sont
compars avec la courbe thorique fournie par le principe de proportionnalit naturelle et publie par l'auteur dans la 16e Confrence
internationale de Mcanique des Sols et de la Gotechnique, Osaka 2005 : le papier "Aroport International du Kansai, les tassements
futurs".
KEYWORDS: Principle of Natural Proportionality, Kansai International Airport, settlement.
1 INTRODUCTION
dz dt
Kansai International Airport, future settlements is the title of a (1)
paper presented by the author in the 16th International
z t
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Osaka 2005, where the Principle of Natural Proportionality where: is the coefficient of proportionality called the
(Jurez-Badillo 1985b) was applied to the settlement data fluidity coefficient
already published of the airport, to obtain the theoretical integration of (1) gives
equation of its settlement.
In Jurez-Badillo (2005) is mentioned that the general = constant (2)
equations provided by the principle of natural proportionality
(Jurez-Badillo 1985 b), have been proven to describe the which may be written
mechanical behavior of geomaterials: solids, liquids and
gases. They have been applied to describe the stress strain time
ST
temperature relations of rocks, granular and fine soils and
1t t *
constant (3)
concrete (Jurez-Badillo 1985 a, 1988, 1997 a, 1999 a, 1999 b,
1999 c, 2000, 2001). A general equation for the evolution of
S
settlement of engineering works has already been applied to the
settlement data of embankmens, they are the settlements for the where t*=t at S=1/2ST and we may write
accommodation building (A) at Gloucester (Jurez-Badillo
1991) and to the settlements in the Fraser River delta (Jurez- ST
Badillo 1997 b). This time this general equation is applied to S (4)
the experimental data of the Kansai International Airport built t
in an artificial island 5 km from Osaka in Japan. 1
t*
Figs. 1 and 2 show the graphs of (4) for different values of in
2 GENERAL TIME SETTLEMENT EQUATION natural and semi-log plots respectively. From Fig. 1 we may
Consider an engineering work like an embankment that applies observe that it appear that we should have 1.
a load at the soil at time t=. The settlement S will increase Jurez Badillo (2005) specify that the parameter values to be
from S=0 at t=0 to a total value S=ST at t=. These concepts S obtained are ST, and t*. They may be obtained from good
and t are the simplest concepts to describe the phenomenon, that experimental points. The author prefers, however, to obtain
is, they are proper variables. The relationships between them, them from semi-log plot, Fig. 2. It can be shown (Jurez Badillo
according to the principle of natural proportionality, should be 1985 a) that the middle third of the settlements ST is practically
through their proper functions, that is, the simplest functions of very close to a straight line. So, if one is able to determine from
them with complete domains, that is, functions that vary from 0 the settlement data the beginning of this straight line, one is able
to . The simplest function of S and t with complete domainare to determine the three parameters since this straight line extends
z=1/S-1/ST and t. When t varies from 0 to , z varies from to l cycles in the graph, where
0. The principle of natural proportionality states that the
relationships between them should be (Jurez Badillo, 2010): 0.6
l cycles (5)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
From (4) it may be obtained the slope at t=t* as where =0.19 and (1,e1) is a known point. Fig. (3) shows the
theoretical points from (8). The laboratory quasi OCR=1.0-1.5
dS 2.3
and the predicted settlement was 11.6 m calculated following
ST (6) the traditional way of calculation (Tsuchida 2000). The
dlogt tt* 4 traditional coefficients mv and Cc at any point are given by
and the settlement rate, from (4) is given by mv (9)
t
v
dS t* Cc 2.3 (1 e) (10)
ST (7)
dt t t 2
1
t *
1
ST t
Figure 1. Graphs of 1
S t * Figure 3.e-log p curve of undisturbed Pleistocene clay
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
5 REFERENCES
Jurez-Badillo, E. 1969. Pore pressure and compressibility theory for
saturated clays. Specialty session No. 12 on advances in
consolidation theories for clays. Seven International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico. University of
Waterloo, Canada, pp. 49 116.
Jurez-Badillo, E. 1985a. General time volume change equation for
soils. XI International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering. San Francisco, Vol. 1:519 530.
Jurez-Badillo, E. 1985 b. General volumetric constitutive equation for
geomaterials. Special volume on Constitutive Laws of Soils. XI
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering. San Francisco. Japanese Society for Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo, pp 131 135.
Jurez-Badillo, E. 1988. Postsurcharge secondary compression equation
for clays. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 25:594 599
Figure 5.Settlements in KIA Island Jurez-Badillo, E. 1991. Thirty years of secondary consolidation in
sensitive marine clay: Discussion. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
28:466 467.
4 CONCLUSIONS Jurez-Badillo, E. 1997 a. General equations to describe the mechanical
behavior of granular soils. XIV International Conference on Soil
Jurez Badillo (2005) maintain that the magnitude and evolution Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Hamburg, Vol. 1:133 138.
of the settlement of embankments in practice are described by Jurez-Badillo, E. 1997 b. Case histories illustrate the importance of
the general equation (4). The total settlement ST may be secondary type consolidation settlements on the Frase River delta:
obtained from the EOS (end of secondary) compressibility Discussion. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 34:1007 1008.
curve (Jurez Badillo 1988) of the subsoil using the Jurez-Badillo, E. 1999 a. Secondary compression of peat with or
compressibility coefficient in equation (8) for its without surcharging: Discussion. Journal of Geotechnical and
determination. The fluidity coefficient and the characteristic Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE 125 (2):162 164.
time t* require, at present, experimental test fills to study the Jurez-Badillo, E. 1999 b. General equations to describe the mechanical
behaviour of concrete. Fourth International Conference on
factors that influence their values in a certain place. A very Constitutive Laws for Engineering Materials, Rensselaer
important point is to have a clear distinction between the two Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, pp, 403 408.
compressibility curves: the EOP (end of primary) and the EOS Jurez-Badillo, E. 1999 c. Static liquefaction of very loose sands:
(end of secondary). Quasi OCR of 1 to 1.8 in practice Discussion. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 36:967 973.
correspond to a true OCR=1 in many cases. The difference has Jurez-Badillo, E. 2000. General equations to describe the mechanical
been illustrated in this paper by the application of Eq. (4) to the behavior of rocks. Year 2000 Geotechnics, Asian Institute of
important case of the Kansai International Airport. Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 39 52.
Jurez-Badillo, E. 2001. General relaxation equations for soils. XI
The important conclusion for this paper is precisely the fact that International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, Istanbul, Vol. 1:141 144.
the settlement rate in the last eight years tend towards the Jurez-Badillo, E. 2005. Kansai International Airport, future
theoretical curve obtained by the Principle of Natural settlements. 16th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Proportionality. Geotechnical Engineering, Osaka, Vol. 2:1053 1056.
Jurez-Badillo, E. 2010. Theoretical Geoscience. Ed. by Sociedad
Mexicana de Ingeniera Geotcnica AC, Mxico DF, 130 pages.
Tsuchida, T. 2000. Mechanical properties of Pleistocene clay and
evaluation of structure due to ageing. Special Lecture, International
Symposium on Coastal Geotechnical Engineering, IS Yokohama
2000:39 79.
2947
Design and Performance of Highway Embankments Constructed Over Sri Lankan
Peaty Soils
Conception et performance de remblais d'autoroute construits sur sols tourbeux au Sri Lanka
Karunawardena A.
National Building Research Organization, Sri Lanka
Toki M.
Oriental Consultants Co., Ltd., Japan
ABSTRACT: The construction of the Southern Expressway in Sri Lanka involved extensive ground improvement work as many parts
of the Expressway traverses through flood plains and marshy ground consisting of very soft peat, organic soils, and clays. Depending
on the ground conditions, various ground improvement methods including remove and replacement, preloading, preloading with
vertical drains, dynamic compaction and vacuum consolidation were applied to improve the soft soil to build the embankments with
heights varying from 2m to 12m. The performance of the ground improvement was evaluated in terms of the degree of consolidation,
improvement of the physical and engineering properties, increase in preconsolidation pressure and gain in shear strength of the peaty
soil. The results indicate that the properties of the peaty soil have been improved significantly, providing the required control over
future settlements while ensuring embankment stability. The results of the post construction surface settlement monitoring of the
expressway carried out up to date reconfirm that the ground improvement work was very successful and the expected residual
settlements are well below the allowable limit of the contract.
RSUM : La construction de la Southern Expressway au Sri Lanka a ncessit un important travail d'amlioration des sols. En effet
plusieurs sections de la voie rapide traversent des zones inondables et du sol marcageux constitu de tourbes trs meubles, de sols
organiques et d'argiles. Selon les conditions du sol, diffrentes mthodes d'amlioration (excavation et remplacement, prchargement,
prchargement avec drains verticaux, compactage dynamique et consolidation sous vide) ont t utilises pour renforcer le sol mou et
construire des remblais de tailles allant de 2 12m. La performance de l'amlioration des sols a t value par rapport au degr de
consolidation, l'amlioration des proprits techniques et physiques, l'augmentation de la pression de prconsolidation et au gain
de rsistance au cisaillement de la tourbe. Les rsultats indiquent que les proprits de la tourbe ont t amliores significativement,
permettant le contrle ncessaire des tassements venir tout en assurant la stabilit des remblais. Les rsultats du suivi aprs
construction des tassements en surface sur la voie rapide confirment que l'amlioration des sols a t une russite et les tassements
rsiduels prvus sont trs infrieurs aux limites imposes contractuellement.
KEYWORDS: peat, embankment, monitoring, secondary consolidation, over consolidation ratio
1 INTRODUCTION laboratory and field investigations carried out before and after
ground improvement, field instrumentation program and field
The Southern Highway is Sri Lanka's first E Class highway that monitoring program that was carried out during and after the
links the Sri Lankan capital Colombo with Matara, a major city construction of highway embankment to assess the soft ground
in the south of the island. The 96 km long section from improvement are presented.
Colombo to Galle was completed and opened to traffic in
November 2011. Many parts of the highway traverses through 2 TYPICAL SUBSOIL CONDITION OF SOFT GROUND
flood plains and marshy ground consisting of very soft peat,
organic soils, and clays. Especially, in the major flood plains of Many geotechnical investigations have been carried out since
Welipenna river, Bentota river and Gingaga river areas, thick the inception of the project in order to assess the condition of
peat and organic clay deposits were found. The construction of the soft ground. At the preliminary stage, to provide information
road embankments over peat deposits is quite problematic, and to bidders and to facilitate initial designs, boreholes were
thus, it is often done after first improving the properties of the carried out at 500 m intervals. After commencement, boreholes
peaty soil through the utilization of appropriate ground- were carried out at about every 50 m intervals in order to
improvement techniques. provide the necessary information for the detailed design.
This paper presents the ground improvement methods Site investigation consisted of bore holes with Standard
applied in the Southern Expressway between Ch.0.000 km to Penetration Test (SPT), hand augering, Cone Penetration Test
Ch.66.500 km to improve the peaty soil, with some background with pore pressure measurement (CPTu) as in-situ testing and a
information on the design methodology. In the first 34.5 km of series of laboratory tests such as index property tests,
the highway, about 50% of the area is covered in soft ground unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression tests and
and from 34.5 km to 66.5 km, the area covered by soft ground is conventional consolidation tests.
around 12 km. In this project, embankments of about 4 km in The investigation identified that the soft ground area of the
length were constructed by improving the peaty soil mainly highway mainly consisted of peat, organic clay, alluvial clay
through the application of the heavy tamping method. The and lose sand deposits. The distribution of soft soil deposits
length of the embankments that were built by improving the along the highway trace from Kottawa to Kurundugahahetekma
peaty soil by vacuum assisted surcharging was around 2.5 km. is shown in Figure 1. Silty clay and silty sand were found as a
The problems encountered during ground improvement and top soil in most of the lowland areas up to a depth of 1.5 m to
embankment construction work and the solutions given for the 3.0 m. This was followed by the sand to lateritic soil and the
same are highlighted and discussed. The details of the thickness of the layers varied from 1 m to 5 m.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
illustrates the major steps in the heavy tamping ground consolidation, a vacuum pressure monitoring unit was used to
improvement method adopted in the project. measure the vacuum pressure at the pump and under the air
tight sheet. Also, a water discharge meter was used to measure
the rate and the total discharged water flow due to the vacuum
operation. An automatic data acquisition unit was connected
with the piezometer, vacuum pressure monitoring unit and
water discharge meter to keep continuous records.
The decision to remove the surcharge was made on the basis
of the monitoring data obtained during the surcharge period.
The aim was to eliminate 100% of primary consolidation
settlement and enough secondary settlement such that the
residual settlement was within acceptable performance limits.
The primary consolidation settlement was assessed by
estimating the degree of consolidation and in this project it was
Figure 2. Major steps in heavy tamping ground improvement
estimated by the method outlined by Asaoka (1978). The degree
of consolidation was also calculated based on the pore water
4.2 Vacuum consolidation method pressure (PWP) measurements, and laboratory consolidation
testing of peaty samples after the treatment program. The
In the application of vacuum consolidation method, about a 1.0 comparison of the degree of consolidation for each method for
m to 1.5 m thick fill was constructed on the original ground some areas improved by the vacuum consolidation method is
surface to form a working platform for the band drain shown in Table 1.
installation machine. Band drains were installed by a machine
up to a designed depth from the original ground surface in a Table 1. Estimation of the degree of consolidation
square pattern with a spacing of 1 m. Thereafter, flexible
Degree of Consolidation
horizontal drains (300 mm wide and 4 mm thick) were laid on Location
top of the fill with a horizontal spacing of 1 m and then Asaoka Laboratory
PWP
connected to the vertical band drains in order to ensure adequate Method Data
horizontal drainage capacity. Subsequently, the tank system was Ch. 45.380 83.10%
97.83% 79.46%
installed and connected to the designed pipe systems. Small Ch. 45.430 73.87%
ditches were excavated perpendicular to the horizontal drains at
20 m intervals and filled with aggregates after placing Ch. 47.850 100.00%
97.10% 100.00%
perforated pipes. Instrumentation such as settlement plates, Ch. 47.920 100.00%
displacement stakes, electrical piezometers and differential Ch. 52.950 80.21%
settlement gauges were also installed at the designed depths. 97.57% 100.00%
Ch. 53.000 90.91%
After installation of vertical drains, horizontal drains, perforated
pipes and separator tanks, the surface of the treatment area was Ch. 53.660 96.70%
96.65% 68.71%
covered by a protection sheet. Thereafter, an air tight sheet was Ch. 53.730 83.62%
laid on top and the periphery trench system was constructed to
provide air tightness and the necessary anchorage at the If the degree of consolidation from the PWP measurement is
boundary of the treatment area. Vacuum pressure was then assumed to be accurate, Asaoka Method accurately estimates
applied using a vacuum pumping system patented by Maruyama the degree of consolidation in treatment areas Ch.47.850 to
Industry Co. Ltd, Japan by connecting the suction and water Ch.47.920 and Ch.52.950 to Ch.53.000 whereas Asaoka method
hoses to the vacuum pump. After confirming that there were no over predicts the degree of consolidation in treatment areas Ch.
leaks through the air tight sheet, filling was commenced. 45.380 to Ch. 45.430 and Ch.53.660 to Ch. 53.730. However, in
It was expected to apply the surcharge by means of a treatment area Ch.53.660 to Ch.53.730 the degree of
vacuum pressure of 70kPa to compensate the primary consolidation from the laboratory test results agreed very well
consolidation settlements and to minimize the secondary with the same estimated from the Asaoka method. Therefore,
settlements that can take place in the proposed highway based on this investigation it can be concluded that the degree
embankment. However, in many areas the applied vacuum of consolidation estimated from the Asaoka method is
pressure was less than the designed value and therefore the reasonably accurate.
above designed surcharge was applied by means of both In order to assess the secondary settlements, for each
vacuum pressure and embankment fills. The designed load was monitoring point, the long-term settlement was predicted by
kept until the expected settlement completed. extrapolating the secondary settlement rate over a period of 3
years. Predictions were made by preparing a plot of
5 ASSESSMENT OF THE SOFT GROUND displacement against log (time) for each settlement plate, with
IMPROVEMENT the best-fit line through the data extended to define the likely
settlement after 3 years. The surcharge was removed only after
The continuous assessment of the improvement of soft ground
confirming the residual settlement by considering both the
was carried out by conducting the field monitoring program. In
primary and secondary consolidation settlements as described
addition, the soft ground improvement was assessed by
above.
conducting appropriate field and laboratory testing.
5.2 Investigation to confirm the ground improvement
5.1 Field monitoring program
Site investigation was carried out to assess the actual ground
The improvement of the soft ground was monitored through the
improvement in the areas improved by the vacuum
measurement of settlement and the excess pore water pressure
consolidation method just before the removal of surcharge.
during the construction period. Settlement plates were installed
Investigation was carried out in the improved as well the
at the top of the soft layer or on top of the pioneer layer and
adjacent unimproved area in order to assess the ground
piezometers were installed at the middle of the soft layer. The
improvement. Investigation revealed that initial thickness of the
settlement stakes were installed near the toe of the
peat layer has been reduced by 50%-60% after ground
embankments to check the stability during the construction. In
improvement. The above reduction agreed reasonably with the
addition to the above, in the areas improved by vacuum
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
percentage change of water content and void ratio values maximum observed settlement was 35 mm and the settlement
obtained from peaty soil collected from the improved and prediction using the monitoring data indicates that the estimated
unimproved areas. Consolidation tests revealed that the residual settlement is less than 15 mm at the end of 3 years after
compression index of the peat layer has reduced from a range of the handing over of the project.
2.65 to 2.13, to as low as 0.90 as a result of the ground
improvement. The average reduced value is about 1.65. The
results of long term consolidation tests carried out in the
improved and unimproved peaty samples show that that the
coefficient of secondary consolidation has reduced from a range
of 0.10 to 0.13 to a range of 0.03 to 0.06. Subsequently the ratio
of C / Cc has decreased from 0.050 to 0.029 due to ground
improvement (Karunawardena and Nithiwana, 2009).
Consolidation test results also indicated that the pre-
consolidation pressure of the peaty soil found under the
embankment has increased as shown in Table 2. Table 2 also
shows the expected load induced on the peaty layer due to the
proposed embankment and the subsoil over consolidation ratio.
According to the data in Table 2, the sub soil will behave under Figure 3. Results of the surface settlement monitoring
the over consolidated state with an OCR of 0.98 to 1.33. It
should be noted here that even though the applied vacuum 6 CONCLUSION
pressure and the fill surcharge load is adequate to yield an OCR
value in the range of 1.2 to 1.3, sometimes the calculated OCR This paper presents successful application of ground
is less than that the anticipated value. This might be due to the improvement work carried out in the construction of Southern
inaccurate Preconsolidation Pressure (Pc) value obtained from Highway project in Sri Lanka. Ground improvement methods
the consolidation test as a result of sample disturbance. such as heavy tamping method and vacuum consolidation
techniques were applied to construct the high embankments
Table 2. Increment of preconsolidation pressure and undrained cohesion over thick peaty deposits. In both methods, a surcharge load had
Expected been applied to over consolidate the peaty soil. Field monitoring
Pc Cu
Location Load OCR Cu / v data obtained during the construction period indicates that the
(kPa) (kPa)
(kPa) primary consolidation settlement due to final load of the
Ch.45.380- 180 1.13 79.0 0.49 highway embankment has already been completed and the
160.0
Ch.45.430 160 1.00 57.0 0.36 secondary settlement had been reduced to control the residual
settlement within acceptable performance limits. Investigations
Ch.47.850- 200 1.37 55.0 0.36 carried out at the site show that both physical and mechanical
145.0
Ch.47.920 180 1.25 70.0 0.45 properties of the peat have improved significantly and the peaty
soil will behave in an over consolidated state with a ratio of 1.2
Ch.52.950- 150 0.98 41.5 0.27 to 1.3 during the service life of the highway. The results of the
152.5
Ch.53.000 170 1.11 38.2 0.25 post construction surface settlement monitoring of the
expressway carried out up to date reconfirm that the ground
Ch.53.660- 170 1.13 54.0 0.36 improvement work was successful and the expected residual
150.0
Ch.53.730 147 0.98 50.5 0.34 settlements are well below the allowable limit in the contract.
2952
Design improvements for expansion of a roadway on a thick layer of soft soil
Un projet d'amlioration pour l'largissement d'une autoroute sur une argile molle
ABSTRACT: Expansion of a roadway on a soft soil can cause settlement of the existing road during embankment construction due to
the consolidation characteristics of the soft soil. Many problems related to construction and maintenance, such as deterioration of the
surface, decreased safety, and decreased structural stability, could affect the existing road. This scenario is especially true if the
roadway foundation is a thick layer of soft soil. Therefore, the characteristics of the soil layer should be considered in the design and
construction of the roadway expansion. In this study, the expansion of the second branch of the Namhae Expressway was selected as
the target site because the expressway is constructed on a soft soil layer approximately 53 m thick. The original design plans were
reviewed, problems were discussed and solutions to the problems were proposed.
RSUM : L'largissement d'une autoroute sur un sol d'argile sensible risque d'entraner des tassements pour les voies actuelles
pendant le remblayage sous l'effet de la compression des sous-sols argileux. D'importants problmes lis la construction et la
maintenance sont poss : dgradation de la surface, instabilit structurelle, inscurit des usagers. Le scnario prsent s'avre
particulirement important lorsque le sous-sol de l'autoroute en question est constitu d'une couche paisse de sol argileux. Il faut
donc tenir compte des caractristiques du sol pour le projet d'largissement de l'autoroute. Dans cette tude, nous prendrons comme
exemple le cas de l'autoroute Namhae dont la seconde voie repose sur une couche argileuse atteignant 53m d'paisseur. En examinant
son plan de construction original, on tudiera les problmes poss et on suggrera diverses solutions.
KEYWORDS: deep thick soft soil, roadway expansion, settlement, construction, design.
1 INTRODUCTION removing the soil of the existing road. This installation may be
difficult because of the resistance of granite material, such as
Stress can exist at a point in a soil not only because of loading crushed stone and gravel, used in the exiting roadway
above the point by a superstructure but also by loading on construction. The strength of the soil could also be reduced by
adjacent points. For saturated clay, this stress can result in disturbance during the installation of the PBD.
consolidation due to dissipation of excess pore water pressure. The original design plans call for expanding the roadway
Localized nonuniform settlement can cause unevenness and from 4 to 8 lanes by banking soil on the existing road and
cracking in the road and cracks in a superstructure. To minimize raising the longitudinal grade of the roadway. However,
the likelihood of this problem occurring, it is best to apply a settlement of more than 2 m, and in some locations up to 5.4 m,
uniform embankment preload to the entire roadway area. In a was expected because the construction section of the second
road-widening project, however, it is difficult to accomplish this branch is located on soft soil up to 53 m thick. As an alternative,
because of the need to divert traffic and comply with the embankment construction after removal of the existing road and
construction schedule. improvement of the underlying soil was planned. However, this
Recently, the traffic on the second branch of the Namhae strategy was also expected to be complicated and time-
Expressway has been approaching the traffic capacity of the consuming. Moreover, this construction was expected to cause
roadway because of the increase in national income and settlement in the surrounding area due to disturbance to the soil
increased desire for leisure. Severe traffic jams have diminished under the existing roadway that had been stable for more than
the comfort of drivers and the operating speeds of vehicles on 30 years. Consequently, complaints about damage to nearby
the expressway. Expansion of the roadway from 4 lanes to 8 farmlands, factories and houses were anticipated.
lanes is in progress because of the expansion of SOC (social Expansion of a roadway typically involves diversion of
overhead capital) and the economic growth of the country traffic. Expansion of a roadway on a soft soil could cause
(Korea Expressway Corporation, 2008a; 2008b; 2008c). settlement of the existing road during embankment construction
As part of the original design for this project, embankment due to the consolidation characteristics of the soft soil. Many
construction was planned after removal of the existing road and problems related to construction and maintenance, such as
installation of vertical drains. Differential settlement might not deterioration of the surface, decreased safety, and decreased
be a problem if sufficient time were available for consolidation structural stability, could affect the existing road. This scenario
of the soil after construction of the embankment. However, is especially true if the roadway foundation is a thick layer of
differential settlement could occur because the soft soil.
overconsolidation ratio of the soil and the load history of the Accordingly, design and construction methods need to be
expanded and existing portions of the roadway are different. In identified to minimize the problems that can occur during
addition, PBD (plastic board drain) are to be installed after construction of the expansion and minimize the expenditures
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
associated with such problems, including future maintenance thought to be an economical method of ensuring the long-term
costs. This paper outlines the problem of designing and stability of the roadway, allowing residual settlement by
constructing the expansion of the second branch of the Namhae removing the existing soil, installing vertical drains for
Expressway and suggests solutions to the problems involved. consolidation acceleration and preloading with counterweight
fill.
2 STRIBUTION OF SOFT SOIL ON THE PROJECT SITE 1st stage expansion section 2nd stage expansion section
Expansion
section The existing
road
Figure 1. Route map of expansion construction for the second branch of
the Namhae expressway and distribution of soft soil along the route. Settled soils
Original
3 THE ORGINAL DESIGN ground
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Classification Original design Improved design the difficulty of installing PBD by drilling on the slope of the
existing road can be avoided.
The improved plan reduces the construction cost. Installation
Plane
of PBD beneath the existing road would involve additional costs
for drilling or removing gravel and crushed stone underneath
the existing road. In addition, there would be a cost for disposal
of the waste asphalt concrete.
If PBD is used to improve the soil under the existing road, it
Cross is expected that coupled settlement will occur near adjacent
section
The existing The existing structures due to the soil settlement. The improved plan does
road
road
not involve improvement of the soft soil of the existing road and
consequently protects the stability of structures located near the
Figure 5. A plan for the road separation. existing road.
2956
Case Study on X-section Cast-in-place Pile-Supported Embankment over Soft Clay
tude de cas pour un remblai renforc par des pieux de section en X couls en place dans de
largile molle
ABSTRACT: Pile-supported embankments are widely used for highway, railway, seawall, etc. over soft soils because of their
effectiveness in minimizing deformation and accelerating construction. A new method of using X-section cast-in-situ concrete piles
(referred to as XCC pile) which can improve bearing capacity, reduce settlement and costs effectively for foundations over soft clay is
developed by Hohai University of China. In this paper, construction method, quality assurance (QA), and quality check (QC) involved
in this method are described. A large-scale model test program on a XCC pile and a circular pile, both constructed with the same
amount of concrete volume, was carried out to obtain the load transfer behavior of both piles under three different loading modes:
compression, uplift, and lateral loads. One XCC pile-supported embankment application was presented. The large -scale load test
indicated that load carrying capacity of XCC pile is slightly higher than that of circular pile, when the same amount of concrete
volume was used. It is worth pointing out that this XCC pile type can be constructed rapidly, quality assurance (QA) and quality
checked (QC) easily, and cost-effectively. The results of this study can provide reference for practical XCC pile-supported
embankment design and construction.
RSUM : Les remblais renforcs par pieux sont largement utiliss pour les autoroutes, les voies de chemin de fer, les digues, etc
construites sur des sols mous en raison de leur efficacit minimiser les dformations et acclrer la construction. Une nouvelle
mthode dveloppe par lUniversit de Hohai en Chine consiste utiliser des pieux en bton de section en X couls in situ (appels
pieux XCC) qui peuvent amliorer la capacit portante, rduire efficacement le tassement et les cots pour des fondations dans de
largile molle. Dans cet article, mthode de construction, assurance qualit (AQ) et contrle de qualit (QC) impliqus dans cette
mthode sont prsents. Un programme d'essai sur des modles grande chelle avec un pieu XCC et un pieu circulaire, construits
avec la mme quantit de bton, a t ralis pour obtenir le comportement de transfert de charge pour les deux pieux sous trois
modes diffrents de chargement : compression, soulvement et latral. Une application pour un remblai renforc par des pieux XCC
est prsente. Le test de chargement chelle relle indique que la capacit portante du pieu XCC est lgrement suprieure celle du
pieu circulaire, pour la mme quantit de volume de bton. Il est intressant de souligner que ce type de pieu XCC peut tre construit
rapidement avec des assurances qualit (AQ) et contrles de qualit (QC) faciles et moindre cot. Les rsultats de cette tude
peuvent servir de rfrence dans la pratique pour la conception et la construction des remblais renforcs par les pieux XCC.
KEYWORDS: XCC pile, pile supported embankment, soft clay, case study.
1 INTRODUCTION. 2009), and steel pipe pile (Arulmoli et al. 2010) etc, are widely
used for pile foundation. While these special concrete piles have
Pile-supported composite foundation is one of useful soft soils low costs and are more suitable for soft soils treatment. Y-
treatment methods. It is widely used to construct highways, section cast-in-situ concrete pile use for pile-supported
railways, and seawall on soft soils due to their rapid embankment is reported (Chen et al. 2010b), while the lateral
construction, small total and differential deformations, and low stiffness of these piles is not easy to control.
costs compared to other traditional soft soils improvement Hence, this paper presents one new method of soft soils
methods (such as, deep cement mixing (DCM) piles (Arulrajah treatment: XCC pile-supported composite foundation method.
et al. 2009), stone columns (Gniel et al. 2009), and precast The construction method, quality assurance, and quality check
prestressed piles (Han & Gab 2002; Dzhantimirovk et al. 2009; involved in this method are described. A large-scale model test
and Bakholdin et al. 2009)). Many cases using pile-supported program on a XCC pile and a circular pile, both constructed
embankments, such as, the railway widening projects (Jones et with the same amount of concrete volume, was carried out to
al. 1990; and Eekelen & Bezuijen 2008), the retaining wall obtain the load transfer behavior of both piles under three
projects (Alzamora et al. 2000), the vertical wall breakwaters different loading modes: compression, uplift, and lateral loads.
(Suh et al. 2006), and the freeway embankment in USA and A case study that illustrates the application of this method in a
China (American Association of State Highway pile-supported composite foundation over soft clay is presented.
Officials/Federal Highway Administration 2002; Liu et al. The pile shaft of XCC pile are measured and analyzed.
2009; and Chen et al. 2010a).
There are some ways to optimization pile-supported
composite foundation designs by coordinating load share ratio 2 CONSTRUCTION METHOD
of pile-soil. Special shape piles can improve the contact areas of
pile-soil interface and lateral stiffness in specific direction Cast-in-situ rather than precast concrete X-section piles are
effectively, which means the friction of pile shaft, and lateral used. This is because it is difficult to transport and install X-
load capacity can be improved in the same concrete section piles without affecting the integrity of the pile,
consumption. It can coordinating load share ratio of pile-soil particularly when the piles are not reinforced in the corner part
more suitable. Barrette pile (Lei et al. 2001), H-pile (So et al. of piles. For this purpose, a special pile driving machine and
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
methods have been designed to install the XCC pile (Liu et al. bars, earth pressure cells, frequency instrument device, and
2007). Pictures of the piling machine in action and the flap pile LVDTs.
shoe are shown in Fig. 1. The soils used to fill the model container consist of both
The construction procedures for XCC piles are as follows: sand and clay, taken from Hexi District of Nanjing, China. The
First, the vibratory pile driver is connected to the X-section steel sand is uniformly graded with uniformity coefficient (Cu) and
casing by flange. Next, the X-section steel casing is connected curvature coefficient (Cc) equal to 1.58 and 0.99, respectively.
with the flap pile shoe. Then, the vibratory driver drives the X- The soil layers are filled in the container by controlling the
cross section steel casing into the desired elevation. After density of the in-place dry soils. The dry density for sand and
reaching the required penetration depth, concrete is then fed clay is 1.54 ~ 1.57 g/cm3 and 1.47 ~ 1.51 g/cm3, respectively.
through the X-section steel casing inlet mouth. Finally, use the The mechanical properties of the soils with the specified density
vibrating driver to extract the casing to the ground. Thus, XCC are shown in Table 1. The soil layers in the model test container
pile is formed. Pile cap can be constructed after casing is are as follows: sand of 2.4 m deep at the top, clay of 3.9 m deep
removed. in the middle, and crushed rock of 0.3 m at the bottom.
Two pile types (XCC pile and circular pile) were subjected
to three different modes of loading (axial compression, uplift,
and lateral load) at the top of the pile for deriving load transfer
behavior. The experimental set up is summarized in Table 2.
Table 1. The mechanical indices of test soil with the specified density
Internal Compression
Moisture Control
Cohesion, friction modulus,
Materials content, density,
c (kPa) angle, Es (MPa)
(%) (g.cm-3)
()
Sand 17.60 25.90 17.00 5.10 1.55
Figure 1. Physical diagrams of pile-driving machine: (a) XCC pile- Table 2. Summary of model test conditions
driving equipment and pile mould; and (b) Pile driver locating and Types XCC pile Circular pile
flappable pile shoes. Section size Diameter, a (m) 0.530 Diameter, R 0.426
Distance of arc, 0.110 (m)
b (m)
3 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CHECK Open arc, (o) 90
Pile length, L (m) 5.0 5.0
In order to improve the quality of pile, the withdrawing rate Cross-section 0.1425 0.1425
should be controlled within 1.0 to 1.5 m/min under normal area, A (m2)
circumstances. The casing should vibrate for 10 s before Pile perimeter, C 1.759 1.338
withdrawal. Subsequently for every 1 m withdrawal, the pulling (m)
should be stopped temporarily to vibrate the casing for 5 to 10 s Pile modulus, E 28.5 28.5
until the casing is completely withdrawn. The vibratory effect (GPa)
applied to the casing during withdrawing also helps the concrete Moment of 186430.6 161580.0
to be compacted. The maximum depth of the XCC pile is inertia, I (cm4)
controlled by the height of the XCC piling machine and is Loading types Compressive Compressive
normally within 25 m, and too long pile casing will reduce the Uplift Uplift
install speed. The maximum advantages of XCC pile is the Lateral Lateral
contact areas of pile-soil interface improvement with special
cross-section. The most difficult part of XCC pile construction The dimension of XCC pile constructed in the test facility is
is the shape of pile head, overflow concrete may change the as follows: 5.0 m in length (L), 0.53 m in the diameter of
shape as the lateral soil pressures near ground are low. outsourcing (a), 0.11 m in the spacing of two open arcs (b), and
To check the quality of the pile after formation, the 90 in angle of open arc (). The reinforcement cage of the
following four methods can be used: (1) excavate the XCC pile is made of four reinforcing bars, with 12 mm in
surrounding soil of pile to check the shape of piles, (2) static diameter and 0.35 m in the distance between the opposite
pile load testing, (3) low-strain integrity testing, and (4) amount reinforcing bars. The 28-day compressive strength of model pile
of concrete poured in during concreting. To excavate the concrete is equal to 28.5 GPa (JGJ94). Reinforcement sister
surrounding soil of pile for visual inspection and for taking bars were attached to the reinforcing bars, earth pressure cells
concrete samples from the XCC pile is a good way to check the were laid on pile tip and the surrounding soils, respectively.
quality of XCC pile. Obviously, static pile load testing, and During the load tests, the total load applied to the pile head was
low-strain integrity testing can be also used for XCC pile. measured by a load cell placed on the pile head, while the axial
force along pile depth was calculated from the attached sister
4 LARGE-SCALE MODEL TEST bars. The soil pressures were measured by the earth pressure
cells, while the settlement of the pile head was recorded by two
LVDTs installed symmetrically at the pile head. Data from the
4.1 Summary of Model Test Conditions load cells and LVDTs during the load test were captured by a
data acquisition system.
A large -scale test facility is composed of a fairly rigid model In order to perform a comparative analysis between the XCC
container, a loading system, and a data measuring system. The pile and the circular section pile, a typical circular pile was also
model container is measured as 5 m 4 m 7 m (length constructed and tested in the test facility. The dimension of the
width height). The loading system consists of hydraulic jacks, circular section pile is as follows: 5.0 m in length (L) and 0.426
beams, reaction walls, and hanging baskets and bolts, etc. The m in diameter (R). The cross section area of the circular pile is
data measuring system consists of load cells, reinforcement equal to 0.1425 m2 which is the same as that of XCC pile.
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
However, the perimeter of the circular pile is 1.338 m, which is 5 FIELD TEST CASE STUDY
smaller than that of the XCC pile of 1.759 m. Thus, with the
same cross section area, the pile-soil interface contact area of
the XCC pile is 31.5 % more than that of the circular pile. 5.1 Summary of Field Test Conditions
The test site locates at north bridge of Nanjing city, where the
4.2 Analysis of Test Results and Discussions landform is Yangtze River floodplain. By geological
Pile head compressive load, Q (kN) exploration, and laboratory soil test, the physical and
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 mechanical parameters and distribution of soil layers are shown
0
in Table 3.
Displacement of pile head, s (mm)
Table 3. The soil layers and soil parameters in field test site
20
Soil Name Depth Water Unit Modulus Void
symbol h (m) content weight Es ratio
40 w (%) (MPa) e
XCC pile
Circular pile
(kN/m3)
60 Filled 0.20
back soil
80 2 Mucky 1.30 38.60 17.60 3.50 1.11
silty clay
100
2A Silty sand 1.00 25.30 19.20 10.77 0.70
(a) 2 Mucky 1.50 38.60 17.60 3.50 1.11
Pile head uplift load, Q (kN) silty clay
-20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90 2B Silty sand 1.80 26.10 19.30 8.00 0.71
0
2 Mucky 2.30 38.60 17.60 3.50 1.11
Displacement of pile head, s (mm)
silty clay
-20
3 Fine sand 9.40 26.30 18.90 11.83 0.76
-40 The pile layout in Fig. 3 shows that the piles distribute as
XCC pile
Circular pile equilateral triangles, and the distances between two adjacent
-60 piles for single pile test and 22 pile groups test equal 1.85 m,
and 1.80 m, respectively. In static loading tests of 22 pile
-80 group composite foundation, the loading plates are rhombic
with side length of 3.6 m, which covers four piles. A layer of
-100 gravel cushion with the thickness of 30 cm is paved between
(b) pile top and loading plate. During the load tests, the total load
Pile head lateral load, H0 (kN) applied to the loading plate was measured by a load cell placed
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 on the loading plate, the axial force of pile shaft along pile
0
Lateral displacement of pile head, y0 (mm)
180
o
60
0
40
3
2
1
36
00
o 3
50 60
185
(c)
0
Figure 2. The curves of load versus displacement: (a) compressive load- 1850 3600
displacement; (b) uplift load-displacement; (c) lateral load-displacement.
Fig. 2(a) shows load-displacement curves of the XCC pile and 1: XCC pile
the circular section pile at the pile head. The ultimate 2: Loading plate
3: Soil pressure cell
compressive load-carrying capacity of the circular pile and XCC Unit: mm
pile is equal to 90 kN, and 111 kN, respectively. The ultimate Figure 3. The instrument arrangements of XCC pile composite
compressive capacity was improved nearly 24.0 % by changing foundation.
the pile cross section from common circular section to X-
section when the same amount of concrete volume was used.
Fig. 2(b) shows the load-displacement curves under uplift load 5.2 Analysis of Test Results and Discussions
for the two different pile sections. The uplift capacity of XCC Fig. 4 shows the changes of axial forces result in the variations
pile and circular pile was found to be -70.6 kN and -56.1 kN, of side friction. When the load is relatively large, the side
respectively. The ultimate uplift capacity was improved nearly friction from the depth of -1 m to -2 m is negative, which is the
25.8 % by changing the pile cross section from a circular typical characteristic of composite foundation. The load applied
section to an X-section for the same amount of concrete volume on loading plate causes the non-uniform settlement between the
used. The test result of the lateral load versus lateral deflection soil and piles. When the load is not very large, the differential
at pile head is plotted in Fig. 2(c) for two different pile sections. settlement is in apparent, so the negative friction is extremely
The lateral H0-y0 curve of XCC pile is similar with that of small. As the increase of the load step, the load shared by the
circular pile. For the same lateral capacity, the amount of piles also increases, and then the pile top tends to penetrate into
concrete volume used in a XCC pile is about 6.9 % less than in the cushion, at the same time the soil subsidence occurs under
a circular pile.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2960
Settlements of Earth Fills on Thick Layers of Overconsolidated Soft Clays
without Geodrains
Tassements des remblais sur dpaisses couches d'argile molle, surconsolide, sans godrains
Massad F.
EPUSP So Paulo, Brasil
Teixeira A.H.
A.H. TEIXEIRA CONSULTORIA E PROJETOS So Paulo, Brasil
Carvalho C.T., Grang L.F.A.
ODEBRECHT INFRAESTRUTURA Brasil
ABSTRACT: The monitoring of earth fills built on soft clays has been done frequently through the Brazilian coastline. As the most
common measurement is the settlement along time, the interpretation of the results is usually done by Asaokas Method, generally
involving extrapolations that have given rise to doubts (for instance, about the secondary consolidation effect) and to a double
interpretation, and even to controversies, especially when it comes to evaluating the effectiveness of vertical geodrains to accelerate
settlements. Doubts about the soil disturbances around the geodrains that have been of concern among us and abroad. The paper is
based on data from a work in Santos Harbor, in So Paulo State, Brazil, in which 3 experimental fills were built and monitored, one of
them partially with geodrains. Many laboratory and field tests were available besides local experience that proved decisive in the
evaluation of the measurements and in making decision. It is shown that the controversies can be overcome with information of the
soil and of similar works in the region and details of geodrain installation, confirmed by the behavior of the landfills of the work.
RSUM: La surveillance des remblais construits sur argiles molles a souvent t effectue le long de la cte brsilienne. Comme la
mesure la plus courante est le tassement au cours du temps, l'interprtation des rsultats est gnralement faite par la mthode
dAsaoka, impliquant gnralement des extrapolations qui ont donn lieu des doutes (par exemple, propos de l'effet de la
consolidation secondaire), une double interprtation, et mme des controverses, surtout quand il s'agit d'valuer l'efficacit des
godrains verticaux pour acclrer les tassements. Ces doutes sur les remaniements du sol autour des godrains ont t une
proccupation pour nous et l'tranger. Larticle est bas sur les donnes de travaux au Port de Santos, dans l'tat de So Paulo, au
Brsil, au cours duquel trois remblais exprimentaux ont t construits et surveills, l'un d'entre eux avec des godrains. De nombreux
essais en laboratoire et in situ taient disponibles en plus de l'exprience locale qui s'est avre dcisive dans l'valuation des mesures
et en prise de dcisions. Il est dmontr que les controverses peuvent tre surmontes avec la connaissance des sols,des travaux
similaires dans la rgion, et le mode dinstallation des godrains. Ceci est confirm par le comportement des remblais en service.
1 INTRODUCTION category are the mangrove sediments, which are still forming.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
400
and residual soils from gneiss. Figure 2 illustrates the local
subsoil, without the Transitional Clay and the residual soils.
300
Eolic deposits were always present in the area, including Santo
p (kPa)
Amaro Island and Santos City Plain. Their weights were 200
45o
responsible for the higher values of SPT, ranging from 2 to 4 as
Santos City
well as the overconsolidation of the deposits. 100
SLF - Sto. Amaro Island
SFL - EMBRAPORT
WT qqtt (MPa)
(kPa) Pressures (kPa) 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 100 200 300 400
0 0
Mangrove 0 svo (kPa)
Figure 4. p from CPTUs as a function of the vo.
Sand Odometer
5 5 5
Clayey Sand
About 20 stress history profiles, from odometer tests and
z - Depth (m)
115+
10 10 10
Soft Clay qt=b.z CPTUs, carried out in sites of the Santos Plain, like Figure 2,
4.9z
(SFL) showed that equation (1) holds; C1 and C2 are constants.
CPT
' p 'vo C1 ' p C2 '.z
15 15
15
or (1)
20 Clay and 20 20 U
Sand 'vo 'p
(SFL) (a) (b) Figure 4 illustrates its validity and Table 2 shows values of C1
25 25 25 for the 4 Classes of SFL Clays (Massad 2009-a). These findings
Figure 2. Odometer tests vs. 7 CPTUs at Area 3 of Figure 1. have a practical consequence: more than 12 experimental earth
fills settled in a wide range of values (EOP=1 to 12%) and of
The main properties of the marine clays are presented in Table
velocities (cvch~3.10-3 to 5.10-2 cm2/s), depending on OCR.
1, separated in two parts: the upper one emphasizes the
differences and the lower one stresses the similarities. As it can Note that for the SFL clays cvch (Massad 2009-a).
be seen, their index properties are almost the same and they
Table 2.Classes of Holocene Clays (SFL). Santos Coastal Plain
differ in their state properties, like undrained shear strength,
void ratio and SPT. It is interesting to mention that negative Bq Clay Consolidation p-vo
Class Site OCR
values were observed for the Pleistocene Clays, whose Profile Mechanism (co)kPa
preconsolidation, with high OCR, was confirmed by Baixada Neg. Sea 20-30
1 Santista level Osc. 1.3-2.0
consolidation tests on undisturbed samples (Massad 2009-a). Out- (5-20)
cropping St.Amaro I Dune 50-120
Table 1.Properties of the Marine Holocene and Pleistocene Clays 2 Embraport. Action >2.0
(25-45)
Man-
Group Item
SFL AT Santos Neg. Sea 15-30
grove 3 Beneath 1.0-1.3
Depth(m) 5 50 20-45 City level Osc (10-30)
SPT 0 0-4 5-25 8-12m of
Santos Dune 40-80
Bq - 0.4-0.9 -0.1-0.2 4 sand layer >1.4
City Action (>35)
Differences qt(MPa) - 0.5-1.5 1.5-2.0
e >4 2-4 <2 Legend: SI Symbols used; stresses and co(of Eq. 3) in kPa;
p(kPa) <30 30-200 200-700
OCR 1 1.1-2.5 >2.5 For the SFL clays of Santos Coastal Plain there is a linear
su(kPa) 3 10-60 >100 increase of qt with depth, with a rate b. Massad (2009-b) used
n(kN/m3) 13.0 13.5-16.3 15.0-16.3 this fact and equation (1) to estimate the empirical factor Nt of
%<5 - 20-90 20-70
wL 40-150 40-150 40-150
Kulhaway and Mayne (1990), as shown in Equation 2.
Similarities IP
Cc/(1+eo)
30-90
0.36
20-90
0.43
40-90
0.39
q vo
p t with N t b n (2)
Nt
Cr/Cc(%) 12 8-12 9
Rf(%) - 1.5-4.0 1.5-2.0
Legend: SI Symbols used The use of equation 2 with b=34MPa/m for the SFL clay layer
of Embraport site (see Figure 2-a) resulted in Nt =3.9 and the
Data from 3 borings in Area 3 are presented in Figure 3. constant C2 of equation 1 varying from 80 to 115kPa, revealing
the great heterogeneity of the soil (see also Teixeira 1960 on
Void ratio
this feature). The high values of p for the Embraport site are
Water Content (%) Clay Content (%)
0 50 100 150 0 20 40 60 80 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 0
associated with OCR>2 at mid height of the layer, as shown in
5 5 5 Table 2. Furthermore, Figure 2-b shows also data of odometer
10 10 10
tests (dashed line is the average) carried out by Andrade (2009)
that agree with the p of the nearest CPTU.
z - Depth (m)
z - Depth (m)
z - Depth (m)
15 15 15
The shear strength of the SFL clays follows the equation
20 20 20
su=co+c1.z, with c1=0.4.For Embraport site the co values are
25 25 25 higher (Table 2), as those found in Santos City (Teixeira 1994).
30 30
Figure 5 shows that: a) the ch for the overconsolidated range
30
wp w wl
(o.c.) varies from 4.7x10-3 to 1.5x10-1 cm2/s (mean value of
35 35 35
2.1x10-2 cm2/s) for the soft clay (SFL) layer (8 to 17m depth);
Figure 3. Data from 3 borings (SS110; SS115;SS120) in Area 3.
and b) the upper sand and the lower clay/sand layers are highly
permeable. In cases like this there is no need to use drains, as
shown by Pilot (1991) besides local practice (Massad, 2009-a).
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation (o.c.) (cm2/s) With the preconsolidation pressures indicated in Figure 2-b it
1,0E-03 1,0E-02 1,0E-01 1,0E+00
0
follows an average OCR=2.2 for the center of the Soft Clay
(SFL) layer. The conclusion is that the SFL Soft Clay of
5
Embraport site behaved as an overconsolidated clay, of Class 2
Depth (m)
10
of Table 2. Moreover, note that the ch~cv given by Figure 5
15 EMBRAPORT agrees with the values of Table 3 and with local experience.
20
AREA 3 Due to the second difficulty and to the highly permeable layers,
25 the geodrains of Segments 1 and 2 were disregarded, a position
PZM 16 PZM 101 PZM 103 PZM 110 PZ 116 PZ 115 PZM 120 that differs from that of Rmy et al (2010) being a different
Figure 5: Data from dissipation tests of 7 CPTUs at Area 3.
view. Table 4 endorses this position: the indicated plates were
installedat the base of the earth fills and the values of cv are
equivalent in the sense that they refer to all layers. It can be seen
3 PILOT EMBANKMENT 1 that the drain installation greatly affected the EOP settlements
but lesser the time of its occurrence. These conclusions are in
An experimental earth fill the Pilot Embankment 1 - was built
consonance with the research by Saye (2001) with the Florence
in the Area 3 before it was reclaimed underwater. It was divided
Lake Clay, in Omaha, Nebraska (USA).
in three parts (see Figure 6), Segments 1 and 2 with square
meshes of geodrains 25m length, spaced 1,2m and 2.4m,
respectively, and Segment 3, without vertical drains. Table 4: Influence of soil disturbance due to drain installation
Segment Geodrains Plate Max. Level cv/Hd2 f EOP(cm)
1 2.4x2.4m PR 02 7.27m 4.2*10-3/day 194
Acess
no geodrain geodrain
geodrains mesh: mesh: 8
6 Segment3
(m)
2.4x2.4m) 1.2x1.2m)
4 Segment2
50m 50m 50m 2
0
Time (days)
Berm 2 Berm 1 0 150 300 450 600 750
0,00
Figure 6: Relative positions of the Segments. Pilot Embankment 1 Stage 1 PILOT EMBANKMENT 1
Settlements (m)
-0,10
Stage 2
Detailed information about the construction and the Stage 3
-0,20
instrumentation is found in Rmy et al (2010). It is worth
mentioning that the rate of loading was distinct among the SEGMENT 3 - SOFT CLAY (SFL)
segments. And it was also distinct in Segment 3, comprising -0,30
two sides, North and South, with different heights. Figure 2 Figure 7: Compression of the Soft Clay (SFL) layer. Segment 3
shows the subsoil in the site.
Many difficulties arose in the interpretation of the data of the 20
Embankment Pilot 1. They refer to the following drawbacks: Stage 3
a) the Segments 1, 2 and 3 were too close and the earth fill _eop (1/s) cv=2*10-2 cm2/s
15
loads were applied at different rates; for Segments 1 and 2, Stage 2
(n+1) - (cm)
the 4 loading stages were applied during 354 and 452 days, cv=2*10-2 cm2/s ~15.3cm
10
respectively; for Segment 1, the 2 stages required 142 days;
~13.5cm
b) the installation of the geodrains involved the use of a Stage 1
5
temporary casing 2 inches inside diameter and flushing cv =3*10-2
SEGMENT 3 - SOFT CLAY (SFL)
water to pass through the upper sand layers (see Figure 2) 3.5cm
47 0 1,8E-10
besides the fact that the soil resistance was high; and 41
39
1,5E-10
01,3E-10 5 10 15 20
c) there occurred two problems with the measuring probe of 35 1,1E-10
n (cm)
31 9,3E-11
the magnet extensometers. The first one in Nov., 13th, 2008
Figure 8: Asaokas Method - Pilot Embankment 1
(day 400 in Figure 7) when the measuring probe was
4 PILOT EMBANKMENTS 2 AND 3
changed; ant the second one between Feb.,19th, 2009 (day
485) and Sept., 16th, 2009 (day 694), that is, 209 days with A second experimental fill (Pilot Embankment 2) was built in
no measurements, due to damage in the probe device. Area 3, with a maximum height of 5.2m. Figure 9 displays de
Figure 7 shows the measured settlements of the Soft Clay (SFL) subsoil profile and gives information about the initial and final
layer, between 8 and 17m (see Figure 2) of Segment 3. The plot stresses, the preconsolidation pressures and the OCR.
reveals: a) the interference between the Segments 2 and 3, due The values of the end of primary settlement (f) and cv/H2d
to their proximity and the differences in the rate of loading, as were determined as illustrated in Figure 10 for one of the 4
mentioned above; and b) the 3 stages of loading that occurred, plates installed at the earth fill base for the two stages shown in
making it possible to apply Asaokas Method, as shown in Figure 11-a. Note again that cv is equivalent in the sense that it
Figure 8. Table 3 presents the results of this analysis. refers to all layers and that, after roughly 5 month, at least 95%
of the primary settlement was reached.
Table 3: Results of the Application of Asaokas Method The Figures 11-a and 11-b show also the very good fittings of
Stage cv (cm2/s) f EOP(cm) f /H (%) 'vf/ 'vo (*) the theoretical and measured values of settlements and the
1 3.10-2 3.5 0.37 1.29 product v.t (velocity*time) along the primary consolidation
2 2.10-2 13.5 1.42 1.88 time. For the secondary range, v.t reached a constant value,
3 2.10-2 15.3 - - allowing the estimation of C=0,85%, consistent with the
Note: (*) in the center of the SFL Clay layer values obtained for the Santos Buildings (for more details,
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Settlemt (cm)
(a) 8
Depth (m)
15 15 50
Depth (m)
Settlemt (cm)
35 35 40
120 0
50 cv/Hd2~2.10-2 /day
Measured Olsons Theory
40
Stage 2 f=51.6cm Figure 12:Analysis of settlements of earth fills of Area 3
(n+1) (cm)
30
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
20 Stage 1 PR 206 The authors are grateful to the disposal of data by
6,6m
10 1,4m ODEBRECHT INFRAESTRUTURA and EMBRAPORT S.A.
f=20cm
0 8 REFERENCES
0 20 40 60
Andrade M. E. S. 2009. Contribution to the Study of the Soft Clays of
n (cm)
Baixada Santista. MSc Thesis, COPPE, 397p. (in Portuguese).
Figure 10: Asaokas Method - Pilot Embankment 2 Baguelin F. 1999. La dtermination des Tassements Finaux de
Consolidation: une Alternative la Mthode dAsaoka. Revue
Franaise de Gotechnique no 86: 9-17.
t- Time (days) KulhawayF.H. and Mayne P. N. 1990.Manual on Estimating Soil
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 Properties for Foundation Design. Report EL-6800, Electric Power
0
Stage 2
6 Research Institute, Palo Alto.
Fill MassadF. 2005. Marine Soft Clays of Santos, Brazil:
Settlemt (cm)
5
20
Stage 1 BuildingSettlements And Geological History. Proc. 16th ICSMGE.
Fill Level (m)
PR 206 4
6,6m
1,4m Osaka, Japan. v. 2: 405-408.
40 3
MassadF. 2009-a. Marine Clays of BaixadaSantista Characteristics
2 and Geotechnical Properties.S.Paulo: Ofic.Textos (in Portuguese).
60 t - Time (days)
(a) 1 MassadF.2009-b.Stress history and preconsolidation pressure evaluation
80 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 4500 from SCPTU.Proc.17th ICSMGE. Alexandria, Egypt, v.2. p.961 -
0 5,133333 964.
200
MassadF.2010. Tall buildings in Santos City: unexpected behavior of
the old shallow foundations and the newly long piles.New
v.t (mm)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Aspects
Aspects on
on the
the modelling
modelling of
of smear
smear zones
zones around
around vertical
vertical drains
drains
Aspects de
Aspects delala
modlisation de lade
modlisation zone
la remanie autour des
zone remanie drainsdes
autour verticaux
drains verticaux
R. Mller
Mller R.
Tyrns
Tyrns AB,
AB, Borlnge,
Borlnge, Sweden
Sweden // KTH
KTH Royal
Royal Institute
Institute of
of Technology,
Technology, Stockholm,
Stockholm, Sweden
Sweden
S. Larsson
Larsson S.
KTH
KTH Royal
Royal Institute
Institute of
of Technology,
Technology, Stockholm,
Stockholm, Sweden
Sweden
ABSTRACT: The analytical design of vertical drains in soft clay requires knowledge of the coefficient of consolidation and also of
the disturbance effects induced during the installation of the drains. Several analytical models describing the disturbance effects in
different ways are proposed in the literature. The earliest and simplest models describe the disturbance effect in terms of concentric
cylinders around a drain where a reduced and constant permeability is assumed, while more recent models attempt to describe the
disturbance more realistically via more complex mathematical formulations. Although these new models describe the real in situ
behaviour more realistically than the early ones, they may not always be suitable for practical use as many of the required variables
are difficult to assess by standard investigation methods. This study investigates and discusses the difference between some of the
available models and evaluates the influences on the results of the variables incorporated in the models.
RSUM: Ltude analytique des drains verticaux dans les argiles molles ncessite la connaissance du coefficient de consolidation et
des effets du remaniement produit par linstallation des drains. Ces effets peuvent tre modliss de plusieurs faons. Les modles les
plus anciens et les plus simples dcrivent le remaniement laide de cylindres concentriques autour dun drain en supposant que la
permabilit est rduite et constante, tandis que des modles plus rcents sefforcent dcrire le remaniement de faon plus raliste
laide de formulations mathmatiques avances. Bien que ces modles dcrivent le comportement in situ de manire plus raliste que
leurs prdcesseurs, leur utilisation pratique est souvent limite car plusieurs des paramtres requis sont souvent difficiles valuer
laide de sondages, forages et essais classiques. Cette tude sintresse aux diffrences entre certains des modles existants et value
linfluence des divers paramtres sur les rsultats.
KEYWORDS: Vertical Drains, Design, Modelling
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Table 1. Characteristics and formulations of F in the investigated models (valid for 10 A and neglecting well resistance)
III Equal to no. II, Indraratna et al. (2005), valid for normally con-
( )
dependent on the void ratio solidated clays, equal to model no. II for
Parabolic variation of ( )
( ) ( )
in the smear zone ( )
IV Walker and Indraratna (2006)
( ) ( )
( )
( )
in the inner ( ) ( ) ( )
V Basu et al. (2006), case b, equal to model no. VI
smear zone thereafter
for 1
linear variation
1 METHODS
(2)
( )
2 RESULTS
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5x10 -8
0.35 considered 0.8 Basu et al. (2006)-b, V
Basu et al. (2006)-d, VI
m2/s A representative for soft
clays and chosen
based on Lumb (1974)
0.6
0.066 Det. Rectangular PVD
U (-)
mB 0.003 m x 0.1 m
d = 1.1 m
1.7 B Det. Rectangular mandrel 0.4
0.06 m x 0.12 m
d = 1.6 m
4.7 0.34 C
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1 1
0.8
0.8
0.6
(-)
0.6 Hansbo (1979), II
(-)
0.2 0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(-)
Figure 3. The influence on of and for 1.6 metres. Figure 4. The contribution to of the variances in , , and
.
and the results are therefore highly dependent on the
permeability anisotropy in the clay of interest. For instance, if Chung S.G., Lee N.K. and Kim S.R. 2009. Hyperbolic method for
, the consolidation rate might be overestimated. prediction of prefabricated vertical drains performance. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 135 (10), 1519-
1528.
4 CONCLUSION Fenton G.A. and Griffiths D.V. 2008. Risk Assessment in Geotechnical
Engineering. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, USA.
Although they may capture the nature of the smear zone more Hansbo S. 1979. Consolidation of clay by band-shaped prefabricated
realistically, the impacts on the assessment of of the more drains. Ground Engineering 12 (5), 16-25.
complex models (III-VI) rather than model II are insignificant Hird C.C. and Moseley V.J. 2000. Model study of seepage in smear
zones around vertical drains in layered soils. Gotechnique 50 (1),
under the assumptions made in this study and, as argued by 89-97.
Onoue et al. (1991) and Hird and Moseley (2000), model II Indraratna B. and Redana I.W. 1998. Laboratory determination o smear
(Hansbo 1979) is still useful for practical engineering purposes zone due to vertical drain installation. Journal of Geotechnical and
due to its simplicity. This study shows that the even more Geoenvironmental Engineering 124 (2), 180-184.
simple model suggested by Kjellman (1949), neglecting the Indraratna B., Rujikiatkamjorn C. and Sathananthan I. 2005. Radial
smear zone but adopting instead of , might give consolidation of clay using compressibility indices and varying
satisfactory results. Care should however be taken, as horizontal permeability. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 42 (5),
assessments using this model are dependent on the permeability 1330-1341.
anisotropy in the clay of interest. Kjellman W. 1949. Record of the activities at the Swedish Geotechnical
It is the authors opinion that it is more important to put an Insitute 1944-1948. Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Stockholm.
Lumb P. 1974. Application of statistics in soil mechanics. A memorial
effort into reducing the uncertainty in (or for use in model
collection of selected papers and memoir of Professor Peter Lumb.
I) than trying to investigate and in ordinary engineering Ed: Yeung A, p. 507. University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
projects. It is also important to consider the change in that Madhav M.R., Park Y-M. and Miura N. 1993. Modelling and study of
occurs as a result of the decrease in void ratio as consolidation smear zones around band shaped drains. Soils and Foundations 33
of the clay proceeds (e.g. via model III). (4), 135-147.
Mller R. and Larsson S. 2012. Hydraulic conductivity and coefficient
of consolidation of two sulphide clays in Sweden. Geotechnical and
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Geological Engineering 30 (1), 173-186.
Onoue A., Ting N., Germaine J.T., and Whitman R.V. 1991.
The Tyrns Foundation is acknowledged for funding this study. Permeability of disturbed zone around vertical drains. ASCE
Geotechnical Special Publication 27, 879-890.
Sathananthan I. and Indraratna B. 2006. Laboratory evaluation of smear
6 REFERENCES zone and correlation between permeability and moisture content.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 132
Barron R.A. 1948. Consolidation of fine grained soils by drain wells. (7), 942-945.
Transactions of ASCE 113, 718-742. Reprinted in: A history of Sharma J.S. and Xiao D. 2000. Characterization of a smear zone around
progress, ASCE, Reston, 1, 2003, 324-348. vertical drains by large-scale laboratory tests. Canadian
Basu D., Basu P. and Prezzi M. 2006. Analytical solutions for Geotechnical Journal 37 (6), 1265-1271.
consolidation aided by vertical drains. Geomechanics and Tavenas F., Leblond P., Jean P. and Leroueil S. 1983. The permeability
Geoengineering: An International Journal 1 (1), 63-71. of natural soft clays. Part II: Permeability characteristics. Canadian
Bergado D.T., Asakami H., Alfaro M.C. and Balasubramaniam A.S. Geotechnical Journal 20 (4), 645-660.
1991. Smear effects of vertical drains on soft Bangkok clay. Walker R. and Indraratna B. 2006. Vertical drain consolidation with
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 117 (10), 1509-1530. parabolic distribution of permeability in smear zone. Journal of
Christian J.T., Ladd C.C. and Beacher G.B. 1994. Reliability applied to Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 132 (2), 937-941.
slope stability analysis. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 120 Walker R., Indraratna B. and Rujikiatkamjorn C. 2012. Vertical drain
(12), 2180-2207. consolidation with non-Darcian flow and void-ratio-dependent
compressibility and permeability. Gotechnique 50 (1), 89-97.
2968
A Review of Geogrid Working Platform in Soft Ground in Malaysia
Analyse du comportement de plateformes renforces par gogilles en Malaisie
Ooi T.A.
TAO Consult Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tee C.H., Chan C.B.
Mega Geoproducts And Services Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Ong R.
Tensar International Ltd, Malaysia Regional Office, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses the development of geogrid applications in soft ground in Malaysia. The Sungei Way trial during
1984 was conducted to assess the performance of geogrid in road pavement field trial conditions and a forerunner to the use of
geogrid in working platform on soft grounds in Malaysia. Two layer biaxial geogrids system was first used in 1987 to rehabilitate an
offshore fabrication yard in Pasir Gudang in Johor in Malaysia. Recently. geocell mattress and mechanically stabilised layer (MSL)
formed with TriAx geogrids were used in offshore fabrication yard in Vung Tau in Vietnam. Similar concept was then adopted for a
container yard in Gebeng, Kuantan in Malaysia constructed in 2011. The settlement performances of all heavy duty working platform
reinforced with biaxial and TriAx geogrids with geocells were all satisfactory.
RSUM: Cet article prsente le dveloppement d'applications des gogrilles en terrain meuble en Malaisie. Des essais Sungei Way
ont t effectus au cours de lanne 1984 pour valuer la performance dune gogrille lors de la construction dun revtement routier
dans des conditions in-situ. Cest le test prcurseur pour l'utilisation de gogrilles en plateforme de travail sur sols mous en Malaisie.
Un systme de gogrilles biaxiales deux couches a t utilis pour la premire fois en 1987 pour rhabiliter le chantier de
fabrication offshore de Pasir Gudang Johor en Malaisie. Rcemment, un matelas geocellulaire et une couche stabilise
mcaniquement (MSL) forme par des gogrilles TriAx ont t employs dans le chantier de fabrication offshore de Vung Tau au
Vietnam. Un concept similaire a ensuite t adopt dans un chantier de conteneurs construit Gebeng (Kuantan, Malaisie) en 2011.
Les performances de comportement des plateformes douvrages lourds renforces par des gogrilles biaxiales et TriAx avec
gocellules ont toutes t satisfaisantes.
KEYWORDS: geogrids, working platform, soft grounds, reinforcement, road pavement, ground stabilisation.
.
1. INTRODUCTION directional. A geogrid that can offer the properties of stiff
biaxial geogrids and possess near-uniform tensile stiffness in all
This paper discusses the development of geogrid in soft ground radial directions would be best suited for such application.
in Malaysia. The Sungei Way trial during 1984 was conducted Watts and Jenner (2008) conducted as series of large-scale
to assess the performance of geogrid in road pavement field trial laboratory load tests to assess the effectiveness of geogrids to
conditions (Ooi et al., 2004). The results of the Sungei Way trial stabilise granular working platforms and concluded the use of
were verified by the more rigorous Transport Research geogrids will significantly increase the bearing capacity of
Laboratory (TRL) full scale laboratory trials (Chaddock, 1988). working platforms. The research also shows that triaxial geogrid
Based on the results of the full scale trials, it was concluded that with near-uniform tensile stiffness in the radial sense (i.e.,
punched and stretched biaxial geogrids (i.e., stiff biaxial TriAx) outperformed the biaxial geogrid and almost doubled the
geogrids) in granular base or subbase is effective in achieving bearing capacity offered by the un-stabilised granular blanket of
the following results: - similar thickness.
a) Interaction by interlocking between the geogrid and the Apart from using multiple layer of geogrids to stabilise
granular material is mobilised with minimal deformation of granular material in working platform application, geocell
the geogrid; mattresses are also used in some cases. Geocell mattress is a
b) Tensile strains and deformations in subgrade are minimised; series of interlocking cells formed using stiff polymer geogrid
c) Interlock provided by the geogrids confines the granular reinforcement to contain and confine granular material
materials and minimises their lateral displacement; and providing stiff and rough foundation to an embankment that
d) Reduction in rut depth for similar pavement life. maximises the bearing capacity of the soft soil beneath it.
The trials have shown the physical form of geogrid (e.g., rib Jenner et al. (1988) used the slip line fields to assess the
thickness, stiffness and shape, aperture size, rigidity and improvement in bearing capacity of soft ground under geocell
stability, junction strength and secant modulus at low strain as mattress installed at the base of an embankment. This provided
subsequently reported by Webster (1992)) and its ability to a useful analytical method of assessing the horizontal stresses in
interlock effectively have major effect on performance of the the geogrid elements.
mechanically stabilised layer (i.e., soils stabilised with In Malaysia, the first loading platform using mechanically
geogrids). The important findings arose out of the full scale trial stabilised layer (MSL) for the fabrication yard to use geogrid
on the benefits of using stiff biaxial geogrid in the road was in Pasir Gudang, Johor in 1987 (Figure 1). Two layers of
pavement led to the construction of loading platform using stiff biaxial geogrids were used to stabilise a metre thick of
geogrid to overcome the deformation and rutting of platform compacted quarry waste layer that form the top portion of the
surfaces during service. In particular, the deterioration of loading platform. During lifting operation the crawler crane
platform surfaces caused by ground softening as a result of track can exert contact pressure of up to 500 kPa (Yong et al.,
ponding of water on the platform of offshore fabrication yard 1990, Chan, 2000, Ooi et al., 2004). Many similar loading
during rainfall season. In ground stabilisation, especially for platforms were built later. Recently, MSL has been combined
working platforms, the loading applied to the geogrid is multi- with geocell mattress for the construction of a heavy duty
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
working platform over soft soil in Vung Tau in Vietnam using acceptable by the fabricator. Settlements on the subgrade and
one metre thick of geocell mattress to support a two metre thick outside the crane track were measured (Figures 4 & 5). The
MSL as a loading platform for the heavy crawler crane exerting rehabilitated fabrication yard was in use after handing over to
a contact pressure of 500 kPa (Ong et al., 2011). The two the fabricator (Figure 6).
loading platform performances are compared and it is found that
both loading platforms performed satisfactorily with settlement
of less than 50 mm. In 2011, geocell mattress and MSL were
used in another project on soft ground for a container yard in
Gebeng, Kuantan in Malaysia. In this case one metre thick of
geocell mattress were used to support the container pavement of
760 mm thick aggregate base course stabilised with two layers
of TriAx geogrid (MSL) and interlocking paving block finishes.
Measuring
points
230t crane
carrying 70t 2 layers of
load geogrid
-100
-200
Single Multiple Single
-300 track track track
-400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Number of passes
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
each track area is up to 50 t/m. The foundation soil is 10 m settlement requirement was satisfied with total settlement of 41
thick soft bluish clay with an average undrained shear strength mm under 60 t/m load.
of 23 kPa from vane shear test results.
4 CONTAINER YARD IN GEBENG, KUANTAN
Figure 7. Geocell mattress and MSL platform (after Ong et al., 2011) 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Five layers of TriAx geogrids were used to form the 2 m Comparison is made in the pavement details and settlement
thick MSL. Stiff uniaxial geogrids were used to form the performance of the working platform (Table 1). From Table 1 it
interlocking cells of the 1 m thick geocell mattress and a layer can be seen that all the 3 platforms consist of soft clay layer of
of TriAx geogrid was placed at the base. The aggregate to be thickness varying from 4.5 m to 10 m. The crane track pressure
used as backfill material for the MSL and geocell mattress was exerted on the working platform was up to 500 kPa and axle
specified as well graded granular material with particle size less load exerted by the reach stacker on the working platform is 105
than 75 mm. Full scale plate bearing test (PBT) was conducted tonnes. Granular fill of varying thicknesses were used in all
to ascertain the performance of the geocell mattress in meeting three working platforms. It appears that MSL constructed using
the acceptance criterion (i.e., total settlement less than 100 mm biaxial and TriAx geogrids with granular fill with or without
under loading of 50 t/m). The loading on the steel plate was geocell mattress performed satisfactorily in terms of platform
increase in six steps: 10 t/m, 20 t/m, 30 t/m, 40 t/m, 50 t/m settlement performances to support the heavily loaded crawler
and 60 t/m. Settlement versus applied load and settlement crane or stacker machine for the fabrication or container yard.
versus time were plotted. It was found that the specified
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
REFERENCES
Chaddock, B. C. J. 1988. Deformation of road foundations with geogrid
reinforcement, TRL Research Report 140.
Chan, S.F. 2000. Reinforced soil structures using geogrids. Proceedings
Figure 10. Install diaphragm with Tensar uniaxial gegorid 2nd Asian Geosynthetics Conference, Kuala Lumpur. 1, 95-110.
and filling of geocells with granular materials. Jenner, C.G., Bassett, R.H. & Bush, D.I. 1988. The use of slip line fields
to assess improvement in bearing capacity of soft ground by a
cellular foundation mattress installed at the base of an embankment.
Proc. Int. Geotech. Symp. on Theory and Practice of Earth
Reinforcement, October, Fukuoka, Japan, 209214.
Knapton, J. 2008. The structural design of heavy duty pavements for
ports and other industries, Edition 4, Interpave, Precast Concrete
Paving and Kerb Association.
Ong, R., Song, W.K., Tran, N.M., Pham, X.T. 2011. Geocell mattress
for heavy duty working platform over soft soil. Proc. Geotec Hanoi
2011 Conference, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Ooi, T. A., Tee C. H. & Dobie, M. 2004. Some Malaysian experiences
in the application of geosynthetics in soft ground. Proc. 15th
Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society Conference, Bangkok. 486-
492.
Watts, K. and Jenner, C. G. 2008, Large-scale laboratory assessment of
geogrids to reinforce granular working platforms, Proc. EuroGeo4,
Scotland, Paper #222.
Webster, S.L. 1992. Geogrid reinforced base course for flexible
Figure 11. Construction of MSL with granular materials. pavements for light aircraft: test section construction, behavior
under traffic, laboratory tests and design criteria, Report Number
DOT/FAA/RD-92/25, US Army Corps of Engineers.
Yong, K. Y., Chan, S. F. & Lee, K. K. 1990. Reinforced soil working
platform for offshore jacket fabrication yard. Proc. 4th
International Conference on Geotextiles, Geomembranes and
Related Products, The Hague. 223-226.
2972
Container Terminal on Soft Soil
Terminal de conteneurs sur un sol mou
ABSTRACT: This paper analyzes soil - structure interaction and effectiveness of soil improvement through the back- analyses based
on measurements conducted on the example of a new container terminal in the port of Ploce. The terminal was built on part of the
Neretva River delta, which is dominated by Quaternary sediments represented by delta deposits over 100 m thick, accumulated over
carbonates. Coastal construction is based on bored vertical reinforced concrete piles and hammered steel battered piles. Storage areas
(fibre-reinforced concrete slabs) are located behind the coastal structure, and they are founded on soil improved by vibrated stone
columns. Construction of container terminal was divided into four main phases. Each phase of the project is analyzed through
interactive collaboration of construction designers and geotechnical designers. The applied measurement system consisted of geodetic
and geotechnical measurements - geodetic points, vertical inclinometers-deformeters in the vertical piles, horizontal inclinometers,
vertical deformeters, tiltmeters and load testing of piles. Works were success fully completed and verified by test loads.
RSUM : Cet article analyse linteraction sol structure et l'efficacit de lamlioration des sols en utilisant une analyse en retour,
base sur des mesures effectues sur le cas du nouveau terminal conteneurs du port de Ploe. Ce terminal a t construit sur une
partie du delta du fleuve Neretva dont le sous-sol est constitu par des sdiments quaternaires forms des dpts deltaques de 100
mtres d'paisseur, surmontant une base calcaire. La construction repose sur des pieux fors en bton arm et des pieux en acier
inclins. La zone de stockage des conteneurs du terminal (dallage de bton renforc de fibres), situe en retrait des constructions
ctires, est construite sur les colonnes ballastes. La construction du terminal conteneurs a t divise en quatre grandes phases.
Chaque phase du projet est analyse grce la collaboration entre les ingnieurs de gnie civil et les ingnieurs en gotechnique. Le
systme de mesures utilis comportait des mesures godsiques et gotechniques : points de contrle godsiques, tassomtres et
inclinomtres dans les pieux verticaux, inclinomtres horizontaux, tassomtres verticaux, capteurs de rotation et tests de charge des
pieux. Ces travaux ont t raliss avec succs et puis contrls lors de la mise en oeuvre des tests de charge.
KEYWORDS: Container terminal, soft soil, bored vertical piles, vibrated stone columns, field mesaurements, back analyses.
1 INTRODUCTION
280 23,4 60,4
MEASURING PROFILE - PRELOADING
30,5
deposits represented by delta sediments, accumulated over
27,4
COASTAL CONSTRUCTION
limestone paleorelief dominate in this area. The thickness of
Quaternary deposits exceeds 100 m. Deposits have different
60,4
STORAGE AREA
grain size distribution. One contrasting environment in the
vertical geological profile is represented by gravels, and partly
sands.
Figure 1 Plan view of the container terminal.
The coast for containers is a surface structure at the level
+3.0 m a.s.l., of width 27.4 m and berth length of 280.0 m. The As a part of site investigations, a total of 27 CPT probes were
coastal structure is divided in three segments by length. The made and 7 boreholes on an area of 15 ha. The lengths of CPT
total length of coastal structure is 88.6 + 102.8 + 109.5 = 300.9 probes range from 22 m to 43 m, while the lengths of boreholes
m. The coast is 15.1 m in depth, for vessels of bearing capacity were from 42 m to 58 m. Out of in-situ testing in boreholes,
up to 60,000 DWT and draught of 13.5 m. The coastal structure vane tests and standard penetration tests were performed.
is founded on drilled reinforced-concrete vertical piles (Benoto) Laboratory tests included the following: testing of grain size
of nominal diameter 1,500 mm, and on hammered steel battered distribution, direct shear test, consolidated undrainedtriaxial
piles of diameter 812.8 mm. Vertical piles end in a layer of test, etc.
gravel at the depth of -44 m a.s.l. They are made in single sided
formwork from -20 to -44 m or double sided steel formwork 2 GEOTECHNICAL SOIL PROFILE
down to the depth 20.0 m. Axial distance of piles in
longitudinal direction is 7.1 m and in the transversal 8.0 m (four Through implementation of geotechnical investigations and
pile rows along coast width). laboratory tests, the following geotechnical soil profile in the
Storage and traffic surfaces are located behind the coastal area of the container terminal was established:
structure. Pavement structure consists of fibre-reinforced Surface layer is represented by siltysand and low
concrete slabs which are founded on soil improved by stone plasticity silt, of thickness 8 m.
columns. Stone columns are of 110 cm diameter on a grid 2x2 Under the surface layer, clays of low to high
m to 2.8x2.8 m, of depth down to -15 m a.s.l., i.e. -20 m a.s.l. plasticity dominate. This layer is 25 m thick.
Low plasticity silt to sand, poorly graded.
Well-compacted gravel of layer thickness 10m.
Gray to gray-green clay of stiff consistency.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Date
23/8/08 22/9/08 22/10/08 21/11/08 21/12/08 20/1/09 19/2/09
+10.00 0
0.00
c=0 kPa
SFs/ML =30
-10.00 100
ELEVATION [m a.s.l.]
-20.00
Settlement (mm)
G
c=0 kPa
300 deformeter
=40
-50.00
SPT correlation SPT correlation Consolidated Unrained Test
back analysis
Shear Vane Test Consolidated Undrained Test Direct Shear Test
CPT Direct Shear Test
400
Figure 2 Geotechnical soil profile with performed in-situ exploratory
works and laboratory tests.
500
3 MEASURMENTS AND CONSTRUCTION PHASES
(see Figure 3). A net of geodetic points was placed on the top of -20,0
-20 m a.s.l.
inclinometer and vertical deformeter, and with a net of geodetic Figure 6 Construction phase III: undersea excavation and execution of
points 12x12 m. Measurements showed the settlement of 70 cm undersea embankment.
in the period of 105 days, and they are shown on Figure 4. The Geotechnical measurements on the coastal structure consisted of
difference in settlement between the inclinometer and measurements in vertical inclinometers-deformeters inside the
deformeter is caused by the fact that the deformeter's reference pile. Measuring equipment was installed in one profile, so that
point is at 44 m and underneath it there are compressible layers one vertical inclinometer-deformeter was placed in tensile zones
which could not be followed by the deformeter. of each of piles A and C. In pile D, two vertical inclinometers-
deformeters were placed one in the compressive zone and the
other in the tensile zone. The tops of inclinometers-deformeters
were at the same time geodetic points, whose displacements
were geodetically followed. Inclinometer measurements showed
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Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
displacements up to 40 cm at the top of the pile before obtained through back analyses. The curves show soil
superstructure was placed. Measurements in the phase of test settlement by layers after 90-day preloading period.
load have shown minimum displacements, which are within the
0
limits of elastic deformation of concrete.
COASTAL
CONSTRUCTION STORAGE AREA
10
+3,0
A B C D
Elevation [m a.s.l.]
c=0 kPa
STONE COLUMNS 2x2m -8,0 SFs/ML =30 -8 m a.s.l.
15
STONE COLUMNS 2.8x2.8m -15,0
CL/CH Cu=20-40 kPa
-20,0
-20 m a.s.l.
40
c=10 kPa
-33 m a.s.l.
SFs / ML 0 -8 4.5 1.15*10-5 4
ML/SFs =28 -42 m a.s.l.
-7
G
c=0 kPa
=40
CL / CH 8 -15 2.5 3.5*10 2
-52 m a.s.l.
-6
Figure 8 Use of container terminal. CL / CH 20 33 5 8.1*10 -
-5
4 BACK ANALYSES ML / SFs 33 - 39 30 1.5*10 -
Design and monitoring during construction by means of back Figure 10 shows the ratios of modules of compressibility
analyses based on data obtained by measurements were carried assumed in the design and those obtained by back analysis. For
out by the same design team. The design team was made up of design values, the improvement of compressibility parameters
designers of the coastal structure and geotechnical engineers. due to soil improvement by stone columns was not taken into
Soil-structure interaction was taken into account through consideration. The scope of ratios ranges from 0.625 to 1.5.
cooperation of design teams in the design process and
construction. 0
Based on measured data on soil settlement and pile SFs / ML
displacement back analyses were performed. The objective of
back analyses was to establish actual soil parameters and 10
internal forces in the structure. CL / CH
Elevation [m a.s.l.]
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Elevation [m a.s.l.]
the obtained measurement results were correctly determined in -10
the design in terms of the modules of compressibility.
Based on the calculated parameters of compressibility from
Model 1, a numerical model of finite elements was made in -20
Plaxis 2D-Model 2. The soil was described as an isotropic
elastoplastic material with linear elasticity properties until
failure and by Mohr-Coulomb strength law for stresses at -30
failure. A comparison of horizontal pile displacements before
superstructure execution was carried out through the model
obtained by back analysis. Also, the comparison of bending -40
moment diagrams obtained by back analyses and on the basis of
measured displacements was also carried out.
-50
10
-4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000
Bending moment - pile D [kNm/m']
Figure 12 Bending moments in pile D, on the basis of displacements in
0 vertical inclinometer and for back analyses model 2.
5 CONCLUSION
Elevation [m a.s.l.]
-10
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Tan
TANY.-C., Lee P.-T.,LEE
Yean-Chin, KooPeir-Tien
K.-S. & KOO Kuan-Seng
G&P Geotechnics Sdn Bhd, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT: The geometrical tolerance of railway tracks at high operating speed is generally very stringent. Hence, when long
stretches of the railway embankment traversing through soft alluvium deposits, cost effective designs meeting the design performance
and construction schedule are required. A cost effective treatment such as prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) with temporary
surcharging was designed to meet the stringent performance requirements. In addition, basal reinforcement was adopted to allow
higher embankments to be built without compromising on the embankment stability during construction and to meet the tight
construction schedule. Therefore, a fully instrumented trial embankment was carried out at Tokai, State of Kedah, Malaysia to verify
the design philosophy of the ground treatment method adopted. This paper presents the consolidation settlement behavior and excess
pore water pressure responses of the trial embankment during construction and surcharge waiting period. Back analyses using Finite
Element Modeling (FEM) was performed to evaluate the performance of the ground treatment and to verify the subsoil parameters
used in the design.
RSUM : La tolrance gomtrique des voies ferres grande vitesse de fonctionnement leve est gnralement trs strictes. Ainsi,
lorsque de longues tendues de la voie ferre traversant remblai par des dpts d'alluvions souples, efficaces cotent conceptions
rpondant la performance de la conception et du calendrier de construction sont ncessaires. Un traitement rentable telles que
vidange verticaux prfabriqus (PVD) avec surcharge temporaire a t conu pour rpondre aux exigences de performance
rigoureuses. En outre, le renforcement de base a t adopt pour permettre aux plus digues pour se construire sans compromettre la
stabilit de remblai lors de la construction afin de respecter le calendrier de construction serr. Par consquent, un remblai d'essai
entirement instrument a t effectue Tokai, tat de Kedah, en Malaisie afin de vrifier la philosophie de conception de la
mthode de traitement des sols adopt. Cet article prsente le comportement tassement de consolidation et de l'excs de pression d'eau
interstitielle des rponses du remblai d'essai pendant la construction et la priode d'attente. Retour l'aide des analyses de
modlisation par lments finis (FEM) a t ralise afin d'valuer la performance du traitement des sols et de vrifier les paramtres
du sous-sol utiliss dans la conception
KEYWORDS: Instrumented trial embankment, soft ground, consolidation settlement .
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
adopted to simulate the behaviour of the soft clay under loading original subsoil (soft clay). The geometry of FEM is shown in
condition and coupled consolidation process for each stage of Figure 4.
construction. Stress dependent stiffness (logarithmic
compression behaviour) between volumetric strain and mean 5 MEASUREMENT VERSUS CALCULATION
effective stress is assumed in SSM. Distinction between primary
loading and unloading-reloading stiffness based on the modified 5.1 Settlement
index * (CR/2.3) and * (2RR/2.3) were obtained from 1D The calculated results of the FEM analyses are compared with
Oedometers tests. In addition, SSM is able to memorise the pre- the measured settlement. Figure 5 shows the settlement profile
consolidation stress with OCR input in the initial stage. Whilst, of the embankment at the centre and the edge versus
Hardening Soil Model (HSM) was utilised to model the embankment filling time. The measured settlements at the end
underlying silty sand layer and the fill materials. of surcharging period are averagely 1963mm and 1545mm at
From a macro point of view, PVD increases the subsoil the centre and edge of the embankment respectively. This
mass permeability in vertical direction (Lin et al, 2006). correspondences to 26% and 20% of the total constructed
Therefore, an equivalent vertical permeability, k ve, embankment height. The calculated settlement at the centre of
approximately represents the effect of both the vertical embankment is 1932mm which is 31mm or 1.6% lower than the
permeability of natural subsoil and radial consolidation by PVD measured value. In general, the back-calculated settlement
was established to simulate the PVD behaviour in the back profile is fairly close to the measured settlement profile
analyses. Based on the back analyses results, kve is about 5.8 especially during first stage of filling (within 200 days) up to a
times more permeable than the vertical permeability of the fill thickness of 3.9m.
Compression Re-compression Over Consolidation Preconsolidation Undrained Shear Atterberg Limit with
Bulk Density Ratio (CR) Ratio (RR) Ratio (OCR) Pressure (PC) Strength (Su) Water Content
0
1
2
3
4
5
Depth (m)
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
-1000
-1500
-500
Settlement (mm)
-1000
-1500
At edge of embankment
-2000
Measurement Calculation
Figure 5. Settlement of embankment.
Figure 4. Geometry of FEM.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5.2 Excess Pore Water Pressure 3, the lateral displacement of trial embankment were monitored
by three inclinometers with two inclinometers located at the toe
The calculated results are compared with the measured excess
of embankment and one inclinometer located at the slope of
pore water pressure at varies depths. Excess pore pressures were
embankment. The maximum measured lateral displacement at
monitored using vibrating wire (VW) piezometers installed at
the toe of embankment is 172mm at depth of 2.5m below
centre of trial embankment. Figure 6 shows the excess pore
ground. The calculated values were over predicted by 79%
water pressure profiles at depths of 2m, 3m, 4m, 8m and 10m
(134mm). For the lateral displacement measured at the slope,
versus embankment filling time. Generally, the measured pore
the maximum measured lateral displacement is 258mm at depth
water pressure increased during filling and dissipated during
of 3.2m below ground. The calculated displacement was over
surcharge period. At 1st stage of filling (up to 3.9m), the VW
predicted by 62% (162mm).
piezometers indicated that the excess pore pressure at depth of
2m, 3m, 4m, 8m and 10m were 21kPa, 27kPa, 32kPa, 35kPa Lateral displacement (mm) Lateral displacement (mm)
and 31kPa respectively. The measured excess pore pressure at -200 0 200 400 600 -200 0 200 400 600
-28
Time (day) At slope of embankment At toe of embankment
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 -30
10
Fill Thickness (m)
8 Measurement Prediction
0
30
6 CONCLUSIONS
Pressure (kPa)
Excess Pore
20
10
about 1.6% to 5.7% (31mm to 88mm) more than the
0 At depth of 3m calculated settlement.
30
c) In finite element modelling, an equivalent vertical
Pressure (kPa)
20
10
permeable than the original subsoil permeability.
0
At depth of 8m e) The settlement measured for the first stage filling up to
30
3.9m has good agreement with the settlement computed
Pressure (kPa)
Excess Pore
2980
Prediction of and countermeasures for embankment-related settlement in ultra-soft
ground containing peat
Prdiction et contre-mesure sur les tassements de remblais dans les sols ultra-meubles contenant
de la tourbe
Tashiro M.
Nagoya University, Japan
Inagaki M.
Central Nippon Expressway Company Limited, Japan
Asaoka A.
Association for the Development of Earthquake Prediction, Japan
ABSTRACT: In the Mukasa area of the Maizuru-Wakasa expressway in Japan, delayed settlement as large as 11 m has occurred by
test embankment loading on a ground that includes approximately 50 m of ultra-soft sediment layers containing peat and clay. In this
paper, based on deductions of the initial in-situ soil conditions, simulations were carried out on the settlement and pore water pressure
observed until now at the site, and predictions were made of the settlement that could occur in the future. In addition, the effects of
countermeasures such as ground improvement by sand drain, replacement of the existing embankment with lightweight materials, and
reduction of the loading rate, were also investigated using numerical analysis. These analyses were performed using the soil-water
coupled finite deformation analysis program GEOASIA, in which the SYS Cam-clay model was mounted as the constitutive equation
for the soil skeleton. The results showed that improvement of the mass permeability and the slow or lightweight banking are effective
means of improving the stability during loading and reducing the residual settlement after entry into service. The results analyzed in
this paper were applied to the actual construction design of a culvert and the lightweight embankment surrounded it.
RSUM : Sur l'autoroute Maizuru-Wakasa au Japon, un tassement diffr de prs de 11m s'est produit suite des essais de
chargement de remblai sur un terrain incluant prs de 50 m de couches de sdiments ultra-meubles contenant de la tourbe et de
l'argile. Dans cet article, des simulations de tassement et de pression de l'eau interstitielle observes jusqu' maintenant sur le site ainsi
que des prdictions de tassement pouvant survenir dans le futur ont t ralises en dduisant les conditions initiales de sols in situ. En
outre, les effets des contre-mesures, comme l'amlioration du sol par drain de sable, le remplacement des remblais existants avec des
matriaux lgers, et la rduction de la vitesse de chargement, ont galement t tudis par analyse numrique. Ces analyses ont t
employes en utilisant le programme d'analyse de dformations finies sol-eau couples GEOASIA. Les rsultats ont montr que
l'amlioration de la permabilit de masse, un tassement lent et lger sont des mthodes efficaces pour atteindre la stabilit pendant le
chargement et la diminution du tassement rsiduel aprs l'entre en service. Les rsultats analyss dans ce document ont t appliqus
la conception de la construction relle d'un ponceau et du lger remblai qui l'entourait.
KEYWORDS: peat, prediction of settlement, soil-water coupled analysis
1 INTRODUCTION and reduction in loading rate and weight are effective means of
improving stability during embankment loading and reducing
In the Mukasa area of the Maizuru-Wakasa expressway, the residual settlement of ultra-soft sediments containing peat.
ground consists of ultra-soft sediment layers comprising peat Numerical analyses were conducted using the SYS CAM-clay
and clay with N-values on the order of 0 to 1 and a maximum model (Asaoka et al. 2002) as an elasto-plastic constitutive
depth of 50 m. Delayed settlement in excess of 11 m has equation mounted on the GEOASIA analysis program (All Soils
occurred due to test embankment loading for approximately All States All Round Geo-Analysis Integration: Asaoka and
four years. While the construction of the embankment did not Noda 2007, Noda et al. 2008). The simulation results were
induce catastrophic sliding failure, it did dramatically impact applied to the actual construction design of a culvert and the
the surrounding ground, causing substantial lateral displacement lightweight embankment surrounding it.
of up to 2 m and ground upheaval of up to 1 m (Inagaki et al
2010b). 2 SUMMARY OF THE TEST EMBANKMENT
In this paper, we simulated the large-scale ground settlement
behavior observed in the region based on soil-water coupled Figure 1 presents a longitudinal cross-section of the soil strata
finite deformation analysis, and in addition to predicting future underlying the test embankment that is the subject of this study.
settlement, we demonstrated that ground improvement by drain, Three types of test embankments were established utilizing the
-30.0
-40.0
-50.0
Figure 1. Schematic of test embankment and underlying soil strata (longitudinal cross section).
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
card-board drain (CBD) method, the sand drain (SD) method, or 2 DEDUCTION OF INITIAL GROUND CONDITIONS
no improvement, with the aim to select a countermeasure for
soft ground. Among these, the soft ground layer was thickest Prior to conducting the simulation, in order to estimate the
directly under the test embankment established using the SD initial ground conditions, we examined historical data related to
method. When taking into consideration the settlement of all ground formation as well as various survey data, including pore
layers up to the deep peat layers, the total settlement, estimated water pressure. The area is located between faults, and it is
prior to embankment construction, was 8.6 m. In practical terms, believed that the soil was deposited through the repeated
however, as presented in Figure 5, this meant that in order to upheaval, settlement, and deep sediment of organic components
achieve the planned embankment height of 7 m, the in a valley that experienced continuous artesian conditions. In
embankment had to be 15 m (embankment height + settlement) this paper, the initial distribution of pore water pressure and
thick. effective overburden pressure of the ground prior to
The large-scale settlement has been accompanied by substantial embankment loading is estimated in Figure 2. For reference, the
changes in an extensive area surrounding the embankment. distribution when artesian pressure is not taken into
Ground upheaval of up to 1 m and lateral displacement of up to consideration is included as a dotted line. This represents an
2 m have been observed in the vicinity of the toe of the slope. unusual case in which the initial effective overburden pressure
The surrounding ground has also experienced an inclination of p0 becomes greater than the consolidation yield stress pc (p0 >
waterways and cracking of the soil surface. At this point, 4 pc). In this region, it is expected that the increase in artesian
years after the establishment of the test embankment, settlement pressure accompanying the increase in soft ground thickness
has reached 11 m, representing a settlement rate of 3.0 resulted in a continuous low effective pressure in the deep
cm/month with little sign of convergence. ground.
0
1 PREVIOUS RESEARCH Apt2
Ac1
10
The long-term settlement that accompanies embankment
As1 Ac2u
loading is referred to as delayed compression or secondary
consolidation and is a problem frequently encountered in 20
Apt3
sensitive naturally-deposited clay. For example, according to
Ac2
the construction records of the former Japan Highways Public
Depth (m)
: Artesian pressure
Corporation, approximately 20% of embankments on soft 30
Apt5 is considerd
ground in Japan have experienced 1 m or more of residual : Artesian pressure
Apt6 is not considerd
settlement after entry into service, which has necessitated 40
substantial sums of money and labor for maintenance and repair Apt7
including the expansion of road shoulders and rectification of
Apt8
level differences. However, we know from experience that 50 : Measured value (before embankment)
: Measured value (after embankment)
settlement predictions based on Terzaghis Theory of Dg
: Consolidation yield stress pc
Consolidations (Terzaghi 1943) and observational methods such (before embankment)
60
as the Asaoka method (Asaoka 1978) tend to underestimate the 0 200 400 600 0 100 200
magnitude and time span of settlement in such sites. Pore pressure (kPa) Effective overburden (kPa)
Meanwhile, because settlement estimates based on visco-plastic Figure 2. Estimated distribution of initial pore water pressure and
theory (e.g. uklje 1957) assume perpetual delayed effective overburden pressure
compression, it is difficult to explain why and under what
'v0 pc 'v0 pc
conditions delayed compression occurs and the efficacy of
5
particular countermeasures. Ac1-2 Apt7
5
v0 v0
Mounting the SYS Cam-clay model as an elasto-plastic
Specific volume v
constitutive equation for the soil skeleton structure into the soil-
Specific volume v
4 4
water coupled finite deformation analysis program GEOASIA,
we have explained the mechanism of delayed compression as a 3
3
consolidation phenomenon accompanied by plastic compression
due to progressive failure of the soil skeleton structure (Noda et 2
al. 2005). While, we have also proposed a simple method for 2
1 2 3 4
assessing the risk of delayed compression based on a laboratory 10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4 10 10 10 10
Vertical effective stress 'v(kPa) Vertical effective stress 'v(kPa)
mechanical test and a novel method for predicting long-term
settlement accompanied by delayed compression (Inagaki et al. Figure 3. Examples of compression curves for undisturbed samples
(gray lines) and estimated compression curves for in-situ soil (thick
2010a). In addition, we have applied these methods to the black lines).
analysis of embankment loading sites built on soft clay ground
that has actually experienced long-term settlement (Tashiro et Next, through laboratory tests, we attempted to determine the
al. 2011). material constants and initial conditions. As presented in Figure
The elasto-plastic constitutive SYS Cam-clay model that serves 3, based on previous research on naturally deposited clay
as the basis for the above simulations enables the wide range of (Inagaki et al. 2010), we estimated compression curves for in-
soil components, from sand to clay, to be treated within the situ soil from the compression curves for undisturbed samples,
same theoretical framework. Furthermore, the GEOASIA taking into consideration the various disturbances that might
analysis program into which the model is integrated, enables all occur during sampling, removal from the sampling tube,
manner of mechanical conditions, including ground specimen preparation and setting-up on the testing machine.
consolidation, deformation, stability and failure to be analyzed However, we observed considerable heterogeneity among
in series. In this paper, we apply the various insights gained samples from the deep peat layers with regard to factors such as
from soft clay ground to peat ground and attempt to describe, mixing of plant fibers. In addition, it was expected that these
predict, and evaluate countermeasures related to large-scale samples were substantially impacted by disturbances, given
settlement behavior. their poor strength resulting from their high water content. For
2982
Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
this reason, we conducted simulations based on a range of degree of volume compression has occurred, the layers then
assumed initial conditions and determined the initial conditions exhibit extremely poor permeability and have trouble
that best reproduced the measured settlement. With regard to the dissipating excess pore pressure. Consequently, large settlement
permeability coefficient k, given the high compressibility of the continues over a long term in these layers.
peat layers, we assumed that the void ratio e was related to k by
the expression e=Clnk/k0+e0 and, for the other layers, we
assumed a constant permeability coefficient. In addition, in 4 COUNTERMEASURES FOR SOFT PEAT GROUND
order to represent the improvement by SD, we assigned a 100-
fold greater permeability to finite elements corresponding to the 4.1 Effect of ground improvement using SD method
SD area. We evaluated the effect of SD on the test embankment ground
by simulating the following three cases:
3 PREDICTION OF FUTURE SETTLEMENT BEHAVIOR Case 1: Simulating the actual SD-improved area of the test
embankment (20 60m (L W))
The finite element mesh and boundary conditions are presented Case 2: No SD-improvement
in Figure 4. For simplicity, in this analysis, the SD section of Case 3: Expanding the SD-improved area in accordance with
Figure 1 was modeled assuming ground stratification. specific site conditions. (34 85 m (L W), i.e., the entire area
directly under the embankment down to the Apt5 layer)
*Actual mesh width was 200m
85.0 In each case, based on actual records at the construction site, the
68.6
Units(m)
39.0 simplest construction history was used (constant increasing the
SD expansion34m85m)
Surface of ground and embankment 27.3
embankment thickness at a rate of 2.35 cm/day).
: permeable boundary (atmosphere) SD (20m60m)
Although the magnitude of the settlement during initial
Ac1-1 (3.0) 7.4m
Ac1-2 (5.0)
embankment construction is lowest in Case 2, it was shown that
Apt2(1.8) because the poor permeability induces shear deformation under
As1(1.2)
Ac2u(4.2) undrained condition, large-scale circular slip extends to the deep
Apt3(6.2) ground layers below the embankment center (Figure 6). From
Ac2 (3.0)
this result, it appears that ground improvement using SD in this
Apt5 (9.5) As4
(9.5)
area was effective in preventing catastrophic slip failure.
Apt6 (5.75)
Depth (m)
-5
Initial condition
0 10 20 over 30(%)
Embankment
8 0 Measurement
7
Embankment height (m)
Apt7 25 Apt3
2 3 SD-improved area (L W)
3 4
30 Ac2 5 Case 1: 20 60m
4 Apt6 6 Case 3: 34 85m
5 Apt5 35 Apt5 7
Settlement (m)
6 8 Difference of
40 Apt6 9 total settlement
7 10
Ac2 =55cm
8 Apt3 45 Apt7 11
9 Ac2u 12
10 As1 50 Apt8 13 -1 0 1 2
Measurement Apt2 Ac1-2 10 10 Time (years) 10 10
11
Ac1-1 55 Dg 0
12 Simulation
Residual settlement (m)
13-1 0 1 2 60
10 10 10 10 0 200 400 600
Time (years) Pore water pressure u (kPa) 0.5
(a)Prediction of future settlement (b)Distribution of pore pressure
Figure 5. Simulation results (directly below the embankment center). 1
87cm
1.5
Figure 5(a) shows the predicted settlements at ground surface
159cm
and for all layers directly below the center of the embankment. 2 -1
After adjusting the initial conditions and permeability 10 10
0
10
1
10
2
coefficients to reproduce the observed settlement values, the Time since start of residual settlement measurements (years)
simulation was allowed to continue to predict future settlement Figure 7 Comparison of SD-improvement area.
behavior. According to this analysis, additional residual
settlement on the order of 1.5 m is expected to occur over the Case 3 resulted in stability, particularly of the deep peat layers,
next 70 years. Figure 5(b) shows a comparison of the measured and early settlement convergence. Figure 7 shows the settlement
and simulated pore water pressure approximately 1,400 days for Cases 1 and 3. The residual settlement starting at a point 2
after the entry of embankment loading (dotted line in Figure years (assuming the entry into service) after embankment
5(a)). It can be seen that the simulation closely reproduces the construction is also illustrated in the lower panel. Expansion of
the SD-improved area, particularly in the deep peat layers,
distribution of excess pore pressure. Although the initial high
reduces lateral displacement due to undrained shear deformation
void ratio for the deep peat layers experiences an rapid
and settlement associated therewith. The total settlement is
compression as a result of embankment loading, after a certain reduced by 55 cm across the entire area of ground under the
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Settlement (m)
area and load of the counterweight embankment and reducing 6 79 kPa (replace with curvert)
the rate of embankment loading, particularly in the initial stages. 105 kPa
8
2984
Numerical simulation of energy consumption of artificial ground freezing applications
subject to water seepage
Simulation numrique de la consummation dnergie des applications pour la conglation artificielle
du sol soumise au flux de leau souterraine
ABSTRACT: The energy consumption of artificial ground freezing applications results from the necessary (consumed) refrigeration
capacity. The determination of the refrigeration capacity requires the numerical modeling of heat transfer processes within the freeze
pipe. Therefore a new module has been implemented in the Finite Difference Program SHEMAT. An approach for calculating the
heat transfer processes and finally the refrigeration capacity is presented in this paper. Thus numerical simulations are carried out to
determine the influence of groundwater flow on the refrigeration capacity and the related energy consumption for artifical ground
freezing applications.
RSUM : La consommation dnergie des applications pour la conglation artificielle du sol rsulte de la capacit ncessaire de
rfrigration. La dtermination de cette capacit de rfrigration exige un modle numrique des processus de transfert de la chaleur
dans le tuyau de conglation. Cest pourquoi un nouveau module a t implment dans le programme SHEMAT. Une approche pour
calculer le transfert de la chaleur et finalement la capacit de rfrigration est prsente dans cet expos. Ainsi, des simulations
numrique ont t ralises pour dterminer linfluence du flux des eaux souterraines sur la capacit de rfrigration et la
consommation dnergie qui en rsulte des applications pour la conglation artificielle du sol.
KEYWORDS: artificial ground freezing, refrigeration capacity, heat transfer, Nusselt number
2985
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
dhydraulic din,outerpipedout,innerpip (5) necessary. To avoid a very fine discretization which causes long
simulation times a seperate module freezrefcap for the
The Nusselt number Nu depends on the flow type laminar calculation of the heat transfer processes within the freeze pipe
or turbulent. To differ between the two flow types the Reynolds has been developed in cooperation with Geophysica
2986
Technical Committee 214 / Comit technique 214
Beratungsgesellschaft mbH. This module is based on a Finite the temperatures calculated in the previous time step (t-1) are
Difference formulation for simulating borehole heat exchanger used (see Eq. 12 and Eq. 13). The thermal resistances Rinner and
developed by Mottaghy and Dijkshoorn (2012) and has been Router are also calculated considering the results of the previous
modified for the simulation of artificial ground freezing time step. Because of the flowing refrigerant the different grid
applications. layers i need to be taken into account.
Tsoili Tu i
Adapted from the Kelvin line source theory the freeze pipes t1
are modeled as line sources and the horizontal heat transfer is Q s (12)
determined, using the concept of thermal resistances Router
(Hellstrm 1991). To realize the coupling of the module For the determination of the heat flow between the outer and
freezrefcap with SHEMAT the soil temperature calculated in the inner pipe adjacent temperatures in the downstream and in
SHEMAT TSoil is passed to the new module. In turn, a cooling the upstream are used (see Eq. 13).
returns to SHEMAT (see Figure 3).
Tu i 1 Td i
generation Q t1 t1
s
Q e (13)
freezrefcap SHEMAT Rinner
The temperature in the downstream Tdt(i+1) of the actual
time step t is determined based on the downstream temperature
Td(t-1)(i) of the overlying grid cell i for the previous time step
Q s (t-1) because of the flowing refrigerant.
Tdt i
1 Tdt1i e
Q
(14)
qF cF
Q Q
Tut i Tut1i 1 e s (15)
Tsoil qF cF
cF indicates the volumetric heat capacity of the refrigerant
and qF the flow rate.
Besides the flow rate the inlet temperature or the
refrigeration capacity can be choosen as input parameters.
Figure 3. Coupling of freezrefcap module and SHEMAT. Furthermore the simulation of different refrigerants requires just
a simple implementation of the temperature dependent fluid
The numerical model includes the afore-mentioned heat parameters.
transfer conditions for the calculation of the thermal resistances.
For the numerical model the inner freeze pipe and the annular
space are divided into grid cells that are connected via thermal 3 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
resistances (see Figure 4). Assuming a steady state solution the
temperature of all grid cells is calculated considering the heat Former numerical simulations at the Chair of Geotechnical
balance equation in every time step. Due to the high flow rate engineering showed that groundwater flow has an important
inside the freeze pipes and the comparatively short freeze pipe influence on the freezing process. The results outlined that the
length this simplified steady state solution is a good freezing time increases disproportionately and the frost body
approximation. development decreases with an increasing flow velocity.
To further investigate the influence of groundwater flow on
Tin the refrigeration capacity a numerical simulation of a simplified
rout Router
rin rout model with only one freeze pipe has been carried out using the
Rinner module freezrefcap. Because of a missing module validation
rin against measured data from laboratory model tests only the
Tout
qualitative influence of groundwater flow is outlined. For this
rb example a freeze pipe with an outer diameter of 10 cm, an inner
Td(i) Tu(i) diameter of 5 cm and a length of 9.5 m has been chosen. The
inner pipe was assumed to consist of polyethylene and the outer
Q Q e Q s pipe of steel. As refrigerant a 29 % CaCl2 brine has been
d Qu
chosen. The results of the numerical simulation are displayed in
Td(i+1) Tu(i+1) Figure 5.
5 v = 2.0 m/d
Refrigeration capacity P [kW]
v = 1.0 m/d
4
v=0
2988
General Report of TC 215
Environmental Geotechnics
Rapport Jnral du TC 215
Gotechnique de lHnvironnement
Bouazza A.
Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
ABSTRACT: Twenty two (22) papers have been allocated to this session. They originated from twelve (12) countries and five (5)
continental regions (Asia, Europe, North America, South America and Oceania). They described and presented laboratory and field
studies and numerical modelling addressing numerous topics which included novel materials, chemical compatibility of barrier
materials, unsaturated behaviour of geosynthetic liners, soil-geosynthetic liner interface behaviour, waste geotechnical properties,
phytoremediation, permeable reactive barriers, soil and groundwater remediation, image analysis, natural leaching of heavy metals
and biogeotechnology. This general report offers a review of all the papers submitted to this session and highlights the major findings
reported by the authors of these papers.
RSUM : Vingt-deux (22) communications ont t alloues cette session. Elles proviennent de douze (12) pays et de cinq (5)
rgions continentales (Asie, Europe, Amrique du Nord, Amrique du Sud et Ocanie). Ces communications dcrivent et prsentent
des tudes de laboratoire et sur site ainsi que des tudes de modlisation numrique. Elles traitent de nombreux sujets comprenant les
nouveaux matriaux, la compatibilit chimique des matriaux d'tanchisation, le comportement insatur des gosynthtiques, le
comportement de l'interface sol-gosynthtique, les proprits gotechniques des dchets, la phytoremdiation, les barrires ractives
permables, l'assainissement des sols et des eaux souterraines, lanalyse d'images, le lessivage naturel des mtaux lourds et la
biogotechnologie. Ce rapport gnral prsente une revue de tous les documents soumis cette session et met en vidence les
principaux rsultats rapports par les auteurs de ces documents.
KEYWORDS: biogeotechnology, containment barriers, geotechnical properties, groundwater, soil, remediation, waste,
1 INTRODUCTION This general report offers a review of all the papers submitted to
this session. It highlights the major findings reported by the
Environmental Geotechnics has evolved dramatically from authors of these papers.
the 1980s/1990s practice where the focus was on addressing
problems related to contaminated sites as well as waste 2 CONTAINMENT BARRIERS
management. Nowadays, the discipline has expanded
dramatically to tackle new challenges brought about by a Bohnhoff et al. describe a study on bentonites that have been
continuous evolving world. Energy (geothermal energy, CO2 chemically modified to achieve greater chemical compatibility
sequestration, coal seam and shale gas, methane hydrates, etc.), when used as containment barriers such that the desirable
oil and gas resources, mining, reservoir engineering, effect of engineering properties of the bentonites are not compromised.
climate change on built structures and biogeotechnical They have considered three bentonites. These bentonites include
engineering, are examples of areas Environmental Geotechnics (1) a natural Na-bentonite polymerized with acrylic acid to form
has expand to. Consequently, this had the effect of bringing polyacrylate polymerized bentonite, referred to as a bentonite
other different disciplines (chemistry, biology, soil science, etc.) polymer nanocomposite or BPN, (2) a propylene carbonate (PC)
even closer than before. modified Na-bentonite, referred to as "multiswellable bentonite"
Significant and rapid progress in research and development or MSB, and (3) Na-bentonite amended with sodium
has enabled the development of Environmental Geotechnics as a carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC), referred to as "HYPER
discipline to the level where it is now. This is reflected by the clay" or HC. Two potential applications were considered: 1) soil
contributions made to this session which includes novel bentonite (SB) vertical cut off walls and 2) geosynthetic clay
materials to deal with very aggressive solutes to biological
liners. In both cases hydraulic conductivity to water and CaCl2
approaches to restore land devastated by natural events.
solutions were compared with those of three natural Na-
Twenty two (22) papers have been allocated to this session.
bentonites commonly used in geoenvironmental containment
They originated from twelve (12) countries and five (5)
continental regions (Asia, Europe, North America, South applications. Permeation with deionised water, DIW, (plotted at
America and Oceania). Most papers have presented laboratory 0.1 mM CaCl2 in Fig. 1) resulted in low kw (i.e., 4.2 x 10-12 to
studies. Papers including field studies and numerical modelling 3.4 x 10-11 m/s) regardless of the bentonite type. However, the
were also presented. The papers have been grouped into the BPN, HC2, and MSB exhibited superior hydraulic behaviour
following themes: (i.e., lower kc) relative to the GCL bentonites. The influence of
Containment barriers CaCl2 on the k of backfill specimens containing 5.7 % NB1 or
Municipal solid waste and other types of waste 5.6 % MSB and specimens containing 7.1 % NB2, 2.4 % BPN,
geotechnical properties and 5.5 % BPN is shown in Fig. 2b. All of the specimens were
Soil and groundwater remediation susceptible to an increase in k, i.e., kc/kw > 1, where kc =
Biogeotechnology hydraulic conductivity to the CaCl2 solution, when permeated
with 10 mM CaCl2 solutions. The increases varied from
approximately two-fold to 15-fold depending, in part, on the
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
bentonite content. The authors indicated that the differences in Hanson et al. present the results of a laboratory investigation
behaviour among these novel bentonites illustrated in this paper aimed at determining the moisture-suction relationships of
highlight the need for further research into the specific geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) under as-received conditions
mechanisms affecting the performance of such new materials. (moisture contents in the range of 14-27%) and subsequent to
At the same time, the paper shows the potential that such wet-dry cycles (20 cycles at 50% moisture content). Tests were
bentonites can have in addressing aggressive solutes. conducted on three types of needle punched GCLs which
contained granular bentonite. Two of the GCLs were of the
10-5 conventional types whereas the third GCL was of a multi-
Hydraulic Conductivity, kw or kc (m/s)
100
10-6 GCL 5.7 % NB1
BPN 7.1 % NB2 component type (i.e. the carrier geotextile was composed of a
10-7 HC2 2.4 % BPN
MSB 5.5 % BPN non woven geotextile and a geofilm). Differences were
10-8 5.6 % MSB
observed between the conventional and multi-component GCLs
kc /kw
10-9 10
10-10
and between the as-received and wet-dry cycled GCLs. The air
10-11 entry suction value for the multi-component GCL was found to
10-12
(a) (b)
be lower than that for the conventional GCLs for the drying
10-13
0.1 1 10 100 1000
1
1 10 100 1000 branches of the moisture suction curves and higher for the
CaCl2 Concentration (mM) CaCl2 Concentration (mM)
wetting branches of the curves. The residual suction value for
Figure 2. Permeation results for the multi-component GCL was found to be higher than the
Figure 1 Hydraulic conductivity
of bentonite specimens as a sand-bentonite backfills: ratio of residual suction values for the other two GCLs. The extent of
function of (a) CaCl2 hydraulic conductivity to CaCl2 hysteresis decreased and the differences between drying and
concentration in the permeant solution, kc, relative to hydraulic wetting curves reduced for the wet-dry cycled specimens
liquid (Bohnhoff et all., 2013) conductivity to water kw as a compared to the as-received specimens. Macro- and micro-
function of CaCl2 concentration structural variations determined through grain size distribution
(Bohnhoff et al., 2013)
and SEM analyses (Fig. 3) indicated increasing void sizes and
non-uniformity in fabric due to wet-dry cycling, supporting the
Brianzoni et al. report the results of a research study aimed observations made for variations in moisture-suction response.
at evaluating and predicting the long term hydraulic
performance of cement bentonite (CB) mixtures used in cut off a) 1 cycle (fully dispersed) b) 10 cycles
walls when in contact with saline solutions (K2SO4) or acidic
solutions (H2SO4) at different concentrations. Hydraulic
conductivity tests were conducted for this purpose and lasted in
some cases for 2 year to assess the CB mixtures chemical
compatibility. This paper shows that the saline and acidic
solutions can adversely affect the hydraulic performance of CB
mixtures depending on SO42-concentration and pH. At
concentration of the order of 25 g/l or more, both solutions
produced an initial decrease in the k value, followed by an
increase and finally an almost constant trend of hydraulic
conductivity with curing time. Swelling and a dense net of
fixtures were detected on both samples after permeation due to
ettringite formation. Sample thickness was found to affect the c) 20 cycles (DI water) d) 20 cycles (tap water)
response of the CB mixtures when permeated with saline
10 m
solutions. The authors indicated that the chemical conditions
adopted in the tests are not expected to occur continuously in
the field if a pumping system is provided so that there is an
advective flow of groundwater and not of pollutant across the
barrier.
Indrawan et al. present the findings of the work they have
conducted on the effects on the hydraulic conductivity of
compacted clays, commonly used for lining coal seam gas
(CSG) water storage ponds, of moisture conditioning and
permeation with CSG water. Four kaolinite-dominant clays
were mixed with CSG and deionised waters and compacted to
varying compaction degrees at different gravimetric moisture Figure 3. SEM images of bentonite from GCL specimens (Hanson et al.
contents before permeation. Tests were conducted in a rigid 2013)
wall permeameter (100 kPa hydraulic loading) and in an
oedometer (100 kPa axial stress). The hydraulic conductivity of Rayhani and Sarabadani describe a laboratory simulation
clays moisture-conditioned, compacted and permeated with study undertaken to quantify the hydration progress of
saline CSG water (k= 1x10-11 m/s) was found to be similar to Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs) from underlying subsoils
that of the same clays moisture-conditioned, compacted and under simulated landfill conditions, before and after having
permeated with deionised water. In both CSG and deionised been covered by municipal solid waste. GCL hydration was
waters, the compacted clay particles dispersed and the hydraulic shown to be highly dependent on GCL manufacturing
conductivity decreased to a very low value of about 1x10-11 m/s. techniques, grain size distribution and initial moisture content of
The hydraulic conductivities measured using a compaction the subsoil. In particular, the difference in suctions between the
mould permeameter were found to be comparable to, and a little GCLs and the type of subsoils was found to be an important
higher than, those calculated from oedometer test data for the factor governing the hydration process. The thermally treated,
same compacted clays. The authors concluded that the clays scrim-reinforced GCL demonstrated higher rate and degree of
investigated would be suitable as a liner for a CSG water hydration compared to the other GCL products tested under
storage pond. similar conditions mainly due to the better anchorage of the
connection layer against swelling of bentonite upon hydration.
2992
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
Thermal cycles were found to severely suppress the moisture based upon the use of Strength versus Depth plot has been
uptake of the GCL to as low as 15% of the moisture content proposed. It is argued that the use of strength versus depth plot
observed under isothermal conditions. Seasonal cooling was is more appropriate for characterizing shear strength of MSW,
shown tocycles
Thermal not guarantee
were foundsustainable to severelyhydration suppress the of the moistureGCL especially
based uponforthe high uselandfills.
of Strength versus Depth plot has been
provided
uptake of that
the the GCL GCL to as is subsequently
low as 15% exposed of the moisture to daily content
thermal CaizalIt et
proposed. al. discuss
is argued that the the use importance
of strengthofversus determiningdepth plot the
cycles. The
observed underauthors suggest conditions.
isothermal that the construction
Seasonal of a leachate
cooling was mechanical
is properties
more appropriate forofcharacterizing
MSW and their shear implication
strength on of landfill
MSW,
collection
shown to system
not guaranteecould provide sustainablethe sufficient
hydration normal of stress
the GCL (2-5 design. The
especially forpaper highlights the difficulties in measuring these
high landfills.
kPa) for an
provided thatadequately
the GCL ishigh rate of hydration
subsequently exposedastowell dailyasthermal
degree properties
Caizal due et al. to the naturetheof importance
discuss the materialoftested. The lackthe
determining of
of hydration.
cycles. The authors suggest that the construction of a leachate samples representativeness
mechanical properties of MSW for and laboratory work and on
their implication difficulties
landfill
Monteiro
collection et al.,
system could present provide the results of ramp
the sufficient and direct
normal stressshear(2-5 in interpreting
design. The paper fieldhighlights
tests based theon the experience
difficulties gatheredthese
in measuring with
tests for
kPa) conducted
an adequately on different high rate geomembrane
of hydrationproducts as well (PVC as degree and conventional
properties duegeotechnical
to the naturematerials of the material have been tested. cited
Theaslack beingof
ofsmooth
hydration. and textured HDPE) in contact with a sandy soil major hurdles
samples in obtaining
representativeness reliable assessment
for laboratory work and difficulties of MSW
prepared
Monteiro at various
et al., present degreesthe of results
saturation. of ramp The results
and direct presented
shear mechanical
in interpreting properties.
field testsBack-analysis
based on the experience of failures was gatheredsuggestedwith
showconducted
tests that the oninterface different friction geomembrane angle products
between (PVC soil and and as another possible
conventional geotechnical approach materials to gatherhave been further citedinformation.
as being
geomembranes
smooth and textured was insensitiveHDPE) in tocontact the variation
with a of sandy the soil
soil However
major uncertainties
hurdles in obtainingstill existreliable
with thisassessmentapproach since of failure
MSW
degree ofatsaturation.
prepared various degrees A progressive
of saturation. interface Thefailure
resultsmechanism
presented cases are not
mechanical frequent;
properties. and in the offew
Back-analysis failurescaseswas which
suggested have
was observed
show that thein interface the tests with friction PVCangle geomembrane between due soiltoand the occurred,
as another itpossiblewas difficult approach to to detectgather thefurtherfailure information.
surface. A
more extensible was
geomembranes natureinsensitive
of this typetoofthe geomembrane.
variation ofThe thelargest
soil compilation
However of strength
uncertainties stillparameters
exist with this obtainedapproach fromsince laboratory
failure
values of
degree ofsaturation.
interface friction A progressive angles interface
were obtained failure as expected
mechanism and in are
cases situ tests and from failures
not frequent; and in (Figure the few 5) was
casespresented.
which have
withobserved
was the textured in the HDPE tests geomembrane,
with PVC geomembrane whereas similar due tolower the Figure 5. MSW
occurred, it was strength parameters
difficult (Caizalthe
to detect et al.,failure
2013) surface. A
valuesextensible
more were obtained nature of with this type the ofsmooth
geomembrane. PVC and HDPE
The largest compilation of strength parameters obtained from laboratory
Thermal ofcycles
geomembranes.
values interface werefriction found angles to severely suppress the expected
moisture basedLavoie
in upon andtheSinclair
usefrom of discuss
Strength the properties
versus Depth ofpresented.
aplot
waste hassludgebeen
Thermal cycles were found to severelywere obtained
suppress the as moisture and
based uponsituthe tests
useand of Strength failures (Figure
versus Depth5) was plot has been
uptake
with the oftextured
the GCLHDPE to as geomembrane,
low as 15% ofwhereas the moisture similar content
lower proposed.
Figure 5. MSW It isstrength
arguedparameters
that the use of strength
(Caizal et al., versus depth plot
2013)
uptake of the GCL to as low as 15% of the moisture content proposed. It is argued that the use of strength versus depth plot
3 MUNICIPAL
observed
values wereunderobtained SOLID
isothermal withWASTE
conditions.
the AND
smooth OTHER
Seasonal PVC TYPES
cooling
and OF
HDPEwas is more appropriate for characterizing shear strength of MSW,
observed WASTE under isothermal conditions. Seasonal cooling was is more 100 appropriate for characterizing shear strength of MSW,
shown to not GEOTECHNICAL
guarantee sustainable PROPERTIES
hydration of the GCL especially
Lavoie for high landfills.
geomembranes.
shown to not guarantee sustainable hydration of the GCL especially for and landfills.discuss the
highSinclair Backproperties
analyses (by 2009) of a waste sludge
provided that the GCL is subsequently exposed to daily thermal Caizal et al. discuss the importance Strain levels (Starkof determining
et al., 2009) the
provided Chen that et the GCLal. propose is subsequently exposed to daily thermal
athatBio-Hydro-Mechanical (BHM) Caizal et al. discuss the importance Stark et of
al. (2009) determining the
cycles.
3 MUNICIPAL The authors SOLIDsuggest WASTE theAND construction
OTHER of a leachate mechanical
80 properties of MSW and their implication on landfill
cycles. The authors
coupled model suggest
to that
investigate the construction
solid-liquid-gas of TYPES
a leachate OF
interaction mechanical100 properties of MSW andPossible their new implication
proposal on landfill
collectionWASTE system could
GEOTECHNICAL provide the sufficient
PROPERTIES normal stress (2-5 design. The paper highlights the difficulties in measuring these
collection systemlandfillscould provide the sufficient normal waste stress (2-5 design. The paper highlights the difficulties Back analyses in (by measuring these
c (kPa) c (kPa)
behaviour 2009)
kPa) for aninadequately containing
high rate of municipal
hydrationsoils as well as (MSW) degree properties due to the nature of the material levels (Stark tested. The lack of
kPa)withfor
Chenan adequately
high etorganic
al. propose high rateaThe
content. ofBio-Hydro-Mechanical
hydration
model alsoas takes well as intodegree
account
(BHM) properties60due to the nature of theStrain material tested.et al., 2009)
20% The lack of
of hydration. samples representativeness for laboratory
Stark et al. (2009) work and difficulties
of hydration.
the release of moisture caused by the MSW biodegradation samples 80 representativeness for laboratorynewwork and difficulties
coupled
Monteiro model et al.,topresent investigate
the results solid-liquid-gas
of ramp and direct interaction
shear in interpreting field tests based Possible on10% proposal
the experience gathered with
Cohesion,Cohesion,
Monteiro
process.
behaviour et
inal.,
The present
development
landfills the of
containing results of ramp
themunicipal
model and direct
is products
based
soils on (PVC
waste shear
laboratory
(MSW) in interpreting field tests based on the experience gathered with
tests conducted on different geomembrane and conventional geotechnical materials have been cited as being
tests conducted
and
with in-situ
highand on different
investigations
organic content. geomembrane
conducted
The in model products
onalso MSW takestoa(PVC assess
into andtheir
account conventional40 geotechnical materials have been 20% cited as being
smooth textured HDPE) contact with sandy soil major60hurdles in obtaining reliable assessment of MSW
smooth and conductivity,
hydraulic
the release textured
of moisture HDPE) gas
caused in contact
by the with
permeability, MSW acompressive
and results sandy soiland
biodegradation major hurdles in obtaining5%reliable assessment of MSW
prepared at various degrees of saturation. The presented mechanical properties. Back-analysis 10% of failures was suggested
prepared
shear atthat
process. various
strength
Thethe degrees of of
characteristics.
development saturation. The
Theangle
the model is results
model based was onpresented
applied
laboratory mechanical properties. Back-analysis
to of failures was suggested
show interface friction between soil and as another
20 possible approach to gather further information.
show that
hypothetical the interface
waste samples friction
5 m angle
thick with between
MSW to soil
properties and to as another 40 possible approach to gather further information.
and in-situ investigations
geomembranes was insensitive conducted to the on variation of similar
assessthe their
soil However uncertainties still exist with this approach since failure
geomembranes
MSW from was insensitive
Qizishan to the andvariation ofHills
the landfill,
soiland However uncertainties still exist with this approach since failure
hydraulic
degree conductivity,
of saturation. Alandfill,
progressive China
gas permeability, interface Orchard
andfailure
compressivemechanism cases are not frequent; 5% and in the few cases which have
degreeUSA, of saturation.
to predict A progressive
leachate interface
production, failure
gas mechanism
pressure cases are not frequent; and in the few cases which have
shearobserved
was strengthincharacteristics.
the tests with PVC The geomembrane
model was applied due to and to
the occurred, 0 it was difficult to detect the failure surface. A
washypothetical
observed inwaste
settlement. Keythe problems
tests
samples with5relevant
PVC
m thickgeomembrane
to waste
with due similar
management
properties to the are tooccurred,20it0 was difficult 10 to detect
20 30 the failure
40 from surface.
50 laboratory A
60
more extensible nature of this type of geomembrane. The largest compilation of strength parameters obtained
more MSW extensible
also discussed
from nature oflandfill,
in particular
Qizishan this type slope of geomembrane.
China stability
and Orchard issuesThe which
Hills largestcan be
landfill, compilation of strength parameters obtained o from laboratory
values of interface friction angles were obtained as expected and in situ tests and from failures Friction angle,(Figure (5) ) was presented.
values of interface
caused
USA, bypredictthe friction
presence angles of were
highobtained gas aspressure
organic expectedand
content and andFigure
in situ5.tests and from parameters
failures (Figure 5)etwas presented.
with thetotextured HDPE leachate production,
geomembrane, whereas similar lower which MSW strength
0comprises primarily clay (Caizal al., 2013) originating
and iron-sands/grit
with the textured
consequently HDPE
high geomembrane,
water content towhereas
and similar lower
entrapment Figure 5. MSW 0 strength 10 parameters 20 (Caizal 30 et al.,40 2013) 50
settlement.
values wereKey problems
obtained withrelevantthe smooth waste PVC andofHDPE
management gas
are from iron sands mining and in relation to its disposal in cells 60
.
values were Figure
pressures.
also discussed obtained 4 shows
in particular with that the
slope a smooth
mixture
stabilityof PVC leachate
issues and
which HDPE
and landfill
can be Lavoie and Sinclair discuss the properties o of a waste sludge
geomembranes. This wet sludge waste Friction
is landfilled angle, (
in cells of ) to heights
geomembranes.
gas beingbyejected
caused the topresence a height of of uphigh to 5 morganicwhen drilling contentvertical and Lavoie and Sinclair discuss the properties a waste up to 25m.
sludge
This paper
which shows primarily
comprises that the characteristics
clay and iron-sands/grit of the sludgeoriginating in situ are
extraction
3consequently
MUNICIPAL wells high inSOLID
Xiaping
water WASTE landfill,AND
content China.
and It indicates
entrapment
OTHER TYPES ofthat OF the
gas
3 pressures.
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE AND OTHER TYPES OF governed
from 100
iron both by
sands the nature
mining and in ofrelation
the material to its and the operation
disposal in cells .
presence of very
Figure high
4
WASTE GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES shows pore thatand a gas
mixture pressures
of may
leachate exist
and in
landfillthe 100
WASTE GEOTECHNICAL procedures.
This wet sludge Keywaste to theisprocess
landfilled is the
Back in limited
cells
analyses to
(by height of
heights
2009) up each
to 25m. lift,
waste
gas beingbody if nottomanaged
ejected a height properlyof PROPERTIES
up to 5and can bedrilling
m when detrimentalvertical to
together
BackStrain
analyses (by(Stark
levels 2009)et al., 2009)
the Chen
slope et al.
stability propose
of a landfill. a Bio-Hydro-Mechanical (BHM) This paperwith showsthe thatperiod of
the characteristics
Strain
desiccation
levels
et (Stark
of the between
sludge
et al., 2009) in lifts.
situ To
are
extraction wells in Xiaping
Chen et al. propose a Bio-Hydro-Mechanical (BHM) landfill, China. It indicates that the 80 both
investigate the properties of
Stark
the
al. (2009)
sludge for design input,
coupled model to investigate governed
80 by the nature of
Stark et material
al. (2009)
Possible new proposal and the operation
presence
coupled model of very to high investigate gassolid-liquid-gas
pore and solid-liquid-gas pressures may interaction
exist
interaction in the boreholes and CPTs Possible new through
proposal completed landfill
procedures. Key to thewere processput down
is the limited height of each lift,
Cohesion, c (kPa)
with highstability
organicofcontent. The model also takes into account cells of different
together with the ages.
period Field of tests (boreholes
desiccation between
20% and CPTs) lifts. To on
thehigh
slope a landfill. 60 20%
with organic content. The model also takes into account completed
60
investigate landfill
the propertiescells of different
of the ages sludge showed for that design the in situ
input,
the release of moisture caused by the MSW biodegradation
the release of moisture caused by the MSW biodegradation sludge experiences
boreholes and CPTssignificantwere put10% down10% through
strength increase with time
completed and
landfill
process. The development of the model is based on laboratory
process. The development of the model is based on laboratory depth,40
cells ofwith pore pressures
different ages. Fieldwell tests below hydrostatic
(boreholes conditions.
and CPTs) on
and in-situ investigations conducted on MSW to assess their 40 sludgelandfill
and in-situ investigations conducted on MSW to assess their The
completed was assessed cells of5% to be non-liquefiable
different ages showedbased that the CPT in data
situ
hydraulic conductivity, gas permeability, and compressive and
hydraulic conductivity, gas permeability, and compressive and and Atterberg
sludge experiences Limitssignificant
gathered
5% for this project.
strength increase with time and
shear strength characteristics. The model was applied to
shear strength characteristics. The model was applied to depth, 20with pore pressures well below hydrostatic conditions.
hypothetical waste samples 5 m thick with properties similar to 20
hypothetical waste samples 5 m thick with properties similar to 4 sludge
The SOIL AND GROUNDWATER
was assessed to be non-liquefiable REMEDIATION based CPT data
MSW from Qizishan landfill, China and Orchard Hills landfill,
MSW from Qizishan landfill, China and Orchard Hills landfill, and Atterberg Limits gathered for this project.
USA, to predict leachate production, gas pressure and Fronczyk
0 and Garbulewski present a study on the influence
USA, to predict leachate production, gas pressure and 0
settlement. Key problems relevant to waste management are of MSW 0 landfill 10 leachate 20 on the 30 hydraulic 40 50
conductivity 60 of
settlement.
Figure Key problems
4 . Ejection relevant to etwaste management are 4 SOIL 0 AND 10 GROUNDWATER 20 30 40 o
REMEDIATION 50 60
also discussed in ofparticular
leachate/gas slope(Chen al., 2013)
stability issues which can be zeolite-sand mixtures (with 50%angle,
Friction and o20% ( ) content of zeolite).
also discussed in particular slope stability issues which can be Friction angle, ( )
caused by the presence of high organic content and Results of the study indicate that theiron-sands/grit
hydraulic
caused by the presence of high organic content and whichFronczyk
comprises and Garbulewski
primarily clay present
and a study onconductivitytheoriginating
influence of
consequently
Singh reports highon water the content
shearcontent strength andproperties
entrapment of of gas which comprises
theMSWreactive primarily
material claychanged
has andthe iron-sands/grit
almost by originating
two orders of.
consequently high water and entrapment of municipal
gas of
from landfill
iron sands leachate
mining and on
in relation hydraulic
to its conductivity
disposal in cells of
pressures.
Figure 4 . Figure
Ejection of 4 shows
leachate/gas that a
(Chenmixtureet al.,of
2013)leachate and landfill from iron sands(from
magnitude mining and
9.25x10 in-5 relation to its
to 1.25 -5 disposal in cells .
solid waste
pressures. Figure (MSW)4 shows and that indicates
a mixture that a factor and
of leachate which has
landfill not zeolite-sand
This wet sludge mixtures
waste (with 50%
is landfilled in x10
and 20%to
cells m/s).
content
heights Thisof upchange
to 25m.is
zeolite).
gas being ejected to a height isofthe up to 5 mcompressible
when drillingnature vertical This wet sludge
believed waste isindicate
landfilled in cells to heightsconductivity
ofupthe to effective
25m. of
gas been
beingpaidejected much to attention
a height to of up to highly 5 m when drilling vertical of Results
This paperoftothehave
shows study been
that thecaused by
that
characteristics reduction
the hydraulic
of the sludge in situ are
extraction wells in Xiaping landfill, China. It compressibility
indicates that the This paper
porosity shows
due that
tobypore the characteristics of the sludge in situ are of
MSW.
extractionSingh It reports
wells is suggested
in Xiaping
on the that duestrength
landfill,
shear toChina.
the large
It indicates
properties of that the of
municipal the reactive
governed bothmaterial the clogging.
has changed
nature of Analysis almost
the material of by calcium
andtwo carbonate
the orders
operation
presence
MSWwaste of verynormal high pore and gas pressures may exist inshear the governed
content both
showedby the no nature -5of the increase
significant material -5 of and the
carbonatesoperation in lift,
the
presence
solid ofat very
high(MSW)high pore andstresses,
and gasapressures
indicates single
that a Mohr may Coulomb
factor exist
which inhas thenot magnitude
procedures.(from Key to9.25x10 the process to 1.25is thex10 limited m/s).height Thisofchangeeach is
waste
envelope body for if not managed properly and can be detrimental toprocedures.
samples,Key while to the process
scanning is the
electron limited
microscope heightofof each
study lift,
showed
waste
been body nota managed
paidifstability
much landfill
attention may to isnot
properly thebehighlyapplicable.
and can A new nature
be detrimental
compressible approach
to of believed
together to
withhave the been caused
period of bydesiccation
the reduction between the effective
lifts. To
the slope of a landfill. together with
increased the
calcium period
content ofand desiccation between lifts. To
the MSW.
slope stability
It is suggestedof a landfill. that due to the large compressibility of porosity
investigate due theto pore clogging.
properties of formation
Analysis
the sludge of crystals
calcium
for design of calcium
carbonate
input,
investigate
content showedthe properties no significantof the increase sludge for design input,
of completed
carbonates in the
MSW at high normal stresses, a single Mohr Coulomb shear boreholes and CPTs were put down through landfill
boreholes
samples, andwhileCPTsscanningwere putelectron down through completed landfill
envelope for a landfill may not be applicable. A new approach cells of different ages. Field tests microscope (boreholes and study CPTs)showed on
cells of different ages. Field and testsformation
(boreholes and CPTs) on
completed landfill cells of different ages showed that thecalcium
increased calcium content of crystals of in situ
completed landfill cells of different ages showed that the in situ
sludge experiences significant strength increase with time and
2993
sludge experiences significant strength increase with time and
depth, with pore pressures well below hydrostatic conditions.
depth, with pore pressures well below hydrostatic conditions.
The sludge was assessed to be non-liquefiable based CPT data
The sludge was assessed to be non-liquefiable based CPT data
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2994
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
2995
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2996
Novel bentonites for containment barrier applications
ABSTRACT: Sodium bentonite (Na-bentonite) commonly is used in geoenvironmental containment barriers to control liquid flow
and contaminant migration, but is known to be thermodynamically unstable in environments where multivalent cations are present.
As a result, a host of novel, chemically-modified bentonites designed for improved resilience have been developed. The objective of
this paper is to illustrate selected properties of some of these bentonites being considered for containment barrier applications. The
bentonites considered in this paper include Na-bentonite polymerized with acrylic acid (bentonite-polymer nanocomposite, or BPN),
Na-bentonite amended with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (HYPER clay), and a propylene carbonate modified Na-bentonite
(multiswellable bentonite, or MSB). Engineering properties of the novel bentonites relevant to two specific types of barriers (i.e.,
cutoff walls and geosynthetic clay liners) are compared and contrasted with those of natural Na-bentonites. The results illustrate the
potential for improved hydraulic performance of barriers containing the novel bentonites. However, further research is needed
elucidate the mechanisms responsible for differences in behavior and performance among these bentonites.
RSUM : La bentonite base de sodium (bentonite-Na) est utilise couramment comme barrire de confinement go-
environmentale pour contrler les flux de liquides et la migration de contaminants ; elle est cependant connue pour tre instable
thermodynamiquement dans des environnements qui contiennent des cations multivalents. Pour palier cet inconvnient, diverses
bentonites novatrices modifies chimiquement et conues pour prsenter une rsistance amliore aux coulements ont t
dveloppes. Lobjectif de cet article est dillustrer certaines proprits techniques de quelques unes de ces bentonites tudies leur
utilisation dans les barrires de confinement. Cet article prsente les proprits de la bentonite-Na polymrise avec de lacide
acrylique ( bentonite-polymer nanocomposite , ou BPN), de la bentonite-Na modifie avec de la carboxymethylcellulose sodique
(ou HYPER Clay ) et dune bentonite-Na modifie avec du carbonate de propylne ( multiswellable bentonite , ou MSB). On a
procd une analyse comparative des proprits des bentonites novatrices correspondant deux types spcifiques de barrires
(c.a.d., parois de sparation et revtement par des gomembranes synthtiques) et celles des bentonites-Na naturelles. Les rsultats
illustrent le potentiel damlioration de la performance hydraulique que prsentent des barrires contenant les nouvelles bentonites.
Des recherches supplmentaires sont cependant ncessaires pour comprendre les mcanismes susceptibles dexpliquer les diffrences
de comportement et de performance entre ces bentonites.
KEYWORDS: Bentonite; Bentonite slurry; Cutoff wall; Geosynthetic clay liner; Hydraulic conductivity; Polymerized bentonite
2997
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
cations replace exchangeable monovalent cations, thereby from 30 to 50 % by weight to form bentonite-monomer slurry,
reducing or eliminating osmotic swelling of the bentonite and followed by the addition of sodium persulfate, which served as
the ability of bentonite to function effectively (e.g., Gates et al. an initiator. Polymerization then was induced by raising the
2009). temperature of the slurry above the decomposition temperature
In response to the susceptibility of natural Na-bentonites to of the initiator molecule. Following polymerization, the PAA
chemical attack and poor hydraulic performance, recent polymerized bentonite was oven dried, milled, and screened.
research has been undertaken to investigate novel bentonites The MSB, supplied by Hojun Corp. (Japan), was created
that have been chemically modified to achieve greater by compounding Na-bentonite with PC that expands the clay
compatibility with the surrounding environment, such that the lattice and forms a hydration shell around the interlayer cations.
desirable engineering properties of the bentonites are not The resulting Na-bentonite-PC complex can undergo osmotic
compromised. For example, anionic polymers have been added swell in both fresh water and electrolyte solutions (hence the
to Na-bentonite to attain rheological properties needed for term "multiswellable"), including sea water (~500 mM NaCl)
drilling fluids, and organobentonites (i.e., bentonites with and solutions containing multivalent cations (e.g., Onikata et al.
organic cations on the exchange sites) have been created for 1999). The MSB contained 25 % PC by dry weight.
applications where an organophilic material is needed for The HC was created by combining Na-bentonite with Na-
containment of organic compounds (e.g., Lee et al. 2012). Also, CMC, the sodium salt form of the anionic polymer CMC that
Na-bentonites complexed with various organic chemicals (e.g., has been used in industrial applications as a thickener (Di
polymers) have attracted considerable interest as potential Emidio 2010). The base Na-bentonite was combined with a Na-
substitutes for natural Na-bentonites in containment barriers, CMC solution to form slurry. The slurry was dried at 105 C,
such as SB cutoff walls and geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) and the resulting solids were ground with a mortar grinder. The
(e.g., Katsumi et al. 2008, Mazzieri et al. 2010). The objective Na-CMC penetrates the interlayer regions between the clay
of this paper is to illustrate the potential improvement in platelets, resulting in expansion of the clay lattice and enhanced
engineering properties that can be attained with some of these osmotic swell. Test results for HYPER clay containing either 2
novel bentonites when used in containment barriers. This % Na-CMC or 8 % Na-CMC are presented herein, where the
objective is achieved by comparing engineering properties of former is designated as HC2 and the latter is designated as HC8.
the novel bentonites, including hydraulic conductivity to water In both cases, the base Na-bentonite was the same base Na-
and chemical solutions, with those of natural Na-bentonites. bentonite used to create the MSB (designated herein as NB3).
The index properties of the novel bentonites (BPN, HC2,
2 NOVEL BENTONITES HC8, and MSB) are summarized in Table 1 and compared with
those of two natural Na-bentonites designated as NB1
Three novel bentonites are considered herein. These bentonites (NaturalGel, Wyo-Ben, Inc., USA) and NB2 (Volclay,
include (1) a natural Na-bentonite polymerized with acrylic acid American Colloid Company, USA) and the base Na-bentonite,
to form polyacrylate polymerized bentonite, referred to as a NB3, used to create HC and MSB. Both NB1 and NB2 are
bentonite polymer nanocomposite or BPN, (2) a propylene commonly used for SB cutoff walls. The unusual behavior that
carbonate (PC) modified Na-bentonite, referred to as can be exhibited by polymer modified bentonites is illustrated in
"multiswellable bentonite" or MSB, and (3) Na-bentonite the case of the BPN, wherein the BPN exhibits the highest free
amended with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC), swell and cation exchange capacity (CEC), despite the lowest
referred to as "HYPER clay" or HC. liquid limit (LL) and an overall nonplastic behavior. This
The BPN was supplied by Colloid Environmental unusually high swell and CEC have been attributed to the high
Technologies Co. (CETCO, USA), and was produced with swelling potential of the hydrophilic polymer used in the BPN
polyacrylic acid (PAA) using methods similar to those used for (also used in baby diapers) and the tendency of the polymer to
the production of polymer nanocomposites (Bohnhoff 2012, bind cations (Bohnhoff 2012, Scalia 2012). In contrast, the
Scalia 2012). A monomer solution was prepared by dissolving CECs for HC2, HC8, and MSB are only marginally higher than
acrylic acid in water, and then the solution was neutralized with that of NB3. However, HC2, HC8, and MSB exhibited
sodium hydroxide. Next, a natural (unmodified) Na-bentonite markedly higher LLs relative to NB3, presumably due to the
was added to the monomer solution in concentrations ranging addition of Na-CMC and PC, respectively.
Table 1. Index properties of bentonites examined herein (NB1 = NaturalGel; NB2 = Volclay; NB3 = Hojun Na-Bentonite; BPN = Bentonite
Polymer Nanocomposite; HC2 and HC8 = HYPER Clay with 2 % and 8 % Na-CMC, respectively; MSB = Multiswellable Bentonite).
Value
Property Standard
NB1 NB2 NB3 BPN HC2 HC8 MSB
Soil classification ASTM D 2487 CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
Liquid limit (%) 583 420 466 255 650 742 547
ASTM D 4318
Plasticity index (%) 530 381 421 NP 594 681 502
Distilled water swell index (mL/2 g) ASTM D 5890 35 32 26 73 37c 48c 29
Montmorillonite content (%) a 69 91 77 76 78 78 74
Cation exchange capacity, CEC (cmolc/kg) b 83.4 78.0 44.5 143 47.3 46.7 49.8
Exchangeable metals (cmolc/kg): b
Ca2+ 4.9 28.1 5.6 9 11.4 12.7 7.7
2+
Mg 8.8 13.3 7.9 3 6.2 5.5 6.1
Na+ 73.4 34.3 26.3 128 34.2 44.5 33.3
K+ 1.1 1.6 0.2 3 0.3 0.2 0.5
Sum 88.2 77.3 40.0 143 52.1 62.9 47.6
a
Based on energy dispersive X-ray diffraction analysis;
b
Procedures for NB1, NB2, and MSB given by Shackelford and Redmond (1995); procedures for BPN given by Scalia (2012); procedures for HC2
and HC8 given by Di Emidio (2010);
c
Values likely underestimated (see Di Emidio 2010).
2998
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
10-8 MSB
10
40 10 10-9
(b) 10-10
(a)
202 0 10-11
3 4 5 2 3 4 5 (a) (b)
Bentonite Content (%) Bentonite Content (%) 1
10-12 1 10 100 1000
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 1. Properties of bentonite-water slurries as a function of Bentonite Content (%) CaCl2 Concentration (mM)
bentonite content: (a) Marsh viscosity; (b) filtrate loss (NB1 and MSB Figure 2. Permeation results for sand-bentonite backfills: (a) hydraulic
data from Malusis et al. 2010; NB2 and BPN data from Bohnhoff 2012). conductivity to water, kw, as a function of bentonite content; (b) ratio of
hydraulic conductivity to CaCl2 solution, kc, relative to kw as a function
Hydraulic conductivity and chemical compatibility of of CaCl2 concentration (NB1 and MSB data from Malusis and
model SB backfills comprised of sand and NB1, NB2, MSB, or McKeehan 2012; NB2 and BPN data from Bohnhoff 2012).
BPN were investigated in recent studies by Malusis and
McKeehan (2012) and Bohnhoff (2012). Although the sands 3.2 Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs)
used in both studies were clean and poorly graded, the sand Values of kc for BPN, HC2, and MSB specimens representing a
used by Malusis and McKeehan (2012) in the NB1 and MSB typical GCL are shown in Fig. 3a. Data for specimens of Na-
backfills was a fine sand (D50 = 0.20 mm) whereas the sand bentonite taken from actual GCLs (Bentomat DN, CETCO,
used by Bohnhoff (2012) in the NB2 and BPN backfills was a USA) are included in Fig. 3a for comparison. All specimens
medium sand (D50 = 0.45 mm). In both studies, the specimens were permeated in flexible-wall cells under low effective
were tested in flexible-wall cells at low confining stresses ( stresses (14 to 30 kPa) until the hydraulic termination criteria of
34.5 kPa). The specimens were permeated with tap water until a ASTM D 5084 were satisfied. Also, most of the specimens were
steady kw was achieved, and then were permeated with CaCl2 permeated until chemical equilibrium (defined as the ratio of
solutions (5-1,000 mM) until termination criteria for chemical outflow and inflow electrical conductivity within 1.0 0.1) was
equilibrium between the influent and effluent were achieved achieved, with the exceptions being the specimens permeated
(see cited references for further details). with deionized water (DIW) and the HC2 specimens. The
The measured kw values from these studies are presented in results reflect a "worst-case" testing condition in that the
Fig. 2a along with kw values measured recently at Bucknell specimens were not prehydrated prior to permeation
University for sand-bentonite backfill specimens containing (Shackelford et al. 2000). Permeation with DIW (plotted at 0.1
HC8 and the same fine sand used by Malusis and McKeehan mM CaCl2 in Fig. 3a) resulted in low kw (i.e., 4.2 x 10-12 to 3.4 x
(2012). The backfills containing the polymer-modified 10-11 m/s) regardless of the bentonite type. However, the BPN,
bentonites (BPN or HC8) generally exhibited lower kw relative HC2, and MSB exhibited superior hydraulic behavior (i.e.,
to the backfills containing similar percentages of MSB or Na- lower kc) relative to the GCL bentonites. These results illustrate
bentonite (NB1 or NB2), indicating that less BPN or HC8 is the potential advantage of novel bentonites in solutions typically
2999
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
incompatible with conventional GCLs. Although higher CaCl2 0758334. The opinions expressed in this paper are solely those
concentrations resulted in kc > kw for HC2 and MSB, the of the authors and are not necessarily consistent with the
increases were lower than those for the GCL bentonites. The policies or opinions of the NSF. The authors also appreciate the
BPN specimens exhibited similar increases in kc relative to kw assistance of Mike Donovan and Jerry Darlington of CETCO,
for 5-50 mM CaCl2, but exhibited kc < kw for 500 mM CaCl2. USA. Finally, the authors are grateful to Wyo-Ben, Inc., Hojun
The relationship between k and swell index, SI (ASTM D Corp., and American Colloid Company for providing materials.
5890), in the same solution (DIW or CaCl2) for the bentonites in
Fig. 3a is illustrated in Fig. 3b. The treated bentonites generally 6 REFERENCES
exhibited lower k for a given SI than the GCL bentonites,
including MSB and HC2, which exhibit superior hydraulic Bohnhoff, G. 2012. Membrane behavior, diffusion, and compatibility of
a polymerized bentonite for containment barrier applications. PhD
behavior because of the activation of osmotic swelling (Di
Dissertation, Colorado State Univ., USA.
Emidio et al. 2011). However, the BPN exhibited both a low kc Di Emidio, G. 2010. Hydraulic conductivity and chemico-osmotic
and a low SI (8 mL/2 g) in 500 mM CaCl2, illustrating that the performance of polymer treated clays. PhD Dissertation. Univ. of
hydraulic behavior of BPN was decoupled from swell. The BPN Gent, Belgium.
exhibited higher swelling in DIW relative to the other Di Emidio, G., Van Impe, W., and Flores, V. 2011. Advances in
bentonites (see Table 1) due to the presence of the super- geosynthetic clay liners: polymer enhanced clays. GeoFrontiers
swelling polymer (Scalia 2012). However, polymer swelling 2011, ASCE, Reston, VA, USA, 1931-1940.
does not account for the low kc of BPN permeated with 500 mM Eisenhour, D. and Brown, R. 2009. Bentonite and its impact on modern
life. Elements 5 (2), 83-88.
CaCl2, given the SI of only 8 mL/2 g. This atypical behavior of
Evans, J. 1993. Vertical cutoff walls, Ch. 17, Geotechnical Practice for
BPN illustrates that SI is not necessarily an accurate indicator of Waste Disposal, D. Daniel, ed., Chapman & Hall, London, 430-454.
hydraulic conductivity for chemically modified bentonites. Gates, W. Bouazza, A., and Churchman, G. 2009. Bentonite clay keeps
pollutants at bay. Elements 5 (2), 105-110.
10-5 Grim, R. 1968. Clay mineralogy, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Hydraulic Conductivity, kw or kc (m/s)
10-5
Hydraulic Conductivity, kw or kc (m/s)
10-6 GCL Jo, H., Benson, C., Shackelford, C., Lee, J., and Edil, T. 2005. Long-
10-6 GCL
BPN BPN
10-7 HC2 10-7 HC2 term hydraulic conductivity of non-prehydrated geosynthetic clay
MSB
10-8 10-8 MSB liner permeated with inorganic salt solutions. Journal of
10-9 10-9 Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 131 (4), 405-417.
10-10 10-10 Jo, H., Katsumi, T., Benson, C., and Edil, T. 2001. Hydraulic
10-11 10-11 conductivity and swelling of non-prehydrated GCLs permeated with
10-12 10-12
(a) Low SI and Low k
(b) single-species salt solutions. Journal of Geotechnical and
10-13 10-13
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Geoenvironmental Engineering 127 (7), 555-567.
CaCl2 Concentration (mM) Swell Index, SI (mL/2 g) Katsumi, T., Ishimori, H., Onikata, M., and Fukagawa, R. 2008. Long-
Figure 3. Hydraulic conductivity of bentonite specimens as a function term barrier performance of modified bentonite materials against
of (a) CaCl2 concentration in the permeant liquid, and (b) swell index in sodium and calcium permeant solutions. Geotextiles and
the same solution (GCL data from Jo et al. 2001, Jo et al. 2005, Lee and Geomembranes 26 (1), 14-30.
Shackelford 2005, Lee et al. 2005; MSB data from Lin and Benson Lee, S., Oren, A. Benson, C. and Dovantzis, K. 2012. Organoclays as
2000, Katsumi et al. 2008; HC2 data from Di Emidio et al. 2011; BPN variably permeable reactive barrier media to manage NAPLs in
data from Scalia 2012). ground water. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering 138 (2), 115-127.
4 CONCLUSIONS Lee, J. and Shackelford, C. 2005. Impact of bentonite quality on
hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners. Journal of
The hydraulic conductivity to water (kw) and CaCl2 solutions Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 131 (1), 64-77.
(kc) of three novel (chemically modified) bentonites (BPN, HC, Lee, J., Shackelford, C., Benson, C., Jo, H., and Edil, T. 2005.
MSB) were compared with those of three natural Na-bentonites Correlating index properties and hydraulic conductivity of
geosynthetic clay liners. Journal of Geotechnical and
commonly used in geoenvironmental containment applications.
Geoenvironmental Engineering 131 (11), 1319-1329.
The overall hydraulic performance is a function of not only the Lin, L. and Benson, C. 2000. Effect of wet-dry cycling on swelling and
magnitude of chemical resistance (kc/kw) but also the baseline hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners. Journal of
value of kw. In terms of SB backfills, the use of BPN or HC8 Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 126 (1), 40-49.
generally exhibited lower kw compared to MSB or Na- Malusis, M. and McKeehan, M. 2012. Chemical compatibility of model
bentonites, implying that less BPN or HC8 is required to create soil-bentonite backfills containing multiswellable bentonite Journal
backfills with an acceptable kw. However, the backfill of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, in press.
containing 5.5 % BPN exhibited the highest kc/kw, whereas the Malusis, M., McKeehan, M., and LaFredo, R. 2010. Multiswellable
bentonite for soil-bentonite vertical barriers. Proc., 6th Int. Conf.
backfill containing 5.6 % MSB indicated low kw and a kc/kw that
Environ. Geotech. McGraw-Hill, New York, 764-769.
was lower than that for the 5.5 % BPN backfill. Overall, the Malusis, M., Shackelford, C., and Olsen, H 2003. Flow and transport
product of kw and kc/kw for the backfills containing 5.5 % BPN through clay membrane barriers. Engineering Geology 70 (2-3), 235-
and 5.6 % MSB resulted in superior hydraulic performance in 248.
terms of the providing the lowest values of kc. In terms of Mazzieri, F., Di Emidio, G., and Van Impe, P. 2010. Diffusion of
GCLs, all three novel bentonites (BPN, HC, MSB) showed not calcium chloride in a modified bentonite: impact of osmostic
only low kw but also far superior resistance to chemical attack efficiency and hydraulic conductivity. Clays and Clay Minerals 58
than the natural bentonites. Thus, the potential use of (3), 351-363.
Onikata, M., Kondo, M., Hayashi, N., and Yamanaka, S. 1999.
chemically modified bentonites in applications involving SB
Complex formation of cation-exchanged montmorillonites with
backfills and GCLs is promising. However, the differences in propylene carbonate: osmotic swelling in aqueous electrolyte
behaviors among the novel bentonites illustrated in this paper solutions. Clays and Clay Minerals 47 (5), 672-677.
highlight the need for further research into the specific Scalia, J. 2012. Bentonite-polymer composites for containment
mechanisms affecting the performance of such novel bentonites. applications. PhD Dissertation, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
Shackelford, C., Benson, C., Katsumi, T., Edil, T., and Lin, L. 2000.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Evaluating the hydraulic conductivity of GCLs permeated with non-
standard liquids. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 18 (2-4), 133-161.
Financial support for portions of the work presented herein was Shackelford, C. and Redmond, P. 1995. Solute breakthrough curves for
provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), processed kaolin at low flow rates. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering 121 (1), 17-32.
Arlington, VA, under grants CMMI-0757815 and CMMI-
3000
Long term performance of cement-bentonite cut-offs in saline and acidic solutions
Permabilit long terme des parois ciment-bentonite en solutions acides et salines
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the results of a research aimed at evaluating and predicting the long term performance of CB
mixtures in terms of hydraulic conductivity, k. A low k value is the necessary (even if not sufficient) requirement for a cut-off wall to
isolate polluted sites. Aqueous sulphate solutions of different nature (acidic, saline) and concentrations were used as permeants in
column tests performed for long time (one year or more) in order that full effects of physical and chemical reactions may occur.
Results of these tests are here analysed mainly with the aim to find a criterion to predict how long a cement-bentonite cut-off wall can
keep a proper hydraulic performance.
RSUM: Larticle prsente les rsultats dune recherche ayant pour objectifs lvaluation et la prvision de la permabilit (k)
long terme des mlanges ciment-bentonite (CB). Une permabilit faible est une condition ncessaire (bien que non suffisante) pour
jouer le rle dcran de confinement sur les sites pollus. On a utilis des solutions aqueuses de sulfates de diffrents natures (acide,
saline) et concentrations dans des essais dinfiltration de longue dure (une anne voire plus), pour sassurer du dveloppement
complet des interactions chimiques and physiques. Les rsultats de ces essais sont analyss avec lobjectif principal de trouver un
critre pour prvoir les performances hydrauliques long terme des parois en ciment-bentonite.
3001
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3 RESULTS when the mixture is permeated with the acidic solution. This is
evident if we compare the k trend of the samples permeated
Figure 1 shows the hydraulic conductivity trend over time of the with the salt solution at concentration of SO42- of 2756 mg/l and
mixture permeated with the salt solutions of K2SO4 at different the acidic solution of 1176 mg/l: both samples show a fast
concentrations together with the k trend of the same mixture decrease followed by an increase of hydraulic conductivity but
permeated with water. With reference to the performance in with the acidic solution the increase in k starts after about 250
water, the mixture shows the decrease of k with time typical of days of curing whereas the increase of k occurs much more later
the well selected CB mixtures: k values of the order of 10-8 cm/s (about 520 days) when the CB mixture is permeated with the
can be reached just after two months of curing. The reduction of saline solution, notwithstanding the lower concentration of
k is significant during the first year of curing. SO42-.
As far as the hydraulic conductivity with the salt solutions is Considering the chemical reactions occurring between the
concerned, each sample shows an initial decrease in the k value different solutions and the mixture, it is necessary to point out
(no effluent SO42- concentration were detected in this period), that the overall hydraulic conductivity trend measured on the
followed by an increasing hydraulic conductivity. Finally an samples in Figures 1 and 2 depend on the sample thickness and
almost constant trend of hydraulic conductivity with curing time on the flow rate through them. Therefore, in order to define how
occurs with the effluent SO42- concentration that was measured long the mixture is able to keep a good performance, the curing
to be equal to the inlet one. From Figure 2 it is also evident that time cannot be considered as a reference parameter. To this
the rate of reduction or increase of k with time depends on the purpose, the pore volume of flow, PV, is an appropriate
permeant concentration: the higher the concentration, the faster parameter. Different criteria can be adopted to establish a
the reduction and the successive increase in the k value with satisfactory hydraulic performance for the CB mixture: for
time, as well as the shorter the curing time at which the example, hydraulic conductivity lower than a maximum
inversion of the k trend occurs. The reduction in the hydraulic allowable value, or k lower than the k value measured with
conductivity exibited by the mixture during the first month of water, etc.; among them, the number of pore volumes of flow
curing is equal or even higher than that of the mixture until k is decreasing, PV*, can be appropriate for the following
permeated with water. Significant (increasing) concentrations of reasons:
SO42- were measured at the effluent only when the k values - at brief curing, both for K2SO4 and H2SO4, whatever
increase with time; this transient phase lasted when the k values concentration, the reduction of k with time is equal or lower
starts to be constant with time (Fratalocchi et al. 2010; than that with water;
Brianzoni, 2012). - in the long term, if there is no inversion of the k trend with
In order to explain the results of Figure 1 it is necessary to time, low k values can be reached;
consider the reactions occurring between sulphates and - it is not necessary to establish a target k value (that would be
cementitious materials. Sulphate attack initially develops from related to a particular curing time);
the reation between SO42- and both calcium hydroxite, Ca(OH)2, - an increasing k trend with time does not imply a bad
and (partially) calcium hydro-silicate, C-S-H, with the performance at least immediately; therefore, the criterion is on
consequent precipitation of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and release the safe side.
of OH-. The subsequent (damaging) reactions take place Therefore, the number of pore volumes of flow at which the k
between the sulphate and the hydrated calcium alluminate or value stops decreasing (named critical pore volumes, PV*)
calcium alluminate monosulphate hydrate (Bensted 1995; was assumed as the reference value for the mixture good
Gollop and Taylor, 1992, 1995) to produce ettringite with a performance. This value (calculated assuming a porosity of the
consequent expansion. mixture equal to 0.6) was related to the concentration of SO42-
All the aforesaid interaction mechanisms are progressive for the different salt and acidic solutions, as shown in Figure 3.
through the sample with curing time: the initial gypsum Referring to the samples permeated with the acidic solution at
precipitation into the pores (reaction confirmed by the high pH pH = 2.0, only the thin one (sample B) showed a stop in
values measued at the effluent, pH = 12-12.4) causes clogging decreasing of k after about 49 PV (500 days of curing) whereas
of pores and contributes to the reduction of the hydraulic the other one (sample A) still shows a decreasing k with time
conductivity with time. This contribution tends to reduce and after 850 days of curing (at this time only 4 PV permeated the
become negligible as the ettringite starts to form along the sample). Therefore, data of sample A could not be considered in
reaction front; such an expansive reaction is able to Figure 3.
progressively invert the hydraulic conductivity trend with time Figure 3 shows that PV* decreases as the sulphate ion
up to a rapid increase. The expansive reaction of ettringite was concentration increases; the relation is well represented by a bi-
confirmed by the increase in volume on the samples equal to 7- logarithmic correlation. In particular, for concentrations of the
10% (Fratalocchi and Pasqualini 2007) and by a net of diffuse order of g/l or more, that is, in aggressive conditions, the critical
fissures observed on the samples at the end of the tests. The number of pore volumes assumes the same trend for both the
fissures give rise to preferential pathways that are responsible of solutions (saline and acidic). For concentrations of SO42- lower
the overall constant value of k (2-3 x 10-6 cm/s) at the end of the than 1 mg/l, data are currently available only for the H2SO4
interaction mechanisms. solution; the critical PV* should be lower for the H2SO4
Samples of the same mixtures were permeated also with three solution than that of the salt solution considering its combined
aqueous solutions of sulphuric acid at different pH (Table 1). deleterious effect due to ettringite formation and dissolution of
Two samples of different thickness (sample A and B) were cement hydration products. Data are necessary to confirm this
permeated with the same H2SO4 solution (pH = 2.0) in order to hypothesis.
evaluate the interaction effect taking into consideration different Even assuming the criterion of good performance as the PV
curing time. Figure 2 shows the hydraulic conductivity trends value until the k trend over time be not increasing (instead of
over time of all the samples. It is evident that the hydraulic decreasing), the data in Figure 3 would be practically the same
conductivity trends versus time are similar to those measured on except for the data with the lowest concentration of SO42- which
the samples permeated with the salt solutions. The main would have a PV* slightly higher (equal to about 57). It is
chemical reactions are indeed the same, with the addition of the important to point out that a little increase in PV* means a
dissolution of the cement hydration products (mainly calcium significant longer lasting for the mixture when the k value is
hydroxide and C-S-H) by the acidic solutions. SO42- being low.
equal, the increase in hydraulic conductivity tends to be faster The results in Figure 3 can be useful from the practical point of
3002
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
view to estimate the durability of a cement-bentonite cut-off performance can be always expected because the hydraulic
wall on the basis of the flow rate through it (i.e. on the basis of conductivity values after few months of curing are sufficiently
the hydraulic boundary conditions and assuming, safely, the low so that very few pore volumes of flow can pass through a
minimum hydraulic conductivity value measured at brief cut-off wall in case of typical hydraulic heads of the order of
curing). Since a high value of PV* results in case of low units.
concentration of SO4, this means that a good long term
1,E-05
1,E-06
1,E-07
1,E-08
1,E-09
1,E-10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
curing time (days)
Figure 1. Hydraulic conductivity trend with curing time of the sample of the CB mixture permeated with water (R) and with solutions of K2SO4 at
different concentrations (in the legend)
1,E-04
k (cm/s)
1,E-05 R
1,E-06
1,E-07
1,E-08
1,E-09
1,E-10
0 100 200 300 400 curing
500 600time (days)
700 800 900 1000
Figure 2. Hydraulic conductivity trend with curing time of the sample of the CB mixture permeated with water (R) and with solutions of H2SO4 at
different pH (in the legend)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5 REFERENCES
100
Bensted J. 1995. The standardisation of sulphate-resisting cements. Part
I + Part II. World Cement, Vol. 7 and 8.
PV*
3004
Determination of shear strength of MSW. Field tests vs. laboratory tests.
Dtermination de la rsistance au cisaillement des dchets urbains (MSW). Essais in situ vs essais
de laboratoire.
ABSTRACT: The knowledge of the mechanical properties of MSW has many implications on landfill design. The shear strength of
the wastes determines the inclination to be given to the landfill slopes, which in turn governs the landfill capacity.
The measurement of these properties is not an easy task. Different approaches are possible. Conventional geotechnical laboratory tests
face two main problems: the lack of representativeness of the samples, and the environmental difficulties associated to testing these
materials in laboratories usually placed in general use buildings (odour problems). Due to these limitations, the number of published
results is relatively short. The use of in situ tests has become an attractive alternative, because it eliminates the above two problems.
However, the interpretation of these tests is based on the experience with conventional geotechnical materials (soils, rocks, compacted
fills), but MSW have a different behaviour, with a seemingly unlimited strain, and no definite failure in most cases. A third
approach is the back-analysis of the monitored behaviour of actual landfills. Some of these cases have been published, and even some
compilations are available.
RSUM : La connaissance des proprits mcaniques des dchets urbains (MSW) a de nombreuses implications quant la
conception dune dcharge. La rsistance au cisaillement des dchets dtermine linclination des talus, qui se rpercute sur la capacit
de la dcharge.
La dtermination de ces proprits nest pas facile, diffrentes approches sont possibles. Les essais conventionnels de laboratoire
prsentent deux problmes : le manque de reprsentativit des chantillons et les difficults associes aux aspects environnementaux
du fait que les laboratoires sont gnralement situs dans des btiments usage gnral (problmes olfactifs). cause de ces
limitations, le nombre de rsultats publis dans la littrature est relativement faible. La pratique dessais in situ est devenue une
alternative intressante, car elle limine les deux problmes ci-dessus. Cependant, linterprtation de ces essais est base sur
lexprience tire des matriaux gotechniques conventionnels (sols, roches, remblais compacts), mais les dchets ont un
comportement bien diffrent, avec une dformation apparemment illimite et sans indice prcis de rupture. Une troisime
possibilit repose sur lanalyse inverse du suivi de cas rels instruments. Quelques cas ont t publis, et certaines compilations sont
disponibles.
KEYWORDS: MSW, municipal solid wastes, landfill, site exploration, mechanical properties, shear strength.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The shear stress-strain curve of the MSW shows a 3.1.3 Other aspects
noticeable hardening (Grisola et al., 1996; Jessberger et al., In tests on MSW samples, the applied shear stress increases
1993; Eid, 2000; Zhan et al., 2008), and a horizontal monotonically with deformation, and in most cases a maximum
asymptotic level is not reached even with large or asymptotical value is not reached even with the application of
deformations. So it is necessary to define a certain level of large displacements. The plots shown in Figures 1 and 2 belong
deformation in which it is assumed that the failure situation to a compilation of results from several authors made by Stark
is being reached. et al. (2009). It is shown that shear stress does not grow only
with the applied normal stress, but it also increases with the
3 METHODS FOR OBTAINING MSW STRENGTH deformation or the displacement reached. Those authors
attribute this behaviour to the reinforcement action of the
The methods for obtaining cohesion and frictional angle wastes fibrous elements when deformation increases.
parameters can be grouped in three kinds: laboratory test, in-situ
test and back-analysis of actual failures.
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Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
3.2 In situ tests There are several experiences with in-situ shear tests using
parallelepipedic and cylindrical samples with sizes of 500 mm
3.2.1 Comparison with laboratory tests and even 1m in landfills (Withiam et al., 1995; Caicedo et al.,
In-situ tests are an alternative to the execution of laboratory 2002).
tests on landfill samples. With in-situ tests there is no need to
take and manipulate samples, with the subsequent alteration, 3.3 Back-analysis of real failures
very high when dealing with MSW. In-situ tests are made over
the material in real conditions, not in a simulated laboratory Failure back-analysis is a widely used method in geotechnical
scenario. activity and can be easily extrapolated to the study of MSW
Besides, scale is larger in field tests, affecting more shear strength (Huvaj-Sarihan and Stark, 2008).
material. This bigger scale reduces the influence of MSW However, this method faces also some uncertainties. First,
heterogeneity, making possible to take into consideration generalized failure cases are not frequent, and in the few cases
medium to large fibrous elements. However, these advantages occurred it is difficult to detect the failure surface. Besides,
over laboratory tests bring some additional problems: failure generally affects to the bottom sealing layers and the
Although the alteration produced by taking the sample is foundation ground as well as to the waste mass itself. In other
removed, effects produced by the installation of the testing cases the situation analysed is far from failure so a safety factor
elements appear. greater than the unit has to be assumed with no precise
Field tests control (stress state, displacements, drainage) is justification. Furthermore, the values for material density and
lesser than in laboratory tests. phreatic level position are not known exactly and must be
Even though the area affected by field tests is larger than the estimated. In any case, if the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is
regular specimen size, scale problems are still present. used, the result of the analysis is only a relationship between
Results obtained from some in-situ tests cannot be analysed cohesion and frictional angle as in some in-situ tests. Only in
using theoretical models to obtain strength parameters, the very few cases, the precise knowledge of the sliding surface
only way to obtain them are using empirical correlations. position can provide some guidance about the relative ranges
Interpretation complexity is higher for in-situ tests in for the two parameters. Otherwise, the result is a line plotted in
comparison with those conducted in a laboratory. If the a c- diagram. This diagram must be used with care, because it
theoretical model depends on two or more parameters, like does not mean that all the points on the line are valid, but
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, it is only possible to obtain instead, only one point is the correct result, but it is not possible
the relationship between them. This implies that only a to identify it within the whole line (Figures 3 and 4).
curve for different possible values for cohesion and
tan = av / 'av
frictional angle can be obtained.
c=0
In any case, most of the in-situ test procedures are quite fast
and economical, making possible to execute multiple tests in a
Shear stress,
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Regarding the back-analysis of failures, the uncertainties introduced in Spain in the last years (projects GEORES-
commented above limit their use. 03.2843.64001 and PROMERSU-BIA2012-34956).
One of the first proposals was due to Singh and Murphy The study will be performed in several landfills. In parallel
(1990), but with no attempt to reduce the wide ranges of with the test campaign, numerical modelling of the landfills
cohesion and friction resulting from real failures. under study will be undertaken to obtain feedback and refine the
Based on the limited data available at the time, Snchez et data acquisition process.
al. (1993) proposed a joint consideration of the results of After all the data are gathered and the process is considered
laboratory and in situ tests and back-analysis of failures. The optimum, a method to obtain the mechanical properties of a
first ones gave a set of pairs of values of cohesion and friction, landfill using field tests and a new proposal for the design
increasing with the strain. The real failure cases help to identify strength parameters will be obtained as a result of the research.
the relevant strain level, and reciprocally, the lab tests help to
identify the real c/ ratio. In situ tests can also give information 6 REFERENCES
on that respect. The result is shown in Figure 5.
Bray, J.D., Zekkos, D., Kavazanjian, E., Athanasopoulos, G.A. and
Riemer, M. F. 2009. Shear strength of municipal solid waste.
100 Journal of Geot. and Geoenv. Eng.. ASCE 135(6),709-722.
Back analyses (by 1990) Caicedo, B., Yamin, L., Giraldo, E. and Coronado, O. 2002.
Lab tests (by 1990)
Snchez et al. (1993)
Geomechanical properties of municipal solid waste in Doa Juana
80 sanitary landfill. Proc. 4th Env. Geotechnics 4th ICEG, Rio de
Janeiro 1,177-182.
Cohesion, c (kPa)
ASTM STP1070,240258.
60 20% Sivakumar Babu, G.L., Reddy, K.R. and Chouksey, S.K. 2010.
Constitutive model for municipal solid waste incorporating
10% mechanical creep and biodegradation-induced compression. Waste
40 Management 30,1122.
Sowers, G.F. 1968. Foundation problems in sanitary landfills. Journal
5% of the Sanitary Div., ASCE 94(SA1),103-116.
Stark, T., Huvaj-Sarihan, N. and Li, G. 2009. Shear strength of
20
municipal solid waste for stability analyses. Environ Geol.
57,19111923.
Withiam, J.L., Tarvin, P.A., Bushell, T.D., Snow, R.E. and Germann,
0 H.W. 1995. Prediction and performance of municipal landfill slope.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
o
Proc. Int. Conf. Geoenv. 2000, GSP46, ASCE, New Orleans,
Friction angle, ( ) Lousiana, 2,1005-1019.
Figure 6. Additional data. Modifications to Figure 5. Zekkos, D., Athanasopoulos, G. A., Bray, J. D., Grizi, A. and
Theodoratos, A. 2010. Large-scale direct shear testing of municipal
5 CONCLUSIONS solid waste. Waste Management 30(8-9),1544-1555.
Zhan, L.T., Chen, Y.M., Ling, W.A. 2008. Shear strength
Prior work has shown that it is no easy to obtain the mechanical characterization of municipal solid waste at the Suzhou landfill,
properties of the waste mass. China. Eng. Geol. 97,97-111.
After merging the data from the revision of existing
bibliography and the experience of the U.C. Geotechnical
Group, new research is being undertaken in order to establish a
method to perform that task during the next three years. The
study will be based on the use of field tests, complemented with
medium to large scale laboratory direct shear tests. It will cover
several landfills, with conventional MSW, together with wastes
subjected to mechanical and biological pre-treatment (MBT),
3008
Geo-environmental problems in landfills of MSW with high organic content
Problmes go-environnementaux dans les sites d'enfouissement de dchets urbains hautes
teneurs organiques
ABSTRACT: The municipal solid wastes (MSWs) in China are high in organic and moisture content, as compared with the MSWs in
developed countries. Large amounts of leachate and landfill gas are generated and significant settlement takes place during the
decomposition process of the MSWs. A build-up of leachate mound and gas pressure might take place in the landfills of MSWs.
Waste stability is highly concerned for such landfills having excessive pore-water and pore-gas pressure. A bio-hydro-mechanical
coupled model is presented in this paper, based on laboratory and in-situ investigations, to predict leachate production, gas pressure
and settlement. Based on the prediction obtained by the proposed model, discussions are made on the geo-environmental problems in
landfills of MSW with high organic content. The work is valuable for the development of bioreactor landfilling technologies in the
Asian developing countries such as China.
RSUM : Les dchets urbains en Chine ont des teneurs leves en matires organiques et en humidit, par rapport aux dchets
produits dans les pays dvelopps. De grandes quantits de lixiviats et de gaz sont dgages et un tassement significatif apparait lors
du processus de dcomposition des dchets. Il peut se produire dans les dcharges une augmentation de laccumulation des lixiviats et
de la monte en pression des gaz. La stabilit de lentreposage de ces dchets est fortement impacte par laugmentation de pression
du fluide et du gaz dans les vides. Un modle coupl bio-hydro-mcanique est propos dans cet article, bas sur des tudes
exprimentales de laboratoire et in situ, pour prvoir la production de lixiviat, la pression de gaz et le tassement. Sur la base des
rsultats obtenus par le modle propos, les discussions portent sur les problmes go-environnementaux dans les sites
d'enfouissement de dchets hautes teneurs organiques. Le travail est trs utile pour le dveloppement des technologies de
bioracteurs dans les pays asiatiques en voie de dveloppement telle que la Chine.
KEYWORDS: MSW, organic content, gas, leachate, settlement, stability
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
corresponding to a matric suction of 10 kPa, and its value for effective stress, 0 (Pa) is the initial stress for fresh MSWs, tS
the Chinese wastes ranges from 33% to 45% (Chen et.al. is ultimate secondary strain which can be calculated as the
2010a), greater than that of the UK waste (22%) and the US ultimate strain under long-term compression minus the primary
waste (22.4%)(Sharma and Lewis 1994). For decomposed compression strain of fresh wastes, and c (s-1) is the secondary
wastes filled in landfills for a long time, the average value of compression rate constant related to biodegradation process.
field capacity of MSWs in different countries is 37% (Chen
et.al. 2010a). 2.5 Shear strength characteristics of MSW
Groups of consolidated drained triaxial compression tests were
carried out to investigate the shear strength characteristics of
borehole samples obtained from Qizishan landfill (Zhan et al.
2008). The results showed that the MSW samples exhibited a
strain-hardening and contractive behavior (see Figure 3). As the
fill age of the waste increased from 1.7 years to 11 years, the
cohesion mobilized at a strain level of 10% was found to
decrease from 23.3 kPa to 0 kPa, and the mobilized friction
angle at the same strain level increasing from 9.9 to 26. For a
confinement stress level greater than 50 kPa, the shear strength
of the recently-placed MSW seemed to be lower than that of the
Figure 1. Initial moisture content of MSWs in China
older MSW. The observed changes of shear strength with the
fill age can be explained by considering the change in the MSW
2.3 Hydraulic conductivity and gas permeability of the MSWs composition with age (Zhan et al. 2008).
Results of laboratory tests on borehole samples and in situ
pumping tests of Qizishan landfill, Suzhou, China show that
hydraulic conductivity (ks) of MSW decreases with an increase
in burial depth or overburden pressure due to compaction and
degradation of waste (Chen et al. 2010a). Results of laboratory
tests on the borehole samples also indicate that (see Figure 2)
the gas permeability decreases with an increase in the degree of
saturation (or a decrease in volumetric gas content, g), and the
decrease is much more significant at the high range of degree of
saturation (Sr) (Wei 2007).
1.E-09
Sr=0%
Intrinsic permeability of gas, K
Sr=50% Sr=40%
S r 0%
I
S r 40% F
1.E-10 e=3
e=2 Figure 3. Summary of mobilized shear strength parameters reported in
e=2 Sr=20 the research literatures (Zhan et al. 2008)
m
G
2
1.E-11
H K
e=1.6 3 BHM COUPLED MODEL AND CASE STUDY
1.E-12 Sr=60%
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Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
Gas pressure
hypothetical waste samples with a height of 5m are studied for
MSWs in Qizishan landfill, China and Orchard Hills landfill, 800
USA, respectively. As shown in Figure 4, top boundary is
impervious for liquid but free for gas flow, and the bottom 400
boundary is impervious for gas but free for liquid flow. The
0
total stress is set to be zero at the top boundary, and 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
compression strain is set to be zero at the bottom boundary. Time (year)
Each element is 0.5m high, and the time step is 10-5day-1. Figure 5. Gas pressure at the bottom of waste samples
Parameters applied are shown in Table 2. Gas pressure,
leachate/gas production and settlement are analysed through the 0.4 Left axis-Qizishan 0.04
BHM coupled model. Left axis-Orchard Hills
Right axis-Qizishan
0.2 0.02
0.1 0.01
0.0 0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (year)
Figure 6. Gas generation rate and gas production of waste samples
0.2
Leachate production (m3/m3)
0.15
Qizishan
0.1 Orchard Hills
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of a hypothetical waste sample
0.05
Table 2. Parameters applied in the BHM coupled model
mds1/ms0 mds2/ms0 mds3/ms0 w0(wet) 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.35* 0.20* 0.10* 0.60*
Time (year)
0.05# 0.25# 0.20# 0.44# Figure 7. Leachate production per volume of waste samples
fwater dS 0(kN/m ) 3
e0
Time (year)
1.0* 1.87* 7.5* 3.0*
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1.0# 0.85# 5.0# 1.4# 0.0
0 (kPa) tS(0) Qizishan
Settlement(m)
CC CC 0.5
Orchard Hills
0.25* 0.17* 10* 0.38* 1.0
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4 GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN LANDFILLS (ii) Higher moisture content will increase the self weight of
WITH HIGH ORGANIC CONTENT waste body especially under leachate recirculation. As indicated
by Eq.6, FS will decrease with an increase of Wi.
(iii) During the bio-hydro-mechanical coupled process, the
4.1 Leachate generation cohesion and friction angle mobilized at a certain strain level
As mentioned in section 2.2, the difference between the initial tend to change with an increase of waste age (see Figure 3).
moisture content and the field capacity of the Chinese MSW is This makes the determination of FS even more complex.
greater than that of western countries, which is the main factor
causing high leachate production. Simulation result (see Figure 5 CONCLUSION
7) also shows that MSW with higher organic content and
moisture content has larger leachate production. Therefore, Engineering properties of landfilled MSWs with high organic
calculation of leachate production in landfills with high organic content in Asian developing countries are distinguished from
content MSW cannot neglect the effect of initial moisture those in developed countries. Numerical study through the
content and moisture release via decomposition of organic. BHM coupled model showed that landfilled MSWs with higher
Under certain circumstances (e.g. clogging of leachate organic content tend to have larger leachate production, long-
collection system, etc.), high leachate mound might be resulted term settlement and possibility of slope failure. The model
due to the high leachate production in Chinese landfills. developed can be used to study the application of bioreactor
landfilling technologies in landfills with high organic content.
4.2 Settlement in landfills
The biodegradation-induced settlement rate is highly dependent 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
on the decomposition condition of landfill. Under optimum
biodegradation condition, Figure 8 shows that both samples will The work was supported by the National Natural Science
accomplish their settlement within about 5 years. Therefore, if Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 10972195, 51010008), and the
the condition is adjusted via leachate recirculation or air National Basic Research Program of China (973 Project)
injection, most settlement would occur during landfilling stage, (Grant No. 2012CB719800)
which can significantly decrease post-closure settlement of
landfill. Figure 8 also shows that instant settlements (i.e., t = 0)
of the two samples are close to each other. It is mainly due to 7 REFERENCES
the relatively higher CC for Orchard Hills sample which is pre-
shredded before tests. However, MSW from Qizishan landfill Bishop A.W. 1959. The principle of effective stress. Tecnisk Ukeblad,
has much more long-term compression, which indicates the 106(39):859863.
Chen Y.M. and Zhan L.T. 2007. Geo-environmental issues associated
necessity of accelerating the biodegradation-induced settlement with landfills of municipal solid wastes. 13rd Asian Regional
of landfills with high organic content. Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
Kolkata, India.
4.3 Landfill stability Chen Y.M., Zhan L.T., Wei H.Y. 2009. Aging and compressibility of
municipal solid wastes. Waste Management, 29(1): 86-95.
Based on the method of slices and the effective stress equation Chen Y.M., Zhan T.L.T., Li Y.C. 2010a. Development of leachate
proposed by Bishop 1959, the factor of safety for the ith slice mounds and control of leachate-related failures at MSW landfills in
can be written as the following equation by neglecting lateral humid regions, invited lecture, 6th International Congress on
forces (see Figure 9): Environmental Geotechnics, New Delhi, India:76-98.
R ci li + Wi cos i (1 )uai uwi li tgi
Chen Y.M., Ke H., Fredlund D.G., Zhan L.T., Xie Y. 2010b. Secondary
FS = i = (6) compression of municipal solid wastes and a compression model
T
i i W sin
i for predicting settlement of municipal solid waste landfills. Journal
where Ri and Ti are resisting shear force and shear force acting of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
along the slip surface respectively, ci and i are cohesion and 136(5), 706-717.
the the effective stress friction angle respectively, i is the Chen Y.M., Xu X.B., Zhan L.T. 2012. Analysis of solid-liquid-gas
slope angle, Wi is the self weight, li is the bottom length which interactions in landfilled municipal solid waste by a bio-hydro-
equals bi/cosi, bi is the width of each slice, and uai and uwi are mechanical coupled model. SCIENCE CHINA-Technological
Sciences., 55(1):81-89.
the pore gas pressure and pore liquid pressure. Liao Z.Q., Shi J.Y., Mao J. 2007. Experimental study and mechanism
Landfill stability need to be assessed during the whole bio- analysis of primary compression index of MSW. Journal of Hohai
hydro-mechanical coupled processes as: University (Natural Sciences), 35(3), 326-329.
(i) Higher organic content and moisture content may promote Qian X.D., Koerner R.M., Gray D. H. 2002. Geotechnical aspects of
gas generation. However, more gas may be trapped in high landfill design and construction, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
moisture content MSW due to the lowered gas permeability (see Reddy K.R., Hettiarachchi H., Parakalla N.S., Gangathulasi J., Bogner
Figure 2). Figure 10 shows that a mixture of leachate and J.E. 2008. Geotechnical properties of fresh municipal solid waste at
landfill gas was ejected to a height of up to 5 m when drilling Orchard Hills landfill, USA. Waste Management, 29(2): 952-959.
vertical extraction wells in Xiaping landfill, China. It indicates Sharma H.D. and Lewis S.P. 1994. Waste Contaminant Systems, Waste,
Stabilization, and Landfills Design and Evaluation, New York,
that very high pore pressure (uai and uwi) may exist in waste Wiley
body, which will decrease FS and cause a decrease in slope Wei H.Y. 2007. Experimental and Numerical Study on Gas Migration
stability. in Landfill of Municipal Solid Waste Department of Civil
Engineering. Dissertation of Doctoral Degree. Hangzhou, Zhejiang
University.
Xu X.B. 2011. Bio-hydro-mechanical coupled analysis of solid-liquid-
gas interactions in landfilled municipal solid wastes and its
application. Dissertation of Doctoral Degree. Hangzhou, Zhejiang
University.
Zhan T.L.T., Chen Y.M., Ling W.A. Shear strength characterization of
municipal solid waste at the Suzhou landfill, China. Engineering
Geology, 2008, 97(3-4): 97-111.
3012
tude exprimentale dune technique de filtration radiale pour une application
au sein de Barrires Permables Ractives (BPR)
Experimental study of radial filtration in Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRB)
Courcelles B.
cole Polytechnique de Montral
RSUM: Les Barrires Permables Ractives (BPR) constituent une technique de rhabilitation environnementale utilisant le
gradient naturel de leau souterraine pour la diriger vers un filtre ractif capable de traiter les contaminants. Une des principales
configurations gomtriques consiste canaliser leau vers un filtre ractif dans lequel lcoulement est vertical ascendant. La
traverse de plusieurs mtres de filtre peut toutefois gnrer des pertes de charges importantes, qui perturbent lcoulement rgional et
conduisent au contournement du systme. Afin de limiter ces pertes de charges, un nouveau filtre coulement radial visant rduire
la longueur de cheminement dans le matriau ractif a t conu lcole Polytechnique de Montral. La prsente tude vise
vrifier exprimentalement les hypothses du concept de filtre radial et caractriser ses performances hydrauliques comparativement
aux filtres traditionnels. Les rsultats dmontrent que les filtres radiaux permettent effectivement de limiter les pertes de charges,
amliorant ainsi substantiellement lhydraulique des filtres et augmentant le champ dapplication des BPR, en particulier aux
aquifres nautorisant que peu de pertes de charges sous peine de contournement du systme de traitement.
ABSTRACT: Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRB) constitute an environmental remediation technique in which natural gradients are
exploited to channel the groundwater towards a reactive filter. One of the main geometric configurations consists in realizing an
upward vertical filtration in a reactive filter able to treat the contaminants. Crossing several meters of filter can however generate
excessive head losses, modify the regional flow and lead to a bypass of the system. To minimize these head losses, a new radial-flow
filter consisting in reducing the filtration length has been developed at Polytechnique Montreal. The present study aims to
experimentally verify the assumptions of the radial filtration and characterize its hydraulic performances compared to traditional
filters. The results show that radial filters can effectively reduce head losses, improve substantially the hydraulic of filters and increase
the scope of PBRs, in particular to aquifers allowing few head losses to prevent any bypass.
MOTS-CLS: barrires permables ractives, filtration, milieux granulaires, rseau dcoulement, dcontamination.
3013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
conductivit hydraulique suprieure celle de l'aquifre relative de leau contamine par rapport aux grains ractifs est
environnant pour empcher tout contournement du systme plus faible la priphrie, cest--dire l o les concentrations
(Starr et Cherry 1994). Afin de rpondre aux contraintes en contaminants sont les plus fortes dans le cas dun coulement
hydrauliques et limiter les pertes de charges dans les filtres, un centripte (Courcelles 2012). Dans le cas dune rtention par
nouveau concept de filtre radial pouvant tre mis en uvre dans adsorption des contaminants, la perce du filtre peut ainsi tre
les caissons a t dvelopp lcole Polytechnique de retarde.
Montral. Sur le plan thorique, ce filtre permet, volume de
ractifs gaux, de diminuer les pertes de charges par rapport
un filtre classique et den amliorer les performances chimiques
(Courcelles 2012). Toutefois, des exprimentations taient
ncessaires pour vrifier la principale hypothse du filtre radial,
savoir la parfaite verticalit des quipotentielles dans le filtre.
Les rsultats dessais de laboratoire visant vrifier cette
hypothse sont prsents dans la suite du document.
3 MATRIEL ET MTHODE
Afin de vrifier les conditions dcoulement dans les filtres
radiaux, des essais de laboratoire ont t raliss sur un filtre
miniature. Les conditions dessais sont prcises dans la
prsente section.
3014
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
45,0
ractif tait comprise entre 1,2 et 3,35 mm, ce qui permettait 44,5 1a
45,0
hydraulique des filtres radiaux, ces derniers ont t raliss sur 2a
Chargetotale(m)
44,0
3b
(CaCO3), pnalisant ainsi la conductivit hydraulique des filtres 43,0
3c
(Courcelles 2007). Des conditions pnalisantes ont ainsi t (c) 42,0
Poly.(3a)
slectionnes pour ces essais hydrauliques afin dobserver 41,0 Poly.(3b)
lvolution de la conductivit hydraulique du matriau ractif et 40,0 Poly.(3c)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
son influence sur le rseau dcoulement dans le filtre radial. En Renouvellement des vides
effet, ltude thorique des filtres radiaux avait dmontr quil
Figure 4. volution de la charge hydraulique totale en fonction du
existait un rapport de conductivit hydraulique minimal renouvellement des vides du matriau ractif pour : (a) la srie 1, (b) la
kgrossier/kractif permettant de garantir un coulement parfaitement srie 2 et (c) la srie 3.
radial (Courcelles 2012). La mise en uvre dun matriau
conductivit hydraulique volutive en fonction de la quantit de
prcipits forms permet ainsi de dterminer exprimentalement
le rapport minimal permettant de garantir lhypothse
dcoulement radial. Les essais ont t raliss grce une
alimentation par une pompe pristaltique un dbit constant de
150 mL/min.
4 RSULTATS EXPRIMENTAUX
Les mesures des charges hydrauliques totales en fonction du
temps sont prsentes dans la prsente section et interprtes
grce une interpolation spatiale par krigeage et une
modlisation numrique de lcoulement dans le filtre de
laboratoire.
4.1 volution de la charge hydraulique totale Figure 5. Interpolation des quipotentielles par krigeage : (a) dbut de la
filtration et (b) aprs 900 renouvellement des vides. chelle des axes et
Lvolution de la charge hydraulique totale en fonction du charge hydraulique totale en cm.
renouvellement des vides est prsente sur la Fig. 4 pour les
La localisation des quipotentielles sur la Fig. 5 dmontre
diffrents pizomtres. lentre du filtre radial, cest--dire au
ainsi que lcoulement nest pas parfaitement radial, mais plutt
droit du rayon 3, on remarque que la charge hydraulique est
orient vers le sommet du matriau grossier au centre du filtre.
identique pour les trois niveaux de mesure. Le matriau grossier
En ce sens, cette orientation nest pas conforme aux hypothses
assure donc son rle de conducteur hydraulique permettant de
du modle thorique, puisque la longueur de cheminement nest
limiter les pertes de charges lextrieur du matriau ractif. On
pas, en moyenne, rduite par rapport un coulement vertical
notera toutefois laugmentation simultane de la charge
classique. Toutefois, aprs un renouvellement des vides de
hydraulique pour les pizomtres 3a 3c en fonction du
900 fois et la diminution de la conductivit hydraulique, les
renouvellement des vides, ce qui traduit un colmatage progressif
quipotentielles deviennent plus verticales et lcoulement
du filtre ractif.
sapproche dun coulement radial. Le rapport entre des
Au droit des rayons 1 et 2, lvolution de charge hydraulique
conductivits hydrauliques des matriaux grossier et ractif
totale est toutefois diffrente pour chacun des trois niveaux de
(kgrossier/kractif) joue donc un rle prpondrant dans lorientation
mesure. Les charges diminuent en effet avec llvation dans le
des lignes dcoulement. Afin dillustrer ce comportement, une
filtre, ce qui dmontre que lcoulement nest pas parfaitement
modlisation numrique a t ralise laide du logiciel
horizontal, mais possde galement une composante verticale.
Comsol Multiphysics pour les dimensions du filtre exprimental
Tout comme pour le rayon 3, la charge au droit des rayons 1
et diffrents rapports de conductivits hydrauliques.
et 2 prsente une augmentation progressive avec le
La Fig. 6 prsente les rsultats de la modlisation numrique
renouvellement des vides suite au colmatage par la formation de
pour des rapports kgrossier/kractif de 5, 50 et 500. Le rapport de 5
CaCO3. Des rgressions polynomiales dordre 2 ont t raliss
correspond au dbut de la filtration, puisque des essais de
pour chacun des pizomtres afin dillustrer laugmentation de
permabilit ont permis de dterminer des conductivits
la charge hydraulique en fonction du renouvellement des vides.
hydrauliques respectives de 10-1 et 2.10-2 m/s pour le matriau
grossier et le matriau ractif. Au dbut de la filtration, la
4.2 Interprtation par krigeage et modlisation
thorie corrobore ainsi les rsultats exprimentaux puisque
Afin de reprsenter lvolution spatiale des charges lcoulement est essentiellement orient vers le sommet de laxe
hydrauliques totales, les quipotentielles ont t interprtes par central. Aprs rduction de la conductivit hydraulique du
krigeage et sont fournies sur la Fig. 5 pour le dbut et la fin de matriau ractif (kgrossier/kractif=50), lcoulement est moins
lessai de filtration. oblique et son allure gnrale est semblable aux observations
faites aprs un renouvellement des vides de 900 fois.
Finalement, lcoulement ne devient parfaitement radial que
lorsque le rapport de conductivits hydrauliques atteint
500 (Fig. 3c).
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
H 5 CONCLUSION
Les essais physiques raliss sur un filtre coulement radial
ont permis de confirmer les avantages hydrauliques de ce
H/2 dernier, puisquun matriau ractif possdant une conductivit
hydraulique aprs colmatage de 2.10-4 m/s permet de rduire les
pertes de charges dun facteur de 4,5 lorsquil est soumis une
filtration radiale au lieu dune filtration verticale ascendante
classique. Toutefois, ce rsultat est strictement dpendant du
(a) (b) (c) rapport entre les conductivits hydrauliques kgrossier/kractif. Dans
les essais, un rapport minimal de 50 tait ncessaire pour
Figure 6. Rsultats des simulations numriques pour diffrents ratios assurer un coulement pseudo-vertical. Cette observation
kgrossier/kractif : (a) 5, (b) 50 et (c) 500. (Bleu fonc: pression
permettra de parfaire le dimensionnement des filtres radiaux
atmosphrique, rouge fonc: charge impose lentre du filtre).
pour des essais lchelle pilote, pour lesquels le rapport
Ces rsultats exprimentaux assortis de la modlisation kgrossier/kractif sera valu numriquement en fonction de la
numrique dmontrent ainsi que le rapport minimal gomtrie retenue. Dune manire gnrale, les avantages
kgrossier/kractif permettant de garantir lhypothse dcoulement hydrauliques du filtre radial permettent de slectionner des
radial est suprieur 50. Au-dessus de ce rapport, le filtre radial matriaux ractifs plus fins, ce qui est avantageux sur le plan
commence remplir sa fonction de limitation des pertes de chimique et qui permet de respecter plus facilement le critre de
charges. rapport minimal kgrossier/kractif.
3016
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Flores G.
G. Flores
Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University
T. Katsumi,
Katsumi T., T.
InuiInui
T., &Takai
A. Takai
A.
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University
ABSTRACT: A Simplified Image Analysis Method devised to assess the saturation distribution of water and Non-Aqueous Phase
Liquids (NAPLs) in granular soils subject to fluctuating groundwater conditions was developed and tested for ten different NAPLs of
different density and viscosity values (0.73 1.20 g/cm3; 1.4 1000 mPas). The Simplified Image Analysis Method, which is
based on an extension of the Beer-Lambert Law of Transmittance that predicts the existence of a linear relationship between the
saturation of water (Sw), NAPL (So), and their corresponding average optical densities (Di), was tested by photographing samples of
Toyoura sand mixed with different amounts of water and NAPLs, using two digital cameras with different wavelength band-pass
filters ( = 450 nm and 640 nm), and obtaining the linear equations relating Sw, So and Di for the each NAPL. Once the linear
relationships were confirmed, this method was used to assess the behavior of two different NAPLs subject to fluctuating groundwater
tables, demonstrating that this non-intrusive and non-destructive method can be used as a reliable tool to provide water and NAPL
saturation distributions in full domains, when studying the effects of porous soil contamination by NAPLs under dynamic conditions.
RSUM: Une mthode simplifie danalyse dimage visant mesurer la distribution de la saturation deau et des liquides en phase
non-aqueuse (NAPLs) des sols granuleux soumis aux fluctuations des eaux souterraines, a t dveloppe et teste dans dix diffrents
NAPLs (0.73 1.20 g/cm3; 1.41000 mPas). La mthode simplifie danalyse dimage, une extension de la lois de Beer-Lambert
qui tablit une relation linaire entre la saturation deau (Sw), de NAPL (So) et leurs densits optiques respectives (Di), a t teste en
photographiant laide de deux cameras digitales ayant des filtre passe-bande de longueur donde diffrente ( = 450 nm et 640 nm)
des chantillons de sable de Toyoura, mlangs avec des quantits diffrentes deau et des NAPLs, et en obtenant les quations
linaires qui lient Sw, So et Di chacun de NAPL. Aprs confirmation de la relation linaire, cette mthode a t utilise pour valuer
le comportement de deux diffrents NAPLs soumis aux fluctuations des nappes phratiques; et pour dmontrer que cette mthode non
intrusive et non destructive, peut tre utilise de manire fiable pour obtenir les distributions de saturation deau et de NAPL dans tout
le spectre lors des explorations des effets de contamination des sols poreux par des NAPLs sous les conditions dynamiques.
KEYWORDS: NAPL, simplified image analysis, saturation, optical density, column test
3017
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
where D0 is the optical density of a solution of unit Ethylbenzene. Similar results were obtained for all other
concentration, and Dt the optical density of a solution of NAPLs.
concentration c. Therefore, when two cameras with band-pass
filters (wavelengths = i and j) are used, and when water and
NAPL are mixed with dyes whose predominant color
wavelengths are also i and j, we can obtain two different sets of t = 0 h (no dye)
linear equations that can be solved for Sw and So:
t = 168 h (no dye)
( ) ( )
[ ] [ ] (4) t = 0 h (dye)
( ) ( )
t = 168 h (dye)
4 TRANSMITTANCE TEST
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Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Spillway 1cm
of two cameras, two 500 W lights were turned on, and one
picture was taken with each camera (one with a = 450 nm 5cm
band-pass filter, and the other one with a = 640 nm one). To 5cm
account for differences in lighting, a Kodak gray scale and a Aluminum
Gretamacbeth white balance card were placed next to each soil
t = 0 h (no dye) 15cm
sample, and were part of each picture as well. Both cameras
t = 168 h were
(no set to manual mode so that aperture, shutter speed and
3.5cm 50cm Glass
dye) white balance were kept constant. Room temperature was kept
50cm
Once linear relationships between water and NAPL saturation Band-Pass Filters
values, and optical density, were confirmed for a broad
spectrum of NAPLs, we can apply the Simplified Image
Analysis Method to study the behavior of different NAPLs in
whole domains. Five NAPLs (Diesel 2, Ethylbenzene, Low
Viscosity Paraffin, N-decane, and Paraffin Liquid) were
Figure 3. Column design (top) and Experimental setup (bottom)
selected for the column tests based on their diverse viscosity
values (1.4 < < 170 mPas), and densities (0.730 < < 0.880
g/cm3). Similar amount of each NAPL (28 g) was injected from
the top of their corresponding column and subjected to two
cycles of Drainage-Imbibition in separate 3.5 3.5 40 cm
columns (Figure 3) filled with fully saturated Toyoura Sand.
Both drainage stages lasted 72 hours (h = -5 cm), and both
imbibition stages lasted 24 hours (h = 40 cm). Total duration of
each test was 192 hours. Two simultaneous pictures were taken
of each column every 30 minutes, and were analyzed following
the Simplified Image Analysis Method described in Flores et al
(2011). Saturation distributions of NAPL and water for the
whole domains were plotted for all cases at t = 0, 72, 96, 168,
and 192 hours, representing initial conditions, end of the first
drainage, end of the first imbibition, end of the second drainage,
and end of the second imbibition. Saturation distribution
graphics of N-decane are shown in Figure 4, but similar
graphics were prepared for all NAPLs. Figure 4. NAPL (So) and Water (Sw) saturation distribution matrices at
different times, for N-decane
Table 2. Regression equations for different NAPLs, for wavelengths = 450 nm and 640 nm
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
35
0 .8
t e end o f
30 s
a
P
( )
t ra toi n ra toi
25 4. m
t ge %
/ ra ni age )
1 N -de cane 0 .6
7
t ra toi n a t h
20 = = Eh t y bl enzene
mi b bi itoi n s a
D ei se l2
15 5. Low V si co s ity P a ra f fni 0 .4
(mi b bi itoi n d
1
R e s di ua lsa u
== 4 P a ra f fni L qi u di
N AP L sa u
10
5 = 170 0 .2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0
1 10 100 1000
N AP L sa u
t ra toi n a t h
t e end o fd ra ni age s a
t ge %
( )
V si co s ity m
( P a s )
Figure 5. Comparison of residual saturation at the end of drainage and imbibition stages for 5 different NAPLs (left) and relationship between their
viscosity and residual saturation ratio (right)
From Figure 4 we can observe the whole domain distribution distributions in porous media subject to dynamic conditions, for
of N-decane at the end of each stage, and it is clear how a light a broad range of NAPLs. In our research, we applied this
NAPL can actually get trapped below the water table after method to study the behavior of five different NAPLs in
subsequent drainage and imbibition processes. We can also experimental columns subject to drainage and imbibition
observe and quantify how less N-decane penetrated the column processes, and confirmed that light NAPLs can effectively get
after the second drainage process, when compared to the first trapped below the water table, despite their lower than water
drainage process, mostly due to loss of NAPL trough the top density values. We also found a logarithmic relation between
spillway during imbibition. When comparing the depth and viscosity and residual saturation ratios of different NAPLs that
infiltration initial speed of the five studied NAPLs, no will help us predict their residual saturation values after
relationship was found with either density or viscosity values. imbibition processes, when their respective value after drainage
More studies are necessary to compare these migration processes are known. In the next step of this study, additional
parameters with other physical properties of NAPLs. Finally, NAPLs will be tested to improve the accuracy of this
we can also observe how regions within the column that had relationship.
higher NAPL saturation values at the end of the drainage
processes, had also high saturation values by the end of the
imbibition. This behavior was found on all five NAPLs, as 8 REFERENCES
shown in Figure 5 (left).
Australia DSEWPC. 1999. Substance list and thresholds: National
Figure 5 (left) shows, for each one of the five different pollutant inventory. Retrieved 01/02/2012, from http://www.
studied NAPLs, the relationship between their residual npi.gov.au/substances/list-of-subst.html.
saturation values at the end of the drainage stage, when Capiro, N. L., Stafford, B. P., Rixey, W. G., Bedient, P. B. and Alvarez,
compared to their residual saturation values at the end of the P. J. J. 2007. Fuel-grade ethanol transport and impacts to
imbibition stage. As can be seen, the relationship between both groundwater in a pilot-scale aquifer tank. Water Research 41(3):
values is linear for each NAPL, and the general ratio of 656-664.
imbibition over drainage is less than 1.0 for all NAPLs, which Environment Canada. 2010. National pollutant release inventory.
confirms that some contaminant is removed by water during the Canada Gazette. 144.50: 3112-3142.
imbibition stages. It can also be noticed how the residual Fagerlund, F., Illangasekare, T. H. and Niemi, A. 2007. Nonaqueous-
phase liquid infiltration and immobilization in heterogeneous
saturation ratio (imbibition/drainage) is different for each media: 1. Experimental methods and two-layered reference case.
NAPL, and follows the progression (from larger to smaller) N- Vadose Zone J 6(3): 471-482.
decane > Ethylbenzene > Diesel 2 > Low Viscosity Paraffin > Flores, G., Katsumi, T., Inui, T. and Kamon, M. 2011. A simplified
Paraffin Liquid, which is their exact inverse order when image analysis method to study LNAPL migration in porous media.
comparing their viscosity values. In fact, if we plot viscosity Soils and Foundations 51(5): 835-847.
versus residual saturation ratio, we will find a logarithmic Kechavarzi, C., Soga, K. and Wiart, P. 2000. Multispectral image
relationship between them (Figure 5, right), which could help us analysis method to determine dynamic fluid saturation distribution
predict the residual saturation of any NAPL after imbibition in two-dimensional three-fluid phase flow laboratory experiments.
processes, if the residual saturation after the drainage process is Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 46(3-4): 265-293.
Lenhard, R. J. and Parker, J. C. 1987. Measurement and prediction of
known. Additional NAPLs need to be tested to improve the saturation-pressure relationships in three-phase porous media
accuracy of this relationship. systems. Jnl. of Contaminant Hydrology 1(4): 407-424.
Mercer, J. W. and Cohen, R. M. 1990. A review of immiscible fluids in
the subsurface: Properties, models, characterization and
7 CONCLUSIONS remediation. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 6(2): 107-163.
Skoog, D. A., Holler, F. J. and Crouch, S. R. 2007. Principles of
We have confirmed that the relationship between Optical instrumental analysis. Belmont, CA, Thomsom Brooks/Cole.
Density (Di) and water and LNAPL saturation values (Sw and UK Environment Agency. 2011. Pollution inventory substances:
So) is approximate linear, as predicted by the Beer-Lambert Law Pollution inventory. Retrieved 01/02/2012, from http://www.
of Transmittance, for ten different NAPLs with very different environment-agency.gov.uk/pi.
density and viscosity values (0.73 1.20 g/cm3; 1.4 US EPA. 2011. Toxics release inventory (TRI): Toxic chemical list.
1000 mPas). Due to this finding, the Simplified Image Analysis Retrieved 01/02/2012, from http://www.epa.gov/tri/trichemicals/
Method can be safely used to assess water and NAPL saturation index.htm.
3020
Hydraulic conductivity of zeolite-sand mixtures permeated with landfill leachate
Conductivit hydaulique de mlanges zolithe-sable infiltrs par des coulements de dcharge de
dchets
ABSTRACT: The study presented in this paper has been undertaken to evaluate the influence of leachate from landfill collected
the municipal solid wastes at Warsaw district onto the hydraulic conductivity of zeolite-sand mixtures (with 50% and 20% content
of zeolite). The long-term hydraulic conductivity tests with distilled water and landfill leachate collected from the landfill drainge
were carried out using Trautwein equipment. Results of study indicated that hydraulic conductivity of reactive material tested have
changed almost by two orders of magnitude (from 9.23E-5 to 1.24E-6 m/s). The decrease of hydraulic conductivity can
be caused by reduction of the effective porosity due to pore clogging. The analysis of the calcium carbonate content using Scheibler
method showed no significant increase of carbonates in the samples, while research in scanning electron microscope showed
increased calcium content and crystals of calcium carbonate in the samples. Moreover, the presence of microbial activity
had been observed. The conclusions drawn based on tests results should be considered in designing of PRB.
RSUM : L'tude prsente dans cet article a t entreprise afin d'valuer l'influence des coulements des sites d'enfouissement des
dchets du district de Varsovie sur la conductivit hydraulique de mlanges de zolithe et de sable (avec 50% et 20% de teneur en
zolithe). La conductivit hydraulique long terme a t mesure avec de l'eau distille et un liquide provenant du drainage dune
dcharge, laide dun appareil de Trautwein. Les rsultats de l'tude ont montr que la conductivit hydraulique du matriel ractif
test a chang de deux ordres de grandeur (de 9,23E-5 1,24E-6 m/s). La diminution de la conductivit hydraulique peut tre due la
rduction de la porosit effective due l'obstruction des pores. L'analyse de la teneur en carbonate de calcium en utilisant la mthode
de Scheibler na montr aucune augmentation significative de carbonates dans les chantillons, alors que lanalyse par microscopie
lectronique balayage a montr une augmentation de la teneur en calcium et des cristaux de carbonate de calcium dans les
chantillons. En outre, la prsence dune activit microbienne a t observe. Les conclusions bases sur le rsultat de ces essais
doivent tre prises en compte dans la conception des barrires ractives de protection.
KEYWORDS: permeable reactive barrier, landfill leachate, reactive materials, hydraulic conductivity.
3021
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
pH 8.21
3022
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
V
k (3)
i A t
where:
k hydraulic conductivity (m/s),
V volume of effluent (m3),
i hydraulic gradient,
A area of the specimen (m2),
t permeation time period (s).
k i t
PVF (4)
ne L
where:
PVF pore volume of flow,
k hydraulic conductivity (m/s),
i hydraulic gradient, c
t elapsed time (s),
ne effective porosity,
L length of the sample (m).
The hydraulic conductivity of materials tested using tap
water was 9.8 E-5 m/s and 8.7E-5 of ZS50 and ZS20,
respectively. The hydraulic conductivity slightly decrees with
time at the beginning of the permeation with synthetic leachates
but stabilized after 100 pore volume of flow. After 800 pore
volume of flow hydraulic conductivity of ZS50 was 3.4E-5m/s
and of ZS20 6.8E-5 m/s. This represented about a 2.90- and
1.30-fold decrees as compared with the results of hydraulic
conductivity to tap water. The test results indicated
that the permeation synthetic leachate influence negligible
the hydraulic conductivity of zeolite-sand mixtures.
Franciska and Glatstein (2010) observed the similar relation Figure 4. Hydraulic conductivity of ZS50 (a) and ZS20 (b) to tap water
for compacted soil liners permeated with landfill leachate. and synthetic leachate and ZS50 to landfill leachate (c).
Results of study with landfill leachate indicated that hydraulic
conductivity of ZS50 have changed almost by two orders ks
of magnitude (from 9.23E-5 to 1.24E-6 m/s). Observed 10 (5)
permeability changes can be caused through inorganic kg
compounds precipitation, mainly CaCO3, and bioactivity
(VanGulck and Rowe 2004, Asadi et al. 2011). The analysis Criterion (5) results from the necessity of taking into account
of the calcium carbonate content using Scheibler method changes of the hydraulic properties of materials during PRB
showed no significant increase of carbonates in the samples, exploitation. Laboratory studies showed a decrease of hydraulic
while research in scanning electron microscope showed conductivity values of zeolite and zeolite-sand mixtures under
increased calcium content and crystals of calcium carbonate the influence of landfill leachate. In the case of zeolite-sand
in the sample. Achieved results allow to conclude, mixtures with a zeolite content Z (dimensionless value),
that permeability changes of zeolie-sand mixtures may estimation of hydraulic conductivity ks in m/s at relative density
influence the operation conditions of PRB. ID requires the application of the following equation (Fronczyk
2008):
3 DESIGN CONSIDERATION
k s A Z I D0.328
(6)
Considering the test results obtained the hydraulic criterion in
the evaluation of reactive materials such as zeolites and zeolite-
sand mixtures should be expressed as follows: For mixtures made of zeolite with particle size of 1.02.5
mm, A = 3.0 10-4, whereas at particle size of 0.51.0 mm, A =
the ratio of hydraulic conductivity of the reactive material (ks) 2.6 10-5.
to the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer (kg)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4 CONCLUSION 6 REFERENCES
The choice of the reactive material for PRBs requires Asadi A., Huat B.B.K., Moayedi H., Shariatmadari N., Parsaie A. 2011.
determining the hydraulic conductivity of reactive materials Changes of hydraulic conductivity of silty clayey sand soil under
with regard to the relative density and strain conditions the effect of municipal solid waste leachate. International Journal
(effective stress) in the barrier. It is necessary to carry out of the Physical Sciences 6 (12), 2869-2874.
ASTM D 5084 00. Standard test methods for measurement of
compatibility tests, i.e. test of contaminated groundwater hydraulic conductivity of saturated porous materials using flexible
influence on hydraulic properties of the selected material. wall permeameter.
Achieved results for synthetic leachate showed less than Czurda K.A. and Haus R. 2002. Reactive barriers with fly ash zeolites
3-fold decrease of zeolite-sand mixtures permeability. for in situ ground water remediation. Applied Clay Science 21,
Landfill leachate caused decrease of hydraulic conductivity 13-20.
almost by two orders of magnitude due to inorganic ITRC Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council 2011. Permeable
precipitation and biological growth. Reactive Barrier: Technology Update. Washington DC.
Francisca F.M. and Glatstein D.A. 2010. Long term hydraulic
conductivity of compacted soils permeated with landfill lechate.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Applied Clay Science 49, 187-193
Fronczyk J. 2008. Fronczyk J., 2008: Zeolite-sand mixtures
This research was partly supported by Grant no. NN523 561638 in permeable reactive barriers in the landfill surroundings.
from Ministry of Science and Higher Education. Warsaw. PhD thesis, Faculty of Engineering and Environmental Science
WULS.
Poland. Katzenbach R., Fronczyk J., Garbulewski K. 2008. Evaluation of
zeolite-sand mixtures as a reactive material towards landfill
leachate. 11th Baltic Sea Geotechnical Conference, PG Publisher,
875-882.
Sprynsky, M., Lebedynets, M., Namiernik, J., Buszewski, B. 2004.
Porous structure of clinoptilolite and problems connected with its
characterization. XI Zeolite Forum, Poland.
VanGulck J.F. and Rowe R.K. 2004. Influence of landfill leachate
suspended solids on clog (biorock) formation. Waste Management
24, 723 738.
3024
Moisture-Suction Relationships for Geosynthetic Clay Liners
Courbes de rtention des membranes gotextiles charges en argile
ABSTRACT: A laboratory investigation was conducted to determine the moisture-suction relationships for Geosynthetic Clay Liners
(GCLs) under as-received conditions (moisture contents in the range of 14-27%) and subsequent to wet-dry cycles (20 cycles at 50%
moisture content). The moisture-suction relationships were developed using combined pressure plate, filter paper, and relative
humidity methods over a wide range of suction. Tests were conducted on three types of common GCLs (two conventional and one
multi-component) that contained granular bentonite and bonded with needlepunching. The responses of conventional and multi-
component GCLs and as-received and wet-dry cycled GCLs were different. For the multi-component GCL, the air entry suction was
lower for drying and higher for wetting than for the conventional GCLs. Residual suction for the multi-component GCL was higher
than that for the other GCLs. The extent of hysteresis decreased and the differences between drying and wetting curves reduced for
the wet-dry cycled specimens. Macro- and microstructural variations determined in grain size distribution and SEM analyses indicated
increasing void sizes and nonuniformity in fabric due to wet-dry cycling supporting the observations of moisture-suction variations.
RSUM : Une tude en laboratoire a t mene pour dterminer les courbes de rtention des membranes gotextiles charges en
argile dans les conditions de teneur en eau du commerce (de l'ordre de 14-27%) et suite des cycles de mouillage-schage (20 cycles
50% dhumidit). Les courbes de rtention ont t mesures en utilisant une plaque de pression et du papier filtre, et des mthodes
de contrle en humidit relative sur une large gamme de succion. Les tests ont t effectus sur trois types de membranes (deux
conventionnelles et une multi-composants) qui contenaient de la bentonite granulaire et assembls par aiguilletage. Les rponses des
gomembranes conventionnelles et multi-composants taient diffrentes selon les conditions dessai. Pour la membrane multi-
composants, la succion dentre dair tait infrieure aprs schage et suprieure aprs mouillage celle des membranes
conventionnelles. La succion rsiduelle pour la membrane multi-composants tait galement suprieure celle des membranes
conventionnelles. Lamplitude de l'hystrsis a diminu, de mme que les diffrences entre les courbes de mouillage et schage se
sont rduites pour les chantillons ayant subi des cycles de mouillage-schage. Les variations de la macro- et microstructure, en
termes de distribution de la taille des grains et des analyses au MEB, ont montr une augmentation de la taille des vides et une non-
uniformit de la structure induites par les cycles de mouillage-schage. Ces rsultats confirment les observations des courbes de
rtention.
KEYWORDS: Geosynthetic Clay Liner, GCL, suction, moisture-suction curve, fabric, shrinkage, unsaturated.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3026
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
Table 2. Model parameters for drying branches consistent with findings reported by Fredlund et al. (2012)
indicating that laboratory water retention tests provide extreme
Parameter WN2 NN1 NN1-20 WNT trends (i.e., bounds of limiting envelope) for wetting and drying
branches of soil water characteristic curves (SWCCs), whereas
af1 358 339 91.3 355 in-situ soils are expected to demonstrate less extreme trends
bound within the envelope. The GCL data were observed to be
mf1 0.678 0.626 0.93 2.01
similar, in that data for the cycled GCLs representing in-service
nf1 4.72 5.78 2.23 0.819
conditions were generally inside the limiting envelope.
S1 2
15.5 0.974 6.86 15.4 Table 4. Extent of hysteresis between wetting and drying branches
2
S2 134 114 152 88.1 Wetting Drying
Curve Curve Hysteresis
S3 2 11.5 13.5 8.74 8.76 Conditioning Suction (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
ae3 (kPa) 176 137 46.5 63 r 4245 1602 266
r (kPa)
3
1620 1600 650 5220 w=50% 1215 1711 496
1
2
Fredlund and Xing (1994) w=75% 521 829 308
Pham and Fredlund (2008) No cycles
3
Based on Fredlund and Xing (1994) w=100% 249 591 342
Table 3. Model parameters for wetting branches w=125% 118 480 362
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
REFERENCES
Beddoe R.A., Take W.A., and Rowe, R.K. 2011. Water retention
behavior of geosynthetic clay liners, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 137(11), 1028-1038.
Egloffstein T.A. 2001. Natural bentonitesinfluence of the ion
exchange and partial desiccation on permeability and self-healing
a) 1 cycle (fully dispersed) b) 10 cycles capacity of bentonites used in GCLs. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 19, 427-444.
Fredlund D.G. and Xing A. 1994. Equations for the soil-water
characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 31(4), 533-
546.
Fredlund D.G., Rahardjo H., and Fredlund M.D. 2012. Unsaturated soil
mechanics in engineering practice. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey.
Meer S.R. and Benson C.H. 2007. Hydraulic conductivity of
geosynthetic clay liners exhumed from landfill final covers. Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 133(5), 550-
563.
National Research Council NRC. 2007. Assessment of the
c) 20 cycles (DI water) d) 20 cycles (tap water) performance of engineered waste containment barriers. The
National Academies Press, Washington DC.
10 m Olsen G.R. 2011. Dimensional stability of geosynthetic clay liners in
landfill applications, M.S. Thesis, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo,
Figure 6. SEM images of bentonite from GCL specimens California, http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/theses/651/.
Olsen G.R., Yesiller, N., and Hanson, J.L. 2012. Dimensional stability
Both macroscale and microscale effects observed due to of geosynthetic clay liners under varying hydration conditions.
wetting and drying may have promoted presence of larger voids Proceedings, GeoAmericas 2012, 2nd Pan-American Congress on
and therefore lower values of suction for a given moisture Geosynthetics, Lima, Peru, May 1-4, 2012.
content. The lower suction may have forced the drying curve Pham H.Q. and Fredlund D.G. 2008. Equations for the entire soil-water
closer to the wetting curve reducing the extent of hysteresis as characteristic curve of a volume change soil. Canadian
observed in the test program for the cycled specimens. Geotechnical Journal, 45(4), 443-453.
Scalia J. and Benson C.H. 2011. Hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic
clay liners exhumed from landfill final covers with composite
barriers. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
4 CONCLUSION Engineering 137(1), 1-13.
A laboratory investigation was conducted to determine the
moisture-suction relationships for GCLs under as-received
conditions (moisture contents in the range of 14-27%) and
subsequent to wet-dry cycles (20 cycles at 50% moisture
content). The moisture-suction relationships were developed
using combined pressure plate, filter paper, and relative
humidity methods over a wide range of suction. Tests were
conducted on three types of common GCLs (two conventional
GCLs and one multi-component GCL) that contained granular
bentonite and were bonded with needlepunching. Differences
were observed between the conventional and multi-component
GCLs and between the as-received and wet-dry cycled GCLs.
The air entry suction value for the multi-component GCL was
lower than that for the conventional GCLs for the drying
branches of the moisture suction curves and higher for the
wetting branches of the curves. The residual suction value for
the multi-component GCL was higher than the residual suction
values for the other two GCLs. The extent of hysteresis
decreased and the differences between drying and wetting
curves reduced for the wet-dry cycled specimens compared to
the as-received specimens. Macro- and microstructural
variations determined through grain size distribution and SEM
analyses indicated increasing void sizes and nonuniformity in
fabric due to wet-dry cycling, supporting the observations for
variations in moisture-suction response. The moisture-suction
data and model parameters obtained in the test program can be
adapted for use for similar GCLs.
3028
Hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay liners moisture-conditioned and permeated
with saline coal seam gas water
La conductivit hydraulique de l'humidit argile compacte doublures conditionn et imprgn avec
de l'eau sale gaz de houille couture
ABSTRACT: The effects on the hydraulic conductivity of compacted clays, commonly used for lining coal seam gas (CSG) water
storage ponds, of moisture conditioning and permeating with CSG water are investigated. Four kaolinite-dominant clays were mixed
with CSG and deionised waters, compacted to varying degrees at different gravimetric moisture contents. The compacted specimens
were subjected to 100 kPa hydraulic loading with CSG or deionised waters in compaction mould permeameters, and 100 kPa applied
stress in oedometers, with the specimens placed in a bath of CSG or deionised water to match the water used to prepare the
specimens. The 100 kPa loading represented the expected maximum pond water depth. The test results show that the hydraulic
conductivity of clay specimens moisture-conditioned and permeated with both CSG and deionised waters decreased with time due to
rearrangement of the clay particles. At the end of the tests with CSG and deionised waters, the clay specimens were found to have
very low hydraulic conductivities of the order of 1E-11 m/s. The hydraulic conductivity values measured using the compaction mould
permeameters were found to be reasonably comparable to those calculated from oedometer test data.
RSUM: Les effets du contrle en humidit et de l'imprgnation en eau venant de la production du gaz de houille, sur la
conductivit hydraulique des argiles compactes (couramment utiliss pour le revtement des bassins de stockage de cette eau) sont
tudis. Quatre argiles majoritairement kaolinites ont t mlanges avec le gaz de houille et de leau d-ionise, compacts des
degrs divers et diffrentes teneurs en eau gravimtrique. Les chantillons compacts ont t soumis un chargement hydraulique
de 100 kPa avec le gaz ou leau d-ionise dans des permamtres moules de compactage, une contrainte applique de 100 kPa
dans des domtres, les chantillons tant placs dans un bain de gaz ou d'eau d-ionise pour correspondre l'eau utilise pour
prparer les chantillons. Le chargement de 100 kPa correspondait la profondeur maximale prvue pour le bassin d'eau. Les rsultats
des essais montrent que la conductivit hydraulique des chantillons d'argile l'humidit contrle imprgns la fois de gaz de
houille et deau d-ionise a diminu avec le temps en raison du rarrangement des particules d'argile. A la fin des essais avec le gaz
et leau d-ionise, les chantillons d'argile ont prsents une trs faible conductivit hydraulique de l'ordre de 1E-11 m/s. Les valeurs
de conductivit hydraulique mesure en utilisant les permamtres moules de compactage ont t juges raisonnablement
comparables ceux calculs partir des donnes de test domtriques.
KEYWORDS: compacted clay liner, dispersion, hydraulic conductivity, kaolinite, oedometer, compaction mould permeameter.
1 INTRODUCTION shown in Table 1. The liquid limits of SB1, SB2, SB3 and DT
were 64.4%, 44.0%, 61.9% and 65.9%, and the plasticity
Rigid-wall hydraulic conductivity testing can be carried out indices were 43.6%, 25.2%, 45.2% and 51.1%, respectively.
using a compaction mould permeameter or an oedometer. A According to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS),
compaction mould permeameter allows the direct measurement SB1 and DT were classified as clays of high plasticity (CH),
of hydraulic conductivity, while hydraulic conductivity is SB2 was classified as a sandy clay of low plasticity (CL), and
calculated from the rate of consolidation in an oedometer test SB3 was classified as a sandy clay of high plasticity (CH).
and the values obtained have been found to be too low (e.g.,
Taylor 1942; Mitchell & Madsen 1987). Table 1. Particle size distributions of clay samples.
Natural and compacted clays have been used in Queensland,
Australia, as a liner for the storage of saline water produced Particle size
during coal seam gas (CSG) production to limit seepage to the Sample
Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%)
underlying soil and groundwater. Under the prevailing semi-arid
climatic conditions, the available clays are typically dry and SB1 4.1 26.1 69.8
require moisture conditioning to achieve the moisture content
specified for compaction. The most readily available water for SB2 26.2 24.7 49.1
moisture conditioning is the saline CSG water. This paper
SB3 20.6 18.6 60.8
investigates the effects of moisture conditioning and permeating
with CSG water on the hydraulic conductivity of these clays, DT 13.3 19.9 66.8
with testing using deionised water used as a reference.
The electrical conductivity (EC) of the saturated paste
2 MATERIALS TESTED extracts, corresponding to about the liquid limits, were
13.4 dS/m, 8.7 dS/m, 14.6 dS/m and 14.6 dS/m, for SB1, SB2,
Kaolinite-dominated clay samples, labelled herein as SB1, SB2, SB3 and DT, respectively. The exchangeable sodium
SB3 and DT, were obtained from a CSG production site in percentages were 41.3%, 33.2%, 39.0% and 45.1%,
Queensland, Australia. The sand, silt and clay fractions are
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
respectively. Based on these two parameters, the clay samples that the roughened permeameter wall was effective in
were classified as saline-alkali soils (Richards 1954). minimising bypass flow. A similar result was obtained for the
Sample preparation for the hydraulic conductivity testing 95% MDD wet of OMC specimen.
involved moisture conditioning with saline CSG water (CW)
and deionised water (DW), and compaction to 90%, 95%, 98%
and 100% of the maximum dry densities (MDD) at the optimum
moisture contents (OMC) and at a nominal 3% wet of the
optimum moisture contents (wet of OMC), based on the
compaction curves shown in Figure 1. The concentrations of the
major ions, EC, and pH of the CW are presented in Table 2.
Figure 2. Flow rates from centre and outer outlets during testing of 90%
MDD at OMC specimen with roughened permeameter wall.
A set of hydraulic conductivity tests was conducted on SB3
compacted to 90% of the MDD at the OMC, 95% of MDD at
OMC and wet of OMC, 98% of MDD at OMC and wet of
OMC, and 100% of MDD at OMC, to study the effects of dry
density and moulding moisture content on hydraulic
Figure 1. Compaction curves for clay samples.
conductivity. Another set of hydraulic conductivity tests was
Table 2. Chemistry of saline CSG water. conducted on all samples compacted to 95% of MDD wet of
OMC, and mixed and permeated with DW and CW, to
Cl- Na+ Mg2+ Ca2+ K+ EC investigate the effects of moulding and permeating water type
pH
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (dS/m) on hydraulic conductivity. These dry densities and moisture
contents were selected because the clays in the field are usually
789 1484 11 8 8 5.8 9.6 compacted to 95% of MDD wet of OMC.
It was expected that moisture conditioning wet of the OMC
would show significant differences in the compacted hydraulic
3 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY TESTING conductivity compared to that following moisture conditioning
to the OMC, since additional water would be available to fill the
3.1 Compaction mould testing initially air-dried voids. The permeameter tests were terminated
once a relatively constant flow rate and salt concentration of the
Specimens were compacted to the specified dry density at the
outflow had been achieved. The EC and pH values of the
specified moisture content in a 144 mm diameter by 130 mm
outflows were measured using a portable EC-pH meter, while
high modified compaction mould permeameter. The initial
concentrations of major anions (Cl-) and cations (Na+, Mg2+,
height of each compacted specimen was limited to 50 mm, to
allow space for the specimen to swell to its maximum capacity, Ca2+ and K+) were measured using inductively-coupled plasma
as would occur in the field. Prior to a test, no attempt was made and inductively-coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry
to saturate the specimen, simulating the field condition in which methods, respectively.
a clay liner will not be fully saturated prior to the ponding of
CSG water. A 100 kPa constant water pressure was gradually 3.2 Oedometer testing
applied to top of the specimen to simulate a 10 m deep pond of Oedometer tests were conducted on standard 76 mm diameter
CSG water. by 20 mm thick compacted specimens mixed with and in a
To minimise bypass flow along the wall of the permeameter water bath of CW or DW. Each specimen was subjected to
under the high applied hydraulic gradient of 200, a well-graded incremental applied stresses of 10 kPa, 50 kPa, 100 kPa and
sand was glued to the wall to roughen its surface. The 150 kPa, from which data the coefficients of consolidation and
effectiveness of the sand coating in preventing bypass flow was coefficients of volume decrease, and hence hydraulic
verified by conducting hydraulic conductivity tests under a conductivities, were calculated. During the tests, the oedometer
100 kPa constant water pressure using CW applied to SB1 cells were covered with Glad wrap to prevent any change in the
mixed with CW and compacted to 90% of the MDD at OMC, salt concentration or pH of the water bath due to evaporation.
and 95% of MDD wet of OMC. A 101.9 mm diameter by 5 mm
thick sharp-edged divider ring was installed centrally on top of
the base plate, on which a 3 mm thick medium sand layer was 4 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
placed to act as a drainage layer. The divider ring had an area of
about 50% of the open permeameter area and penetrated about 4.1 Compaction mould hydraulic conductivity
2 mm into the base of the compacted clay specimen. In addition
to an outlet located at the centre of the base plate, two outer The measured hydraulic conductivities of all compacted SB3
outlets between the permeameter wall and the edge of divider specimens are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 shows that
ring were provided. The flow rates from each of the outlets were specimens compacted to 90% of MDD at OMC tend to have the
calculated assuming vertical only flow. The measured flow rates highest hydraulic conductivities, while specimens compacted to
from each of the outlets for the 90% MDD at OMC specimen 100% of MDD at OMC and 98% of MDD wet of OMC tend to
are shown in Figure 2, in which there are no appreciable have the lowest hydraulic conductivities. Comparing the data
differences between the central and outer flow rates, indicating for specimens compacted at 98% and 95% of MDD, it appears
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Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
higher than, those measured using the compaction mould therefore consolidation, a reduction in the void ratio, and a
permeameter under a 100 kPa applied water pressure, as seen in consequent reduction in the hydraulic conductivity.
Table 3. However, it is important to note that the underlying
flow mechanisms in the compaction mould permeameter and
oedometer tests are quite different.
3032
Simultaneous estimation of transverse and longitudinal dispersion in unsaturated
soils using spatial moments and image processing
Estimation simultane de la dispersion transversale et longitudinale dans des sols insaturs au
moyen de la mthode des moments pour lanalyse des donnes spatiales et du traitement
dimages
ABSTRACT: A new methodology using spatial moment analysis linked with image processing of a dye tracer behavior in porous
media was developed to estimate dispersivities not only in longitudinal but in transverse directions. Laboratory and field tracer
experiments using a relatively mobile dye tracer Brilliant Blue FCF were conducted under saturated and unsaturated flow conditions.
Dye tracer in field moved through the soils in a preferential path pattern, which induced higher dispersivities in more irregular pore
patterns as compared with those in laboratory. Experimental results demonstrated the effectiveness of the developed methodology for
simultaneous assessment of transverse and longitudinal dispersion in unsaturated soils.
RSUM : Nous avons dvelopp une nouvelle mthodologie utilisant lanalyse par la mthode des moments associe au traitement
dimages pour suivre le comportement dun traceur colorant en milieu poreux afin destimer les dispersivits, aussi bien dans la
direction longitudinale que transversale. Nous avons men des expriences de traage en laboratoire et sur le terrain au moyen dun
traceur colorant bleu brillant FCF relativement mobile dans des conditions de flux satur et insatur. Sur le terrain, le traceur colorant
sest dplac dans les sols suivant un modle de trajet prfrentiel et, compar celles constates en laboratoire, a prsent des
dispersivits induites plus leves dans les profils dinterstices plus irrguliers. Les rsultats de ces expriences ont dmontr
lefficacit de la mthodologie que nous avons mise au point pour valuer simultanment la dispersion transversale et longitudinale
dans des sols insaturs.
KEYWORDS: longitudinal and transverse dispersion, dye tracer, image processing, spatial moment, unsaturated soils.
3033
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Distributor
10
3 Lab. (Silica sand)
Lab. (Andisol)
Field (20 cm)
U 10
65 Symbols:
Field (50 cm)
z Measured data
x 10
100
10
10
S Water table
Lines:
van Genuchten model
10
5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Volumetric water content, (-)
Glass plate Unit: cm
Figure 2. Water characteristic curves for both soils.
S Injection port in saturated flow experiments
U Injection port in unsaturated flow experiments Table 2. Experimental cases.
Constant head water reservoir Rainfall intensity (mm/min)
Soil type Saturated 0 0.09 0.21 0.63
Water pressure measurement port
Silica sand S-S S-1 S-2 S-3 -
Figure 1. Schematic drawing of an experimental apparatus. Andisol A-S A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4
3034
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
3035
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
10
10
10
10
Field exp. 10
Plot 1
10 Silica
Plot 2
Laboratory Andisol
10
Forrer et al. (1999) Field
10
Abbasi et al. (2003)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Rainfall intensity (mm/min)
Displacement distance (cm)
Figure 5. Longitudinal dispersivity estimates with distance. Figure 7. Relation between rainfall intensity and dispersivity
estimates.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Field exp.
10
In the present study, a new methodology using spatial moment
analysis linked with image processing of a dye tracer behavior
10 was developed to estimate dispersivities not only in longitudinal
but in transverse directions. Laboratory and field tracer
experiments under unsaturated flow conditions were conducted
Plot 1 with dye, Brilliant Blue FCF. Dispersivities exhibited an
10
Plot 2 increasing and decreasing tendency associated with water
Laboratory content and showed a dependency on infiltration rates.
10 Forrer et al. (1999) Laboratory and field studies were extended by a literature
Abbasi et al. (2003) search to compare the new results with earlier work,
demonstrating a good agreement between the experimental and
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
published results. Experimental results indicated the
Displacement distance (cm) effectiveness of the developed methodology for simultaneous
Figure 6. Transverse dispersivity estimates with distance. assessment of transverse and longitudinal dispersion in
unsaturated soils in a field as well as in a laboratory.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4.2 Longitudinal and transverse dispersivities The authors thank Mr. K. Suzuki for valuable discussion and
Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the estimates of longitudinal and Mr. H. Watanabe for giving us the permission to conduct the
transverse dispersivities in comparison with the mean value of tracer experiments in his maize fields. The work reported here
laboratory experiments and reported values (Forrer et al., 1999; was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B).
Abbasi et al., 1995). Longitudinal and transverse dispersivity 7 REFERENCES
estimates ranged from 1.00 cm to 3.72 cm and from 0.52 cm to
2.35 cm respectively, which are good agreement with reported Vanderborght J. and Vereecken H. 2007. Review of dispersivities for
values, indicating the effectiveness of the developed transport modeling in soils, Vadose Zone J., 6, 29-52.
methodology. Also, the ratio of longitudinal to transverse McNeil J.D., Oldenborger G.A. and Shincariol R.A. 2006. Quantitative
dispersivities was in the range of 1 to 5.4, which is in the lower imaging of contaminant distributions in heterogeneous porous
media laboratory experiments, J. Contam. Hydrol., 84, 36-54.
range of dispersivity ratios reported in porous media (Persson Flury M. and Flhler H. 1995. Tracer characteristics of Brilliant Blue
and Berndtsson, 2002). FCF, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 59(1), 22-27.
As a whole, both dispersivity values are slight larger than Forrer I. Kasteel R., Flury M. and Flhler H. 1999. Longitudinal and
those identified in the laboratory. This is attributed to the lateral dispersion in an unsaturated field soil, Water Resour. Res.,
difference between undisturbed soil in the field and disturbed 35(10), 3049-3060.
soil in the laboratory. In addition, dye tracer moved through the van Genuchten M.Th.1980. A closed-form equation for predicting the
soils in a preferential flow pattern, which induced higher hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44,
dispersivities in more irregular flow patterns as compared with 892-898.
estimates obtained in laboratory tracer experiments. At the Tompson A.F.B. and Gelher L.W. 1990. Numerical simulation of solute
transport in three-dimensional, randomly heterogeneous porous
experimental site, some macropores were confirmed and media, Water Resour. Res., 26(10), 2541-2562.
influenced seepage and solute pathways in porous media. Abbasi F., Simunek J., Feyen J., van Genuchten M.Th. and Shouse P.J.
Figure 7 shows the relation between the applied rainfall 1995. Simultaneous inverse estimation of soil hydraulic and solute
intensity and the dispersivity estimates in the field as well as in transport parameters from transient field experiments:
the laboratory. Mean values in each experiment are plotted in homogeneous soil, Trans. ASAE, 46(4), 1085-1095.
this figure. Despite of the rainfall intensity, both dispersivities Persson M. and Berndtsson R. 2002. Transect scale solute transport
remain constant. This is attributed to a relatively low degree of measured by time domain reflectometry, Nord. Hydrol., 33, 145-
heterogeneity in the field of concern, while homogeneous 164.
packing of soil in the laboratory was reflected as a less variation
of dispersivity estimates.
3036
Evaluating the long-term leaching characteristics of heavy metals in excavated
rocks
valuation des caractristiques de lixiviation long terme de mtaux lourds dans les roches
excaves.
ABSTRACT: When excavation works are executed at stratums that naturally contain heavy metals due to their geologic histories,
time-saving and reliable assessment of contamination potential by these metals is a current geotechnical challenge. This paper
addresses the long term leaching characteristics of arsenic and lead in several rock materials, which were weathered in outdoor for
more than two years. In addition, applicability of several time-saving laboratory test methods were verified as a tool to estimate the
actual leaching behaviour of heavy metals.
RSUM : Lorsque des travaux dexcavation sont effectus dans des strates contenant naturellement des mtaux lourds en raison de
leurs antcdents gologiques, une valuation fiable et conome en temps du potentiel de contamination par ces mtaux pose lheure
actuelle un problme gotechnique. Ce document traite des caractristiques de lixiviation long terme de larsenic et du plomb dans
plusieurs matriaux rocheux, ces derniers ayant t exposs lextrieur aux intempries pendant plus de deux ans. En outre,
lapplicabilit de plusieurs mthodes de test en laboratoire conomes en temps a t vrifie comme outil dvaluation du
comportement de lixiviation rel des mtaux lourds.
KEYWORDS: natural contamination, rock, arsenic, leaching test, outdoor exposure test
1. INTRODUCTION total trace metal content test, conventional batch leaching test,
accelerated oxidation tests and column leaching test. Laboratory
When excavation works are executed at stratums that naturally leaching tests were validated as an index of the long term
contain heavy metals due to their geologic histories, time-saving leaching characteristics of trace metals by comparatively
and reliable evaluation to judge the contamination potential by assessing the results with the outdoor leaching behaviors
these metals and metalloids is required for proper management
of geomaterials with unacceptable contamination potentials.
Heavy metals existing naturally in stratums are fundamentally 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
stable and immobile under the anaerobic depositional
environment. However, in some cases, leaching of these 2.1 Materials
constituents is triggered when exposed to water and oxygen
after excavation works. Acid drainage, which comes mainly Five different rocks materials were used. They were generated
from the interactions between water, oxygen, and sulfide in construction works such as excavation and tunneling, which
minerals in soils and rocks, often produces sulfide acid and were executed in mountainous areas far from industrial and
increases the leaching concentrations of metals Thus, urban areas in Japan. Thus, it can be considered that heavy
development of testing methodologies to assess their long-term metals contained are derived from natural resources. Five rock
leaching potential and behavior has been a great samples consist of black shale, andesite, and three mudstones
geoenvironmental issue in Japan (e.g. Hattori et al. 2003, (MS-1, 2 and 3). They were all stored with their natural water
Okumura et al. 2007). Generally, conventional batch and/or content under the temperature of approximately 20 C in sealed
column leaching tests have been widely employed for condition to prevent the exposure to oxygen and water. Table 1
evaluating the leaching potential of contaminated soils and shows their appearances and the total contents of As and Pb as
waste-based geomaterials. However, when they are employed well as chemical compositions which were determined by the
for rock materials, sample preparation including sampling and X-ray fluorescence analysis. According to the Japanese
crushing is more likely to influence the leaching amount of guideline, excavated materials containing more than 9 mg-
trace elements (Inui et al. 2010). In addition, effects of As/kg or 23 mg-Pb/kg should be assessed in terms of their
oxidation after excavation on the leaching behavior should be contamination potential (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
considered since the acid rock drainage due to dissolution of Transport and Tourism, Japan 2010). All the samples used in
sulfide minerals in rock is one of the main mechanisms which this study contains more than 9 mg-As/kg. Pb higher than this
promote the leaching of heavy metals. standard was detected only in black shale.
This study firstly presents the results of more than 27-month Figure 1 shows pH values of rock samples for distilled water
outdoor exposure tests conducted for five rock samples to assess and H2O2 solutions with 3% and 30% concentrations. pH
their in situ leaching characteristics. They contain certain measurement using H2O2 solutions were employed to evaluate
concentrations of natural-derived lead and arsenic, which are the possible pH change of geomaterials when they are oxidized
expected to be released if they are exposed to water and oxygen. under weathering conditions. Geomaterials with pH < 3.5 for
The main focus is placed on the comparison of leaching 30% H2O2 solution are considered to have acidification
characteristics of trace metals in outdoor exposure tests with potentials (Japanese Geotechnical Society 2009). In this study,
those in various conventional laboratory tests, which include the 3% H2O2 solution was also used to evaluate the acidification
potential against weaker oxidization effects. Black shale and
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
andesite are fundamentally acidic even for distilled water. Three 1.6 Mg/m3 for mudstone 2 & 3, and exposed to the rainfall and
mudstone are considered to be alkaline rocks without air throughout the test (Photo 1). Rainfall intensity and
oxidization effects. However, pH value of MS-2 for 30% H2O2 percolation volume were continuously monitored. The leachate
solutions were drastically reduced to 2-3, and pH values of MS- was periodically collected and subjected to chemical analyses.
3 for 3% and 30% H2O2 solutions were lower than 3. These
results supported that MS-3 is most easily acidifying among 2.3 Laboratory leaching tests
three mudstones.
Leaching concentrations of As and Pb were analyzed according
Table 1. Chemical properties of rock samples used in this study to the batch leaching test method for the soil quality regulated
Sample ID Black shale Andesite by the Notification No.46 of Japanese Ministry of the
Environment in 1991. In the batch test, air-dried rock samples
were crushed until its parcentage passing at 2 mm became 100%.
Appearance In addition, for black shale, the sample subjected to accelerated
oxidation was also prepared. Accelerated oxidation was
promoted by storing the crushed sample in an incubator under
As content (mg/kg) 28 26 80% O2 and 100% humidity condition in 200 days.
Pb content (mg/kg) 23 5 As and Pb leaching concentations during the aforementioned
SiO2: 43.6, Fe2O3: 21.4, SiO2: 59.0, Fe2O3: 11.6. pH measurement using H2O2 solutions were analysed to
Chemical composition Al2O3: 4.6, CaO: 0.2, Al2O3: 13.5, CaO: N.D.,
(% in mass) K2O: 16.5, SO3: 8.8, K2O: 8.9, SO3: 5.4, evaluate the effects of accelerated acidification on the leaching
TiO3: 3.0, Others: 1.9 TiO3: 1.0, Others: 0.6 behavior.
MS-1 MS-2 MS-3 Tank leaching tests were conducted for monolithic rock
samples with approximately 400 g in dry mass by submerging
into distilled water for 28 days. The liquid to solid ratio (mL/g)
of 10 was employed. Column leaching tests were performed for
about 750 g rock samples, which were crushed until its
percentage passing at 4.75 mm became 100%. A cylindrical
23 15 23 specimen was prepared by vibratory compaction in an acrylic
13 6 1
SiO2: 54.2,Fe2O3: 15.3, SiO2: 54.2, Fe2O3: 18.7, SiO2: 64.6, Fe2O3: 11.6,
column (55 mm in inner diamete) and then permeated with the
Al2O3: 10.4, CaO: 7.9, Al2O3: 12.3, CaO: 2.7, Al2O3: 9.9, CaO: 1.1, permeant by maintaining the constant water head (24 mL/hour
K2O: 5.2, SO3: 4.0, K2O: 7.2, SO3: 2.5, K2O: 5.2, SO3: 3.9, in flow rate). The permeant was distilled water after its pH was
TiO3: 1.4, Others: 1.5 TiO3: 1.9, Others: 0.5 TiO3: 1.5, Others: 0.5 adjusted to 4.7 using the nitric acid.
An atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, AA-
6800) with a hydride generator and an electrothermal
atomization system was used to determine the concentration of
As and Pb in the solution. Chemical parameters of the solution
(pH, Eh, Electrical conductivity (EC)) were also monitored.
3038
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
(b) Andesite
Figures 2. Profiles of pH, Eh, heavy metal concentrations, rainfall intensity and infiltration in outdoor exposure tests
3039
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
O2 and water, which were employed in this study. test as well as the accelerated oxidation batch leaching test.
Figures 5 shows As leaching amounts of all the samples in However, similar to the black shale, MS-1 had a high chemical
outdoor exposure test and several laboratory leaching tests activity, and its leaching concentration in the batch leaching
described in section 2.3. The leaching amounts of As from unit tests was limited to a negligible level although 0.1 mg/kg of As
weight of each rock sample are plotted with the cumulative was released in the outdoor exposure test at L/S = 10.
volume of solvent or percolated water contacting with the rock From these testing results, the leaching amount of As
sample during laboratory leaching tests and outdoor exposure obtained in the conventional batch leaching test can be a good
tests, which is represented by the liquid to solid ratio (L/S). index of the insitu leaching amount until L/S = 10 in the cases
of rock samples with relatively low chemical activities. The
accelerated oxidation tests using H2O2 solutions can simulate
the in situ leaching amount for the safe side. However, the
chemical equilibrium may limit the leaching of trace metals in
the batch leaching test as observed in black shale and MS-1.
Pb leaching concentrations were negligible for all rock
samples. According to the aforementioned criterion for total Pb
content suggested by MLIT, all the rock samples are considered
safe in terms of Pb leaching. These testing results support the
validity of the criterion for total content of Pb.
5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
(a) Black shale
This manuscript verified several laboratory tests for estimating
the long term leaching characteristics of As and Pb in several
rock materials, by comparing the results of outdoor exposure
tests. Total contents of trace metals can be regarded possibly as
screening values to judge whether detailed evaluation of
leaching characteristics are necessary. The leaching amount of
As obtained in the conventional batch leaching test can be a
good index of field leaching amount, and the accelerated
oxidation tests can simulate the outdoor leaching amount for the
safe side. These observations confirm the validity of a series of
laboratory leaching tests as a tool to estimate the in situ leaching
behavior of heavy metals in excavated rocks.
(b) Andesite
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
(c) Mudstones Hattori, S., Ohta, T. and Kiya, H. 2003. Engineering geological study on
exudation of acid water from rock mucks -Evaluation methods of
Figures 5. Comparison of As leaching amounts obtained in 27 months rocks at the Hakkouda Tunnel near mine area, Jour. Japan Soc. Eng.
outdoor exposure test and laboratory leaching tests. Geol., 43 (6), 359-371.
Inui, T., Katsumi, T., Katayama, M. and Kamon, M. 2010. Effects of
For the black shale (Figure 5(a)), the leaching amount at L/S friability and grain size on the leaching of heavy metals in
= approximately 10 reached 0.84 mg/kg, which is slightly larger excavated rock materials, Environmental Geotechnics for
than those in the conventional batch leaching test as well as the Sustainable Development, M. Datta et al. (eds.), Tata McGraw Hill,
accelerated acidification test, which were conducted with L/S = New Delhi, 730-733.
10. Considering that chemical activity of the black shale is Japanese Geotechnical Society. 2009. Japanese Standards and
relatively since EC values of the leachate collected were largest Explanations of Laboratory Tests of Geomaterials, 314-315.
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan. 2010.
among all the rock samples, the chemical equilibrium achieved
Technical Manual on the Countermeasures against Soils and Rocks
in the closed batch leaching systems was likely to limit the Containing Natural-Derived Heavy Metals in Construction Works
dissolution of As. Column leaching test gave 10 times larger (Draft), 10.
leaching amount than the outdoor exposure test, probably Okumura, K., Sakurai, K., Nakamura, N. and Morimoto, Y. 2007.
because a crushed sample (< 4.75 mm in diameter) was used, Environmental impacts of naturally occurring heavy metals and
and the permeant was continuoulsy renewed in the column countermeasures, Journal of Geology, 116 (6), 892-905.
leaching test. Thus, sample preparation in the laboratory Zhu, Y. and Merkel, B.J.. 2001. The dissolution and solubility of
leaching test is also a key issue for the rock sample. Scorodite, FeAsO42H2O: Evaluation and simulation with
For the andesite (Figure 5(b)), the overall trends were almot PHREEQC2, Wiss. Mitt. Inst. fur Geologie, TU Bergakedemie
Freiberg, Germany, 18, 1-12.
similar to those of the black shale. However, a slope for the
outdoor exposure test became steeper as the percolation volume
increased (L/S > 10), since aforementioned As leaching
associated with the oxidation was observed. For MS-2 and 3
(Figure 5(c)), the leaching amounts at L/S = approximately 10
were almost equal to those in the conventional batch leaching
3040
Geo-environmental challenges of a major coal terminal development in Australia
Dfis go-environnementaux du dveloppement d'un terminal majeur de charbon en Australie
Jones S.R.
Douglas Partners Pty Ltd
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the integration of geotechnical, environmental and groundwater investigations for the Terminal 4
Project in Newcastle, Australia, aimed at identifying appropriate remediation measures to protect human health and environmental
values. The site presented a series of complex challenges due to its geological setting, previous uses for waste disposal and adjacent
environmentally sensitive areas. Past industrial wastes have caused contamination of soil and groundwater. The site and adjoining
wetlands form habitats for protected flora and fauna species. Without mitigation measures, the proposed coal terminal development
would have the potential to increase the mobilisation and flow of contaminants off site into the wetlands and other environmental
receptors. Geotechnical and groundwater modelling was undertaken, resulting in a series of remediation and mitigation measures for
specific identified risks. The implementation of the proposed remediation and mitigation measures for the project will protect
environmental values, and is expected to improve the long-term environmental condition of the project area and immediate surrounds.
RSUM : Ce document dcrit l'intgration des tudes gotechniques, environnementales et de sondages des eaux souterraines du
Projet Terminal 4, afin que des mesures d'assainissement appropries puissent tre mises en uvre pour protger la sant humaine et
lenvironnement. Le site prsente plusieurs dfis complexes en raison de son contexte gologique, de son utilisation historique pour
dposer des dchets et de sa proximit avec des zones caractre environnemental sensible. Les dchets industriels ont entran la
contamination des sols et des nappes souterraines. Le site forme avec les marcages adjacents des habitats pour des espces protges
de la flore et de la faune. Le dveloppement propos du terminal de charbon a le potentiel daccrotre la mobilisation et la circulation
des contaminants hors du site, et par l-mme de contaminer les marcages adjacents ainsi que d'autres rcepteurs de l'environnement.
Les rsultats des modlisations gotechniques et d'coulement des eaux souterraines ont entrans une srie de mesures d'attnuation
des risques identifis. La mise en uvre du projet d'assainissement et des mesures d'attnuation pour le projet protgera les valeurs
environnementales, et devrait permettre d'amliorer sur le long terme l'tat de l'environnement.
KEYWORDS: coal export, landfill, soil and water contamination, barrier wall, permeable reactive barrier, multi-phase extraction.
3041
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGYGeology The boreholes were also used for the installation of
environmental grade monitoring wells, so that water samples
Kooragang Island is located on the lower reaches of the Hunter could be collected for contamination testing.
River and is about 10 km long by 3 km wide. The island was
formed by the reclamation of a number of former islands, Groundwater wells were also used to conduct in-situ
channels and mudflats using dredged sandy materials from the permeability tests in both aquifers
river. The geology at the site comprises Permian aged Tomago
Coal Measures overlain by Quaternary alluvium. The Tomago New and existing wells (over 150 in total) were gauged on
Coal Measures consist of shale, siltstone, sandstone, the same day to provide a reliable snapshot of groundwater
conglomerate and coal. The depth to rock ranges from 30 m to levels in both aquifers, which could then be used to prepare
more than 70 m. groundwater contours that for the first time accurately
The overlying alluvium comprises fine to medium grained represented the groundwater regime of the site.
estuarine sediments with some gravel zones, overlain by fluvial
sands with further fine grained estuarine deposits at the top of It was undesirable for the investigations to create hydraulic
the natural profile including soft silty clays up to 14 m thick. connections between the two aquifers, so all boreholes and
The natural profile is overlain by significant fill materials CPTs were grouted upon completion to seal the aquitard.
resulting from the former disposal of waste from steel making Groundwater modelling was undertaken using MODFLOW
and dredging activities. The fill is up to 12 m in thickness and (with Vistas), MODFLOW-SURFACT and PEST for
comprises a wide range of materials, including coal washery preliminary parameter estimation. The modelling consisted of
reject, slag, coal fines, oil/tarry sludge, clayey silt filter cake, calibration of the model to existing conditions followed by
kiln wastes, cell scale (gypsum and manganese dioxide), modelling the effects of site filling, dredging, salinity and
asbestos, steel-making flue dust, lime sludge, timber dunnage capping the site. Contaminant transport modelling was then
and various sporadic inclusions. The consistency of the fill undertaken using CONSIM to assess the potential off-site
ranges from very soft to very dense/cemented. impacts of the proposed development.
2.2 Hydrogeology
4 CONTAMINATION
Groundwater beneath the site is known to be present in two
principal aquifers: an upper unconfined aquifer within the fill The investigations identified widespread general contamination
strata (Fill Aquifer), and a deeper confined aquifer within the and areas of more specific contamination, each with particular
estuarine sediments (Estuarine Aquifer). The upper soft natural characteristics and potential to impact the environment. The
clays form a slightly leaky aquitard that separates these main contamination issues are described below.
aquifers. Figure 2 shows a conceptual groundwater model.
4.1 Tar Waste Ponds
An area known as Ponds 5 and 7 was found to contain large
volumes of non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) tar waste to
depths of approximately 8 m. The tar waste is generally in the
form of a viscous sludge containing high concentrations of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and total petroleum
hydrocarbons (TPH). Groundwater impact was also recorded in
wells immediately surrounding Ponds 5 and 7. The groundwater
impact was primarily within the Fill Aquifer, with some
Figure 2. Conceptual groundwater model. elevated concentrations also recorded in the underlying
Estuarine Aquifer. Key findings included:
As the degree of contamination in the Fill Aquifer is
considerably worse than the Estuarine Aquifer, the continuity Groundwater modelling indicated that the squeezing
and integrity of the clay aquitard is of important to the hydraulic effect of T4 Project loading would lead to temporarily
and environmental performance of the site. increased flow of contaminants towards off-site receptors;
Contaminant transport modelling indicated that
3 INTEGRATED INVESTIGATION
contaminant flow rates would increase during dredging and
The investigation of the project site featured integration of preloading of the site, up to twice for naphthalene, compared
geotechnical, environmental and groundwater aspects to achieve to the no development case;
savings in terms of time and cost. Prior to commencing the field
There would be potential for long term off-site migration of
work program a desktop review was undertaken to collate pre-
contaminants with or without the T4 Project, however the
existing data on sub-surface conditions and contamination. This
risks are higher during dredging and preloading stages; and
identified data gaps and was used to plan the investigation.
The integration of the disciplines during the investigation Following development over the area of Ponds 5 and 7 (by
program was achieved by: the proposed coal stockyard), it would not be practical to
implement mitigation measures, should off-site impacts
Geotechnical boreholes were used to collect samples for become evident.
both geotechnical testing and contamination testing.
4.2 Asbestos / Lead Area
The use of staff trained in geotechnical logging,
environmental logging and the appropriate collection of The site history review found that an area containing asbestos
contamination samples. burial pits also contained lead dust (from steelworks) co-
disposed with the asbestos in polyethylene bags.
Extensive use of cone penetration tests, especially It was assessed that elevated concentrations of lead could
piezocone tests, to better delineate soil stratigraphy, layer potentially reach the wetlands to the north of the disposal area,
permeability and potential flow paths. for the following reasons:
3042
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
The asbestos/lead area is close to the northern boundary of considered when determining preferred options for remediation
the T4 Project area and the groundwater flow direction in and management.
this part of the site is to the north; Alternative and emerging remediation technologies were
also reviewed but discounted due to lack of experience and
At least 50 % of the asbestos and lead dust burial pits uncertain effectiveness; these included electrochemical
would be expected to come into permanent or frequent remediation technologies (ECRT), supercritical fluid technology
contact with groundwater following settlement induced by (SCF) and nanotechnology, in particular the use of nano-scale
preloading and subsequent T4 Project loads; zero-valent iron (nZVI). Due to the site conditions preference
was given to in-situ technologies that do not require excavation
The long-term integrity of bags containing lead dust could or removal of the contaminated soil and/or water to remediate
not be guaranteed (i.e. potential for existing bags to be the area. Ex-situ technologies require the contaminated soil or
damaged, or become damaged due to loading and settlement, water to be removed from the ground for treatment, which can
or degradation over time); and either occur on- or off-site.
The lead dust is expected to be highly leachable when in The remediation options for each contamination issue were
contact with groundwater. evaluated against the following attributes and weightings:
Technical Effectiveness (20%): the suitability of the
4.3 Free Phase Hydrocarbon Area method to treat or manage the contaminant(s) of concern,
Free-phase hydrocarbon impact, comprising Light Non-aqueous also considering geotechnical impacts (beneficial or
Phase Liquid (LNAPL), was encountered in the Fill Aquifer at adverse);
two monitoring well locations in the southern part of the site.
The apparent thickness of floating product was found to be up Track Record in Australia (5%): whether or not the method
to 2 m. Fingerprint analysis of the free product found that the has been successfully used in Australia;
sample was degraded mineral lubricating oil with trace amounts Availability (5%): the number of contractors who have the
of diesel. The analysis concluded that the oil was not a recent expertise and equipment to implement the method; can
release and may have been used in diesel engines. include international contractors who could bring the
The degree of impact generally diminished with distance technology into Australia;
from the wells suggesting that the extent of free product was
relatively localised. Groundwater samples collected from the Ease of Implementation (10%): consideration of site
Estuarine Aquifer wells recorded minor hydrocarbon impact in constraints, regulatory hurdles and logistics;
the vicinity of free-phase impact.
Verification (5%): effectiveness of construction quality
4.4 Fines Disposal Facility control and ability to verify that specifications have been
achieved;
A 45 ha portion of the site known as the Fines Disposal Facility
(FDF) was used to receive dredged fine sediments during Sustainability (10%): the principles of environmentally
various stages of construction of the existing coal terminal. The sustainable development and the use of resources, energy
dredged fines contain PAHs and heavy metals. A leachate inputs, waste generation, on-going management and
collection system generally maintains the groundwater level maintenance;
below the contaminated sediments. Preload and site
development, however, will induce significant settlements Stakeholder Acceptance (5%): the likely degree of
which are likely to impact on the leachate collection system. satisfaction of regulators, owner, neighbours and the
This combined with the capping of the site is expected to result community with the remediation option;
in a rise water table level with the result that the lower 1.5 to
2.0 m of dredge spoil will end up below the water table in the Risk of off-site Migration (10%): effectiveness of the
long term. method to inhibit contaminant transport;
4.5 Manganese Dioxide Waste Area Cost (20%): including trials, design, construction and
operation; and
This 25 ha former waste site contains electrolytic manganese
dioxide waste and localised hydrocarbon contamination (TRH Time to Implement (10%): trials, design and construction.
and PAH). The groundwater study identified that the main risk
associated with the manganese waste site would be vertical The attributes were each scored from 0 to 5 based on a
infiltration of saline water during dredging due to the presence combination of quantitative and qualitative inputs, with zero
of a thinner and more permeable clay aquitard below fill being ineffective, unavailable or very costly and 5 being the
materials compared to elsewhere on the T4 site. This presents a best credible outcome. The total score was calculated as:
risk of migration of contamination into the Estuarine Aquifer,
and increased groundwater effects on nearby surface water Si.Wi (1)
bodies, in particular increased salinity levels in nearby surface
water ponds during dredging. where Si is the score for attribute i, and Wi is the weighting for
attribute i. The result was an overall score out of 5.
Based on the ranking system described, the preferred
5 REMEDIATION
remediation options for each of the identified contamination
issues were selected, as summarised in Table 1. In each case the
5.1 Review and Ranking of Available Options
three options with the highest score were identified so that
A review of available remediation and management alternatives were not ruled out for the detailed design stage.
technologies was undertaken prior to assessing the preferred
options for each of the contamination issues identified. Of the
many remediation technologies available, only well-established,
proven technologies were considered for the T4 Project.
Relevant regulatory guidelines and policies were also
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Table 1. Summary of Selected Remediation Options Key design considerations and aspects of the design and life
cycle of the PRBs included the panel and gate widths, reactive
Preferred Second Third media and treatment process, hydrogeology, contaminant
Contamination Issue Remediation Ranked Ranked distribution, geochemistry; reaction kinetics and residence time;
Option Option Option and installation methods. The ratio of panel width to gate width
Permeable was selected as 6:1 following groundwater modelling of flows
Cap and and residence times through the gates.
Pond 5/7 tar waste Barrier Wall Reactive
Monitor It is also proposed to extend the wall as a continuous low-
Barrier
permeability barrier to the west, adjacent to a surface water
Lead Dust /
Permeable Interception body now as Deep Pond to protect the wetlands to the west and
Asbestos
Reactive Barrier Wall Drain and north from the saline water during dredging.
Barrier Monitor
5.4 Free Phase Hydrocarbon Area
Multi Phase Pump and
Free Phase LNAPL Barrier Wall
Extraction Treat The preferred remediation option for the free-phase LNAPL
contamination is multi-phase extraction (MPE). MPE is an in-
Permeable Interception situ remediation technology for simultaneous extraction of
Fines Disposal Cap and
Reactive Drain and vapour phase, dissolved phase and separate phase (e.g. LNAPL)
Facility Monitor
Barrier Monitor contaminants from the vadose zone, capillary fringe, and
Manganese Dioxide Liner (GCL) Interception saturated zone soils and groundwater. It will likely be followed
area (EMD) - prior to Barrier Wall Drain and by monitored natural attenuation (MNA) for residual dissolved
Dredging Phase dredging Monitor phase hydrocarbon contamination.
3044
Characterisation of landfill steel mill sludge waste in terms of shear strength, pore
water pressure dissipation and liquefaction potential
Caractrisation de la rsistance au cisaillement, de l'volution des pressions d'eau interstitielle et
du potentiel de liqufaction des boues dacirie dans un centre de stockage.
ABSTRACT: The unique method of iron sands mining undertaken at the New Zealand (NZ) Steel Mill, produces an inert waste
sludge comprised primarily of clay and iron-sands/grit. This wet sludge waste is landfilled in cells to heights up to 25m. The purpose
of this paper is to characterise the sludge waste and to investigate its potential for liquefaction. This paper presents an investigation of
the sludge in the existing landfill based on in situ and laboratory testing. Design parameters such as shear strength, and pore water
pressure are developed and confirmed for the sludge material. Liquefaction potential of the sludge due to earthquake shaking is
investigated using a CPT-based assessment and Atterberg limits test results. The paper concludes with a discussion of liquefaction
potential and recommended total stress and effective stress parameters for detailed design of a new landfill development.
RSUM : La mthode unique pour lextraction de minerai de fer utilise par New Zealand (NZ) Steel Mill produit une boue inerte
rsiduelle compose principalement dargile et de sable ferreux. Cette boue liquide est stocke dans des casiers sur une hauteur
pouvant atteindre 25m. Lobjectif de cet article est de caractriser la boue rsiduelle et dvaluer son potentiel de liqufaction. Cet
article prsente les rsultats des essais in-situ et en laboratoire, raliss sur la boue prsente dans le centre de stockage existant. Les
caractristiques telles que la rsistance au cisaillement et l'volution des pressions d'eau interstitielle sont dveloppes et confirmes
pour cette boue. Le potentiel de liqufaction de la boue lors dun tremblement de terre est valu par des essais raliss au moyen de
pntromtres coniques ainsi que par la dtermination des limites d'Atterberg. Larticle conclut par une discussion sur le potentiel de
liqufaction et sur les valeurs de contrainte totale et contrainte efficace recommandes pour la conception et le dveloppement dun
nouveau centre de stockage.
KEYWORDS: sludge, landfill, liquefaction, shear strength, pore water pressure
3045
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3.3.1 General
Once the sludge has been deposited into the landfill, it gains
strength relatively quickly. The surfaces of the sludge cells
rarely pond rainwater and testing has shown the sludge mass
does drain and consolidate over time.
The CPT data show that the sludge materials are very
cohesive (i.e. they have Ic values greater than 2.6) and
therefore, in theory, are not susceptible to liquefaction. The
calculated liquefaction factor of safety (derived from CRR7.5)
for the majority of the CPT data was above 1.0 for a peak Table 1. Sludge design parameters used for design of East Landfill
ground acceleration of 0.17g (10% probability of exceedance
Test Method Undrained Drained
for a 30 year period).
3047
the 1998
ed with the recommend a ratio of cyclic undrained to static strength for
assessment natural clays/silts is 0.8. Therefore the static strength was
t al. (2004), reduced by 20%.
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
ls are very
n 2.6) and
action. The
om CRR7.5)
for a peak Table 1. Sludge design parameters
su (kPa) used for Landfill
design of East
c (kPa) (deg) 8 REFERENCES
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1 Deterministic Assessment
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Engineering, 132, 1032-1051.
construction. The characteristics
and performance of the that
of an existing landfill sludge in situ
has been are
operating unified and consistent framework. KeynoteA.,presentation, 26th J.,
Seed, R.B., Cetin, K.O., Moss, R.E.S., Kramer, Wu, J., Pestana,
governed both by the nature of the material and the
for 20 years. The landfills are operated in cells, with facing operation Annual ASCE
Riemer, M., Los Angeles
Sancio, R.B.,Geotechnical SpringR.E.
Bray, J.D., Kayen, Seminar, LongA.
and Faris,
procedures. Key to sludge,
bunds retaining the process is the limited
constructed height
in lifts using of upstream
each lift, Beach,
2003.California.
Recent advances in soil liquefaction engineering: A
together with the period of desiccation between lifts.
construction. The characteristics of the sludge in situ are Zhang, G., Robertson, P.K., and framework.
Brachman, R. W. I. 2002. Estimating
unified and consistent Keynote presentation, 26th
governed both by the nature of the material and the operation Liquefaction-Induced Ground Settlements from
Annual ASCE Los Angeles Geotechnical Spring Seminar, CPT for Level
Long
To investigate
procedures. Keythe properties
to the processofis the
the sludge
limited for design
height input,lift,
of each Ground.
Beach,Canadian
California.Geotechnical Journal. 39, 1168-1180.
boreholes
togetherand
withCPTs were of
the period putdesiccation
down through completed
between lifts. landfill Zhang, G., Robertson, P.K., and Brachman, R. W. I. 2002. Estimating
cells of different ages. The tests showed the in situ sludge to
Liquefaction-Induced Ground Settlements from CPT for Level
have To
significant strength
investigate increase ofwith
the properties the time
sludgeandfordepth,
designwith
input, Ground. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 39, 1168-1180.
pore pressures well below hydrostatic conditions.
boreholes and CPTs were put down through completed The need to
landfill
check
cells liquefaction
of different potential
ages. The istests
self-evident.
showed theThe sludge
in situ was to
sludge
assessed to be non-liquefiable
have significant by a number
strength increase with of methods.
time and depth, with
pore pressures well below hydrostatic conditions. The need to
check liquefaction potential is self-evident. The sludge was
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
assessed to be non-liquefiable by a number of methods.
The authors thank New Zealand Steel Ltd. for their permission
to publish this paper.
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank New Zealand Steel Ltd. for their permission
to publish this paper.
3048
A numerical analysis of phytoextraction processes
Une analyse numrique des processus de phyto-extraction
ABSTRACT: Phytoextraction is an in situ remediation technique involving the uptake of contaminants by plant roots and their
subsequent accumulation in plant tissues. Despite its many advantages, phytoextraction is not widely used because of difficulties in
estimating its efficiency and the required remediation time. The objective of our research was to numerically evaluate the
effectiveness of phytoremediation of Pb2+ and Zn2+ using a previously calibrated Hydrus-1D software package. The simulations
considered soil and climatological data representative of the coastal lowlands of the municipality of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and were
organized in three steps: pre-contamination (analysis of the hydrological conditions), contamination (analysis of the contamination
plume before planting) and remediation. Several conditions were tested, including different root depth and irrigation schemes.
Although the results are specific for the assumed scenarios, it was possible to identify several trends in the simulations. While more
elaborate calibrations may be needed using long-term field data, the numerical analysis provided useful insight into the
phytoextraction process important for the design of future experiments.
RSUM : La phyto-extraction est une technique de dpollution in situ base sur l'absorption de contaminants par les racines des
plantes puis de leur accumulation dans les tissus vgtaux. Malgr ses nombreux avantages, la phyto-extraction est peu utilise en
raison de la difficult estimer son efficacit et la dure de traitement quelle implique. L'objectif de notre tude tait d'valuer
numriquement l'efficacit de la phyto-extraction du Pb2+ et du Zn2+ l'aide d'un logiciel pralablement talonn Hydrus-1D. Les
simulations ont pris en compte pour le sol et la climatologie des donnes reprsentatives de la plaine ctire de la municipalit de Rio
de Janeiro au Brsil et ont t organises en trois tapes : la pr-contamination (analyse des conditions hydrologiques), la
contamination (analyse du panache de contamination avant le semis) et la dpollution. Plusieurs conditions ont t testes, en
particulier diverses profondeurs des racines et diffrents systmes d'irrigation. Bien que les rsultats soient spcifiques aux scnarios
pris en compte, il a t possible d'identifier plusieurs tendances dans les prdictions. Si des talonnages plus labors peuvent tre
ncessaires en utilisant des donnes de terrain long terme, l'analyse numrique fourni des indications utiles sur le processus de
phyto-extraction qui sont importantes prendre en compte pour la conception des expriences futures.
KEYWORDS: contaminant transport, plant solute uptake, irrigation, root density.
3049
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3050
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 3. Transport and Zn2+ uptake with different root distributions
Root
remediation contaminant plume
3.1 Influence of root distribution test Ion max
time [months] extracted/initial depth [cm]
depth
3.1.1 Lead Ion 5 Zn2+ 40 48 41.6% 35.87
In the case of lead ion (high retardation factor) it is known 6 Zn2+ 34,5 48 42.7% 36.09
that the remediation process is not efficient (Lugli and Mahler, 7 Zn2+ 23 46 42.7% 35.76
2012). 8 Zn2+ 15 42 46.6% 35.65
Modified roots caused the remediation time to exceed 120
months (test 2, 3 and 4 in Table 2). This happens because the Zn in soil [mg/kg]
plume is substantially blocked due to the hydraulic conditions 0 500 1000 1500 2000
(Figure 1). According to the Brazilian Law, this result is not 0
favorable. Despite of this, root modification implied an increase
in the amount of contaminant extracted in comparison with the
reference (test 1 in Table 2), This, together with the smaller -10
mobilization of the plume, can be evaluated as an improvement
from the environmental point of view. It could be identified that
depth [cm]
-20
the most favorable configuration corresponded to a root depth
of 3.5 cm: this value is less than the initial plume depth (5 cm). limit
-30 initial
2+
Table 2. Transport and Pb uptake with different root distributions root = 40 cm
Root
remediation contaminant plume -40 root = 23 cm
test Ion max
time [months] extracted/initial depth [cm] root = 15 cm
depth root = 34.5 cm
1 Pb2+ 40 90 1.68% 12.23 -50
2 Pb2+ 7 >120 1.74% 6.34 Figure 2: Zn2+ plumes: initial and after 10 years of remediation with
3 Pb2+ 5 >120 6.43% 7.04 different root depth
4 Pb2+ 3.5 >120 6.95% 7.16
-20
than the initial plume depth (23 cm).
limit
-30 initial
root40cm
-40 root40cm/irr
root15cm
root15cm/irr
-50
Figure 3: Zn2+ plumes: initial and after 10 years of remediation with
different root depth and presence of irrigation
3051
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3052
Soil-geosynthetic interface strength on smooth and texturized geomembranes under
different test conditions
Rsistance au cisaillement des interfaces entre sols et membranes go-synthtiques lisses ou
rugueuses sous diffrentes conditions
ABSTRACT: Potential ground contamination from landfills justifies the use of sub-systems such as soil and geosynthetic layers as
barriers at the landfill bottom and slopes. In configurations of barrier systems, geomembranes have often been used. For this type of
application, the mechanisms of interaction between soil and geomembrane must be properly understood and failures along soil-
geomembrane interfaces in slopes have been observed. This paper presents experimental results of shear strength mobilization along
soil-geomembrane interfaces for different types of geomembranes and degrees of saturation of the underlying soils. Direct shear and
ramp tests were used in this study. The results showed a little or no increase on values of interface friction angles with increasing
degree of saturation of the soil. The highest values for interface shear strength were obtained for the texturized HDPE geomembrane.
RSUM: Le potentiel de contamination des dcharges sanitaires justifie lutilisation de techniques dimpermabilisation sur les
fonds et les talus latraux, tels que des couches de sols et des membranes go-synthtiques. Pour ces systmes dimpermabilisation,
on a souvent eut recours des go-membranes comme matriau impermabilisant de protection. Pour ce type dapplication, les
mcanismes dinteraction entre le sol et la go-membrane sont encore peu connus, la rupture le long de ces interfaces a t observe
sur des talus par des phnomnes de glissement du sol sous la go-membrane. Cet article prsente des rsultats exprimentaux de
mobilisation de la rsistance au cisaillement pour des interfaces sol/go-membrane, pour diffrents types de go-membranes et
diffrents degrs de saturation des sols. Ces rsultats montrent une augmentation lgre voire nulle des valeurs dangle de frottement
des interfaces avec laugmentation du degr de saturation des sols. Les valeurs de rsistance au cisaillement les plus leves ont t
obtenues pour des go-membranes en polythylne haute densit (PEHD) prsentant une texture.
KEYWORDS: Interface strengh, geosynthetics, landfill, geomembranes.
3053
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3054
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
5.5 29 30 26 27 32
10.8 30 30 28 29 33
15.7 30 31 27 27 34
20.3 30 32 29 32 30
(a) (b)
26.3 31 33 29 31 36 Figure 4. Tests on smooth PVC geomembrane: (a) degree of saturation
of 5.5% and (b) degree of saturation of 66%.
45.1 31 33 30 31 37
58.4 30 33 27 29 36
66 34 39 27 31 39
Average
30.6 32.6 27.9 29.6 34.6
()
Median () 30.5 33.0 29.0 33.0 33.0
Variance
2.3 8.3 1.8 3.7 8.6
()
(a) (b)
Standard
Figure 5. Tests on texturized HDPE geomembrane: (a) degree of
Deviation 1.5 2.9 1.4 1.9 2.9
saturation of 5.5% and (b) degree of saturation of 66%.
()
Sr (%) F F F
hmax hmax hmax
(kN/ (kN/ (kN/
(mm) (mm) (mm)
m) m) m)
3055
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
For the HDPE geomembranes max was rather Geomembranes and Related Products, The Hague, The
insensitive to the variation of degree of saturation. The Netherlands, Vol. 2, 493-498.
mobilized tensile force in the geomembrane was also insensitive Girard, H.; berroir, gourc, J. P.; matheus, G. (1994). Friction behavior of
geosynthetics and slopes stability of lining systems (in English).
to the variation of soil degree of saturation, with some higher
Fifth International Conference on Geotextiles, Geomembranes and
values for some tests, but without allowing a conclusion on the Related Products, Singapore, (1): 339 - 342.
influence of moisture content on the value obtained (probably a Gourc, J.P.; Lalarakotoson, S.; Mller-Rochholtz; H., Bronstein, Z.,
result of test scatter). (1996). Friction measurements by direct shearing or tilting process
The highest values of F were obtained in the tests with development of a European standard. 1st European Conference on
the texturized HDPE geomembrane, whereas the lowest ones Geosynthetics - EUROGEO 1, Maastricht, The Netherlands, Vol. 1,
were obtained in the tests with the smooth PVC geomembrane. 1039-1046.
The smallest values of max were also obtained in the tests with Gross, B.A.; Bonaparte, R.; Giroud, J.P. (2002). Waste containment
systems: problems and lessons learned. Appendix F, Assessment
the smooth PVC geomembrane.
and Recommendations for Optimal Performance of Waste
Containment Systems, EPA, USA, 214 p.
4 CONCLUSIONS International Organization for Standardization. (2005). ISO 12957-2:
Geosynthetics - Determination of friction characteristics - Part 2:
This paper presented results of ramp and direct shear Inclined plane test. 10p.
tests on different geomembrane products in contact with a sandy Khoury, C. N.; Miller, G. A.; Hatami, K. (2011).Unsaturated soil
soil. The degree of saturation of the soil was varied during the geotextile soil interface behavior. Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
test to assess possible influence of this parameter on the (29): 17 - 28.
adherence between soil and geomembrane. The results obtained Izgin, M. & Wasti, Y. (1998). Geomembrane sand interface frictional
showed that the interface friction angle between soil and proprieties as determined by inclined board and shear box tests (in
English). Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 16 (4): 207 219.
geomembranes was insensitive to the variation of soil degree of
Koutsourais, M.; Sandri, D.; Swan, R. (1998). Soil Interaction
saturation for the conditions employed in the test programme. characteristics of geotextiles and geogrids (in English). Sixth
A progressive interface failure mechanism was observed in the International Conference on Geosynthetics, pp. 739 743.
tests with PVC geomembranes due to the more extensible Lima Jnior, N. R. (2000). Soil-geosynthetic interaction study for
nature of this type of geomembrane. environmental protection constructions using ramp test equipment.
The largest values of interface friction angles were MSc Dissertation, Publication G.DM 071A/2000, Department of
obtained in the tests with the texturized HDPE geomembrane, Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Braslia,
whereas similar lower values were obtained in the tests with the Braslia,DF, Brazil, 48 p (In portuguese).
Lopes, C. P. F.C. (2001). Study of soil and geosynthetic interaction by
smooth PVC and HDPE geomembranes. As a consequence of
shear tests and inclined board tests. MSc Dissertation, Civil
higher adherence with soil, the largest mobilized tensile forces Engineering University, Porto City, Portugal, 186p (in Portuguese).
were obtained in the tests with the texturized HDPE Mello, L. G. R. de (2001). Soil-geosynthetic interaction study for waste
geomembrane. landfills slopes. MSc Dissertation, Publication G.DM 085A/01,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Brasilia, Braslia, DF, Brazil, 137 p (In portuguese).
Palmeira, E.M. (2009). Soil-geosynthetic interaction: Modelling and
Authors would like to thanks Maccaferri, Sansuy e analysis. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 27: 368-390.
Rebelo, K. M. W. (2003). Soil-geomembrane interface strength by Righ
Nortene Geosynthetics Ltd. for having supplied the
Shear tests. MSc Dissertation, Graduate Program on Civil
geomembrane products tested. The authors are also indebted to Engineering, Federal University of So Paulo, So Carlos, SP,
the University of Brasilia, CAPES-Brazilian Ministry of Brazil, 216p (in Portuguese).
Education and CNPq-National Council for Scientific and Viana, H. N. L. (2007). Study of stability and permeability of
Technological Development for the financial support. conventional and alternative covering systems for waste landifills.
DSc Thesis, Publication G.TD 048/07, Department of Civil and
6 REFERENCES Enrironmental Engineering, University of Braslia, Braslia, DF,
Brazil, 259p (In portuguese).
Arya, L. M., Paris, J. F. 1981. A physico-empirical model to predict the
soil moisture characteristic from particle-size distribution and bulk
density data. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 45: 1023-
1030.
Aguiar, V. R. de. (2003). Ramp tests for soil-geosynthetic shear strength
interface studies. MSc Dissertation, Graduate Program on Civil
Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande of Sul, Porto
Alegre, RS, Brazil, 121p (in Portuguese).
Brianon, L.; Girard, H.; Poulain, D. (2002). Slope stability of lining
systems-experimental modeling of frictional at geosynthetic
interfaces. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 13 (5): 147-172.
Dwyer, S.F.; Bonaparte, R.; Daniel, D.E.; Koerner, R.M.; Gross, B.
(2002). Technical guidance for RCRA/CERCLA final covers. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response, Washington, DC, USA.
Fleming, I. R.; Sharma, J. S.; Jogi, M. B. (2006). Shear strength of
geomembrane-soil interface under unsaturated conditions (in
English). Geotextiles and Geomembranes, (24): 274 - 284.
GEO-SLOPE International Ltda. (2004). GeoStudio Tutorials (includes
student edition lessons). Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Girard, H.; Fisher, S.; Alonso, E. (1990). Problems of friction posed by
the use of geomembranes on dam slopes-examples and
measurements. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 9 (2), 129-143.
Giroud, J.P.; Swan, R.H.; Richer, P.J.; Spooner, P.R. (1990).
Geosynthetic landfill cap: laboratory and field tests, design and
construction. 4th International Conference on Geotextiles,
3056
Geoenvironmental Approach to Restoration of Agricultural Land Damaged by
Tsunami
Approche go-environnementale de la restauration de terres agricoles endommages par Tsunami
Omine K.
Nagasaki University
Moqsud M.A.
Yamaguchi University
Hazarika H.
Kyushu University
ABSTRACT: In this study a geo-environmental approach was used for the restoration of the farmed land which was damaged by
salinity, due to tsunami water water in the pacific coast of Tohoku region in Japan. The mega earth quake that hit on 11th March,
2011 has triggered a Tsunami in the coastal areas of Tohoku region. The huge water severely affected various environmental and geo-
environmental parameters in that area. Soil salinity in the agricultural land has become a great concern for the after disaster geo-
environmental restoration. Various approaches are being tried to get rid of the salinity problem of the agricultural land. In this study,
major chemical properties (pH, electrical conductivity) of soil in Rikuzentakata city (one of the most affected areas due to tsunami)
were measured in the field test during May and June, 2011. An innovative approach by using compost containing Halo bacteria/salt
tolerance bacteria in this area was tested to restore the saline soil. This method can be useful for reducing the excessive salts from the
soil. The compost can also provide necessary nutrients to the soil and plant.
RSUM : Dans cette tude une approche go-environnementale a t applique la restauration de terres cultives qui ont t
endommages par l'eau saline amene par un tsunami dans la rgion ctire de Tohoku au Japon. Le mga tremblement de terre qui a
frapp le 11 mars 2011 a dclench un tsunami dans cette rgion. Cette norme quantit deau de mer a affect fortement les
caractristiques environnementales et go-environnementales de la zone. La salinit de la terre agricole notamment est devenue une
proccupation majeure. Plusieurs approches sont exprimentes afin de se dbarrasser du problme de la salinit de la terre agricole.
Dans cette tude, les proprits chimiques majeures du sol (pH, conductivit electrique) dans la ville de Rikuzentakata (une des
rgions les plus affectes par le tsunami) ont t mesures in situ durant les mois de mai et juin 2011. Une approche novatrice a t
mise en uvre pour restaurer le sol salin ; elle utilise un compost qui contient des bactries de type arches halophiles. Les bactries
de ce type peuvent utiliser les sels excdants du sol et par consquent rduire le taux de salinit. Ce compost peut fournir aussi des
lments nutritifs ncessaires au sol et aux plantes.
KEYWORDS: salt damage, agricultural land, restoration, microorganism
3057
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Investigation area area, No. D~G is sunflower area and No. H is out of damaged
(30th Jume, 2011) area. The ECs of several soils were low, possibly due to the
start of rainy season. Some soils however still showed high EC.
Investigation area
(5th March, 2011) Table 1. Electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of the soils measured on 5
May 2011
(a) EC (mS/cm)
Rikuzentakata city Depth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5cm 1.51 0.36 0.39 1.49 1.26 0.47 1.20 1.77 1.01 0.25
10cm 3.04 2.00 1.94 2.93 3.16 1.32 2.77 3.43 1.83 1.15
15cm 2.23 2.43 2.81 4.03 2.21 1.84 0.97 3.46 2.4 2.25
(b) pH
Depth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5cm 7.21 8.47 8.06 7.55 7.22 8.39 7.71 7.62 7.19 8.27
10cm 5.75 5.68 6.5 5.78 5.71 6.57 5.98 5.6 6.74 6.52
15cm 6.22 5.48 5.69 5.2 6.13 5.84 7.12 5.64 5.77 5.82
km
Submerged area by Tsunami Table 2. Chemical properties of the soils (30th June, 2011)
Figure 1. The damaged area in Rikuzentakata city of Iwate Prefecture (a) EC (mS/cm)
(The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan,
Depth A B C D E F G H
http://www.gsi.go.jp/common/000059844.pdf)
Surface 0.56 0.11 0.13 0.083 0.09 0.064 0.13 -
5 cm - - - - - - - 0.032
10 cm 0.97 1.19 0.62 - 0.093 0.15 - -
15 cm - - - - - - 0.21 -
20 cm 1.83 1.58 1.64 0.21 0.096 0.46 0.026
25 cm 2.15 - - - - - - -
30 cm - - 1.65 - - - - -
(b) pH
Depth A B C D E F G H
Surface 7.2 8.1 7.4 8.3 9.0 8.4 8.0 -
5 cm - - - - - - - 6.9
10 cm 6.6 5.9 6.7 - 9.1 8.4 - -
15 cm - - - - - - 6.7 -
20 cm 6.1 5.6 5.9 7.0 8.0 7.1 - 6.9
25 cm 6.4 - - - - - - -
Figure 2. The place of investigation on 5 May 2011 30 cm - - 5.7 - - - - -
3058
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
3059
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
large size of disaster wastes in the soil still now and tractor
cannot work correctly.
It was therefore that the potting cultivation test for rice plants
was conducted. Figure 11 shows the test result after one month.
In the case of control without the compost, rice plants were died
during one week. On the other hand, the plants using the
compost have grown steadily.
Thus, the compost with salt tolerance bacteria can reduce the
soil salinity and it is also confirmed that the compost is effective
for growth of rice plants and restoration of agricultural land.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The mega earthquake and consequent huge tsunami has done a
Figure 9. Result of salt tolerance test on the compost
great damage to the entire areas of the pacific regions in Tohoku,
Japan. The sea water that overflowed the agricultural lands in
the area has created a critical situation for the farmers. The
3 farmers lost not only the crops they were cultivating but also the
soil of the agricultural field was seriously damaged by salinity
and other pollutants. The pH and EC of the soil have increased
2.5 and exceeded the safer limit for cultivated crops.
The compost containing salt tolerance bacteria was used at
EC (mS/cm)
7 REFERENCES
Bourgeois J, Hansen TA, Wiberg PL and Kauffman EG. 1988. A
tsunami deposit at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in Texas.
Science, Vol. 241, 567-570.
Morton R.A., Gelfenbaum G. and Jaffe B.E. 2007. Physical criteria for
distinguishing sandy tsunami and storm deposits using modern
Mixing of examples. Sedimentary Geology, 200, 184-207.
Control the compost Minoura K., Gusiakov V.G., Kurbatov A., Takeuti S., Svendsen J.I.,
Bondevik S., Od, T. 1996. Tsunami sedimentation associated with
Figure 11. Result of potting cultivation test for rice plants the 1923 kamchatka earthquake. Sedimentary Geology, 106, 145-
154.
4.3 Laboratory tests of Saline Soil Nishimura Y. and Miyaji N. 1995. Tsunami deposits from the 1993
Southwest Hokkaido earthquake and the 1640 Hokkaido
In order to confirm the effect of the compost with salt tolerance
Komagatake eruption, northern Japan, Pure and Applied
bacteria, laboratory tests of the saline soil were performed.
Geophysics. 144 (3-4), 719-733.
For making clear the effect, natural salt of 400mg/100g-dry
Omine K., Fujikawa T., Sugimoto S. and Maeda H. 2012. Investigation
soil was added to a soil sampled from agricultural field at
of Rikuzentakata city of Iwate prefecture and geo-environmental
Rikuzentakata city. The compost of 1g and rice bran of 10 g
Approach - Ground settlement, waste materials and restoration of
ware mixed with the soil of 330 g. Electric conductivity of the
saline agricultural land -, Japanese Geotechnical Journal, 7 (1), 231-
sample were measured continuously as shown in Fig.10. The
241 (in Japanese).
value of EC decreases with increase in curing period and
Shiki T. and Yamazaki T. 1996. Tsunami-induced conglomerates in
becomes almost a half after one month.
Miocene upper bathyal deposits, Chiba Peninsula, Central Japan.
The farmers in Rikuzentakata city are not able to start a
Sedimentary Geology, 104, 175-188.
cultivation of rice, because the agricultural land has contained a
3060
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Factors
Factors affecting
affecting hydration
hydration of
of Geosynthetic
Geosynthetic Clay
Clay Liners
Liners in
in landfill
landfill applications
applications
Facteurs
Facteurs influenant
influenant lhydratation
lhydratation des
des gosynthtiques
gosynthtiques bentonitiques
bentonitiques dans
dans les
les applications
applications
d'enfouissement
d'enfouissement
ABSTRACT: The progression of hydration of Geosynthetic Clay liner (GCL) from underlying subsoil was studied for three GCL
products under simulated landfill conditions, before and after being covered by municipal solid waste. GCL hydration is shown to be
highly dependent on the GCL manufacturing techniques, the grain size distribution and initial moisture content of the subsoil. The
hydration behaviour of the GCL was also affected by the exposure conditions in the landfill. Prior to waste placement, the composite
liner may be exposed to daily and seasonal thermal cycles for a period of time (weeks to months). These cycles significantly
suppressed the hydration of the GCLs and kept the equilibrium moisture content of the GCLs far less than what expected under
isothermal conditions at room temperature (22C). After waste placement, the GCL may experience elevated temperatures that occur
during waste decomposition in municipal solid waste landfills. Results indicated that as the temperature increased (from 22 to 55C),
the final equilibrium moisture content decreased, from about 96% at room temperature to about 14% at 55C. Moreover, the normal
stress of 2 to 5 kPa was shown to induce an adequately high rate of hydration and the maximum equilibrium moisture content.
RSUM: La progression de l'hydratation de Gosynthtique Bentonique (GSB) du sol a t tudie pour trois GSB produits dans des
conditions simules d'enfouissement, avant et aprs avoir t recouverts par des dchets solides municipaux. Hydratation est
dpendante des techniques de fabrication GSB, la distribution de granulomtrie et la teneur en humidit initiale du sol. Hydratation de
GSB a galement t affecte par les conditions d'exposition d'enfouissement. Avant dposer des dchets, le revtement composite
peut tre expos des cycles journaliers et saisonniers thermiques pendant une priode de temps (quelques semaines ou mois). Ces
cycles ont supprim l'hydratation des GSBs de manire svre et ont gard la teneur en humidit d'quilibre des GSB beaucoup moins
ce que prvue dans des conditions isothermes temprature ambiante (22C). Aprs dposer des dchets, le GSB peut subir des
tempratures leves qui se produisent lors de la dcomposition des dchets dans les sites d'enfouissement des dchets solides
municipaux. Les rsultats ont montr que lorsque la temprature a t augmente (de 22 55 C) le contenu d'humidit d'quilibre
final a t diminu de manire svre, de 96% la temprature ambiante environ 14% 55 C. En outre, la pression normale de 2
5 kPa a t montre de causer un taux suffisamment lev d'hydratation et de la teneur maximale en humidit d'quilibre.
KEYWORDS: Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL), hydration, thermal gradient, normal stress
3061
1
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
This research analyzes the hydration behavior of the GCL from
underlying soil under different field exposure conditions,
including daily thermal cycles before waste placement, and
constant temperatures induced by the waste decomposition after
waste placement. Also, the effect of normal stresses provided by
the overlying layers (e.g., Leachate Collection System (LCS),
cover soil) is investigated. The hydration progression of three
GCL products (GCL1, GCL2, and GCL3) which have
significantly different manufacturing techniques has been
evaluated in this study. Ontario Leda clay (CL in USCS
classification system, ASTM D2487), clayey sand (SC), silty
sand (SM), and ordinary construction sand (SP) were used to
investigate the effect of the subsoil grain size distribution on Figure 1. (a) Grain size distribution and (b) matric suction curves for the
GCL hydration. The hydration process was monitored by subsoils examined.
measuring the gravimetric moisture content (i.e. mass of
water/mass of dry material) of the GCL up to 40 weeks. 2.3 Sample preparation
2.1 GCL properties Figure 2 demonstrates the diagram of instrumented test cells
used for simulating GCL hydration from subsoil. To simulate
GCL 1 and GCL2 contained fine granular sodium bentonite the profile of a composite liner, the soil under examination was
with D50 of 0.35 mm while GCL3 was coarse granular with D50 placed in cells having a diameter of 150 mm and a height of up
of 1 mm. All GCLs had NW cover geotextiles. The main to 500 mm. Tap water with an average calcium concentration of
difference of the GCLs was the connection layer and also the 40 mg/L was mixed with bulk samples of dried soils to the wet
type of the carrier geotextile (Table 1). GCL1 and GCL2 had of optimum moisture content (wopt + 2%). Some soil samples
similar swell and plasticity indices of 24 ml/ 2g min. and 216% were watered to other gravimetric moisture content to evaluate
(ASTM D 4318), respectively. GCL3 had a swell index of 23 the effect of the initial moisture content (10%). The soil samples
ml/ 2g min. and plasticity index of 262%. The water retention were wrapped in airtight plastic bags to cure overnight.
curves for these GCLs have been presented by Beddoe et al. Afterwards, the soil was compacted into the PVC cylinders in
(2011). The submerged moisture content, i.e., the maximum five layers with a final height of 250 mm, and a dry density
gravimetric moisture content which the GCL could attain while corresponding to approximately 90% of the maximum dry
immersed in water is also given in Table 1. density. The GCL sample was placed over the subsoil and
overlain by geomembrane. A steel seating block with a known
Table 1. GCL properties weight corresponding to a specific level of normal stress (0-8
kPa) was placed on the liner. The test cells were closed and
Total dry Carrier/ Submerged
mass/area Cover Connection Moisture sealed to prevent any loss of moisture, and were opened weekly
GCL Layer to determine the mass before returning them to the cells.
(g/m2) Geotextile Content
1 4555-4988 W/ NW NPTT 15010 2.4 Experimental procedure
2 3312-4006 SRNW/ NW NPTT 1185 In order to investigate the effect of constant temperature on
GCL hydration after waste deposition, heating blankets set to
3 4499-5295 W/ NW NP 19010
the temperatures of 35, 45, and 55C were placed on top of a
W = Woven, NW = Nonwoven, SRNW = Scrim reinforced nonwoven, series of test cells. Some cells were left in room temperature
NP = Needle punched, NPTT = Needle punched and thermally treated. (222C) for isothermal and control experiments. Also, heat
was applied for 8 hours to the top of some cells before they
2.2 Soil properties were subsequently left in room temperature (22C) for 16 hours
to simulate daily thermal (heating and cooling) cycles induced
The basic geotechnical properties of the four subsoils were by solar radiation. The sides of all cells were surrounded by
determined through laboratory testing (Figure 1). The sand (SP), fibreglass insulation while their bottom was maintained at room
silty sand (SM), and clayey sand (SC) contained 5%, 35%, and temperature to simulate vertical thermal gradients developed in
21% fines passing through the 0.075 mm sieve, respectively. the field. Also, after 6 weeks of daily thermal cycles, the heating
The plasticity indices of the clay and the fine portion of clayey cycles were brought to a halt for a period of 6 weeks to simulate
sand were measured at 21.6%, and 4%, respectively (ASTM D seasonal cooling periods before they were resumed.
4318). The maximum dry densities of the sand, silty sand,
clayey sand, and clay were measured at 1.68, 1.83, 1.96, and
1.43 Mg/m3 with the corresponding optimum moisture contents
of 10%, 11.4%, 11.3%, and 28.3%, respectively (ASTM D 698).
3062
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Moreover, the normal stresses of 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, and 8 kPa moisture content from 18% at the end of the daily thermal cycle
were applied to some GCL specimens to evaluate the effect of period (week 6) to 44% at the termination of the cooling period
the normal stress on the GCL hydration. (week 12). However, the moisture content of the GCL sample
dropped to its initial level as the thermal cycles resumed. This
shows that cooling periods followed by daily thermal cycles,
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION which could normally occur during winter, may not guarantee
the sustainable hydration of the GCL.
The evolution of GCL hydration was monitored up to 40 weeks.
In this paper, the effect of daily and seasonal thermal cycles,
elevated constant temperatures, and external loading as well as
the GCL manufacturing techniques and grain size distribution of
subsoil on GCL hydration is discussed.
3063
temperatures, as opposed to continuous moisture uptake for The thermally treated, scrim-reinforced GCL (GCL2)
months under the isothermal condition (22C). Figure 6 demonstrated higher rate and degree of hydration compared to
demonstrates the hydration of GCL 2 and GCL3 from either the other GCL product under similar conditions mainly due to
sand or clay subsoil for all the aforementioned temperatures. the better anchorage of the connection layer against swelling
The addition
Proceedings of 35C heat18source
of the th significantly
International decreasedon
Conference theSoil Mechanics
of bentonite andupon hydration. Engineering, Paris 2013
Geotechnical
average equilibrium moisture content (of all experiments) by Thermal cycles severely suppressed the moisture uptake of
3/4, from an average value of 96 to 24%. Also, the GCL the GCL to as low as 15% of the moisture content observed
average equilibrium moisture
Proceedings content
of the
th reduced from 24 to 14%
18 International under isothermal
Conference on Soil Mechanics conditions.
and Geotechnical Seasonal cooling
Engineering, Paris 2013 was shown to
as the applied constant temperature increased
th from 35 to 55C. not guarantee
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013 sustainable hydration of the GCL provided that
These
22, 25,results
45, and are55C
notablywere similar
compared. to certain
The previous findings
results demons on
trated the
andGCL is subsequently
the subsoil. The small exposed
grain size to daily
and high thermal cycles.
levels of matric
GCL
that hydration
the rate under
of daily
hydration thermal
of cycles
both GCLs
22, 25, 45, and 55C were compared. The results demonstrated discussed
was above.
significantlyThe Elevated
suction constant
associated temperatures
with clay compared
and the subsoil. The small grain size and high levels at the tobottom
other of
sandylandfills
of soils
matric
thermal
suppressed
that the gradients
after
rate of 1 initiated
day
hydration by ofbiodegradation
of hydration bothwhile GCLs exposedof waste
was after
tosignificantly
elevated could
was seen
suction significantly
aassociated
limiting factor decrease
withfor thethe
clay GCL
comparedrate ofto other
hydration. hydration,
sandy the soils
depositing
temperatures,
suppressed theafter
waste
as 1 or
daysolar
opposed radiation
oftohydration
continuous before
while waste uptake
moisture
exposed placement for
to elevated The
equilibrium
was seen amoisture
thermally limiting contentfor
treated,
factor ofthetheGCL
scrim-reinforcedGCL, andGCL
hydration. consequently
(GCL2)
could
months induceunder
temperatures, severe
as loss
the of moisture
isothermal
opposed in GCL (22C).
condition
to continuous and,
moisturehence, higher6for
Figure
uptake the hydraulic
demonstrated
The thermally performance
higher rate treated,andof the
degreeGCLs of. hydration GCL
scrim-reinforced compared to
(GCL2)
hydraulic
demonstrates conductivity.
the hydration of GCL
months under the isothermal condition (22C). Figure 6 2 and GCL3 from either
theEmploying
other GCL the cover
product
demonstrated higher rate and degree soil
under or the
similar construction
conditions
of hydratimainly onofcompared
leachate
due to to
sand or clay subsoil
demonstrates for all the
the hydration of aforementioned
GCL 2 and GCL3 temperatures.
from either collection
thethe better system
otheranchorage
GCL productcould of the provide
underconnectionthe sufficient
similar layer against
conditions normal stress
swelling
mainly due to
The addition of 35C heat source significantly
sand or clay subsoil for all the aforementioned temperatures. decreased the (2-5
of kPa)
bentonite for an
upon adequately
hydration. high rate
the better anchorage of the connection layer against swelling of hydration as well as
average equilibrium
The addition of 35C moisture content significantly
heat source (of all experiments)
decreasedbythe Thermal
degree of hydration.
of bentonite cyclesupon severely
hydration. suppressed the moisture uptake of
3/4, from equilibrium
average an average moisture value of content 96 to 24%. (of allAlso, the GCLby
experiments) the GCL
Thermal to as low as
cycles 15% ofsuppressed
severely the moisture the content
moistureobserveduptake of
average
3/4, fromequilibrium
an average moisturevaluecontentof 96reducedto 24%.from 24 to
Also, the14%GCL 5 under the isothermal
GCL to as conditions.
low as 15% Seasonal
of the cooling content
moisture was shown to
observed
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
as average
the applied constant moisture
equilibrium temperature increased
content reduced from 35 24
from to 55C.
to 14% notunder
guarantee
isothermal sustainable
conditions. hydration Seasonalof thecoolingGCL provided
was shown that to
These
as theresults
applied are constant
notably similar
temperature to certain previous
increased fromfindings
35 to 55C.on thenot
This GCL is subsequently
guarantee
research was sustainable
financially exposed
hydration
supported to daily of
by thethermal
the GCL
Naturalcycles.
provided
Sciencethat
GCLThesehydration
results under daily thermal
are notably similar to cycles
certain discussed
previousabove.
findings Theon and Elevated
the GCL isconstant
Engineering subsequently
Research temperatures exposedof
Council atto Canada
the
dailybottomthermal ofcycles.
(NSERC). landfills
The
thermal gradientsunder
GCL hydration initiateddailyby biodegradation
thermal cycles discussed of waste above. after
The writers Elevated
could significantly
are constantdecrease
grateful their the
totemperatures rate
at theofpartner
industrial hydration,
bottom of the
landfills
Terrafix
depositing the waste initiated
thermal gradients or solar radiation before waste
by biodegradation of placement equilibrium
could significantly
waste after Geosynthetics moisture
Inc., however content
decrease theof views
the
the GCL, rate and
expressedof consequently
hydration,
herein arethe
could induce the
depositing severewastelossorofsolar
moisture in GCL
radiation beforeand,waste
hence,placement
higher theequilibrium
those hydraulic
of the authors performance
moisture
and notcontent of the of
necessarily GCLsthe . GCL,
those of ourandpartner.
consequently
hydraulic
Figcould
ure 6. GCL conductivity.
induce severe
moisture lossvs.oftemperature
uptake moisture (Barclayin GCL&and, hence,
Rayhani, higher
2012) Employing
the hydraulicthe cover soil oforthe
performance theGCLs construction
. of leachate
hydraulic conductivity. Employing
collection system thecould
coverprovide soil orthe thesufficient
construction normal stress
of leachate
3.5 External loading 6 (2-5 kPa) forsystem
REFERENCES
collection an adequately
could provide high rate theofsufficient
hydrationnormal as wellstress
as
degree
(2-5 kPa)of hydration.
for an adequately high rate of hydration as well as
The level of normal stress provided by the leachate collection ASTM D 2487.
degree 2005. Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for
of hydration.
system or the cover soil could affect the swelling characteristics Engineering Purposes, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, USA:
and hence the degree of hydration of the GCL. Figure 7 5 249-260.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
demonstrates the variation of equilibrium moisture content ASTM D 4318. 2005. Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plas tic
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
versus the normal stress for 4 different conditions. In general, ThisLimit,
researchand Plasticity Index of Soils,
was financially supported ASTMbyStandard the Natural04.08,Science
ASTM,
and West
This Conshohocke
Engineering
research was n,
ResearchPA, USA:
financially Council1-13. of Canada
supported by the(NSERC).
Natural ScienceThe
the normal stress of 2-5 (for a typical leachate collection Anderson, Rayhani, M.T.,
R., grateful and industrial
Rowe, K., partner 2012. Laboratory
system) induced the highest equilibrium moisture uptake. The writers
and are
Engineering Researchto their Council of Canada (NSERC). Terrafix The
investigation of GCL hydration from clayey sand, Geotext. &
rate of moisture uptake also increased significantly as the level Geosynthetics
writers are Inc., however
grateful
Geomemb., Vol. 31, pp 31-38. to the
their views
industrial expressed herein
partner are
Terrafix
of the normal stress increased. GCL2 with sand subsoil (12% those
Aza d, F.ofM.,the Rowe,
Geosynthetics authors R.and
Inc., not necessarily
K.,however
El-Zein, theAirey,
A., views those
D. W., of our
2011.partner.
expressed herein are
Laboratory
Figure 6. GCL moisture uptake vs. temperature (Barclay & Rayhani, 2012) those of the authors and not necessarily thoseofofGCLs our partner.
moisture content) achieved 62% gravimetric moisture content investigation of thermally induced desiccation in double
Figure
under 8 6.kPa
GCLnormal
moisturestress
uptakeafter
vs. temperature
one week (Barclay & Rayhani,
of hydration 2012)
which composite liner systems. Geotext. & Geomemb., 29 (6), 534-543.
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External loading 6 clay,
Bar REFERENCES
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3.5
(36%). External
Theof normal loading 6 REFERENCES
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BedASTM
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and hence
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(for a typical moisture uptake.
leachate The
collection investigation
CheAnderson,
vrier, B., R., of
Cazaux,
GCL
RayhaD., ni, hydration
M.T.,G.,and
Didier,
from
Gamet,Rowe, clayeyK.,sand,
M., Guyonnet, 2012. Geotext.
D.,
&
Laboratory
2012.
rate of moisture
system) induced uptake also increased
the highest equilibrium significantly
moistureasuptake.the level The Geomemb.,
investigation Vol. of31, GCL
pp 31-38. hydrationand from clayeypressure
sand, Geotext.
Influence of subgrade, temperature confining on GCL &
of rate
the ofnormal
moisturestress increased.
uptake GCL2 with
also increased sand subsoil
significantly as the(12% level Azad, F. M., Rowe,
Geomemb., R. 31,
Vol. K., pp El-Zein,
31-38.A., Airey, D. W., 2011. Laboratory
hydration. Geotext. &Geomemb., 33, 1-6.
moisture content)stress
of the normal achieved 62% gravimetric
increased. GCL2 with moisture sand subsoil content
(12% GatAza investigation of thermally
es, W.P., Bouazza, A., 2010. BentoniteAirey,
d, F. M., Rowe, R. K., inducedA.,
El-Zein, desiccation D. ofW.,GCLs
transformations 2011. in double
in Laboratory
strongly
under 8 kPacontent)
moisture normal achieved
stress after 62% onegravimetric
week of hydration moisture which content composite
investigation liner systems.
ofGeotext.
thermally Geotext. & Geomemb., 29of(6), 534-543.
alkaline solutions. & induced
Geomemb., desiccation
28 (2), 219-225. GCLs in double
was significantly more stress
than thatafter of onetheweek unconfined condition Bar clay, A.,
composite and Rayhani, M.T., 2012. Effect of temperature on
under 8 kPa normal of hydration which Lake, C.B. Rowe,liner systems.
R.K., 2000.Geotext.
Swelling& characteristics
Geomemb., 29 of (6),thermally
534-543.
(36%). The normal stress enhanced the contact between the Barhydration
clay, A.,of and
Geosynthetic
Rayhani, ClayM.T.,Liners
2012. in landfills,
Effect Journal
of of Wasteon
temperature
was significantly more than that of the unconfined condition treated
Management
GCLs. Geotext.
Research,
& Geomemb.,
(DOI:Clay
18 (2), 77-102.
10.1177/0734242X12471153).
GCL(36%).and Thethe normal
subsoil stress
leadingenhancedto significantly
the contact higher rate ofthe Rayhani,
between hydration
M.T., of Geosynthetic
Rowe, R.K., Brachman, LinersR.W.I.,
in landfills,Take, Journal
W.A.,of andWaste
Beddoe, R.A., Take,
Management W.A. and
Research, (DOI: Rowe, R.K., 2011. Water retention
10.1177/0734242X12471153).
hydration as well as more equilibrium moisture
GCL and the subsoil leading to significantly higher rate of content. Siemens, G. (2011) Factors affecting GCL hydration under
Bed doe, R.A., behaviour of Geosynthetic clay liners. ASCE J. Geotech.
Take, W.A. and&Rowe, R.K.,29, 2011. Water retention
Figure 7. Effect of normal stress on the equilibrium moisture content isothermal conditions. Geotext. Geomemb., 525-533.
Geoenviron. Eng., 137 (11), 10281038.
Rowe, behaviour
R. K., 2005. of Long-term
Geosynthetic clay liners.
performance ASCE J. barrier
of contaminant Geotech.
Benson, C.H., Kucukkirca,
Geoenviron. I.E., 10281038.
Eng., 13755(11), Scalia, J., 2010b. Properties of
systems. Geotechnique, (9), 631678.
Bengeosynthetics
son,T.,C.H., exhumed
Kucukkirca,fromI.E.,
a final cover at
Scalia, J., a 2010b.
solid waste landfill. of
Properties
4 CONCLUSIONS Sarabian, and Rayhani, M.T., 2012. Rate of hydration of GCLs from
Geotext. & Geomemb.,
geosynthetics exhumed 28 (6),
from536-546.
a final cover 67-73.
at a solid waste landfill.
clay soil. J. of Waste Management, 33(2013):
Chevrier, B.,
Geotext. Cazaux, D., Didier, G., Gamet, M., Guyonnet, D., 2012.
The hydration of three GCL different products from the subsoil Southen, J. M., & andGeomemb.,
Rowe, R.28 K.,(6), 536-546.
2007. Evaluation of water retention
CheInfluence
vrier, B.,ofCazaux,
subgrade, D.,temperature
Didier, G., and confining
Gamet, M.,29.pressure on
Guyonnet, D.,GCL
2012.
pore water under simulated landfill conditions was studied. The curve for GCLs. Geotext. & Geomemb., 25 (1),
hydration.
Influence Geotext. &Geomemb.,
of subgrade, 33, 1-6. confining pressure on GCL
Taha, M., A. Interface shear temperature
behavior ofand sensitive marine clays-leda
following conclusion points could be extracted: Gates, hydration.
W.P., Bouazza,
clay. M.Sc. thesis,Geotext.A.,&Geomemb.,
2010. Bentonite
University
transformations in strongly
33, 1-6.
of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
The hydration potential of the GCL was found to be Gatalkaline
es, W.P.,solutions.
Bouazza, Geotext. & Geomemb.,
A., 2010. Bentonite 28 (2), 219-225. in strongly
transformations
dependent on the difference between the suction of the GCL Lake, alkaline
C.B. Rowe, R.K.,Geotext.
solutions. 2000. Swelling
& Geomemb.,characteristics of thermally
28 (2), 219-225.
treated
Lake, GCLs.
C.B. Rowe, Geotext.
R.K.,&2000.
Geomemb., 18 (2),
Swelling 77-102.
characteristics of thermally
Rayhani, M.T.,
treated GCLs.Rowe, R.K.,& Brachman,
Geotext. Geomemb., 18 R.W.I., Take, W.A., and
(2), 77-102.
hydration as well as more equilibrium moisture content. Siemens,M.T.,
Rayhani, G. (2011)
Rowe, R.K.,FactorsBrachman,
affecting R.W.I.,
GCL hydration
Take, W.A.,underand
Figure 7. Effect of normal stress on the equilibrium moisture content isothermal
Siemens, conditions.
G. (2011)Geotext.
Factors & Geomemb.,
affecting 29,
GCL 525-533.
hydration under
hydration as well as more equilibrium moisture content.
Rowe, isothermal
R. K., 2005. Long-term
conditions. performance
Geotext. & Geomemb., of contaminant
29, 525-533.barrier
Figure 7. Effect of normal stress on the equilibrium moisture content
systems.
Rowe, R. Geotechnique,
K., 2005. Long-term 55 (9), 631678.
performance of contaminant barrier
4 CONCLUSIONS 4 Sarabian, T., andGeotechnique,
systems. Rayhani, M.T., 55 2012. Rate of hydration of GCLs from
(9), 631678.
clay soil.T.,J. and
Sarabian, of Waste Management,
Rayhani, M.T., 2012.33(2013):
Rate of 67-73.
hydration of GCLs from
4 CONCLUSIONS Southen, J. soil.
M., J. and
The hydration of three GCL different products from the subsoil clay of Rowe, R. K., 2007. Evaluation
Waste Management, of water retention
33(2013): 67-73.
pore curve for
Southen, J. GCLs.
M., and Geotext.
Rowe, & R.Geomemb., 25 (1), 29.of water retention
K., 2007. Evaluation
Thewater underof
hydration simulated
three GCL landfill conditions
different wasfrom
products studied. The
the subsoil Taha, M.,
following
pore waterconclusion points could
under simulated be extracted:
landfill conditions was studied. The curveA.forInterface shear behavior
GCLs. Geotext. & Geomemb.,of sensitive
25 (1), marine
29. clays-leda
Tahclay. M.Sc. thesis, University of Ottawa,ofOttawa, ON,marine
Canada.
following
The hydration
conclusionpotential of thebeGCL
points could was found to be
extracted:
a, M., A. Interface shear behavior sensitive clays-leda
clay. M.Sc. thesis, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
The hydration
dependent on the difference
potentialbetween
of the the
GCLsuction
was of the GCL
found to be
dependent on the difference between the suction of the GCL
3064
Utilisation de la dsorption thermique pour llimination in situ des couches
flottantes dhydrocarbures
Use of thermal desorption for removing in-situ floating oil layers
RSUM : NSRCityTM, (brevet par TPSTECH) est une nouvelle technologie de traitement des sols par dsorption thermique in situ
(sans excavation). La technique utilise le chauffage du sol par conduction (circulation des gaz chauds dans un circuit plac dans le sol)
et laspiration des vapeurs de contaminants produites dans le sol. Le systme comporte des lments chauffants (deux tubes
concentriques) quips chacun dun brleur gaz, des tubes perfors pour la rcupration des vapeurs et un ventilateur pour la
circulation des gaz chauds. La technique est dj utilise avec succs sur plusieurs sites urbains et industriels en Europe et aux tats-
Unis. NSRCityTM a t rcemment test sur deux sites : en Belgique et en France. Le site Belge renferme une couche flottante
dhydrocarbures de 0,50 m dpaisseur (en moyenne) situe 3 m de profondeur. Le site Franais renferme une couche flottante
dhuiles de moteurs de 2 m dpaisseur situe 2,50 m de profondeur contamine par des solvants chlors. Les rsultats obtenus sont
trs encourageants.
ABSTRACT: NSRCityTM (patented by TPSTECH) is a new technology of soil by thermal in-situ desorption treatment (without
excavation). The technique uses the soil heating by conduction (movement of hot gases in a circuit placed in the ground) and the
fumes of contaminants produced in the soil. The system consists of heating elements (two concentric tubes) each burner gas tubes
perforated for vapour recovery and a fan for the movement of hot gases. The technique is already used successfully on many urban
and industrial sites in Europe and the United States. NSRCityTM was recently tested at two sites: one in Belgium and one in France.
The Belgian site contains a floating layer of hydrocarbons from 0.50 m of thickness in 3 m deep. The French site has a floating layer
of oils for engines of 2 m thick located at a depth of 2.50 m, contaminated by chlorinated solvents. The results are very encouraging.
3065
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3066
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
La pression partielle (ou de saturation), , dun composant peut Tableau 2. Analyse des polluants prsents sur le site (sol + eau).
tre obtenue partir de la loi de Clapeyron :
BTEXS C10-C40 HAP (16)
ln P 0 A B Echan.
(mg/kg-ms) (mg/kg-ms) (mg/kg-ms)
i
C T (9)
Sol (1m) < 0,25 997,40 0,06<x<0,81
Sol (2m) < 0,25 - <0,80
avec A, B et C : des constantes propres chaque composant.
Sol (4m) < 0,25 848 1,46<x<1,91
BTEXS C10-C40 HAP (16)
Echan.
Pour un mlange binaire (par exemple CxHy/Eau), on a: (g/L) (g/L) (g/L)
1 Liq. (eau) 414 1,3 740
yCx H y ,m 0
M eau Peau 4.3 Installation du pilote
1 (10)
M Cx H y PC0x H y
Linstallation pilote, utilise pour ce test, comporte 3 tubes de
chauffages verticaux (4 m de long chacun). Ces tubes sont
Le Tableau 1 donne les fractions massiques dun mlange placs en triangle quilatral 1,5 m de distance. La surface
eau/compos organique 100C et pression atmosphrique. totale de la zone traite est de 5,3 m2. Les tubes externes sont
placs 4 m de profondeur (niveau du sol). Les tubes internes
Tableau 1. Fractions massiques en phase vapeur 100C dun mlange sont placs 3 ,5 m de profondeur (niveau du sol). Lensemble
Eau/Benzo-cyclopentane et Eau/N-Hexadcane.
est connect un rseau de tubes horizontaux (pour la
Tb(C) MCxHy yCxHy circulation des gaz), et au ventilateur de circulation (Figure 5).
Compos T (C)
1 atm (g/mole) (%)
Benzo-
cyclopentane 177 118 100 40,60
(C9H10)
n-Hexadecane
287 226 100 1,10
(C16H34)
3067
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
6 CONCLUSION
Figure 6. Evolution de la temprature du sol trait. Ces travaux ont dmontr lefficacit de la technologie
NSRCityTM de dsorption thermique in situ pour le traitement
On distingue clairement deux phases de chauffage. des sols pollus en prsence dune couche flottante.
- Une premire phase de 20 jours pendant laquelle la Dans le site tudi, avec une distance entre tubes de 1,50 m, 70
temprature du sol augmente jusqu 100C (temprature jours taient suffisants pour llimination totale dune couche de
dbullition de leau). polluants dpaisseur 50 cm. Lentranement par la vapeur deau
- Une deuxime phase de 50 jours o la temprature se provenant de la nappe et la cration dune zone de haute
stabilise 100C (sauf pour la zone autour des tubes). Pendant temprature prs des tubes ont permis ce traitement.
cette phase, lnergie transmise au sol est utilise pour
lvaporation de leau et du contaminant. Cette phase constitue
la phase de traitement (entranement par la vapeur deau). 7 REFERENCES
5.2 Evolution de la couche flottante Lingineni, S. & Dhir, V. 1992. Modelling of soil venting processes to
remediate unsaturated soils. J. Environmental Engineering, 118(1):
Pendant le traitement, et pour suivre lvolution de la couche 135-152.
flottante, des mesures sont effectues dans les trois puits de Mayer A. S., Miller C. T. 1992. The influences of porous medium
contrles. Seul le puits central prsentait une diminution de la characteristics and measurement scale on pore-scale distributions of
couche flottante. Aprs 70 jours de traitement, la couche residual nonaquous phase liquids. J. Contam. Hydrol., 11, 189-213.
Oswer, P. 2002. Elements for Effective Management of Operating
flottante est totalement limine (Figure 7).
Pump and Treat Systems. November 2002. OSWER 9355.4-27FS-
A.
Power S. E., Abriola L. M., Weber W. J. 1992. An experimental
investigation of NAPL dissolution in saturated subsurface systems:
study state mass transfer rates. Water Resours. Res., 28, 2691-2705.
3068
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
ABSTRACT: By utilizing our new approach in Ecological Geotechnics, we performed series of controlled laboratory experiments on
benthos-soil systems with six species of invertebrates that belonged to Arthropoda, Mollusca, and Annelida. The experimental results
demonstrated that for each of the burrowing activities, there exist optimal, transitional and critical geoenvironmental conditions,
which were found to differ considerably between species, body sizes and weights. On the basis of these results, we have constructed
an ecohabitat chart which enables an interspecific comparison of the burrowing performances and capabilities of the diverse benthic
fauna in light of the associated geoenvironments in the field. The results of integrated field observations and surveys at various natural
and artificial intertidal flats further demonstrate the validity and effectiveness of the ecohabitat chart in not only evaluating but also
predicting the linkage between the species distributions and the ensuing geoenvironments. Hence, the present findings, together with
the developed chart will effectively contribute to a new horizon of the performance-based geoenvironmental assessment, design and
management for the conservation and restoration of habitats with rich ecosystems in intertidal zones.
RSUM : En utilisant notre nouvelle approche dans cologique Gotechnique, nous avons excut srie d'expriences de laboratoire
sur les systmes du benthos-sol avec six espces d'invertbrs qui ont appartenu Arthropoda, Mollusca et Annelida. Pour chacun des
activits fouisseuses, l a exist des optimales, transitionnelles et critiques geoenvironmental conditions qui ont diffr
considrablement entre espces, dimension du corps, et poids qui ont permis le dveloppement d'un diagramme de l'ecohabitat. Ce
diagramme a t valid travers champ tudes de l'intertidal naturels et artificiels. Les conclusions contribueront un nouvel horizon
de du geoenvironmental performance-base estimation et gestion pour la conservation et restauration d'habitats avec les cosystmes
riches dans les intertidal zones.
KEYWORDS: ecological geotechnics, geoenvironment, intertidal flat, ecosystem.
3069
1
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Figure 1. Ecohabitat chart and the interrelationships between optimal and critical geoenvironment among species in intertidal flats
a total of 835 individuals whose body sizes ranged from 2mm to Nojima intertidal flat in March 2009 and September 2010, at the
88mm and whose body weights ranged from 0.004g to 31.6g. Shirakawa intertidal flat in September 2009, at the Isumigawa
The experimental results are summarized in Fig. 1. This intertidal flat in August 2009, at the Naha intertidal flat in June
figure shows three burrowing regions, namely, an optimal and December 2009 and February and September 2011, and at
region (below OP) where all individuals burrowed, a the Tokuyama artificial intertidal flat in September 2010 and
transitional region (between OP and CR) where burrowing June 2011. At each intertidal flat, we measured the spatial
success and failure mixed, and a critical region (above CR) distributions of suction, groundwater level and vane shear
where all individuals failed to burrow, in light of the vane shear strength, and collected undisturbed samples of surficial
strength. The associated suction ranges for the two different sediments of 50mm thickness, and subjected them to a series of
relative densities, 40% and 80%, were obtained on the basis of laboratory soil tests to determine their grain size distributions,
the calibration experiments of the tidal flat soils. The data are water content ratio w, specific gravity Gs, void ratio e, relative
plotted for each species and growth stage as characterized by density Dr and the degree of saturation Sr = Gs w/e. At each
the individual weights. Note here that the threshold condition location of the geophysical measurements described above, we
represents the situation where the sand bubbler crab cannot took four core samples of 200mm diameter and 100mm
form burrows without suction. Figure 1 shows that for all the thickness to obtain the density distributions (mean SE) of the
species and growth stages, there existed both suitable and two different bivalves of various growth stages, R.
critical conditions for burrowing, which differed considerably philippinarum (Manila clam) and M. veneriformis at the
between species in a complex manner. This burrowing Shirakawa intertidal flat, and the burrow density distributions of
performance chart is named here the ecohabitat chart, which the sand bubbler crab S. globosa and the decapod crustacean C.
will be clarified in detail below. japonica at the Naha and Isumigawa intertidal flats, and
measured and identified the species, individual densities and
weights for each category of Arthropoda, Mollusca, and
3 VERIFICATION OF ECOHABITAT CHART Annelida at the Tokuyama artificial intertidal flat. We compared
the species distributions with the corresponding geophysical
We performed field surveys at five natural and artificial measurements obtained through these field surveys and
intertidal flats located in Japan from 2009 to 2011. Specifically, laboratory tests, and analyzed them in light of the ecohabitat
we conducted integrated surveys of the geophysical environment chart developed in this study.
and the species distributions during spring low tides at the At all the five natural and artificial intertidal flats, there
3070
Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3071
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(a)
3072
A New Approach for Characterizing Shear Strength of Municipal Solid Waste
for Land Fill Design
Une nouvelle approche pour la caractrisation de la rsistance au cisaillement des dchets urbains
pour la conception des dcharges
Singh S.
Santa Clara University
ABSTRACT: Many researchers have characterized shear strength properties of municipal solid waste (MSW) by proposing Mohr-
Coulomb strength envelopes derived from their experimental data. Still others reported results in terms of the same parameters after
obtaining the data from back-calculations of failed landfills. A factor which has not been paid much attention to is the highly
compressible nature of MSW. Variability in the unit weights, due to high compressibility of MSW, observed in the samples tested at
increasing confining pressures invalidate the use of a common Mohr-Coulomb envelope for these samples. This paper critically
examines the impact of the high compressibility of MSW on the development of Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters. It is argued that
a single Mohr-Coulomb envelope does not account for the high compressibility of MSW. A new approach based upon the use of
Strength versus Depth plot has been proposed.
RSUM : De nombreux chercheurs ont caractris les proprits de rsistance au cisaillement des dchets urbains (MSW) en
proposant des enveloppes de rsistance de type Mohr-Coulomb issues de leurs donnes exprimentales. D'autres encore ont prsent
des valeurs obtenues par analyse inverse de ces mmes paramtres, partir de cas de glissements observs dans des dcharges. Un
facteur auquel n'a pas t accord beaucoup d'attention est la nature hautement compressible des dchets. La variabilit massique, du
fait de la forte compressibilit des dchets, qui est observe dans les chantillons soumis une pression de confinement croissante
invalide l'utilisation d'une enveloppe de Mohr-Coulomb pour ces chantillons. Cet article examine de manire critique l'impact de la
forte compressibilit des dchets sur le dveloppement des paramtres de rsistance de Mohr-Coulomb. Une enveloppe unique de
Mohr-Coulomb ne permet pas de tenir compte de la forte compressibilit des dchets. Une nouvelle approche base sur la dpendance
de la rsistance avec la profondeur est propose.
KEYWORDS: Municipal Solid Waste, Shear Strength, Mohr-Coulomb concept.
3073
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
calculationed data from case histories and in-situ testing than Coulombs theory might not be applicable to characterizing the
they did on laboratory data. Kavazanjian adopted a bilinear shear strength of MSW.
representation of the MSW shear strength using Mohr-Coulomb The cause of this controversy is that while shearing, the
parameters. Their data suggested that up to the normal stress of strength mobilization rates for MSW and soils are quite
30 kPa no increase in the shear strength was noted. different. The MSW behaves as a strain hardening material,
Accordingly, they suggested that at normal stress below 30 kPa, i.e., even at large shear strains, it will continue to mobilize
the Mohr-Coulomb parameters were = 0 and c = 24 kPa, and additional shear stress without exhibiting a leveling off or drop
above normal stress of 30 kPa, the parameters were c = 0 and in shear stress or developing a failure plane typical of soils. In
= 33. More recently, Kavanzanjian, 1999, Zekkos, 2005, and limit equilibrium analyses, such as what is used in slope
Bray et al., (2009), have characterized shear strength properties stability analysis, the basic assumption is that the peak strength
by proposing Mohr-Coulomb strength envelopes derived from mobilization occurs at the same time along the entire failure
their experimental data (Fig. 1). surface. Because of the incompatibility of strains at which peak
strength is mobilized in MSW, in soils, and along liner
interfaces, the limit equilibrium analyses need to use reduced
shear strength of MSW or the residual strength of soil and the
interfaces (Mitchell et al. 1995).
3074
Municipal Solid Waste. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical &
6 COMPRESSIBLITY OF MSW Environmental Engineering. June 2009.
Chen, Y., Zhan, T.L.T., and Ling, Wei-an, (2008), Mechanical
An additional factor which has not been paid much attention Properties of Municipal Solid Waste from Suzhou Landfill in China,
is the highly compressible nature of MSW. Technical Most of the test215 / Comit
Committee Proceedings
technique of Geo-Congress
215 2008, ASCE New Orleans March 9-
data on the shear strength of MSW has been presented without 12, 2008.
accounting for the significant volume changes that take place Fassett, J. B., Leonards, G.A., and Repetto, P. C. (1994)
associated with high confining pressures. Tests at high Geotechnical Properties of Municipal Solid Wastes and Their Use
confining pressures by Chen et al. (2008) (fig 3) showed that in Landfill Design, Proc. WasteTech 94, Charleston, SC, National
owing to the high compressibility of MSW, volume changes at Solid Waste Management Association, Washington, D.C.
It is of interest that every case history for which shear Howland,
7 J. D. and Landva, A. O. (1992), Stability Analysis of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
high confining pressures are significant. Accordingly, these
It
strength is of
was interest
found, that
yielded every
data case
with history
cohesion.for Itwhich
should shear
also 7 aACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Municipal Solid Waste Landfill. Proceedings, Stability and
high volume changes should result in changes in the unit weight Performance of Slopes
strength
and hencewas
be noted thatfound,
in thethe yielded
lowest
shear dataBray
cohesion
strength. withet
is cohesion.
(2009) Itnoted
reported
al. byshouldthatalso
Seed and
the Melanie Massie and and Paige Embankments
Rogalskis II, assistance
Vol, 2, Geotechnical
in the
be noted
Boulanger that the
(1992), lowest
and it is cohesion
the lower is
boundreported
for fiveby Seed
case and
studies Special Publication
Melanie
preparation Massie
of this No. 31,
and
paper Paige
is ASCE,
gratefullyNew
RogalskisYork, NY.assistance
acknowledged. in the
effect of unit weight on the shear strength is significant. Kavazanjian, of E., this
Jr., Matasovi, N., Bonaparte, R., and
Boulanger
reported by (1992),
Howland and it
andis the lower
Landva
Accordingly, the large compressibility of MSW would bound
(1992). for
All five
the case
case studies
history preparation paper is gratefully acknowledged.
Schmertmann, G. R. (1995) Evaluation of MSW Properties for
reported
data led by
invalidate theHowland
to the and
determination
attempt to useLandva that(1992).
a single MohrAll
MSW the indeed
does
Coulomb caseenvelope
history
have Seismic Analysis Accepted for publication, Proc. GeoEnvironment
data led onto samples
the determination 8 REFERENCES
cohesive
to tests properties. at widelynothat
However, clear
varyingMSW unitdoes
trendline indeed
emerged
weights have
at from
high 2000, Special Geotechnical Publication, ASCE.
8 REFERENCES
cohesive properties.
the data, although However,
a general no clear
decrease in trendline
cohesion emerged from
as the friction Kavazanjian, E,D.,
Jr.,Zekkos,
Mataxovic, N. and Bachus,
Bray, Jonathan D., Kavazanjian, E.,R.C. (1999).
the
angle data, although
increases wasa observed.
general decrease in cohesion as the friction Large-diameter static
Athanasopoulos,
Bray, G. A.,and
Jonathan D., Zekkos, cyclicM.
Riemer,
D., laboratory
Kavazanjian, E., thtesting
F. (2010) ShearofStrength
Municipal
of
angle increases was observed. Solid
MunicipalWaste. Proceedings,
Solid Sardinia 1999, 7 ofInternational Waste
Athanasopoulos, G.Waste.
A., Riemer, ASCE M. Journal
F. (2010) Geotechnical
Shear Strength &
of
6 COMPRESSIBLITY OF MSW ManagementSolid
Environmental
Municipal and Landfill
Waste.Symposium,
Engineering. June
ASCE 2009. 4-8 October.
Journal of Geotechnical &
6 COMPRESSIBLITY OF MSW Mitchell,
Chen, Y., R.A.,
Zhan,and
Environmental Mitchel,
T.L.T., J.K.,June
and Ling,
Engineering. (1992)
Wei-an,
2009.Stability Evaluation
(2008), Mechanical
An additional factor which has not been paid much attention of
Chen, Waste
Properties
Y., Zhan,Landfills,
of T.L.T.,
Municipal Proceedings
and Solid
Ling, Waste of ASCE
Wei-an, from Specialty
Suzhou
(2008), Conference
Landfill
Mechanical on
in China,
An highly
is the additional factor which
compressible has not
nature been paidMost
of MSW. muchofattention
the test Stability
Proceedings
Properties and ofPerformanceSolid of
Geo-Congress
of Municipal Slopes
2008,
Waste ASCE
from and New
SuzhouEmbankments
Orleans
Landfill March II,
9-
in China,
is
datatheonhighly compressible
the shear strength ofnatureMSWofhasMSW. Most of without
been presented the test Berkeley,
12, 2008. California,
Proceedings June 28 July
of Geo-Congress 2008,1.ASCE New Orleans March 9-
data on the for
accounting shearthestrength
significantof MSWvolume haschanges
been presented
that take without
place Singh,
12, S.
Fassett, J.and
B., Murphy,
2008. Leonards,B.J.,G.A., (1990), Evaluation
and Repetto, P. C.of the Stability
(1994)
of Sanitary
Geotechnical
Fassett, J. B., Landfills,
Properties
Leonards, In:ofand
G.A., Geotechnics
Municipal
Repetto, of C.
Waste
Solid
P. Fillsand
Wastes
(1994) Theory and
Their Use
accounting
associated for withthehigh
significant
confiningvolume changes Tests
pressures. that take at place
high
Practice,
in LandfillASTM
Geotechnical Design,STPProc.
1070,
Properties pp. 240-258.
ofWasteTech
Municipal 94,
SolidCharleston,
Wastes and SC,Their
National
Use
associated with high
confining pressures by Chenconfining pressures.
et al. (2008) (fig Tests
3) showed at high
that Zekkos (Zeccos), D. P. (2005), Evaluation 94, of static and dynamic
confining
owing to the pressures by Chen et al.of(2008)
high compressibility MSW,(fig 3) showed
volume changesthatat Solid
in WasteDesign,
Landfill Management Proc. Association,
WasteTech Washington,
Charleston,D.C.SC, National
properties
Howland,
Solid Waste of
J. D. and Municipal Solid-Waste,
Landva, A.Association,
Management Dissertation
O. (1992), Stability
Washington, submitted
Analysis
D.C. of in
owing to the highpressures
high confining compressibility of MSW, Accordingly,
are significant. volume changes at
these partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
a Municipal Solid Waste Landfill. Proceedings,
Howland, J. D. and Landva, A. O. (1992), Stability Analysis of Stability and
high volume
confining pressures
changes shouldare significant.
result in changes Accordingly, these
in the unit weight Philosophy, Department andofEmbankments
Civil and Environmental Engineering,
aPerformance
Municipal of Slopes
Solid Waste Landfill. II, Vol, 2, Stability
Proceedings, Geotechnical
and
high volume
and hence in changes
the shearshould
strength.result
Brayin et
changes in the
al. (2009) unitthat
noted weight
the University
Special of
Publication
Performance California,
No. and
of Slopes 31, ASCE,Berkeley, Fall.
New York,
Embankments II,NY. Also2, Geotechnical
Vol, available at
and
effecthence of in theweight
unit shear strength.
on the Brayshearet al. (2009)isnoted
strength that the
significant. http://waste.geoengineer.org
Kavazanjian,
Special E., Jr., Matasovi,
Publication No. 31, ASCE,N., Bonaparte,
New York, R., NY.
and
effect
Accordingly,of unit the weight
largeon compressibility
the shear strength of isMSW significant.
would Schmertmann,
Kavazanjian, E., Jr.,G.Matasovi,
R. (1995)N.,Evaluation
Bonaparte, R., of MSW
and Properties for
Accordingly,
invalidate the attemptthe large to usecompressibility of MSWenvelope
a single Mohr Coulomb would Seismic Analysis
Schmertmann, G. Accepted
R. (1995)for publication,ofProc.
Evaluation MSW GeoEnvironment
Properties for
invalidate
to tests onthesamplesattempt atto widely
use a single
varyingMohr unitCoulomb
weightsenvelope
at high 2000, Special
Seismic Geotechnical
Analysis AcceptedPublication, ASCE.
for publication, Proc. GeoEnvironment
to testsstresses.
normal on samples at widely varying unit weights at high Kavazanjian,
2000, SpecialE, Jr., Mataxovic,Publication,
Geotechnical N. and Bachus, ASCE.R.C. (1999).
Figure 3 Compression curves for the samples taken from BH5 (chen Large-diameter
Kavazanjian, E, Jr., static
Mataxovic,and cyclic
N. and laboratory
Bachus, R.C.testing
(1999).of Municipal
et al, 2008). Solid Waste. Proceedings,
Large-diameter Sardinia
static and cyclic 1999, 7thtesting
laboratory International Waste
of Municipal
Management
Solid Waste.and Landfill Symposium,
Proceedings, Sardinia 1999, 7th International Waste
4-8 October.
Mitchell, R.A., and
Management andMitchel,
LandfillJ.K., (1992) Stability
Symposium, 4-8 October.Evaluation
It is therefore suggested that for high landfills, a plot of of Waste
Mitchell, R.A.,Landfills,
and Mitchel, Proceedings
J.K., (1992)of ASCE Specialty
Stability Conference on
Evaluation
Stability
of and Performance
Waste Landfills, Proceedings of Slopes
of ASCEand Embankments
Specialty Conference on
II,
shear strength verses depth can better represent the effect of
Berkeley, and
Stability California, June 28 ofJuly
Performance 1.
Slopes and Embankments II,
compressibility, unit weight, and high confining pressures than Singh, S. and California,
Murphy, B.J., (1990), Evaluation of the Stability
Berkeley, June 28 July 1.
a single Mohr Coulomb envelope. Also, field measurements of of Sanitary
Singh, Landfills,
S. and Murphy, B.J.,In: Geotechnics
(1990), of Waste
Evaluation of theFills Theory and
Stability
density and shear strength supplemented with back calculation Practice,
of Sanitary ASTM STP 1070,
Landfills, pp. 240-258.of Waste Fills Theory and
In: Geotechnics
of well documented case histories appear to be the most logical Zekkos (Zeccos),
Practice, ASTM D. STP
P. (2005),
1070, Evaluation
pp. 240-258. of static and dynamic
mean of obtaining MSW strength information. These are some properties
Zekkos (Zeccos), of D.Municipal
P. (2005),Solid-Waste,
Evaluation of staticDissertation submitted in
and dynamic
of the important issues which should be considered when partial fulfillment
properties of the requirements
of Municipal Solid-Waste,forDissertation
the degree submitted
of Doctor of
in
applying geotechnical considerations in characterization of Philosophy,
partial Department
fulfillment of the of Civil and Environmental
requirements for the degree of Engineering,
Doctor of
shear strength of MSW. University of
Philosophy, California,
Department Berkeley,
of Civil Fall.
and Environmental Also Engineering,
available at
http://waste.geoengineer.org
University of California, Berkeley, Fall. Also available at
http://waste.geoengineer.org
6 CONCLUSIONS
1. It isstresses.
normal suggested that due to the large compressibility of MSW
at high
normal
Figure normal stresses,
stresses.
3 Compression a the
curves for single Mohr
samples takenCoulomb
from BH5 shear
(chen
envelope
et al, 2008). for a landfill may not be applicable.
Figure 3 Compression curves for the samples taken from BH5 (chen
et al, 2008).
2. The use of strength versus depth plot is more appropriate for
characterizing
It is therefore shear strength
suggested that offorMSW, especiallyafor
high landfills, plothigh
of
landfills.
It
shear is therefore
strength suggested
verses thatbetter
depth can for high landfills,
represent the aeffect
plot of
shear strength verses
compressibility, depth can
unit weight, and better representpressures
high confining the effectthan
of
compressibility, unit weight,
a single Mohr Coulomb and high
envelope. confining
Also, pressures than
field measurements of
adensity
single and
Mohr Coulomb
shear envelope.
strength Also, field
supplemented with measurements
back calculation of
density and shear strength
of well documented supplemented
case histories appear towith
be back calculation
the most logical
of wellofdocumented
mean obtaining MSWcase histories appear to be the
strength information. most
These arelogical
some
mean
of theofimportant
obtaining MSW
issues strength information.
which should These are when
be considered some
of the important
applying issuesconsiderations
geotechnical which shouldinbecharacterization
considered when of
applying geotechnical
shear strength of MSW. considerations in characterization of
shear strength of MSW.
6 CONCLUSIONS
6 CONCLUSIONS
1. It is suggested that due to the large compressibility of MSW
1. It ishigh
at suggested
normalthatstresses,
due to the large compressibility
a single Mohr Coulomb of MSW
shear
at high normal
envelope stresses,
for a landfill may anotsingle Mohr Coulomb shear
be applicable.
envelope for a landfill may not be applicable.
2. The use of strength versus depth plot is more appropriate for
2. characterizing
The use of strength
shearversus depth
strength of plot
MSW,is more appropriate
especially for
for high
characterizing
landfills. shear strength of MSW, especially for high
landfills.
3075
The role of molecular biology in geotechnical engineering
Le rle de la biologie molculaire en gotechnique
ABSTRACT: This paper reviews techniques from molecular biology for characterising microbial populations that are accessible to
Geotechnical or Geo-Environmental Engineers. With reference to data from contaminated land studies, it discusses which techniques
it might be appropriate to use in an engineering context, how the data generated can be visualised and interpreted, and the dangers of
over interpretation. Finally it reports on the capabilities of the latest high throughput next-generation sequencing platforms, and
speculates on what engineering developments may result from this technological advance.
RSUM: Ce document passe en revue les techniques de la biologie molculaire pour la caractrisation des populations microbiennes
qui sont accessibles aux ingnieurs gotechniques ou go-environnementaux. En faisant rfrence aux donnes provenant d'tudes de
terres contamines, il aborde les techniques quil pourrait tre appropri d'utiliser dans un contexte d'ingnierie, la manire dont les
donnes gnres peuvent tre visualises et interprtes, et les dangers dune sur-interprtation. Enfin, il rend compte de la capacit
des plateformes les plus rcentes de squenage haut dbit de prochaine gnration, et s'interroge les dveloppements techniques
quil pourrait rsulter de cette avance technologique.
KEYWORDS: Geo-environment, Molecular Biology, DNA, rRNA, 16S gene sequencing
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
steps. The first step is denaturation, which involves the highest DNA between genes since these are often very variable in
temperature in the cycle (typically 94-95C; Promega, 2012; length and/or base sequence even for quite closely related
Roche, 2011a). This separates the strands of double stranded species. An example of this approach is rRNA Intergenic Spacer
DNA to act a template for DNA synthesis. The second step is analysis (RISA), which is often used for community
annealing, which involves the lowest temperature in the cycle. fingerprinting with the aim of identifying when there has been a
In this step PCR primers become attached to the template DNA. significant change in the microbial population.
PCR primers are short fragments of DNA which are designed
and synthesised to match to the ends of a target section of DNA,
and serve as a starting point for DNA replication. The annealing 3 CHARACTERISING MICROBIAL POPULATIONS
temperature depends on the properties of the primers being
Simple PCR based techniques can identify that a particular gene
used, but is usually 4265C (Brown, 2001). The third step is
is present within a microbial population, and to fingerprint
extension where double stranded DNA is reconstructed base-
bacterial populations to identify significant changes in popula-
pair by base-pair from dNTPs in the reaction mixture by the
tion over time or under different conditions (section 4), but
polymerase enzyme acting at the 3 end of the annealed primer
actually identifying the bacterial species present in a sample
(typical temperature 68-72C). This three step cycle is repeated
requires some method of separating out the individual DNA
many times, with the amount of the target DNA fragment
fragments in an environmental sample, and sequencing them.
doubling (in theory) in each cycle. In practice there is initially
The traditional approach to this problem is cloning and
exponential amplification, but it levels off with increasing
sequencing (see e.g. Islam et al. 2004). This approach starts
numbers of cycles as the polymerase enzyme loses activity and
with a PCR reaction on environmental DNA using broad
the reagents (dNTPs and primers) are consumed until,
specificity primers that target a suitable gene (usually the 16S
eventually, no further product is produced. If the primers have
rRNA gene). The resulting PCR product contains multiple
been appropriately designed and the reaction conditions
copies of the target gene from all the species in the sample.
optimised only the target DNA fragment should be amplified.
These double stranded DNA fragments are then ligated to
The very high amplifications achieved by repeated cycling
(joined-into) a standard cloning vector (e.g. pGEM-T, TOPO,
make PCR a very powerful technique, but users need to be
etc.) to form circular double-stranded DNA molecules called
aware of potential artefacts that can arise. The three main ones
plasmids. This is achieved with standard molecular biology kits
are contamination, polymerase errors and bias. The highly
available from suppliers such as Promega or Life Technologies.
sensitive nature of PCR means that even low levels of
Each plasmid will contain a different DNA fragment from the
contaminating DNA (from other samples or the laboratory
PCR reaction. The plasmid is then transformed (inserted) into
environment) can lead to amplification of products that dont
specially weakened laboratory strains of E-coli that lack
originate from the sample. Thus scrupulous cleanliness and the
resistance to antibiotics. The standard cloning vectors are
use of negative controls (where no DNA sample is added to the
designed to confer antibiotic resistance to any cell into which
reaction) are mandatory. Small errors and slight biases in a
they are inserted, allowing selection of those cells that take up a
single amplification cycle can over the course of many cycles
plasmid. An important feature of the transformation is that it is
lead to gross distortions in the representation of different
very inefficient (which is why selection is necessary), and thus
fragments in the final PCR product. Thus, as a rule, data from
it is unlikely that more than one plasmid is inserted into a cell.
an analysis involving a PCR reaction should be treated as
The cells are then plated out on agar plates containing the
qualitative rather than quantitative (the exception being where
antibiotic, so that only cells containing the plasmid grow. If this
the more advanced tool of qPCR is used). PCR errors can arise
is done with care then bacterial colonies will grow on the plates
due DNA polymerase errors (the Taq polymerase error rate is
so that each colony has grown from a single cell, and will thus
~3x10-5 per nucleotide per duplication; Acinas et al. 2004), the
contain copies of a single DNA fragment from the
formation of chimeric molecules, and the formation of
environmental sample. These cells can be harvested, and the
heteroduplex molecules. The best way to avoid this type of
plasmid they contain sent for gene sequencing. Figure 1 shows
problem is to avoid unnecessary over-amplification because
the bacterial population of soil from near a lime kiln waste tip
such errors are cumulative (i.e. use the smallest possible number
determined by this technique (Burke et al. 2012). This showed
of PCR amplification cycles compatible with the intended
that the bacterial population of the sample of buried soil was
application; Qiu et al. 2001; Acinas et al. 2005). For some
dominated by a single, unidentified species within the
purposes it may also be necessary to use a proof-reading
Comamonadaceae family of -proteobacteria. Determination of
polymerase enzyme with a far lower intrinsic error rate than
the geochemical conditions allowed this study to postulate a
Taq. PCR bias arises because of intrinsic differences in the
link between anaerobic respiration of this specie and the
amplification efficiency of different templates (e.g. due to
differences in the GC-content). In late stages of amplification
self-annealing of the most abundant templates can hinder their
further amplification. PCR bias is reduced by using high
template concentrations, performing fewer PCR cycles (Polz &
Cavanaugh 1998) and by using a thermocycler that ramps
quickly between the cycling temperatures (Acinas et al. 2005).
In Geo-Environmental Engineering PCR is most frequently
used to characterise microorganisms or microbial populations.
PCR is often used to amplify the same section of the same gene
of different species of microorganisms in an environmental
sample. The 16S rRNA gene is frequently used to identify
microbes, and to study diversity, because it is present in all
prokaryotic organisms (those without a nucleus, like bacteria).
In this case the primers are targeted at two conserved regions of
the gene where the base sequence is almost identical between
widely different organisms because that part of the molecule
encodes a function necessary for life so that the intervening
region, which is more divergent, is amplified. The difference in
sequence between the divergent regions can be used to infer Figure 1. Phylogenetic diversity of 16S rRNA gene sequences extracted
evolutionary distance. PCR is also used to amplify sections of from sample. Key shows the number of OTUs within each phylum
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Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
reduction of nitrate in the groundwater. lengths than the approach described above, and the post
DNA sequencing is relatively expensive, and therefore sequencing analysis to identify the gene of interest is more
cheaper techniques for monitoring microbial populations are complex, but it should be noted that this is a particularly fast
useful in order to decide whether more detailed analysis is moving area of scientific development, and direct sequencing of
required. There are several ways of fingerprinting a microbial environmental samples may become the norm in the near future.
population, the most useful of which, due to its simplicity of use
and low cost, is probably RISA (Borneman, 1997). RISA
exploits differences in the length of bacterial DNA between two 4 PCR TECHNIQUES FOR IDENTIFYING THE
genes: the 16S and 23S rRNA genes. This varies between 150 PRESENCE OF A MICROORGANISM
and 1500bp. The analysis uses a PCR that amplifies the PCR is also used to identify the presence of a particular gene
intergenic spacer region using primers that target conserved within a bacterial population. An example of this approach is to
sections of DNA (within the 16S and 23S genes) that flank the use a PCR reaction using primers that target the invA gene to
region (Cardinale, 2004). The PCR product is then size identify the presence of Salmonella in a sample as this gene has
separated using agarose gel electrophoresis; the patterns in the very high specificity to Salmonella strains (Sunar et al. 2009).
bands that are visible on the gel image are a fingerprint for the Figure 3 shows a gel image of a product from a PCR targeting
bacterial population. Figure 2 shows a RISA gel image from a invA gene of Salmonella (product at 285 bp). In this experiment
study of a soil/groundwater system investigating the effect of DNA from an environmental sample was mixed with increasing
different amendments (bicarbonate and acetate) on the concentrations of a competitor fragment (length 183bp), so that
microbial population. The gel image shows that microbial the number of gene copies could be estimated (so called
populations were significantly different 175 days after competitive PCR).
amendment.
High-throughput sequencing (or next-generation sequencing)
technologies read many thousands of sequences in parallel. 5 IDENTIFYING THAT A SPECIFIC GENE IS BEING
There are a variety of platforms for high-throughput EXPRESSED UNDER THE PREVAILING CONDITIONS
sequencing (see Metzker 2010 for a review), but for brevity this
paper will focus on 454 pyrosequencing as, possibly, the most DNA contains the genes of an organism but for these genes to
straight-forward approach to creating a 16S rRNA gene library. perform their actions in the cell they must first be copied into
It employs an initial PCR reaction on a DNA sample to isolate RNA which is then usually converted into proteins. Proteins
the gene fragment of interest and attach adapter sequences to may be structural, or carry out chemical reactions. This process
both ends of that fragment. Unique identifier codes can also be of copying genes into RNA is called transcription and when a
incorporated between the adaptor and the gene fragment at this gene is transcribed it is said to be expressed. Some genes are
stage so that several samples can be sequenced at same time and expressed under all or almost all conditions others are only
separated during subsequent analysis (potentially offering a cost expressed in specific situations, for example in the presence of a
saving). During pyrosequencing fragments of the template DNA particular electron donor or acceptor. To monitor gene
are isolated by attaching them to microscopic DNA capture expression RT-PCR is commonly used. RT stands for reverse
beads using the adaptor. These beads are suspended inside water transcription and describes the process of copying RNA into
droplets in an oil solution in separate picoliter-volume wells on DNA. In most cells information flows one way from DNA to
a multi-well plate. A PCR reaction using a luciferase then RNA to protein (the central dogma) but enzymes called reverse
generates a light signal from each well as individual nucleotides transcriptases, isolated from some viruses, can copy RNA into
are added to a DNA strand, which can be read in parallel. DNA. PCR only works on DNA so to amplify sequences
The Roche GS FLX Titanium system can sequence derived from RNA isolated from a sample an RT step has to be
fragments of up to 600bp, including the adaptor sequences carried out first. Then PCR is carried out using primers for the
(Roche, 2011b), which is why it is suited to 16S rRNA library gene whose expression is to be tested. This information will
construction. However, because it requires an initial PCR to generally be qualitative unless conditions are carefully
optimised to obtain quantitative data. Quantitative or qPCR
generally monitors amplification in real time to ensure that the
level of product in different reactions are compared within the
exponential phase of the cycle, and by comparison to known
standards either a relative or absolute number of gene copies
can be calculated. qPCR allows monitoring of 10s of genes but
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
6 GENE SEQUENCE DATA ANALYSIS metabolism to bring about desired aims. PCR based
methodologies permit the detection of the microbes present and
Sequence data is usually provided in a text file in FASTA how they change with changing conditions. PCR is relatively
format, where there a description line and then the sequence of easy to use in an engineering setting and the availability of
nucleotides reported as single-letter codes (A,G,C,T). In a reagents in kit form along (with detailed protocols) means that
Geoenvironmental context, the purpose of sequencing a gene is the barriers to adoption are reasonably low. However this is a
usually to identify the species from which the sequence came. rapidly moving field and the advent of high throughput deep
This is done by comparison with open-access databases such as sequencing technologies have led to the development of
GenBank (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/), the EMBL metagenomics and metatranscriptomics which investigates
nucleotide sequence database (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/embl/), or the composite genetic potential of an ecological niche.
the DNA Data Bank of Japan (http://www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp/). Instrumentation and cost of sample analysis are still relatively
These databases are maintained by public bodies in the USA, high but likely to fall as capacity and technology increase. The
Europe and Japan collaborating as the International Nucleotide sheer volume of data generated poses a significant challenge in
Sequence Database Collaboration (http://www.insdc.org/). terms of bioinformatics and fully exploiting these technologies
Sequences obtained from samples can be compared with will require multidisciplinary collaborations between engineers,
sequences in the database using a variety of free, public domain molecular biologists and informaticians.
software. BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) makes
pair-wise comparisons with sequences in the chosen database
and reports the statistically most significant matches. 8 REFERENCES
SEQMATCH available from the Ribosomal Database Project
(http://rdp.cme.msu.edu/index.jsp) performs a similar function, Acinas S.G. et al. 2004. Fine-scale phylogenetic architecture of a
and readily allows the user to restrict the quality of sequences to complex bacterial community. Nature 430(6999), 551-554
Acinas, S. G. et al. 2005. "PCR-Induced Sequence Artifacts and Bias:
which matches are reported (e.g. type species, isolates, long Insights from Comparison of Two 16S rRNA Clone Libraries
read lengths, good quality). Constructed from the Same Sample." Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
CLASSIFIER, which is also available from the Ribosomal 71(12): 8966-8969.
Database Project, is a nave Bayesian Classifier that can place Borneman, J. & Triplett, E.W. 1997. Molecular microbial diversity in
bacterial 16S rRNA sequences within Bergeys Taxonomic soils from eastern Amazonia: evidence for unusual microorganisms
Outline of the Prokaryotes (Wang et al. 2007). It is easy to use, and microbial population shifts associated with deforestation. Appl.
and can be used for classifying single rRNA gene sequences or Environ. Microbiol. 63:2647-2653
for the analysis of libraries of thousands of sequences. Burke, I.T. et al 2012. Biogeochemical reduction processes in a hyper-
For some types of analysis it may be necessary to align alkaline affected leachate soil profile. Geomicrobiology Journal 29
(9), 769779.
sequences from the same gene of different species prior to Cardinale, M. et al. 2004 Comparison of different primer sets for use in
detailed analysis. An alignment is a way of arranging gene automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis of complex
sequences to identify regions of similarity that indicate bacterial communities. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70, 6147-6156.
functional, structural, or evolutionary relationships between the Krebs, C.J. 1999. Ecological Methodology. Addison-Welsey
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software available for aligning gene sequences, two of the more Islam, F.S.. et al. 2004. Role of metal-reducing bacteria in arsenic
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MUSCLE (MUltiple Sequence Comparison by Log- Marchetti, A., et al. 2012 Comparative metatranscriptomics identifies
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varying iron availability. PNAS www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073
Bioinformatics Institute website (amongst other sources). /pnas.1118408109
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displayed as phylogenetic trees using software such as Nature Reviews Genetics 11, 31-46.
TreeView (http://taxonomy.zoology.gla.ac.uk/rod/treeview.html Mount, D.W. 2004. Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis.
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(OTUs) using software such as MOTHUR (http://www. Polz, M. F. and C. M. Cavanaugh 1998. "Bias in Template-to-Product
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(which can also be undertaken by MOTHUR) can characterize Mutations, and Heteroduplexes with 16S rRNA Gene-Based
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Nature Review Genetics 10 57-63
3080
A System of dehydration, purification, and reduction for dredged soil Release
inhibition of nutrient salts from bed mud using natural zeolite
Un systme de dshydratation, d'puration et de rduction de sols dragus - Prvention du
relchement de sels nutritifs des lits de boue l'aide d'une zolithe naturelle -
ABSTRACT: In a closed water body such as a lake, many nutrient salts such as nitrogen and phosphorus are contained in bed mud
deposited on the bottom. Their release is one of the causes of eutrophication. We propose a zero-emission system to preserve the
ecosystem in a closed water body. Applying the system obviates landfill sites for dredged soil and reduces countermeasure costs. In
the system, the bed mud is dredged and then reduced to the bottom after dehydration and purification treatments that reduce their
volume and absorb nutrient salts. To realize a suitable bottom environment, reclaimed soil requires moderate flexibility. Consolidation
tests were conducted on the bed mud with natural zeolite powder as absorbent, and column tests were also conducted for release
inhibition of nutrient salts on the treated soil and lake water. Based on test results, the effectiveness of dehydration and purification
was investigated. Main conclusions are as follows: Applying about 30 kPa of low consolidation pressure, water contents approach the
liquid limit and the volume decreases to about two-thirds. For simulating the proposed system, the release of nutrient salts is inhibited
and development of algae is prevented.
RSUM : Dans un plan d'eau ferm tel qu'un lac, le lit de boue dpos au fond contient des sels nutritifs tels que l'azote et le
phosphore. Leur libration est l'une des causes de l'eutrophisation. Nous proposons un dispositif sans mission pour prserver ce type
d'cosystme. Le systme permet d'viter la mise en dcharge de ces sols dragus et rduit les cots conomiques. Dans ce principe, le
lit de boue est dragu puis redpos au fond aprs dshydratation et purification pour en rduire son volume et absorber les sels
nutritifs. Pour raliser un environnement convenable au fond du plan deau, le sol rcupr exige une souplesse modre. Des tests de
consolidation sur de la boue avec de la poudre de zolithe naturelle comme absorbant ont t effectus, ainsi que des essais en colonne
pour inhiber le relchement de sels nutritifs dans le sol trait et leau du lac. L'efficacit de la dshydratation et de la purification ont
t tudies sur la base de ces rsultats. Les principales conclusions sont que l'application d'une pression de consolidation faible
d'environ 30 kPa permet d'approcher la limite de liquidit des sols dont le volume diminue d'environ deux tiers. Lavantage du
systme propos est de prvenir le relchement de sels nutritifs et le dveloppement dalgues.
KEYWORDS: closed water body, eutrophication, nutrient salts, bed mud, natural zeolite, consolidation, protection of ecosystem
1 INTRODUCTION
In a closed water body such as a lake, eutrophication is
accelerated by nutrient salts such as nitrogen and phosphorus
that inflow from rivers and which are released from bed mud
deposited on the bottom. Many algae develop in the water,
causing problems such as water pollution and offensive odors.
Dredging of bed mud has been used as a countermeasure.
However, dredging work is rarely conducted because of high
transportation costs of dredged soil with high water content.
Moreover, landfill sites are scarce.
As described herein, we propose a zero-emission system for
ecosystem preservation in a closed water body. The system, as Figure 1. Proposed zero-emission system.
shown in Figure 1, dredges, dehydrates, purifies, and reduces
bed mud. First, the system outline is discussed. Next, (1) To remove nutrient salts, heavy metals, etc. from the bed
consolidation tests and column tests of bed mud simulating this mud, the bed mud is dredged.
system were conducted to verify the system effectiveness. (2) By adding an environment-friendly adsorbent such as
Based on test results, dehydration, volume reduction, and natural material to the bed mud, nutrient salts and heavy
release inhibition of nutrient salts from the treated soil were metals are adsorbed and immobilized.
discussed. (3) The volume of bed mud is reduced by dehydration, and
nutrient salts and heavy metals are removed with drained
water. After water quality analysis and suitable treatment,
2 A ZERO-EMISSION SYSTEM FOR ECOSYSTEM
the drainage water is discharged.
PROTECTION
(4) The treated soil is reclaimed to the bottom of the water and a
Figure 1 shows an outline of the proposed system, which has zero-emission system is realized. The soil should be
three processes: (a) dredging, (b) dehydration and purification, deformed flexibly with self-weight to avoid increasing the
and (c) reduction. The system concept is the following. volume of reclaimed soil and release of nutrient salts from
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(c) Electron
(a) Natural zeolite consists (b) Natural zeolite micrograph
primarily of mordenite powder (under 0.5 mm) (MINDECO, 2012)
Photo 1. Natural zeolite (Shimane Prefecture, Japan).
100
Percentage finer than
80
weight (%)
60
40
20 Bed mud in Lake Suwa Figure 3. Column test apparatus and test conditions.
(wi=255.0, 295.6%)
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 Table 4. Conditions of column tests.
Grain size (mm) (log scale) Case Test conditions
Figure 2. Grading curve of bed mud sampled in Lake Suwa. Case A Bed mud without treatment (water content, wi=255.0%)
Case B Bed mud (w0=160.3%) dehydrated by consolidation
Table 1. Physical properties of bed mud sampled in Lake Suwa. Case C Bed mud (w0=152.0%), to which was added 10% of natural
wi 255.0295.6% Li 15.416.2% zeolite powder for dry mass and dehydrated by consolidation
s 2.5202.582 g/cm3 Clay fraction (%) 3040%
wL 155.0165.0% Silt fraction (%) 5869% effective as a bacteria carrier to resolve nutrient salts in the
wP 102.0104.2% Sand fraction (%) 12% water (e.g. Popovici et al., 2011).
IP 53.061.3
3.2 Bed mud and lake water
Table 2. Nutrient salt contents of dry bed mud.
Bed mud was dredged using a grab type sampler at Lake Suwa
Total nitrogen, T-N 39904200 mg/kg
in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. Lake water was sampled at the
Total phosphorus, T-P 18002000 mg/kg lakefront of Lake Suwa. The particle size distribution and
Ammonia nitrogen, NH4-N 248258 mg/kg physical properties of bed mud and content of the nutrient salts
in bed mud and lake water are presented, respectively, in Figure
Table 3. Nutrient salt contents of lake water. 2 and Tables 13. In that figure and tables, wi stands for the
Total nitrogen, T-N 0.480.52 mg/L initial water content at dredging, s signifies the density of soil
Total phosphorus, T-P 0.0140.022 mg/L particle, wL denotes the liquid limit, wP represents the plasticity
Ammonia nitrogen, NH4-N 0.030.09 mg/L limit, IP is the plasticity index, and Li is the ignition loss. Tables
Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD 2.83.8 mg/L 2 and 3 show contents of nutrient salts in bed mud as 3000
150,000 times greater than those in lake water. To improve
no dredged bed mud. Simultaneously, a suitable eutrophication, countermeasures against bed mud are required.
environment for living things on the bottom of water, such
as plants, insect nymphs, and shellfish, is formed. 3.3 Consolidation test
(5) Increased water depth, release control of the nutrient salts,
and immobilization of heavy metals are realized, and an Two cases of the consolidation test of bed mud were conducted
ecosystem is preserved. with and without natural zeolite powder. In one case,
consolidation was conducted without natural zeolite (Case B in
column test). In another case, 10% of natural zeolite powder
3 SAMPLES AND TEST PROCEDURES (see Photo 1(b)), of which particle size is less than 0.5 mm, for
the dry mass of bed mud was added and consolidation was
conducted (Case C in column test). Consolidation pressure was
3.1 Natural zeolite increased step by step and the loading was continued until the
water content calculated using drainage mass became wL. Water
Natural zeolite powder with particles smaller than 0.5 mm quality analysis of the drainage water was conducted after
produced in Shimane Prefecture, Japan was used as an consolidation. Analytical items are the total nitrogen (T-N),
environment-friendly adsorbent (see Photo 1). The main total phosphorus (T-P), ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N), and
mineral composition is mordenite (see Photo 1(a)), a light green, chemical oxygen demand (COD). The analytical method
natural, inexpensive, and safe mineral produced from a mine. followed Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS).
Zeolite, which contains large cavities and channels of angstrom
scale (JSPS, 2006), exhibits characteristics of ion exchange and 3.4 Column test for release of nutrient salts
gas adsorption within its structural space. For the natural zeolite
used for this study, the cavity size was 6.77.0 (Photo 1(c), Three column tests were conducted in reference to a manual of
(MINDECO, 2012)) and the cation exchange capacity is CEC = the Japan Sediments Management Association (2003). The
120180 meq/100 g. The main application is soil improvement, outline and conditions of the test are presented in Figure 3 and
water quality purification, etc., and it is useful to absorb Table 4. The bed mud was filled to 30 cm height into the acrylic
ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and nitrous acid from water, which cylinder with 20.5 cm inner diameter and 100 cm height.
cause bad odors (MINDECO, 2012). Moreover zeolite is Moreover, lake water was poured carefully to 50 cm on the bed
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Technical Committee 215 / Comit technique 215
10 Case C 10
about two-thirds and the water content becomes about wL. The 14
0.3
bed mud condition changes to a moderate consistency with
flexibility by self-weight (see Photo 2(b)). The bed mud with wL 8 8 12
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1.5
Water quality standards
1 for lakes: 0.6 mg/L
5 CONCLUSIONS
0.5
A zero-emission system was proposed for preservation of the
0 ecosystem in a closed water body. The system has three
processes: (a) dredging, (b) dehydration and purification, and
Case A: Bed mud with no treatment
NH4-N (mg/L)
2 (c) reduction. Consolidation tests and column tests for bed mud
Case B: Dehydrated bed mud
Case C: Dehydrated and purified bed mud and lake water sampled in Lake Suwa, Japan were conducted
1
simulating this system. Natural zeolite powder was used as the
(b) absorbent for purification. Based on the test results, the
effectiveness of the system was examined. Main conclusions are
0 as follows.
(1) Applying about 30 kPa of low consolidation pressure, the
0.2 (c) volume of bed mud with high water content can be
T-P (mg/L)
10 (e)
release of the nutrient salts from bed mud.
8 (3) For bed mud dehydrated by 30 kPa, T-N, T-P, and COD in
6
the lake increase as in the case with no treatment.
4
Water quality standards for lakes: 3.0 mg/L
Dehydration of bed mud alone is insufficient for release
2
inhibition of nutrient salts.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (4) For bed mud dehydrated by 30 kPa and purified using
Time t (day) natural zeolite powder, the contents of T-N and T-P meet
Figure 6. Analysis results of water quality. water quality standards for lakes. Especially, total nitrogen
decreases because of absorption of nitrogen in the water by
Figures 6(a)6(e) present some analysis results of lake water. natural zeolite. Algae do not grow. The release inhibition
The initial T-N and T-P values are about 0.5 and 0.02 mg/L, effect for nutrient salts of natural zeolite is recognized.
which are below the water quality standards for a lake in Japan. However additional countermeasures against COD are
The initial values of COD are 34 mg/L, that of Case A is required.
slightly larger than the standard value.
In Cases A and B without natural zeolite powder, the values
of T-N, NH4-N, and T-P increase greatly with elapsed time until 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
after about 20 days (Figures 6(a)6(c)). Compared to the water
quality standards for a lake in Japan, the values of T-N after 20 This research was conducted as part of study of
days are 3.8 and 2.7 times, and those of T-P after 20 days are 3 countermeasures against water pollution in Lake Suwa entrusted
and 1.4 times, respectively. The release of nutrient salts from by the Suwa Branch at Construction Office of Nagano
bed mud is great and no release inhibition effect by dehydration Prefecture. Natural zeolite powder was offered by Mitsui
is observed. Subsequently, these values decrease gradually. The Mineral Development Engineering Co. Ltd. (MINDECO). Mr.
values of T-N and NH4-N after 80 days decrease nearly to initial Moussa Garba-Say Zoulkanel, a graduate of Shinshu University,
values and that of T-P decreases to the standard value after 40 performed the column tests for graduation research. The authors
days. The decrease in nutrient salts is thought to result from are deeply grateful to them.
digestion of cyanobacteria. The turbidity and COD increase
gradually and reach a peak after about 40 days; they decrease
7 REFERENCES
gradually thereafter (Figures 6(d) and 6(e)). These tendencies
are likely related to cyanobacteria development. Japan Sediments Management Association. 2003. Release test for
However, in Case C with natural zeolite powder, the values nutrient salts (nitrogen and phosphorus). Manual for investigation
of T-N and T-P are maintained as lower than the values of water and test for bed mud, 31-40. (in Japanese)
quality standards, and that of NH4-N is almost maintained initial Mitsui Mineral Development Engineering Co., Ltd. (MINDECO) 2012.
value. The value of T-N after 20 days decreases to half the Mindeco Iwami Profile Iwamilite, (in Japanese)
standard value (Figures 6(a)6(c)). Algae do not grow in the Popovici S., Ichim M., Raceanu G.H., Velea S., Pasarin D.G., Albulescu
lake water (Photo 3(d)). The release inhibition effect of natural V., Faraon V., and Avram M. 2011. On-site treatment of
wastewaters using integrative systemic biofilter technologies.
zeolite is recognized. The absorption effect for nitrogen in the Romanian Biotechnological Letters 16 (6), 6776-6780.
lake water is also recognized. However, the values of turbidity Zeolite sub-comittee, No. 111 Comittee, JSPS. 2006. Natural Zeolite,
and COD increase gradually as well as Cases A and B (Figures qualification guides and data for application. Japan Society for the
6(d) and 6(e)). The value of COD exceeds the standard value. It Promotion of Science.
is probably the increase in dissolved organic matter in lake
3084
General Report du TC 301
Monuments, historic sites and case histories
Rapport gnral du TC 301
Monuments, sites historiques et tudes de cas
Flora A.
DICEA, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy
ABSTRACT : This general report presents and discusses papers dealing with the preservation of monuments and historic sites, as well
as with some case studies related to problematic soils and to the design challenges they pose. The papers deal with a variety of issues
and sometimes report different design approaches. They show that the themes discussed in this session are among the most
challenging the geotechnical engineers and researchers have to face. In some cases, solutions have to be found taking into account the
essential contributions of experts from different cultural fields.
RSUM : Ce rapport gnral passe en revue une srie darticles portant sur la conservation des monuments et des sites historiques,
ainsi que sur quelques tudes de cas concernant les sols difficiles et les dfis quils posent lingnieur gotechnicien. La grande
varit de problmatiques traites dans ces articles montre bien que les thmes abords dans cette session figurent parmi les plus
complexes que les chercheurs en gomcanique et les ingnieurs gotechniciens soient appels rsoudre. Souvent des solutions ne
peuvent tre trouves qu travers les efforts combins dexperts issus de diffrentes cultures disciplinaires.
KEYWORDS: Monuments, historic sites, preservation, problematic soils, case studies, seismic protection.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Table 1. List of papers belonging to the session on the Case Studies, Monuments and Historic Sites.
Figure 1. Ise shrine, which undergoes ritual reconstruction every 20 Figure 2. The faade of the library of Celsus in Ephesus (Turkey), a
years ever since the 7th century. magnificent example of anastylosis.
substituting spoiled or damaged parts. Later on, all the Shinto explicitly stated by the Venice Charter should be ruled out a
shrines but one (Ise shrine, Figure 1) stopped the periodic priori. Only anastylosis (meaning in Ancient Greek to erect a
reconstruction because of political and economic changes. structure again), that is to say, the reassembling of existing but
Nowadays, while the Ise shrine still keeps its ritual dismembered parts can be permitted (Venice Charter, article
reconstruction every 20 years, all the other shrines are protected 15). However, it can be done only when possible without
by law as architectural heritage, assuming as an indicator of misinterpreting the original structural scheme (Figure 2).
their relevance the material value. In fact, the interruption of the If static problems univocally indicate that interventions are
rebuilding process was an accident and not the norm, the Iso necessary, clearly recognizable additions of new materials or
shrine being the only one to follow its originally conceived life elements should be preferred, which may eventually contribute
cycle. So, the question is: what is authentic in this case? The to a long lasting life of the monument.
frozen material situation of the 19th century or the immaterial Nice examples can be found in the past, as shown by the
heritage preserved by the ritual reconstruction of the Ise shrine? Royal Palace of Napoli (Figure 3), whose faade may appear
Out of such a peculiar case, the preservation of authenticity homogeneous but underwent a number of modifications in a
usually asks to avoid reconstruction of monuments, which as period of about three centuries, some of which were caused by
static problems, or in the present, as shown for instance by the
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Earth mound
Cover structure
Stone Chamber
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
hitting rock block (or sphere, in the small scale experiments) to known that piles give a contribution only if the slide is active, as
roll on or jump over the embankment crest, and also propose a the stabilizing shear forces they generate are the result of soil-
simple design chart to estimate the penetration into the structure interaction. What they usually do is slowing down
embankment as a function of a non dimensional energetic more than stopping the slide (Lirer and Flora 2008, Lirer 2012),
parameter E* (Figure 11). unless extremely heavy structures are realized. A realistic
numerical calculation should allow soil flow among the piles,
otherwise completely unrealistic interaction pressures may be
calculated. Even though this seems to indicate than only
complex 3D analyses are necessary, some codes allow such a
flow even in 2D analyses.
The second paper on the new constructions in Sochi is the
one by Petrukin et al. (2013), who describe some of the
geotechnical problems posed by the design of three large
buildings in the coastal area, gives some information on the
foundation solutions proposed, and briefly discuss the issue of
pipelines design. The first building is the Big Ice Arena, seating
12000 people, resting on a complex deposit composed of layers
ranging from coarse gravels to sandy clayey. Shallow
Figure 10. Small scale model rock-fall protection embankment used in foundations were chosen for this large building, made of a
the tests (Hoffmann et al. 2013). number of rafts having thicknesses from 0.6 m to 1.4 m,
separated by joints. The displacements induced by the
construction were monitored, and compared with the predicted
ones (Figure 12). The reported comparison refers to the end of
construction, and shows a general underestimate of the values of
the absolute displacements. The authors do not say anything on
the progress of consolidation settlements, and therefore it is not
said if further displacements are expected in time because of
pore pressure increments dissipation. However, the calculations
were able to give the order of magnitude of the absolute and
relative settlements. The second case described in this paper is
the one of a tall building hosting the Organizing Committee of
the Olympic Games. The building is founded on a thick layer of
clay which,
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
In any case, the authors report that the underpinning works were
successful, as the displacements have stopped.
Referring to similarly problematic soils, Usmanov et al.
(2013) summarise the typical foundation systems in the very
critical geotechnical conditions encountered in most of the
territory of the Republic of Tajikistan. Even though the
described systems are traditional, the site conditions in which
they are applied are sometimes extreme, being the area highly
seismic, with largely spread thick layers of unsaturated
collapsible loess and weak saturated soils. The authors report
that even in such critical conditions, the foundation solution
reported in the paper have proven to be successful for medium
rise buildings (up to 12 storeys).
layer between piles and raft has started in seismic areas of the
USSR in the 1960s, and this is very interesting as only few, and
more recent, experiences (e.g. Thornburn et al. 1983,
Jamiolkowski et al. 2009) are described in literature.
The critical geological conditions of the territory of Ukraine are
described by Slyusarenko et al. (2013), which are of concern as
about 60% of the territory is interested by formations of
collapsible soils or unstable slopes. Considering the
geotechnical problems posed by such soils, the authors describe
two case histories: one pertaining to an underground parking lot
realized with a top-down procedure, the other referring to the
reparation works carried out to preserve a valuable 18th century Figure 14. Underpinning with jet grouting columns of St. Andrew
baroque church. As far as the latter is concerned, a number of Church in Kyiv (Ukraine) (Slyusarenko et al. 2013).
static problems affected the structure in time, with leaning parts
and diffused crack patterns. The church is positioned on top of a
hill, which was found to be not far from limit equilibrium Recently, a number of large projects has started in the new born
conditions. Slyusarenko et al. (2013) shortly report the list of state of Kazakhstan, and in its capital Astana in particular. The
investigations and of the numerical analyses carried out. They town is located in the Kazakh steppe, and the subsoil is
also describe in some detail the adopted solutions, even though constituted of erratic layers of soft and hard soils; in the most
no details on soil properties, slope geometry and stability superficial part, soil freezes during the extremely severe winter.
analyses are given in the paper. Along with extensive Because of these complex geotechnical conditions, deep
restoration of the superstructure, it was finally decided to foundations are usually adopted, and new technologies in pile
underpin the church with jet grouting (Figure 14). As previously construction and testing considered too. Zhussupbekov et al.
discussed (see 2.1), this is a rather invasive intervention which (2013), for instance, in their paper summarize some experiences
irreversibly compromises authenticity of the monument. Even
relative to continuous flight auger piles (CFA piles, usually
though underpinning cannot be excluded a priori, it should be
classified as replacement piles, even though the soil is partially
carried out only if no alternatives are available which would
induce similar beneficial static effects. Since slides were displaced during installation) and displacement screw piles (in
observed along the slope, and slope stability safety margins the paper named DDS piles). They show an interesting
were extremely reduced, it would have been interesting to know comparison between static and dynamic loading tests: in the
if slope superficial and deep displacements were monitored, for cases reported in the paper, the dynamic tests largely
instance with inclinometers. In fact, such displacements may underestimate the ultimate axial load of the piles, being also
have caused at least part of the static problems experienced by very sensitive to the kind of hammer adopted in testing. The
the church, as shown in this session by Valore and Ziccarelli authors also discuss the use of alternative testing procedures
(2013) with reference to the similar case of a church placed on which may be more convenient, as the Osterberg Cell tests
top of a hill with a slope close to failure. (Russo, 2013). Even though the paper contains interesting
In any case, Slyusarenko et al (2013) have used jet grouting experimental data, it is very difficult to get an insight on them
to underpin the church instead of more traditional techniques, as as information are given neither on the properties of the soils in
for instance micropiles. This choice may be convenient, because which the test piles were realized, nor on the piles themselves.
large columns can be formed drilling small holes into the soil by
correctly tuning the treatment energy (Flora et al. 2013).
However, extreme caution should be adopted when using jet 4 CONCLUSIONS
grouting close to very sensitive buildings (Croce et al. 2013).
Furthermore, it is well known that the highly energetic grout jet The session deals with a number of complexities, related to the
may cause undesired settlements when used in unsaturated structures to preserve (monuments and historic sites), to the
collapsible soils as the upper ones seem to be under the church. soils to characterize or to the design constraints posed for new
structures by difficult regional conditions in highly seismic
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
areas. Indeed, some of the most challenging issues for Burland J.B., Jamiolkowski M., Squeglia N., Viggiani C. 2013. The
geotechnical engineers and researchers. leaning tower of Pisa. In Geotechnics and Heritage, Bilotta E.,
Generally speaking, and with some exceptions, the papers do Flora A., Lirer S., Viggiani C. Eds., Taylor & Francis, London &
not deal with new design methods or new technologies. They New York.
Croce P., Flora A., Modoni G. 2013. Jet Grouting. Taylor & Francis,
present case studies in which traditional tools were used to try London & New York.
and face complexity, the interest of the papers essentially being DAyala D., Ansal A. 2013. Local site conditions and seismic risk
in the engineering solutions proposed. As obvious, the ones assessment of historic buildings. Proc. Of the 2nd Int. Conf. on
adopted for monuments and historic sites are usually less Geotechnical Engineering for the Preservation of Monuments and
invasive than the ones conceived for new constructions, Historic Sites, Bilotta B. Flora A., Lirer S., Viggiani C. Eds., Taylor
confirming that the design strategies have to be different in the and Francis.
two cases. This key issue certainly needs to be discussed. Flora A., Modoni G., Lirer S., Croce P. 2013. The diameter of single,
In some cases, the differences in the approaches and in the double and triple fluid jet grouting columns: prediction method and
solutions depend on different cultural backgrounds and field trial results. Geotechnique, in press.
Harris J.P., Sebesta S., Scullion T. 2004. Hydrated lime stabilization of
environments. The discussion should deal with such differences. sulphate-bearing vertisols in Texas. Transportation Res. Record
With specific reference to monuments and historic sites, it 1868, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C., 31-39.
should be also debated to what extent interventions may alter Iwasaki Y., Akazawa Y., Fukuda M., Nakazawa J., Nakagawa K.,
integrity and authenticity, posing a question on its final goal: to Shimoda I., Nakagawa T. 2013 Dismantling for Reconstitution of
preserve heritage or to the aim of touristic fruition? N1 Tower of Prasat Suor Prat, Angkor Thom, Cambodia. Proc. Of
the 2nd Int. Conf. on Geotechnical Engineering for the Preservation
of Monuments and Historic Sites, Bilotta B. Flora A., Lirer S.,
5 REFERENCES Viggiani C. Eds., Taylor and Francis.
Jamiolkowski M.B., Ricceri G., Simonini P. 2009. Safeguarding Venice
5.1 Papers belonging to this sessions from high tides: site characterization and geotechnical problems.
Proc. 17th ICSMGE, M. Hamza, M. Shahien and Y. El Mossallamy
Akazawa Y., Fukuda M., Iwasaki Y., Nakazawa J. 2013. Reconstitution Eds., Millpress, Amsterdarm, 4, 3209-3230.
of foundation platform of Prasat Suor Prat by compaction of Jappelli R. 1991. Contribution to a systematic approach. in The
original soil with slaked lime, Angkor Ruins, Cambodia. Proc. Of Contribution of Geotechnical Engineering to the preservation of
the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. Italian historic sites. AGI Associazione Geotecnica Italiana.
Fedorovsky V., Kurillo S., Kryuchkov S., Bobyr G., Djantimirov K., Jappelli R. 1997. An integrated approach to the safeguard of
Iliyn S., Iovlev I., Kharlamov P., Rytov S., Skorokhodov A., monuments: the contribution of Arrigo Croce. Proc. of the Arrigo
Kabantsev O. 2013. Geotechnical aspects of design and Croce Memorial Symposium Geotechnical Engineering for the
construction of the mountain cluster Olympic facilities in Sochi. Preservation of Monuments and Historic Sites, Napoli, A.A.
Proc. Of the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Hawkins A.B. and St John T.W. 2013. Importance of understanding the Kirtas, E. & Pitilakis, K. 2009. Subsoil interventions effect on structural
development and significance of sulphates in the London Clay. seismic response. Part II: parametric investigation. Soil Dynamics
Proc. Of the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. and Earthquake Engineering, 13 (3), 328-344.
Hofman R., Vollmert L., Molk M. 2013. Rockfall-protection Lirer S. and A. Flora 2008. Numerical analysis of the effectiveness of
embankments design concept and construction details. Proc. Of rows of piles in slope stabilisation. Proc. Of the Int. Conference on
the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. Development of Urban Areas and Geotechnical Engineering,
Iwasaki Y., Zhussupbekov A. and Issina A. 2013. Authenticity of Ulitsky V.M. Ed., NPO, Saint Petersburg, Russia, 16-19 June, 2,
Foundations for Heritage Structures. Proc. Of the 18th ICSMGE, 279-286.
Paris. Lirer S. 2012. Landslide stabilizing piles: experimental evidences and
Mimura M. and Yoshimura M. 2013. Geotechnical Assessment for the numerical analyses. Engineering Geology, 149-150, 70-77.
Restoration of Garandoya tumulus with the Naked Stone Chamber. Lombardi D., Flora A., Lirer S., Silvestri F. 2013. An innovative
Proc. Of the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. approach for reducing the seismic risk of existing buildings and
Petrukhin V.P. Kolybin I.V., Budanov V.G., Isaev O.N., Kisin B.F., historic sites. Proc. Of the 2nd Int. Conf. on Geotechnical
Bokov I.A. 2013. Geotechnical features of Sochi Olympic facilities Engineering for the Preservation of Monuments and Historic Sites,
project designs. Proc. Of the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. Bilotta B. Flora A., Lirer S., Viggiani C. Eds., Taylor and Francis.
Puppala A.J., Talluri N., Gaily A., Chittoori B.C.S. 2013. Heaving Lombardi D., Flora A., Lirer S., Silvestri F. 2013. Soil grouting for the
Mechanisms in High Sulfate Soils seismic protection of existing buildings. Ground Improvement, in
Sesov V., Cvetanovska J., Edip K. 2013. Geotechnical aspects in press.
sustainable protection of cultural and historical monuments. Proc. Russo G. 2013. Experimental investigations and analysis on different
Of the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. pile load testing procedures. Acta Geotechnica, 8, 1731.
Slyusarenko Y. Chervinsky Y., Karpenko Y., Dvornik S., Malikov S., Thorburn S., Laird C, Randolph M.F. 1983. Storage tanks founded on
Rozenvasser G., Lavshuk I. 2013. Modern methods of geotechnical soft soils reinforced with driven piles. Proc. of the Conf. on Recent
defence of buildings in the difficult geological conditions of Advances in Piling and Ground Treatment. ICE, London, 157-164.
Ukraine. Proc. Of the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. Viggiani C. 1997. Opening address. Proc. of the Arrigo Croce
Usmanov R.A. Saidov R.S., Mangushev R.A. 2013. Geotechnical Memorial Symposium Geotechnical Engineering for the
problems at development of territories in the conditions of the Preservation of Monuments and Historic Sites, Napoli, 1996., A.A.
Republic of Tajikistan. Proc. Of the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Valore C. and Ziccarelli M. 2013. The preservation of Agrigento Viggiani C. 2013. Cultural Heritage and Geotechnical Engineering: an
Cathedral. Proc. Of the 18th ICSMGE, Paris. introduction. In Geotechnics and Heritage, Bilotta E., Flora A.,
Vasquez A., Le Roux J.P., Foncea C. 2013. Geotechnical characteristics Lirer S., Viggiani C. Eds., Taylor & Francis.
of glacial soil deposits at Punta Arenas in Chilean Patagonia. Proc.
Of the 18th ICSMGE, Paris.
Zhussupbekov A., Ling H.I., Baitassov T.M., Lukpanov R.E.,
Tulebekova A.S., Yenkebayev S.B., Popov V.N., Krasnikov S.V.,
Boominathan A. 2013. Geotechnical issues of megaprojects on
problematic soil ground of Kazakhstan. Proc. Of the 18th ICSMGE,
Paris.
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ABSTRACT: Angkor ruins are situated at Siem Reap in Cambodia and are composed of many masonry structures of temples, moats
and large earth embankment for a reservoir. They were constructed from the 9th to the 15th centuries. These cultural heritages in
ancient Angkor have been in dangerous states that have resulted in collapse from various severe natural forces. The individual
masonry towers of Prasat Suor Prat at Angkor Thom were studied and investigated. The N1 Tower was deemed as the most dangerous
tower among them for restoration work. It has inclined 6.6 degrees towards a nearby pond with a northwest direction. The compacted
sandy formation was found from -1.5m from the original ground surface and to +3.5m above the ground. The safety factor for the
ground bearing capacity in rainy season was calculated with S.F=1.1. When its bearing strata were reconstituted, it was designed to
have a sufficient safety factor value of S.F>1.5. To achieve this purpose, the original sandy soils were mixed with slaked lime and
compacted by tamping with Geo-textile. The material soil used for the platform was a mixture of different soils of original sandy soil,
clayey soil and lateritic soil at weight ratios of 70%, 15% and 15%. Slaked lime was added to the mixed soil 1 at a rate of 0.1.
RSUM: Les ruines dAngkor sont situes Siem Reap au Cambodge et sont composes de nombreux temples structure en
maonnerie, de fosss et dune grande digue autour dun rservoir. Ils ont t construits entre les 9e et 15e sicles. Ces hritages
culturels de l'ancien Angkor sont dans un tat dangereux rsultant dcroulements rsultant de forces naturelles svres. La
maonnerie particulire des tours de Prasat Suor Prat Angkor Thom a t lobjet dtudes et dinvestigations. La Tour N1 a t juge
la plus dangereuse parmi celles-ci, justifiant un travail de restauration. Elle est incline de 6.6 degrs en direction dun tang proche,
vers le nord-ouest. Une formation sablonneuse compacte a t identifie de -1.5m de la surface originelle jusqu 3.5m au-dessus. Le
facteur de scurit en terme de capacit portante en saison des pluies a t valu S.F =1.1. Quand les couches portantes ont t
reconstitues, le facteur de scurit a t amlior jusqu la valeur S.F >1.5 considre comme suffisante. Pour parvenir ce but, les
sols sablonneux originaux ont t mlangs avec de la chaux teinte, compacts et renforcs avec du go-textile. Le sol utilis pour la
plate-forme tait un mlange de diffrents sols, constitu du sol sablonneux original, de sol argileux et lateritique selon des ratios en
poids de 70%, 15% et 15%. La chaux teinte a t ajoute au mlange raison de 0.1 pour 1.
KEYWORDS: Angkor ruins, cultural heritage, reconstitution, foundation, soil improvement, slaked lime,
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
platform and the ground under it should be investigated in (94 rainy season)
detail. First, a soil survey by hand auger was carried out, but BY1A
(95 dry season)
results of it were insufficient to clarify the soil strata under the
platform. It was concluded that the investigation of the tower
state should be done by dismantling them, including excavating Figure 4. N-value distribution
the base ground. Moreover, it is decided that these results will
be used for designing of other ruins restoration projects in 4CONSTRUCTION METHOD
future.
Photo. 2 and Figure 2 show soil strata under the platform of The principle for this reconstitution is to adopt the original
N1 tower. The compacted sandy formation was found from - tamping method for excavated original soils. However, if the
1.5m from the original ground surface and to +3.5m above the bearing layers are reconstituted by the original tamping method
ground, which the average thickness of one stratum was with original soils, their bearing capacities will be same as
measured about 20cm. Figure 3 shows the grain size original states and capacity reduction in rainy season will not be
distribution curve of them. Figure 4 shows N-value distribution avoided. When constructed with the original excavated soil, it is
(by using standard penetration test) with depth. In figure white concluded that it should be improved with some stabilizing
dots show the values in the dry season and the polygonal line materials for soils.
shows them in the rainy season. In the case of surface soil stabilization in place, Portland
cement or hydrated lime is used as a hardening agent. Hydrated
Photo. 2. Soil strata under the platform of N1 tower lime should be accepted for this case, because it is easy to buy it
Figure 2. North-South Section of N1 tower (Before restoration) near the jobsite and to handle it for working. Moreover it is used
for long time.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5MIXING TEST OF SLAKED LIME-SOIL AND RESULTS 1) Unconfined compression strengths of treated specimens
were increased as the mixing rates of slaked lime were
Table 1 shows the proportions of material soils to be prepared increased.
and slaked lime to be mixed for them. In Table 1, item sand 2) The unconfined compression strengths and the
means excavated sandy soil which was used at the towers deformation moduli of tested specimens increased with their
erection. Each mixed soil is mixed this sand, clayey soil and curing times, and proportional relation between them was
lateritic soil with weight ratio in Table 1. Slaked lime, which is recognized. Relation between the curing time and the
a stabilizing material, is added to the mixed soil 1 at rates of unconfined compression strength on mixed soil D is shown in
Table 1. The mixing purpose of clayey soil is expected the Figure 5.
stabilized effect with chemical reaction of clay minerals and 3) The changes of their dry densities by curing time were not
slaked lime. Also, on lateritic soil mixing, it is intended that the recognized.
ferromagnetic ion and aluminum ion in it will promote chemical
hardening reactions. Grain size accumulation curves of mixed Figure 5. Relation of unconfined compression strength and curing time
soils are shown in Fig.3. Results of the test were evaluated by
comparison of unconfined compression strengths on treated
specimens. Based on above-mentioned results, the material soil used for
the foundation platform and its base ground was a mixture of
Table 1. Proportion of mixed soil three different soils of the original sandy soil, clayey soil and
lateritic soil at weight ratios of 70%, 15% and 15%( mixing soil
sand slaked lime
D proportion). Slaked lime, which was a stabilized material,
items (excavated clayey soil lateritic soil mixture rate
sandy soil) (%)
was added to the mixed soil 1 at a rate of 0.1.
mixture A 100 0 0 5, 10, 15
mixture B 85 15 0 5, 10, 15 6CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE AND UTILIZATION OF
GEO-TEXTILE
mixture C 70 30 0 5, 10, 15
mixture D 70 15 15 5, 10, 15 It is decided that mixed soil D proportion should be used for
material soil and slaked lime should be used for a stabilized
material at adding to the mixed soil 1 at a rate of 0.1. The
construction method will be applied by tamping method.
The construction procedure on jobsite is as follows.
1) The material soil treated by slaked lime should be spread
at 15 cm of its thickness, after then it should be compacted to a
thickness of about 7.5cm. By the repeat of this work, the base
ground should be developed to the designated level.
2) Compacting work is decided by the field trial work to be
composed of 3 steps. Primary compaction should be conducted
using a wooden rod (dia.3cm) with man powers tamping, and
followed by secondary compaction using a flat steel plate
(15cm15cm1cm) as the same manner. Finally, surface
compaction should be conducted by using of a tamping rammer.
3) The designated base ground for the tower will be made of
laminated structure with 7cm thickness tamping layers. Since
there is a smooth surface among each layer, its existence may
make a week point on the mechanical standpoint. In order to
secure the bond of each layer, roughening work for each
compacted surface should be done before tamping of the next
layer. The surface roughening work should be performed by
using of steel rakes with manpower.
When allowable bearing capacity is 1.2MN/m2, it is assumed
that the compressive strength in-place should be about 60
percent of the strength obtained in the laboratory test. This
means that the target value should be 2 MN/ m2. In the case of
mixed soil D, it would be take a curing time of more than 90
days to achieve a value of 2MN/m2. However, since the
reconstitution work for the superstructure will be needed to be
executed without waiting 90days, some measure to reinforce the
improved soil should be needed until the onset of its strength.
As above-mentioned consideration, it is decided that Geo-textile
should be applied for temporally reinforcement of improved
soils until the onset of its strength.
The designing study was preceded on a section of base
ground in Figure 6 which spread and inserted 3 layers of
Geotextile. Table 2 shows the specification of Geotextile which
was utilized. One of the effects of Geo-textile is to work as
reinforced materials of shear resistance for soil mass. When
using this effect for the designing base ground, it is expected
that it increases safety factor to the sliding failure by about 20
percent.
Figure 6. Section of spreading Geo-textile
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
8ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Table 2. The specification of Geotextile
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to
items contents Professor Takeshi Nakagawa of Waseda University. The
type KJV-6000 project, on which this paper is based, was supervised and
promoted by him responsible the entire.
base texture high-strength vinylon
width 2,000mm
9REFERENCES
weight 320g/m
tensile strength 59.0kN/m Nakagawa T. (Supervisor) 1996-2005. Annual Report on the Technical
reduction coefficient 0.6 Survey of Angkor Monument 1995-2004, Japanese Government
Team for Safeguarding Angkor (JSA), Japan International
Cooperation Center
On the other hand, when the curing time of treated soil is Nakagawa T. (Supervisor). 2005. Report on the Conservation and
short, it is considered that the strength of base ground is Restoration Work of the Prasat Suor Prat Tower, Royal Plaza of
insufficient for the bearing capacity. The base ground, which is Angkor Thom, Kingdom of Cambodia, Japanese Government Team
composed of tamping layers and Geo-textile, may not have for Safeguarding Angkor (JSA), Japan International Cooperation
uniformly mechanical behaviors. It is supposed that only Geo- Center.
textile resists the overturning moment, which generates from the
towers load. As a result, it is simulated that Geo-textile will be Akazawa Y, Nakagawa T, Mizoguchi A, Nakazawa J, Iwasaki Y,
able to share 26 percent of the total overturning moment. When Fukuda M. 2009. Development and reserch of the restoration
converting this value to the settlement, it is estimated 40cm. methods for basement and platform of Prasat Suor Prat Tower N1,
AIJ Journal of Technology and Design vol. 30, 567-572.
Based on above-mentioned result, Figure 7 shows a decided
section for reconstitution of the foundation platform. Iwasaki Y, Akazawa Y, Fukuda M, Nakazawa J, Nakagawa K, Shimoda
I, and Nakagawa T. 2013. Dismantling for Reconstitution of N1
Tower of Prasat Suor Prat, Angkor Thom, Cambodia (TC 301- IS
7CONCLUSION NAPOLI 2013, Currently, submitted).
This project has been achieved in May, 2005. After that,
monitoring for these structures is being done. Until present after
the reconstitution, there is no trouble on them.
A consensus, which cultural heritages should be conserved
and saved from various collapsing factors, is changing in recent.
If modern materials and modern methods will be applied for
restoration works of heritages, the historic value on it may be
spoiled. Therefore it is demanded that materials and methods
for restoration works will not spoil the historic values of
heritages. From these viewpoints, a concept about authenticity
and heritage is discussing now, especially on consideration of
designing and working for heritage geo-technology. The
authors desire for this paper to become a reference for the same
purpose.
3098
4
Geotechnical Aspects of Design and Construction of the Mountain Cluster Olympic
Facilities in Sochi
Les aspects gotechniques des projets et de la construction des sites olympiques situs dans les
pays montagneux autour de la ville Sotchi
Fedorovsky V., Kurillo S., Kryuchkov S., Bobyr G., Djantimirov Kh., Iliyn S., Iovlev I., Kharlamov P., Rytov S.,
Skorokhodov A.
Gersevanov Research Institute of Foundations and Underground Structures, Moscow, Russia, e-mail: vfedor43@mail.ru
Kabantsev .
Moscow State Building Construction University, Moscow, Russia
ABSTRACT: Construction of Olympic Facilities in Krasnaya Polyana, mountainous area near Sochi, was a real challenge to Russian
geotechnical engineers for the lack of construction expertise in the area as compared to the Alpine mountain resorts with extensive
record of such activities. The geotechnical challenges of construction in this mountainous cluster include, as follows:
- assessment of deformation and strength parameters of eluvial and half-rock soils, including rubbly and gravely ones;
- selection of reliable techniques to analyze stability of natural, transformed and strengthened slopes;
- design of footings and counter-slide structures in order to ensure adequate safety accounting seismic actions and soil condition
variations.
The paper describes three case histories of Olympic construction projects within the mountainous cluster to illustrate how the above
problems were solved.
RSUM : Les travaux de construction des btiments olympiques dans le massif montagneux de Krasnaya Polyana aux environs de
Sotchi ont caus nombre de difficults aux gotechniciens russes. Cela s'explique par le manque de l'exprience ncessaire en ce
domaine dans cette rgion, contrairement au cas des stations de ski des Alpes, qui ont une plus ancienne et plus riche histoire de
dveloppement. Les problmes gotechniques essentiels lis la construction dans la dite rgion consistent en les points suivants:
- valuation des paramtres de dformabilit et de rsistance des sols luviaux et en partie rocheux, incluant des remblais rapportes ;
- choix de mthodes pertinentes de calcul de stabilit des pentes naturelles, amnages et renforces;
- conception de fondations et de structures installations para-glissements garantissant un niveau adquat de stabilit, y compris
pendant les sismes ou un changement d'tat des sols.
Dans cet article, on dcrit trois tudes de cas relatifs la construction des installations olympiques dans la rgion montagnarde pour
illustrer comment ces problmes ont t rsolus.
KEYWORDS: slope stability analyses, counter-slide structures.
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
Orographically the BLT terrain is located in a mid-mountain 2006) with the critical clearing between piles being larger the
relief zone with 650-800 maltitude drop. Within the area next to greater is the internal friction angle. However, the drawback of
the survey terrain Esto-Sadok and East-Achikhinsky fault zones such pile strengthening consists in that the bending forces in the
occur. The South-Esto-Sadok fault passes at the south of the piles are so high that often surpass their bending strength.
surveyed zone close to the Bean Storage Area. One of the Therefore, in difficult cases the bending moments are reduced
feathering faults, occurring from north-west to south-east, by respective measures (pile heads anchoring), or the piles
passes across the northern end of the designed trough. The stiffness or strength are increased (larger diameter up to 1.5 m)
massif is water-logged via aquifer zones all the way down to the or installation of buttresses or several piles instead of single
investigated depth, the water heads correlate with the cut depths piles. In this case there were proposed bored tangent piles with a
through the surface valley due surface flows of the strong pilework on top. Bored secant piles with dedicated
Shumikhinsky stream. reinforcement are more effective.
Geological slope cuts are mainly represented by high density Pile walls along the slope feature one more advantage. If
gravely clay loam or by gravely soils with clay loam fill. The their spacing across the slope is less than the wall length then
clay loams and clay loam fills feature liquid-plastic to hard the active (landslide) soil pressure is, as a rule, less than that of
consistency. the ultimate thrust (Nazarova et al., 1995). The above structures
At 16-40 m depths the quaternary deposits are underlain by were widely applied for the next facility, discussed below.
low-strength argillites. Depending on the water table the
argillites and their fills feature liquid plastic to hard consistency. 5. SKI-JUMP COMPLEX
The seismicity of the construction project location is 8.5
The complex of -125 and -95 ski-jumps geological
points as per micro-seismic zoning.
environment is similar to that of BLT, however, the altitude
The survey identified three slope terrains, on which
drops are greater, but hydro-geological situation is better.As
development of landslide processes is possible under design
different from BLT the counter-slide structures are partly
seismic action. In order to confirm slope instability the authors
combined with footings of the proper ski-jumps, of the landing
performed verification analysis of the above-mentioned slope
slope, of the start and the referee towers.
terrains with the help of PLAXIS as they were and in the case of
BLT structures erection. According to the analytical results the
stability factor was below the admissible level of 1.1 for 8.5
points seismic action(Figs. 4, 5).
Then the authors proposed measures to provide for the Fig. 7. The same terrain during footing erection
required values of stability factor i.e., to erect retaining walls of
This is due to some factors. Firstly, the initial slope (Fig. 6)
various configurations, depending on the internal forces in them
(one or two rows of bored piles, groups of bored tangent piles has kst = 1.04 for soil design parameters while kst 1.0 for
with the stiff pile capping beam). seismic conditions. The ski-jump track is located in a cut 810
Herein, application of piles as counter-slide structures shall m deep that undercuts the side slopes and deteriorates the
be discussed. Spaced piles, located as a row across a slope landslide situation (Fig. 7).
would not let soil move between them at whatever landslide In order to overcome these difficulties buttress rows of 35
pressure (the effect of non-pushing through, Fedorovsky, of 0.88 m dia bored secant piles were selected, with some of
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
these piles being anchored at their heads (Fig. 8). The pile 7. REFERENCES
fabrication process is shown on Fig.7.
Brinkgreve R.B.J., Vermeer P.A. (eds) 1998. PLAXIS.Finite Element
Code for Soil and Rock Analyses. Balkema
DalNIIS. 1989. The method of strength and compressibility assessment
for macrofragmental soils with silty and clayey fill and silty and
clayey soils with macrofragmental inclusions.(in Russian).
Stroyizdat, Moscow
Fedorovskii V.G. and Kurillo S.V.. 1998. Method of a variable level of
shear-strength mobilization for calculation of the strength of soil
masses. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering , 35 (4-5),
121-126
Fedorovsky V.G. and Kurillo S.V. 2001. Method of a variable level of
shear strength mobilization for calculation of the strength of soil
masses. Proc. XVth ICSMGE, v.1, Stambul, 687-690
Fedorovskii V.G. 2006. Limiting pressure on rows of strip plates and
the no-force-through effect. Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering 43 (3), 85-91
Nazarova N.V., Stavnitser L.R., Shvets V.B. 1995. Characteristics of
longitudinal retaining walls used as slide-restricting structures Soil
Fig. 8. Analytical scheme of a group of ski-jump footings in PLAXIS Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 32 (5), 167-173
The analysis of the row of buttresses was made in two steps.
At the first step it is proved that the limit resistance of the
structures to soil flow around is greater than the active
(landslide) pressure. To this end a FEM analysis was made of
the push-through pressure with the layer depth, represented by
the value of pressure on rear side of the row. At the second
stage FEM analysis was made either, this time reduced soil
strength parameters technique was assumed to assess the slope
stability factor with piles and anchors present.
Beside the ski-jumps proper, engineering protection of the
terrain was to be taken care of. In order to reinforce the side
slopes, retaining walls on piles were proposed. For lower slopes
soil nails were assumed in the central portion rather than along
the whole height. Such reinforcement divides the slope in two
short segments: the upper and the lower one, with the stability
factor for each one being greater than that of a single deep
landslide of the whole slope.
6. CONCLUSIONS
3102
Importance of understanding the development and significance of sulphates in the
London Clay
L'importance de comprendre le dveloppement et la signification des sulfates dans l'Argile de
Londres.
ABSTRACT: Although the differences in the engineering properties of the brown and grey London Clay are generally appreciated,
less is known about the chemical changes in the unsaturated/seasonally aerated (mottled) zone. With pyrite and calcite present,
calcium sulphates accumulate at this horizon.
The paper describes the formation of pyrite, its various forms and the significance of its oxidation in the mottled zone. It comments on
the acid soluble sulphate results measured at 0.2 m vertical intervals which show a pronounced SO 4 peak at the brown/grey junction.
However, two chemical profiles only 35 m apart illustrate a pronounced variability in chemistry. The mobilization of sulphates
associated with the heat of hydration is discussed and the engineering implications of this, the sulphate-rich zones and the associated
low pH are considered with particular reference to the significance for any concrete/steel emplaced at this depth.
RSUM : Bien que les diffrences dans les proprits techniques de l'argile marron et gris de Londres soient gnralement
apprcies, moins est connu au sujet des changements chimiques dans la zone non sature/are saisonnirement (tachete). Quand la
pyrite et la calcite sont prsentes, les sulfates de calcium s'accumulent cet horizon.
Le papier dcrit la formation de pyrite, ses diverses formes et l'importance de son oxydation dans la zone tachete. Il commente les
rsultats de sulfates solubles acides mesurs intervalles verticaux de 0,2 m qui montrent une crte prononce de SO4 la jonction du
marron/gris. Cependant, deux profils chimiques spars de seulement 35m montrent une variabilit chimique importante. La
mobilisation des sulfates associes la chaleur d'hydratation est discute et on considre ses implications techniques, ainsi que ceux
des zones riches en sulfate et le niveau faible de pH y associ. Une rfrence particulire est faite la signification pour tout bton
ou acier mis en place cette profondeur.
KEYWORDS: sulphate, pyrite, London Clay, gypsum, sulphate attack.
1 INTRODUCTION
The London Clay Formation (LCF) is a Tertiary marine deposit
up to 150 m in thickness. The sequence is predominately
composed of silty clays with thin silt bands and is typically
sand-rich towards the base. Selenite, the euhedral form of
gypsum (calcium sulphate) is particularly common in the upper
weathered zones, whilst pyrite, present as nodules, replacement
of organic matter and framboids, is abundant in the unweathered
Clay. During deposition, the climate was warm and rivers Figure 1. Sedimentary pyrite formation (after Berner, 1984).
draining the adjacent land mass would have carried a high
proportion of organic matter. The organic content would vary Four major forms of pyrite are present in the LCF:
laterally and may have changed with time during deposition. As a) Large crystals with varying habits (cubic, octahedral etc)
a result of variations in sea bed terrain and sea level, the b) Groups of microcrystals which have clustered together to
deposits often accumulated in anoxic conditions. form framboids up to 10-15 m in diameter (eg Figure 2)
c) Irregular, often greenish-coloured pyrite nodules
d) Replacement of organic matter
2 SULPHIDES IN THE LONDON CLAY
Many dark grey/black sediments have high organic contents, the
organic matter decaying the burial process. Oxygen is
consumed by bacteria such that the sulphates are reduced to
sulphides. When ferric iron is present in these oxygen-depleted
environments, it too is reduced and reacts with the H2S
produced by the sulphate-reducing bacteria, ultimately to form
pyrite (iron sulphide) (Figure 1).
Pyrite is typically found in well-bedded fine grained
sediments which are dark in colour due to the high organic Figure 2. Pyrite framboid and octahedra in the LCF.
(carbonaceous) content. Whilst a pyrite content of some 2-4% is
present throughout the grey LCF, it is often abundant in the 3 SULPHATES IN THE LONDON CLAY
silt/sand-rich horizons near the base and where similar horizons As the LCF is a randomly fissured, jointed material, its
occur elsewhere. secondary permeability is such that during past climates or de-
watering phases, the weathering extended to considerably
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
greater depths than would be anticipated in the present climate. sulphate (AS) and water soluble sulphate (WS). Table 1 also
Commonly the brown LCF extends to some 6-8 m depth and in shows the calculated total potential sulphate (TPS), oxidisable
rare cases, as recorded by Chandler (2000), to 15 m. Between sulphides as sulphate (OS) and equivalent pyrite according to
the saturated (grey) and aerated/oxidized (brown) material there the Canadian Standard CTQ-M200 (Comit Technique, 2001).
is a mottled grey/brown zone. In the upper brown LCF much of
the pyrite has decomposed. In the mottled zone the pyrite Table 1. Sulphur chemistry for Camberwell boreholes, February 2012.
experienced a wetting/drying environment such that the iron
sulphides were oxidized to produce sulphuric acid and ferrous Borehole 1
sulphate (Eq. 1). WS TPS OS Eqv.
Depth AS (% TS
(mg/l (% (% Pyr.
(m) SO4) (% S)
FeS2 + H2O 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4 (1) SO4) SO4) SO4) (%)
2.6 0.02 118 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01
Although in stronger, more calcareous materials the ferrous 3.6 0.02 10 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.02
sulphate may produce a significant initial expansion, in the 4.4 0.33 116 0.11 0.33 0.00 0.20
weaker LCF this is less apparent. However, the formation of 5.5 0.91 10 0.38 1.14 0.23 0.71
sulphuric not only changes the pH of the soil but reacts with 6.4 0.21 906 0.21 0.63 0.42 0.34
calcium carbonate to produce calcium sulphate (Eq. 2). Detailed 7.6 0.25 10 0.54 1.62 1.37 1.01
chemical reactions are given in Hawkins and Pinches (1987) 8.5 0.28 685 0.48 1.44 1.16 0.85
and Hawkins (2013).
10.6 0.24 501 0.50 1.50 1.26 0.90
12.5 0.26 505 0.56 1.68 1.42 1.02
H2SO4 + CaCO3 + H2O CaSO4.2H20 + CO2 (2)
14.6 0.24 621 1.53 4.59 4.35 2.82
16.6 0.23 405 0.67 2.01 1.78 1.23
Gypsum can grow within the Clay in various forms including:
17.4 0.17 366 0.57 1.71 1.54 1.04
a) Euhedral, monoclinic prisms, often known as selenite Borehole 2
b) Stellate (star shaped) or rosette-like, crystals (Figure 3) WS TPS OS Eqv.
Depth AS (% TS
c) Void infill, with irregular shapes (mg/l (% (% Pyr.
(m) SO4) (% S)
d) Apparently amorphous sucrose crystals SO4) SO4) SO4) (%)
3.1 0.05 110 0.05 0.15 0.10 0.09
4.1 4.94 10 2.40 7.20 2.26 4.49
5.1 1.12 1850 0.38 1.14 0.02 0.60
6.0 0.62 1410 0.15 0.45 -0.17 0.19
7.1 0.73 1550 0.70 2.10 1.37 1.21
8.0 0.28 715 0.61 1.83 1.55 1.10
9.1 0.31 1050 0.63 1.89 1.58 1.11
10.1 0.31 898 0.63 1.89 1.58 1.12
12.0 0.28 970 0.44 1.32 1.04 0.76
14.0 0.34 10 1.88 5.64 5.30 3.51
16.0 0.23 10 1.19 3.57 3.34 2.22
18.0 0.20 10 0.52 1.56 1.36 0.97
18.9 0.14 10 0.45 1.35 1.21 0.84
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
5.1 Seasonal variation in sulphate concentration The results can be summarised as follows:
Bessey and Lea noted the marked difference in sulphate values a) To a depth of 7.5 m the pyrite content is relatively low (0.2 -
taken in dry and wet conditions. For instance, following a very 0.5 %). Below 8 m the pyrite content is > 0.75 % with a
dry summer/autumn, when measured in December the sulphate peak of 1.8 % at 8.5 m depth
values in two boreholes at Benfleet were as high as 0.30 % SO4. b) The calcite content is low to a depth of 6 m frequently
However, following the wet winter, by March they had dropped < 0.5 %. Although it rises to 2.5 % between 6 and 7 m, the
to 0.042-0.070 % SO4. Whilst the seasonal influence on the main rise to 5-8 % is below 7 m
shrink-swell of the LCF is well known, the effect on ground
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
6 CONCLUSIONS
a) Sulphur is present in the LCF predominantly as pyrite and
gypsum. The distribution and abundance of these forms can
be highly variable
b) Planning of site investigation works should appreciate the
Figure 6. SO4 content with distance from concrete piles in the spatial variation (lateral and vertical) in ground sulphur, as
LCF. Note variation in the brown Clay. well as the type and location of sub-surface structures
c) Appropriate laboratory testing would include a full suite
As noted by Hawkins and Higgins (1997), the sulphate level in of chemical testing including AS, WSS and TS
the brown LCF was generally in the order of 0.5 % SO4 but d) The determination of detailed sulphate and pH profiles is
between the 4th and 5th floors rose to 2 %, approximately 30 mm advocated
from each of the piles. In the underlying saturated grey LCF (6th e) The heat of hydration of concrete may result in a
and 7th floors) where the pyrite and calcite had not chemically concentration of sulphates and appropriate measures should
reacted, raised SO4 values were not present. It is considered that be taken to protect concrete from sulphate attack
when the sulphates are mobilized as a consequence of the heat
of hydration, the sulphate-rich solutions move into the zone of
shear which commonly occurs in the in situ ground adjacent to 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
material affected by the auger torque.
A laboratory experiment was undertaken by Hawkins and The authors would like to thank marcus hawkins for assistance
Higgins to determine the influence of temperature when the in the preparation of figures.
LCF was heated in a moist environment at 30 C for four, six 8 REFERENCES
and eight weeks, the acid soluble sulphate rose from 0.22 to
1.32 %. This six-fold rise emphasises the effect of the heat of Berner R.A. 1984. Sedimentary pyrite formation: An update.
hydration on the ground chemistry close to CFA piles, and Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48, 605-615.
hence the care required when assessing the concrete Bessey G.E. and Lea F.M. 1953. The distribution of sulphates in clay
aggressivity class if concrete piles are to be installed in ground soils and groundwaters. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 2, 159181.
containing or likely to develop sulphates. BRE. 2005. Concrete in aggressive ground. Special Digest 1. Building
To assess the outward migration of heat from the hydrating Research Establishment, Bracknell, UK.
Chandler R.J. 2000. Clay sediments in depositional basins: the
concrete, Hawkins and Higgins undertook an experiment by
geotechnical cycle. Quart. Jnl. Eng. Geol. Hydro. 33, 7-39.
placing a copper pipe in an augered hole in the LCF. Three Comit Technique Qubcois D'tude Des Problmes De Gonflement
thermometers were installed at 7.5, 15 and 30 mm from the Associs La Pyrite. 2001. Appraisal procedure for existing
pipe. When water at 65 C was placed in the copper pipe the residential buildings. Procedure CTQ-M200, Version 2.0, June 4.
temperature of the Clay rose by a maximum of 8 C in six Hawkins A.B. 2013. Engineering Implications of the Oxidation of
minutes at 7.5 mm; by 5 C in six minutes at 15 mm and by 4 Pyrite: an overview, with particular reference to Ireland. In
C in 35 minutes at 30 mm (Figure 7). Hawkins, A.B. (ed) Implications of pyrite oxidation for engineering
works. Springer. In press.
Hawkins A.B. and Higgins M.D. 1997. The generation of sulphates in
the proximity of cast in situ piles. In: Ground Chemistry:
Implications for Construction. A.B. Hawkins (ed). Balkema,
Rotterdam.
Hawkins A.B. and Pinches G.M. 1987. Cause and significance of heave
at Llandough Hospital, Cardiff - a case history of ground floor
heave due to gypsum growth. Quart. Jnl. Eng. Geol. 20, 41-57.
Legget R.F. and Karrow P.F. 1983. Handbook of geology in civil
engineering. McGraw-Hill.
Raison C.A. 1992. Deep basement construction at College Road,
Harrow. Proceedings of the Conference on Piling, European
Practice and Worldwide Trends, Institution of Civil Engineers.
3106
Rockfall-protection embankments design concept and construction details
Hofmann R.
Ziviltechnikerbro Dr. Hofmann, Perchtoldsdorf, Austria
Vollmert L.
BBG Bauberatung Geokunststoffe GmbH & Co. KG, Espelkamp, Germany
Mlk M.
Geologische Stelle des Forsttechnischen Dienstes fr Wildbach- und Lawinenverbauung, Innsbruck, Austria
ABSTRACT: In the past, protection embankments were often erected in situations in which high design energies were anticipated; it was
assumed that these embankments, if constructed appropriately, would provide adequate protection for such load cases. Rockfall-
protection embankments are favoured in cases where the slope geometry and the space available allow their construction. In comparison
with rockfall-protection nets, whose capacity to absorb energy is currently limited to 8000 kJ, embankments have advantages in terms of
longevity, construction costs, and depending on the construction energy-absorbing capacity. To describe the failure mechanism
associated with a dynamic impact on such an embankment, and to develop a design approach, model testing was carried out on
conventional soil embankments, on reinforced embankments, and on embankments with stone facings. The objective of these model tests
was to investigate the effects of rock impact on built-up embankments of various types, and to develop a concept for their design.
RSUM : Dans le pass, les merlons de protection taient souvent construits haute nergie en supposant que ces merlons aient une
capacit suffisante pour ces cas de chargement. Les merlons de protection contre les chutes de blocs sont construits, de prfrence, dans
les cas o la gomtrie du talus et l'espace disponible permettent un tel ouvrage. En comparaison avec des filets protection contre les
chutes de blocs, dont la capacit d'absorption dnergie est actuellement limite 8000 kJ, les merlons ont des avantages, notamment en
termes de durabilit, de cot de construction et - selon louvrage - de capacit d'absorption d'nergie. Afin de dcrire les surfaces de
rupture des merlons causes par un impact dynamique et pour la mise en place d'une approche de conception, des modles
exprimentaux ont t raliss avec des merlons en sol pur, des merlons renforcs et merlons en sol avec un parement en pierres.
L'objectif du projet pilote tait d'tudier les effets des clats de blocs sur les diffrents types de merlons et de dvelopper un
dimensionnement.
KEYWORDS: rockfall protection, embankments, impact, energy absorption, design, model test, prototype, geosynthetics
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GGR_LS GTX_A 3.1 Evaluation using relative impact energy and penetration
Property Unit depth
Geogrid Nonwoven
Mass per unit area g/m 28 39 In the model tests, the size and shape of the failure body created
by the sphere were recorded. With the help of a non-dimensional
Thickness mm 0.24 0.25
evaluation of the test results, diagrams were drawn up to enable
Tensile strength md kN/m 0.25 0.36 the results to be transferred to the full-scale situation, Hofmann &
Mlk 0.
Extension , md % 5 16 For the evaluation, an activated soil body was defined near the
embankment crest (Figure 3). A non-dimensional depiction of the
Tensile strength cmd kN/m 0.14 0.09 results is shown in Figure 4. The relative impact energy E* was
introduced and plotted against the non-dimensional value /b,
Extension , cmd % 5 55
where is the depth of penetration of the sphere into the
embankment and b is the crest width. The upper extensometers (a0,
a1, a2, a3) were positioned at the mid-point of the sphere in the axis
Table 2: Conversion of characteristic strength properties model/prototype
of the embankment; one extensometer was positioned at the level
(Index k: characteristic) of the bottom of the sphere. The following variables are
introduced:
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
is required to prevent the sphere rebounding over the However, they require a markedly greater freeboard than
embankment crest on the first impact. embankments with rip rap facing. For geogrid-
reinforced structures, a freeboard of 1.5 times the sphere
The maximum width of the activated embankment body diameter can be considered as being on the safe side.
is 5 to 6 times the sphere diameter.
4 DESIGN MODEL FOR ROCKFALL-PROTECTION
In the tests it was found that the failure planes from the EMBANKMENTS
second impact onwards tended increasingly to form in
an upward direction.
4.1 Principles
The pictures taken with the high-speed camera clearly
show quite significant elastic deformations during the A characteristic failure body for different structures was derived
period of impact. from the 1g model tests. An important and consistent parameter
was the activated width of the embankment in the direction normal
b=4,5cm
to the impact. The basic concept of the proposed design method is
to derive a non-dimensional relationship between the penetration
depth and the crest width (/b) using the relative impact energy
E*, Hofmann & Mlk (2012).
e
ha
v
=10
D Extensometer
4.2 Activated failure body
=20 ao, a1, a2, a3
v Extensometer
bo Normal to the impact direction, the size of the activated failure
body is a function of the embankment structure. Whereas the
Uphill face" 70 45 Downhill face" width of the failure body in unreinforced embankments (both with
and without rip rap facing) is at least 5 to 6 times the diameter of
Figure 2. Model embankment with rip-rap facing
the block (the sphere in the model), this value increases to 8 to 9
times the diameter of the block for reinforced structures.
b Activated embankment area Aa
3.2.3 Lessons from trials with rip rap facing and without
geosynthetics
After the impact, the sphere scarcely changes its height, 4.4 Estimate of the equivalent static force
whereas in the case of pure soil embankments, and
reinforced structures, it tends to jump or roll in the
An estimate of the equivalent static force is made using equation
direction of the crest.
(5), on the assumption that the force initially increases, and then
decreases, in a linear manner, and that the velocity decreases in a
3.2.4 Lessons learned from the tests with geosynthetics linear manner according to Blovsky (2002) (Figure 5). The
equivalent static force is then distributed over the activated
The model tests with the geosynthetics all showed a embankment width involved.
significantly larger lateral distribution (influence width)
of the displacements. An influence width of at least 8 - 9 F = v m / (5)
times the diameter of the sphere can be estimated from F = 2 v m / t (6)
the measurements and the pictures taken with the high- t = 2 / v (7)
speed camera. = (0,8 bis 0,85) m v/ F (8)
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F Braking distance v
[N] [m] [m/s]
E*
Fmax= m a
Impulse :
Fmax
B= m v = t Figure 6. Inspectable outer facing-system (double-wall-system) to protect
2
the load-bearing structure built using the wrap-around method (System
b NAUE DW)
Figure 5. Assumptions for the evaluation (a = deceleration)
5 COMPARISON OF DESIGN MODEL WITH FULL-SCALE
4.5 Structure configuration TESTS
The results of model testing form the basis for the application of
The constructive aspects of rockfall-protection embankments are the results to full-size construction. To investigate the applicability
just as important as their numerical design. Rockfall incidents of the design proposal, it will be necessary to evaluate existing
inevitably result in damage and wear on the facing. If at all protection embankments and the damage observed to have
possible, the facing should therefore effectively protect the outer resulted from rockfall. This means that, after an incident, at the
surface of the reinforced earth body; it should also require little
very least the block size and the penetration depth will have to be
maintenance and ideally allow inspection, in case partial damage
documented. Additionally, the velocity will have to be back-
requires repair (ONR 24810 (2013) und NORM B 1997-1-1
calculated using a rockfall-impact simulation program. The
(2007)).
If rockfall-protection embankments are constructed as diagram in Figure 4 was confirmed at least by the full-scale tests
reinforced-soil bodies with steep side slopes, the reinforced body of Peila et al. (2007), Lambert et al.(2011), and the observations of
must have a wrap-round front surface to guarantee adequate protection embankments in Tirol and Voralberg. The comparisons
anchorage for individual reinforcing layers at the edge of the of observations on actual structures with the results obtained using
structure. A facing is required to protect the structure against UV the design proposals are summarised in Table 4. It can be seen that
and impact. Figure 6 shows an example of a slim gabion solution there is very good agreement.
which allows inspection and can be built independently of the
supporting embankment body. The thickness, the area weight of
the protective layer, and the quality of the steel elements must
reflect the anticipated stressing/loading.
9 REFERENCES
Hofmann R. und Mlk M. (2012). Bemessungsvorschlag fr
Blovsky S. (2002). Reinforcing possibilities with geosynthetics Steinschlagschutzdmme. Geotechnik 35, Heft 1, Verlag Ernst &
Dissertation. Technische Universitt Wien. Institut fr Grundbau- und Sohn.
Bodenmechanik. ONR 24810 (2013). Technischer Steinschlagschutz Begriffe,
Labiouse V. and Heidenreich B. (2009). Half-scale experimental study of Einwirkungen, Bemessung und konstruktive Durchbildung,
rockfall impacts on sandy slopes. - Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 9, berwachung und Instandhaltung(Technical protection against
pp. 19811993. rockfall Terms and definitions, effects of actions, design, monitoring
Lambert S., Heymann A. and Gotteland P.(2011). Real-scale experimental and maintenance) Entwurf, Ausgabedatum: 2013-01-01.
assessment of cellular rockfall protection structures. Proceedings NORM B 1997-1-1 Eurocode 7 - Entwurf, Berechnung und Bemessung
interdisciplinary workshop on rockfall protection ROCEXS, in der Geotechnik - Teil 1 (2007). Allgemeine Regeln - Nationale
Innsbruck 2011. Festlegungen zu NORM EN 1997-1 und nationale Ergnzungen.
Peila, D., Oggeri, C. and Castiglia, C. (2007). Ground reinforced
embankments for rockfall protection: design and evaluation of full
scale tests. Landslides 4, pp. 255-265.
Pichler B., Hellmich C., and Mang H. (2005). Impact of rocks onto gravel
design and evaluation experiments. International Journal of Impact
Engineering 31, pp. 559-578.
Plassiard J.P. and Donze F.V. (2010). Optimizing the design of rockfall
embankments with a Discrete Element Method. Engineering
Structures, 32, pp. 3817-3826.
3110
Authenticity of Foundations for Heritage Structures
Authenticit des fondations pour les structures du patrimoine
Iwasaki Y.
Geo Research Institute, Osaka, Japan
Zhussupbekov A., Issina A.
Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: Foundation system is a basic part to support structure of cultural heritage but has been considered only as a function to
keep authenticity of the heritage upper structure. Recent trend has changed the situation. Foundation becomes to be considered as an
important part of structure and sometimes to be evaluated as an element of authenticity of heritage based upon unique characteristic in
region as well as of the period that the heritage belongs. This paper describes a short history of authenticity of cultural heritage and
discuss several examples of the authenticity of foundation systems including leaning Pisa Tower, stone masonry in Angkor,
Cambodia, and wooden pile foundation of Great Gate at Itsukushima shrine, Hiroshima, Japan.
RSUM : Le systme de fondation est un lment fondamental pour soutenir la structure du patrimoine culturel mais il ne lui a t
longtemps considr comme une fonction que de garder l'authenticit de la structure patrimoniale suprieure. La tendance rcente a
chang la situation. La fondation devient un lment important de la structure elle-mme et est parfois tenue comme un lment de
l'authenticit du patrimoine bas sur une caractristique rgionale unique ainsi que sur la priode laquelle appartient le patrimoine.
Cet document dcrit un bref historique de l'authenticit du patrimoine culturel et discute de l'authenticit de plusieurs exemples de
systmes de fondation, tels que la Tour Penche de Pise, la maonnerie en pierres Angkor au Cambodge, et les fondations sur pieux
en bois de le Grande Porte Itsukushima, Hiroshima, au Japon.
KEYWORDS: cultural heritage, authenticity, foundation, Pisa Tower, Angkor, Itsukushima shrine
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3112
Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
90
Clayey Soil
80
Weight Percent passing(%)
70
60
Sandy Soil
50
40
30
20
10
0.006 0.06 2 5
0
0 E-
1 .0 031 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10
Figure 7. Vertical side view of Northern Library, Bayon
Grain Size(mm)
Figure 9. Grain size distribution for sand and clayey soils for
mound
Figure 9 shows grain size distribution curve for these sand and
clayey soils used for filled mound in Angkor.
There is no evidence of sliding along the gaps on side stones.
The setting of the stone, laterite block, and compacted sand
layer is shown in Figure 8 with estimated flow of the load of the
upper structure to the foundation system. The load of the upper
structure is supported by laterite blocks and sand stones at +4m
in height, sand stones, laterite blocks, and compacted sand at
+2m and +0m in height. The direction of these forces is always
towards vertical or outwards. Khmer engineer seems to have
treated these different materials as to show the same characters.
The gaps are considered to be caused by the tendency of
horizontal outwards of forces as well as horizontal expansion of
Figure 8. Trenched section at west end of Northern Library compacted soils.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The elements of foundation system of ancient Khmer structure medium dense soils of weathered granite with about 15m in
in Bayon may be characterized as follows, depth followed by granitic rock. (Itsukushima Shrine
1) Deep trench and backfilled foundation Restoration Committee,1958).
2) Materials for foundation system; sandy and clayey soils, The wooden pine piles were not rotten under sea water and
laterite block, and sand stones reused for conservation work.
3) High and steep retaining system for dense compacted The characteristic element of foundation system for the Great
mound that composes from sand stone, laterite block, and Gate is thousand piles foundation, which composes of many
clayey soil densely driven piles with short length compared to depth to base
rock.
4 CONCLUSIONS
So far, we discussed with characteristic element of foundation
system for three World Heritage sites.
Shallow direct foundation and soft soil condition for Pisa Tower,
Deep foundation trench and unique conbination of geo-
materials for Angkor, and thousand piles system of Great Gate
for Itsukushima Shrine are discussed as the characteristic
element of the foundation. Since the foundation sysytem is
usually hiddened underground and never exposed to public. We,
geotechnical professon, need to explain these specialities to
public.
5 REFERENCES
Burland J.B., Jamiolkowski M.B., Viggiani C.2009. Leaning Tower of
Pisa: Behaviour after Stabilization Operations. International Journal
of Geoengineering Case histories, http://casehistories. geoengineer.
org, Vol.1, Issue 3, p.156-169
Narita.G.,Nishimoto.S.,Shimizu.N.,Akazawa.Y.2000.Trench at Outer
Gallery of Bayon Temple, JSA Annual Report.2000.3-18, Color
Fig.1, 317
Photo.2 Thousand pile foundation for Itsukushima Shrine JSA.2000, Chapter 5 Restoration Work, JSA Report on the
Conservation and Restoration Work of the Northern Library of
Wooden pine piles with about 30cm in diameter were found as Bayon, Angkor Thom, Kongdom of Cambodia, JSA, 211-320
driven in dense condition. The surface soil is weathered granite Itsukushima Shrine Restoration Committee.1958, Report on National
with15m in thickness followed by granitic base rock. Treasure of Itsukushima Shrine from1948 to1957
The diameters of the piles are around 30cm and some piles of
the existing foundation were pulled out and were measured as
about 2m. The ground around the site consists from loose and
3114
Geotechnical Assessment for the Restoration of Garandoya tumulus
with the Naked Stone Chamber
valuation gotechnique de la restauration du tumulus de Garandoya et grottes en pierres nues
Mimura M.
Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
Yoshimura M.
Soil and Rock Engineering Co. Ltd., Osaka, Japan
ABSTRACT: Garandoya Tumulus was constructed on the terrace of Mikuma River and famous for mural paintings. The soil mound
that originally covered the stone chamber has been destroyed. Due to instability of the naked stone chamber, it has been decided to
restore the tumulus with the construction of round soil mound with a diameter of 25 to 30m. The necessary strength together with the
compacted density of the restored mound soils are investigated through various laboratory tests. A series of laboratory test results
confirm that the stability of the restored mound is achieved with the possible in-situ density. Water resistant and adiabatic structure is
required to protect the mural paintings inside the stone chamber. Based on the chamber model test results, the double-layered earth
mound has been introduced for the restored tumulus mound, namely, the well compacted soil with the enough strength to stabilize the
restored tumulus mound underlain by the well permeable gravel layer to support the drainage for rainfall water. The heat conduction
chamber tests on the mound soils are carried out to investigate the capacity to protect the heat transfer into the chamber. A series of
the stability and environmental assessments has successfully assisted to develop the design of the restored tumulus mound.
RSUM : Le tumulus de Garandoya, trs connu pour ses peintures murales dans ses grottes, est construit sur le banc de la rivire
Mikura. Le monticule de terre qui recouvrait les grottes est dsormais dnud, ce qui mne linstabilit des pierres nues des grottes,
ainsi que la vulnrabilit des peintures murales leau. On propose des travaux de restauration du tumulus en construisant un
monticule de forme circulaire de diamtre de 25 30m pour le recouvrir. On tudie la rsistance du sol compact et la restitution de la
densit in situ en faisant des tests au laboratoire. La texture du sol compact doit tre tanche pour protger les peintures murales
contre linfiltration des eaux dans la grotte. Les rsultats de tests sur un modle rduit de la grotte prconisent une bi-couche pour
restaurer le tumulus, cd une couche de sol compact recouvrant une sous-couche de gravier pour permettre le drainage. On a aussi
fait des tests de conductivit thermique sur le sol compact pour valuer lisolation de la grotte. Des tudes de la stabilit
environnementale du monticule ont aussi fait partie du design de la restauration du tumulus.
KEYWORDS: heritage, tumulus, mound, water retention characteristic, capillary barrier, heat conduction
1 INTRODUCTION
The Garandoya Tumuli, the national heritage are located at Hita
city in Oita prefecture (Figure 1) with the mural paintings in the
stone chamber. Although three tumuli were discovered, all of
them have lost their earth mound and the stone chambers are
exposed. The tumuli have been determined to be restored to Tokyo
conserve the stone chamber as well as the colored mural
paintings drawn on the surface of the chamber stones. In order Hita
to protect the mural paintings from deterioration, the water
resistant and adiabatic structure is strongly required because the
main factor for the damage of the mural paintings is luxuriant
growth of mold due to dew condensation induced by the
intruded water by rainfall and the rise in heat by solar radiation.
In the present paper, the geotechnical assessment for the
conservation of the tumuli including the mural paintings Figure 1. Location of Garandoya tumulus
through the in situ and laboratory tests is reported. The behavior
of underground water at the site is investigated through the in 2 GENERAL VIEW OF THE RESTORATION PROJECT
situ tests with emphasis on the possibility of suction-induced
water intrusion. The necessary drainage function against the
2.1 Restoration plan
rain water is also discussed. The layered structure such as the
compacted earth underlain by the permeable coarse gravel for In order to keep the preferable environment for the mural
the restored earth mound is proposed considering the assisting paintings on the chamber stones as well as to enable general
effect of capillary barrier at the border of these layers. public presentation of the stone chamber, the Hita Municipal
Discussion is extended to the adiabatic structure of the earth Board of Education has determined to construct the shelter
mound, which is expected with the heat conduction building which covers the stone chamber covered by the
characteristics of soils. For the purposes, a series of chamber restored earth mound as shown in Figure 2. The shelter building
model tests are conducted.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Earth mound rainfall as well as in a dry season when the groundwater level
Cover structure rain
Stone Chamber
temporary cover hut
stone chamber observation well
G.L.
Figure 2. Schematic view of the restoration plan for the Garandoya
Tumulus Embankment
1.60
whose diameter and height is 18 m and 6 m respectively. The Clayly Sand
restored earth mound will be constructed with a diameter of and
3.20 Sand
about 25 m based on the archaeological knowledge. 3.60
Sand and Grabel
2.2 Examination subjects 5.20
Degradation of the colored paintings drawn on the surface of the
chamber stone is most greatly subject to the influence of Sand and
moisture. Development of the water resistant structure is Grabel-Bolder
required to prevent dew condensation and intrusion of water
into the stone chamber. The possible phenomena to be 9.00
considered are 1) the underground water exudation from the
foundation, 2) the leakage of water from the joint of the Figure.3 Cross section of the foundation of the Garandoya Tumulus
reinforced concrete panel of the shelter building, 3) the inflow lowers. As far as the condition at the investigation is concerned,
from surrounding ground. Technical procedures to overcome the temporary shelter structure was equipped to cover the stone
the above-mentioned problems have to be discussed together chamber to avoid rainfall. The stone chamber was however not
with the control of the temperature inside the stone chamber completely free from the infiltration of water through the
caused by the solar radiation. surrounding ground.
According to the boring log, the subsurface condition of the
3 INVESTIGATIONS OF MOISTURE IN THE GROUND Grandoya Tumuli is as follows: The artificial fill consisting of
fine grained soil with gravel appears from the ground surface to
In order to consider the seepage of groundwater from the GL-1.6 m underlain by the clayey sand with gravel and boulder
ground, the condition of groundwater was investigated in the from GL.-1.6 m to -3.2 m. The sand layer is found from GL-3.2
observation well that is made from a vinyl chloride pipe with m to -3.6 m underlain by the sand and gravel from GL.-3.6 m to
outer diameter 60 mm and inner diameter 52mm (Figure 3) -5.2 m. Then the gravel and boulder deposit appears from GL-
currently installed in the nearest to the tumulus. The inserted 5.2 m to -9.0 m. Because the clayey sand above GL-3.2 m is
type RI densimeter and moistmeter of the shape of a pillar stick expected to have a low permeability enough to hinder
of 42.7 mm in diameter and about 1000 mm in length is applied infiltration into the ground, the water by rainfall is expected to
to detect the moisture content as well as the density of the exude inside the stone chamber.
ground. The RI densimeter and moistmeter is inserted to the The measured results of the density and moisture logging are
bottom of the well at the depth of 9 m from the ground surface shown in Fig. 4. The groundwater level is found to change at
followed by conducting the scanning logging by pulling up at G.L. -5.04 m in the rainy season and G.L.-8.45 m in the dry
the rate of 1 m/min. Investigation was conducted in a rainy season. It is natural that the degree of saturation is kept almost
season when the groundwater level heightens due to sufficient
Water Dry Wet Density (g/cm3) Water Content w (%) Degree of Saturation Sr (%)
0.0 1.0 2.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
5
Depth GL- (m)
GL- (m)
Figure 4 Measured results of the density and moisture content of the foundation ground at the Garandoya Tumulus
3116
Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
100 % and when the underground water level lowers in the dry
season, the degree of saturation from G.L. -5.04 m to 9.0 m 100 coarse soil
significantly drops to about 35%. On the contrary, the degree of 90
fine soil
Percent passing %
saturation above G.L. -5.04 m is about 60% in the rainy season, 80
and it is noteworthy that the degree of saturation in the layers 70
above the groundwater level of does not change at all 60
irrespective of the underground water level. From these results, 50
the seepage of the water to the layers above the groundwater 40
level due to suction can be ruled out. It is hence not necessary to 30
consider the problem of exudation of the underground water 20
into the stone chamber from its base.
10
0
4 ASSESSMENT OF WATER RESISTANT STRUCTURE
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
The shelter building is planned to be constructed for the Particle size D
mm
conservation of the naked stone chamber of the Garandoya Figure 6 Grain size distribution curves of the candidate soils
Tumulus. It is true the intruded rain water is intercepted by the
Marriotte siphon test mold
shelter building but it is preferable that the intruded water does
not reach the surface of the shelter building to avoid possible
leakage due to loss of function of the waterproof processing
equipped among the concrete panels of the shelter building. The specimem(soil)
earth mound has been selected to cover the shelter building to pore water
reproduce the original shape of the tumulus together with the pressure gauge
consideration of the adiabatic effect. The layered structure,
namely the well compacted soil underlain by the well permeable shield lead
coarse gravel has been adopted for the restored earth mound in shield lead
order to provide a good drainage function. The adopted layered
earth mound structure consequently give a possible function of
a capillary barrier at the border of the compacted soil and gravel
layers due to the different capacity of suction in those layers.
A series of the chamber tests on the layered foundation is
carried out to confirm the occurrence of capillary barrier at the photo-multiplier
border of the upper compacted soil layer and the underlying Gamma ray and amplifier
coarse gravel layer. The model chamber is shown in Figure 5. source
The selected parameters for this chamber test are the inclination Detector of Gamma ray
angle of the foundations and the intensity if precipitation. The
size of the model chamber is 1100 mm in length, 600 mm in
height, and 120 mm in width. The equipment for precipitation
has eight hypodermic needles per 100 cm2 at the bottom of the
tank, and can give the raindrop from the needle tip to the
surface of the model foundation. Intensity of precipitation is
supply permeable spacer
adjusted by the hydrostatic pressure in terms of the level of
water in the tank that can be controlled by the Marriott siphon. Figure 7 Schematic view of the unsaturated seepage test device
The soil with which the present experiment is conducted is the
candidate material of the tumulus restoration that is the graded content equivalent to the one for the actual restoration. A series
grain material extracted from the quarry in the proximity of the of compaction tests is conducted with the different compaction
tumulus. The coarse gravel is also extracted from the same energy on the material under the natural water content. Based
quarry. The particle size distribution of the materials is shown on the experimental results, the density of the soil for the
in Figure 6. The candidate material is a well-graded sandy soil. chamber test is determined by supposing the compaction energy
The initial water content of soil was adjusted as natural water at the construction of restored earth mound. The relation of the
moisture content by volume and the suction is separately
investigated from the unsaturated seepage test. The adopted
Rainmaking
i testing apparatus for the unsaturated seepage test with the
water tank Marriott siphon radioisotope system is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 8 shows the experimental results between the tangent of
the inclination angle of the foundation and the limit length L
Hypodermic needle that denotes the resistant distance for the capillary barrier under
100 check box for the prescribed intensity of precipitation of 3.6 mm/hr. In the
1100 intensity of present study, the thickness of the compacted earth mound is
300 Test Chamber exhaust port of 300mm. A set of electric sensors to detect water is put at the top
the surface flow of the underlying coarse gravel layer. When infiltrated water
fine particle soil
leaks to the gravel layer, we can detect the location of the
200 exhaust port of breaking point of capillary barrier by the occurrence of short-
Coarse particle soil the boundary flow circuit. As shown in the figure, there is a definite linear
leakage sensor lower exhaust port
relationship between the limit length L and the inclination angle
inclination angle of the foundation in terms of tan. It is found that the water
resistant structure with capillary barrier at the border of the
Figure.5 Schematic view of the model chamber of the test for capillary layered earth mound is expected to function under the condition
barrier of the inclined foundation such as tumulus mound.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
100
limit length Lcm
80
60
40
temperature
L= tan 497.6
20
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
tan
Figure 8 Relation of the inclination angle of the foundation and the
limit length L for capillary barrier 1stday 2ndday 3rdday 4thday 5thday
Lapsed days
5 ASSESSMENT FOR HEAT CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILS Fiigure.10 Experimental results on variation of temperature in the soil
Subterranean preservation of food using the adiabatic effect of maximum to be overdue in proportion to the distance from the
the ground is widely performed from ancient times. The shelter heat source. It is shown that the heat conduction inside the
building for the Garandoya Tumulus has hence been covered specimen is accompanied by a time lag and attenuation. The
with soils to ease the temperature change in the tumulus one-dimensional equation of heat conduction is solved by the
because the variation in temperature has a harmful influence on finite difference method. By fitting these data, the coefficient of
the conservation of the mural paintings in the stone chamber. heat conduction =8.04x10-5 (J/msC) is obtained. On the basis
The chamber model test is carried out in order to derive the of the heat conductivity chamber test results, the candidate soil
characteristics of the heat conductivity of the soil that is used for the restored mound is found to have a sufficient capacity as
for the restoration of the tumulus. The schematic view of the an adiabatic material.
experimental device is shown in Figure 9. The soil is prepared
by compacting to 50mm per layer and the specimen of ten-layer 6 CONCLUSIONS
structure is developed. Then, the specimen is prepared with 200
mm in diameter and 500 mm in height in the cylindrical Geotechnical assessment was conducted to conserve the
container of acrylics covered by the thermal insulated styrene Garandoya Tumulus with the naked stone chamber in which the
foam with a thickness of 100 mm. As is shown in the figure, the colored mural paintings are drawn. The preferable environment
temperature sensors have been arranged at the prescribed depth in the stone chamber is found to be achieved by equipping the
in the specimen. The heat source of aluminum board is set at the shelter building covered by the earth mound. The seasonal
top of the container. change of the underground level that is interlocked with the
The sequence of heat supply is set to provide 40C of heat for 8 river level has been monitored. The rise of the water content in
hours from the top of the specimen followed by removal of heat the capillary zone above the groundwater level was not detected
for 16 hours (1-day cycle model). During the time without heat irrespective of the season. Underground water hence does not
supply, the temperature of the specimen surface is falling to the infiltrate into the stone chamber from the ground. The layered
one of the room (about 15C). Figure 10 shows the structure of the restored mound, namely the drained gravel layer
experimental results of the heat conductivity on the soil used for overlain by the compacted earth is expected to provide the
the restoration of the tumulus. The setup condition is equivalent capillary barrier at the border of the layers. The chamber model
to the prescribed one for the restoration of the tumulus. As test results showed the linear relationship between the limit
shown in Figure 10, 4 cycles of heat supply and removal are length, L and the tangent of the inclination angle of the soil
conducted. The increasing rate of temperature tends to be higher layers. Capillary barrier effect is found to possibly assist for the
in inverse proportion to the distance from the heat source. The water resistant structure of the tumulus mound. The adiabatic
absolute value of temperature is so high that it is close to the effect by the restored earth mound is experimentally confirmed
heat source, and there is the tendency for time to reach the through the one-dimensional heat conductivity chamber test. On
the basis of the experimental results, the necessary thickness of
heater the restored earth mound has been proposed to maintain the
desirable thermal environment in the stone chamber.
aluminum board
thermal insulation (t=100mm)
7 REFERENCES
1025
50
Hita Municipal Board of Education, 2010: The investigation
report of accompanying preservation maintenance of the
historical site of Garandoya ancient tomb
100 Hita-City, 2008: A historical site of Garandoya ancient tomb
drilling survey commissioned business report.
200m T. Morii, A. Horie, M. Kikuchi, Y. Takeshita, and M. Inoue,
500m
200m
Figuare.9 Outline of the experimental device about heat conduction
3118
Geotechnical Features of Sochi Olympic Facilities Project Designs
Les aspects gotechniques de la conception des installations olympiques de Sochi
Petrukhin V.P., Kolybin I.V., Budanov V.G., Isaev .N., Kisin B.F., Bokov I.A.
Gersevanov Research Institute of Foundations and Underground Structures (NIIOSP), Moscow, Russia
ABSTRACT: The key facilities of the XXII-th Olympic Games 2014 in Sochi have been erected on the Imeretin lowland,
characterized by complicated geological environment and high seismicity. Leading Russian organizations have been invited to tackle
the related geotechnical issues. The paper describes specific aspects of geotechnical design of the Olympic facilities. There have been
reviewed project design solutions for the footings of buildings, structures and underground service lines, developed either by NIIOSP
or with its participation.
RSUM : Les importantes installations des XXIImes Jeux Olympiques de Sochi en 2014 ont t ralises dans la plaine dImeretin,
caractrise par un environnement gologique complexe et une sismicit leve. Les autorits Russes ont t invites rsoudre les
problmes gotechniques poss par ce projet. Cet article prsente les particularits de la conception gotechnique des ouvrages
Olympiques: les solutions adoptes pour les projets de fondations, de btiments et de lignes des services, dvelopps par le NIIOSP
ou avec sa participation.
KEYWORDS: OLYMPIC FACILITIES, IMERETIN LOWLAND, DESINGING, FOOTINGS, SOFT SOILS, SEISMICITY.
1 INTRODUCTION gravel pebble soils) and class III (water-saturated sands and soft
clays).
In 2014 Russia will host the XXII-th Winter Olympic Games More than 100 various buildings and structures are being
and the XI-th ParaOlympic Games to be held in Sochi which built within the area.
has humid subtropical climate. The main Olympic sports facilities are erected on 240 Ha.
The Olympic sports and infrastructure facilities are divided area of Olympic Park. This is the 40000 seats central Olympic
into two clusters: coastal and mountainous. The paper is stadium, a 12000 seats Big ice hockey arena, 12000 seats Ice
dedicated to the geotechnical issues of Olympic facilities sports palace with 60 20 m arena, a training rink for figure
erection in the coastal cluster, which includes 6 main sport skating and for short track skating with 60 30 m arena, 8000
palaces, IOC quaters, hotels and tourist attractions. The coastal seats Indoor skating center, 7000 seats Ice hockey area, Ice
Olympic cluster is located on 1240 Ha up to 2 km wide Imeretin arena for curling (see Fig.1). Auxiliary facilities are being built
lowland terrain that extends 7 km along the coast (Fig.1). on the western side of the Olympic Park IOC hotel, hotels
he terrain is protected against cold winds by the Greater for the Olympic family and ParaOlympic committee, technical
Caucausus Mountain Ridge so the winters here are not cold. and international zones, a service center. Media Center, 3*, 4*,
The area features subtropical climate of Mediterranian type. 5* hotels and various auxiliary buildings are located to the east
Mean annual air temperature is + 13,7 . The coldest month is of the Olympic Park.
January with mean air temperature + 5,3 . The lowland ground is slightly above the sea level, 1,54,0
The mountainous cluster, where ski and biathlon m on the average. Large areas are subjected to flooding and
competitions will be held and a ski jump and a bobsleigh center, waterlogging. Prior to construction works it was planned to
are located at 48 km from the main Olympic facilities. protect the area from waterlogging and preserve existing ground
The seaside cluster terrain is a flatland, transferring into a water table. Thus the area was filled up to 2,5 3,5 m average
gently sloping hillside piedmont. The geological survey of level with drainage at the bottom of the fill. The drainage
deposits down to 50 m (Fig. 2) depth revealed occurrence of ensures an excess of the fresh ground water table above the sea
several lithological features, represented by soft soils (peat, silt, level that prevents sea water intrusion into the deposit rock. In
including peat-containing clay soils of liquid-plastic order to avoid salination of ground water the depth of drainage
consistence), sand loams, sands (from fine to coarse-grained is limited by at least 0.6 m level above the sea. This condition
composition), by gravel and pebble containing soils. Young is maintained by limiting fresh water consumption especially in
modulus of soft soil which is present in most of the seaside area summer and autumn periods, which may be compensated from
rarely exceeds 5 MPa value. Ground water table is just 1...3 m water supply system or other sources in the event of
below ground surface. overconsumption.
The area seismicity magnitude is 9 i.e. extreme seismic risk. Upfilling the terrain level prior to construction activities in
The soils on the site belong to seismic class II (sand loams, the areas of soft clay soils, peat and peat-containing soils results
in long-term settlements due to soft clayey soil consolidation.
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Figure. 1. Overview of Imeretin lowland with indicated construction sites. 1 Olympic Stadium Fisht; 2 Big Ice Arena; 3 inor Ice
Arena Ice Puck; 4 Skating Stadium Adler Arena; 5 - Curling Center Ice Cube; 6 Winter Sports Palace Iceberg; 7 Organizing
Committee Building; 8 Plot D1; 9 Plot 17; 10 Olympic park.
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
Raft analysis was performed with the account of joint Fig. 5. Layout of Rafts of Big Ice Arena. 1. Raft of Main Arena; 2. Raft
footing-superstructure analysis for the service and ultimate limit of workout arena; 3... 9 Rafts of service premises and bypass road; 10.
states. ULS analysis included the main and characteristic Raft of refrigeration center.
combinations of design loads with seismic action in both
directions along the structure main axes. For characteristic
combination the analysis included the raft shear along its
bottom while for stylobate structures the exess of the vertical
component of the design eccentric load over vertical force of
limit state force in the case of one-sided soil upthrust, caused by
seismic action. Shear verification was done for horizontal force,
defined as a geometrical sum of horizontal loads in
characteristic combination along the principle axes.
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
Driven concrete 30x30 cm 4-12 m long piles are applied. man-made soil, covered by fill produced during engineering
The length of piles depends on the depth of the bearing gravel preparation of the construction site. Due to low strength of these
and pebble layer, in which the pile tips are at least 0.5 m deep. soils, they can not be used as the foundation base. Therefore, to
Due to variations of geological conditions within the minimize the differential settlements of adjoining blocks, pile
construction site two types of footings were used in the project
design (fig. 10)
Type 1
Type 2
Note. r and rmin are design and minimally admissible radius of pipeline curvature; i and imin are design and minimally admissible pipeline
slopes; and max are design and maximally allowable angle of rotation in pipeline joints.
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FIGURE. 13. Design solutions for foundations of underground water lines within Imeretin lowland terrain: a driven pile footing; b
underground water lines within concrete strip
Imeretin footingterrain:
lowland on natural soil; c pile
a driven concrete
footing;strip
b footing on replaced soil (replacement of soft soils by sand and gravel mixture).
strip footing on replaced soil (1 sand and gravel
(replacement of soft soils; 2 sand
soils by soft and
claygravel
soils; 3mixture).
concrete strip footing; 4 concrete driven pile; 5 concrete raft; 6 sand and gravel
fill; 7driven
oncrete strip footing; 4 concrete replacement
pile; 5 of soils with
concrete raft;sand and gravel
6 sand fill; 8 pipeline in protective duct; 9 pipeline wrapped around with geotexticle in
and gravel
fill; 8 pipeline in protective duct; 9 pipeline wrapped around with geotexticle sand in fill; 10 sand backfill).
sand fill; 10 sand backfill).
6 CONCLUSIONS
6 CONCLUSIONS
Imeretin lowland, where main Olympic facilities are erected,
Imeretin lowland, where main Olympic facilities are erected, features complicated geotechnical conditions, presence of thick
features complicated geotechnical conditions, presence of thick soft clay deposits, high underground water level, and high
soft clay deposits, high underground water level, and high seismicity of the area.
seismicity of the area. The above factors as well as the necessity of construction
The above factors as well as the necessity of construction within tight deadlines of many sports facilities, including unique
within tight deadlines of many sports facilities, including unique buildings and structures, made the designing engineers to face
buildings and structures, made the designing engineers to face complicated challenges, which they finally coped with thanks
complicated challenges, which they finally coped with thanks to the accumulated experience of the national geotechnical
to the accumulated experience of the national geotechnical community as well as to application of new approaches and
community as well as to application of new approaches and effective design solutions.
effective design solutions.
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Heaving Mechanisms in High Sulfate Soils
Mcanismes de soulvement dans les sols contenu lev en sulfates
Puppala A.J.
Professor, Department of Civil Engg. University of Texas at Arlington
Talluri N., Gaily A., Bhaskar, Chittoori C.S.
Doctoral Student, Doctoral Student and Faculty Research Associate, Department of Civil Engg., University of Texas at
Arlington
ABSTRACT: Pavement distress caused by chemically treated sulfate soils are considered as major maintenance problems to highway
agencies. In view of this, researchers across the world have conducted studies on heave mechanisms in chemically treated sulfate
soils. Many of these studies are focused on soils with soluble sulfate contents below 10,000 parts per million (ppm). Heave
mechanisms in soils with sulfate contents above 10,000 ppm still need to be understood as sulfate measurements indicate that the soil
sulfate levels of certain regions are well above 10,000 ppm and may exceed 50,000 ppm in some cases. In order to understand the
behavior of treated soils containing sulfates above 10,000 ppm, a research study was initiated. Two soils with different soil
classification are studied. Lime is used as a chemical stabilizer for these soils. Chemical and mineralogical tests as well as engineering
swell tests were conducted to compare the changes in swelling, mineralogical and chemical compositions of the soils from the lime-
sulfate reactions. Results will explain the need to look for replace the classical treatments by alternate ones for these high sulfate soils
for civil infrastructure projects.
RSUM : La dgradation des chausses cause par les sols contenu de sulfates traits chimiquement sont considrs comme des
problmes d'entretien majeurs par les agences routires. Compte tenu de cela, les chercheurs du monde entier ont men des tudes sur
les mcanismes de soulvement dans les sols contenu de sulfates traits chimiquement. La plupart de ces tudes portent sur des sols
teneurs en sulfates solubles en infrieures 10.000 parties par million (ppm). Les mcanismes de soulvement dans les sols
teneurs en sulfates suprieures 10.000 ppm doivent encore tre tudis car des mesures de taux de sulfates indiquent que les niveaux
de sulfates du sol de certaines rgions sont bien au-dessus 10.000 ppm et peuvent mme dpasser 50.000 ppm dans certains cas. Afin
de comprendre le comportement des sols traits contenu de sulfates suprieurs 10.000 ppm, une tude a t lance. Deux sols
rputs diffrents selon la classification des sols ont t tudis. De la chaux a t utilise comme stabilisant chimique de ces sols. Des
tests chimiques et minralogiques ainsi que des tests d'ingnierie du gonflement ont t mens pour comparer les gonflements, et la
composition minralogique et chimique des sols la suite des ractions chaux-sulfate. Les rsultats exposs expliqueront la ncessit
de chercher des traitements alternatifs aux traitements classiques pour ces sols contenu lev en sulfates dans les projets
d'infrastructures civiles.
KEYWORDS: Sulfate, Swell, Mellowing, Ettringite, Expansive Soil
1 INTRODUCTION to be handled with caution and sulfate levels greater than 0.8
percent should be avoided. Puppala et al., 2003 indicated that
Chemical stabilization of expansive soils using lime and cement sulfate levels below 1000 ppm are of no concern and soils with
has been a favourite option for practitioners over the years sulfate levels between 1000-2500 ppm can be treated with
(Hausmann, 1990). In last few decades, premature failure of additional amount of lime. Sulfate levels above 2,500 ppm are
roads, highways and infrastructure facilities around several to be completely avoided. Harris et al., 2004 confirmed that in
parts of the globe lead to question the validity of calcium based soils with sulfate levels greater than 7,000 ppm lime
stabilization. It was reported that when soils contain sulfate stabilization is not a viable option. There is no conclusive
minerals such as gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and sodium sulfate agreement between the threshold sulfates since in most cases of
(Na2SO4) in their natural formation and are treated with calcium sulfate induced failures sulfate contents varied from as low as
based stabilizers, adverse reactions occur causing heave and 320 ppm to as high as 43,500 ppm.
pavement distress. (Mitchell 1986, Hunter 1988, Puppala et al. Based on previous recommendations researchers have
1999, 2003, 2012). These adverse reactions are attributed to the studied heave mechanisms and developed alternative
formation of expansive minerals such as Ettringite stabilization techniques for treating sulfate soils. Many of these
(Ca6.[Al(OH)6]2.(SO4)3.26H2O) and Thaumasite studies were focused on soils with sulfate contents below
(Ca6.[Si(OH)6]2.(SO4).(CO3)2.24H2O). This phenomenon is 10,000 ppm. However, a further understanding about the soils
termed as Sulfate Induced Heave in literature. Repair and re- with sulfate contents above 10,000 ppm and higher is needed.
construction of the the failed infrastructure is costing millions Researchers named these soils as High Sulfate Soils. In view
of dollars to the tax payers. Under favourable moisture, of this aspect the current study focuses on heaving mechanisms
humidity and temperature conditons these minerals grow and remedial options for high sulfate soils. Two soils from the
causing further swell. Lime/cement treatement of sulfate soils state of Texas with sulfate contents above 20,000 ppm are
can be regarded as the man made expasive soil problem. considered in the current study. These soils were lime stabilized
In view of the past sulfate induced failures researchers have using mellowing technique and various engineering and
developed Threshold Sulfate Levels beyond which calcium mineralogical tests were conducted to understand the swell
based stabilization is to be cautioned. Berger et al., 2001 stated shrinkage characteristics of chemically stabilized high sulfate
that sulfate levels below 0.3 percent can be safely treated with soils. Based on test results and analysis recommendations about
calcium stabilizers. Sulfate levels between 0.3 percent to 0.8 are
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
the validity of mellowing technique, an attempt to look for dry density. Wet of optimum moisture content is 2% and 3%
alternative treatments was made. higher than the optimum moisture content for Childress and
Sherman soils.
Mellowing technique has been successful in stabilizing soils
2 MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM with sulfate concentration up to 7,000 ppm (Harris et al., 2004).
Applicability of mellowing for high sulfate soils has not been
2.1 Test Soils and Basic Tests studied so far. To assess the validity of mellowing technique in
Criteria for selection of the test soils is as follows: soils have to high sulfate soils both the soils are treated with 6% lime and
belong to different geological formation and classification. corresponding moisture from the proctor curve. Lime treated
Based on these criteria Sherman and Childress, Texas soils were soils were mellowed for periods of 0 and 3 days in a moisture
sampled for the testing program. As per USCS classification, controlled environment. Since lime treatment makes the soil
Sherman soil is classified as CH whereas Childress is dry, to compensate for the moisture loss during the mellowing
classified as MH soil. Gypsum is the sulfate source for both process, additional 3% moisture is provided for 3 day mellowed
the soils. Soluble sulfate contents were determined using the soils. Another reason for provision of additional moisture is to
TxDOT method (Tex-145-E, Colorimetric method). A 1:20 increase the solubility of gypsum and early depletion as the
initial soil/water dilution ratio is used in this method. Turbidity sulfate reactions occur during the mellowing period. After the
caused by the presence of sulfate is determined using elapsed mellowing periods, soil samples were recompacted and
Colorimeter and converted in to ppm. Soluble sulfate content engineering tests were conducted. Data from the engineering
of Childress and Sherman soils are 24,000 ppm and 44,000 ppm tests is compared with untreated soils to witness the sulfate
respectively. Based on the classifications mentioned above these reactions occurring in high sulfate soils. Reactive alumina and
two soils are termed as high sulfate soils. silica measurements were performed on the samples subjected
Hydrated lime is used as the stabilizer for the soils to swelling and loss of aluminates and silicates were calculated.
understudy. Lime dosage is determined as per Eades and A brief description of the tests conducted is given below:
Grim test. Test soils were treated with various percentages of
lime and pH test was conducted. The dosage at which soil pH
reaches a value of 12.4 is considered as the optimum lime 2.2.1 Three Dimensional Volumetric Swell (3-D Swell) Test
dosage. The optimum dosage of lime for both soils is 6% by dry 3-D swell tests were conducted on natural and treated soils to
weight. Optimum moisture content and dry density of natural determine the maximum possible volumetric swell which is a
and treated soils were obtained by conducting standard proctor combination of vertical and radial swell. These tests are
tests as per ASTM standard procedures (ASTM D-698). It was conducted on 4 in. (101.6 mm) diameter and 4.6 in. (116.8 mm)
observed that maximum dry density decreased and optimum height samples. The samples are prepared using a gyratory
moisture content increased up on lime treatment. Classification compactor machine. Porous stones are placed at the top and
and standard Proctor test results are summarized in Table 1. bottom of the sample and a rubber membrane is placed around
the sample. The samples are double inundated and a dial gauge
Table 1. Classification and Proctor Test Results is placed on the top of the sample to record the vertical swell
with time. Vertical swell readings are collected with time until
Atterberg 6% Lime there is no further swell for 24 hours. Radial swell of the sample
Untreated Soil
Limits Treated Soil is measured after the completion of the test using a pi-tape.
Soil
OMC MDD, OMC MDD, Double inundation provides the worst possible scenario in field
LL PL PI
(%) psf (%) psf where the soil is 100% saturated and maximum swell is
Sherman 72 30 42 27 89 28 87 expected in this case. Researchers across United States and UK
Childress 71 35 36 21 103 22 96 have successfully used double inundation technique for
Note: LL Liquid Limit; PL Plastic Limit; PI Plasticity measuring the volumetric swell.
Index; OMC Optimum Moisture Content; MDD- Maximum
Dry Density 2.2.2 Three Dimensional Volumetric Shrinkage Test
3-D shrinkage tests were conducted as per the procedure
A series of chemical tests were conducted on test soils to developed by Puppala et al., 2004 to measure the decrease in the
determine the cation-exchange capacity (CEC), specific surface total volume of soil specimens due to the loss of moisture
area (SSA) and total potassium (TP). Based on the content in field samples during a dry spell. In order to replicate
mineralogical test results, clay mineralogy of the test soils was the worst possible conditions, drying from a compacted state to
assessed as per the procedure outlined by Chittoori and Puppala completely dry state is considered in this test. Soil samples were
(2011). Clay mineralogy indicated the dominance of compacted to 2.26 in. (57 mm) diameter and 5 in. (127 mm)
Montmorillonite mineral in Sherman soil and Kaolinite mineral height using a static compaction machine. Initial sample height
in Childress soil. Both soils exhibited swell potential upon and diameter are measured at three locations and averaged.
hydration. Samples are prepared at optimum and wet of optimum moisture
contents and dried on bench top for 12 hours followed by oven
drying for 24 hours. Steps used in sample preparation and
2.2 Engineering Tests and Mineralogical Tests extraction are similar to the UCS sample except the sample
sizes are different. After 24 hours, samples are removed from
Engineering tests were performed on untreated test soils to the oven and sample dimensions are taken. Volumetric
assess the swell, shrinkage and strength characteristics. These shrinkage is calculated as the difference of initial and final
tests include three dimensional (3-D) volumetric swell, volume divided by the initial volume expressed in percentage.
shrinkage and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests.
As alumina and silica constitute the chemical composition of 2.2.3 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Test
Ettringite and Thaumasite, measurement of alumina and silica is Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) tests were conducted
essential. Alumina and silica that participate in the sulfate as per ASTM D 2166 method. The main intention of these tests
reactions are called reactive alumina and silica. Reactive is to determine the strength changes during the mellowing
alumina and silica measurements were conducted as part of the process. Soil samples are treated with lime and allowed to
mineralogical tests. All the engineering tests were conducted at mellow for 0 and 3 days. After the mellowing period soil
optimum moisture content (OMC) and wet of optimum samples were compacted to 2.8 in diameter (70 mm) and 5.6 in.
moisture content (WOMC) corresponding to 95% of maximum (140 mm) height and moist cured in a 100% relative humidity
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
environment for 7 days. After the curing period soil samples are
loaded to failure at a constant strain rate of 1.27 in/minute in a
triaxial compression machine.
3.1 Results of the Testing Program Table 2. 3-D Shrinkage Test Results
3.1.1 Three Dimensional (3-D) Swell Test 6%L, 0 day 6%L, 3 day
3-D swell tests were conducted on natural and treated soils as Natural
Soil mellowing mellowing
per the procedure described above. Natural swell of Sherman
and Childress soils at optimum moisture content is 16.2% and OMC* WOMC* OMC* WOMC* OMC* WOMC*
7.5% respectively. The observed swell is less at wet of optimum
moisture content. Additional swell tests were conducted on both Sherman -15.8 -20.0 -7.6 -8.9 -6.3 -9.4
the soils at 7-day mellowing. Results of the swell testing are Childress
-14.3 -15.4 -2.4 -2.6 -3.1 -4.0
presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2. It can be observed from the
figures that for both the soils at 0 days mellowing, the treated Note*: Negative sign indicates shrinkage
swell is higher than the natural swell indicating the dominance
of sulfate reactions over stabilization reactions which is From Table 2, it can be observed that volumetric shrinkage
common in lime treated high sulfate soils. In case of Sherman reduced with lime treatment irrespective of the sulfate content.
soil, the observed swell is below the natural swell for 3-day Volumetric shrinkage is higher at WOMC condition owing to
mellowing which further decreased with 7-day mellowing the high moisture at wet of optimum than optimum. Volumetric
indicating the effectiveness of mellowing in Sherman soil. In shrinkage of the 3 day mellowed soils is slightly higher than the
Childress soil, with 3-day mellowing the reduction in swell is 0 mellowed soils due to additional moisture provided during the
observed though it is not significant since the treated swell is mellowing process. It can be concluded that sulfate heave
higher than the natural swell. With 7-day mellowing, the treated reactions do not have significant influence on the shrinkage
swell further increased indicating mellowing is not effective for behavior of lime treated soils.
Childress soil. Reasons for this behavior are explained in the
subsequent sections. 3.1.3 UCS Test Results
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted
on natural and treated soils (0 day and 3 day mellowing). The
results of UCS tests are presented in Table 3. From Table 3. it
can be observed that UCS strengh of treated soils is 2-5 times
higher than the natural soil. There was a slight decrease in
strength in case of 3 day mellowed samples which could be
attributed to the addition of extra moisture during mellowing.
Sherman 33 19 81 60 70 46
Childress 23 16 108 78 103 56
Figure 1. 3-D Volumetric Swell (SHERMAN Soil)
3.1.4 Discussion
Reactive alumina and silica measurements on natural (untreated
soils) and treated soils (after the samples have been subjected
for swell testing) at different mellowing periods were performed
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
as per the procedure outlined above. Table 4 shows the results 4 CONCLUSIONS
of these tests and the loss of alumina and silica in treated soils at
different mellowing time periods. It can be seen from the Table 1. In Sherman soil containing sulfates of 30,000 ppm or
4 that the initial reactive alumina and silica contents are very less, the mellowing effectively reduced the swell
low in Childress soil when compared to that of Sherman soil. potential. Childress soil, containing larger amounts of
The main intent of mellowing is to allow the Ettringite sulfates of more than 30,000 ppm, exhibited sulfate
formation reactions in initial stages. During remixing and induced heaving even at longer mellowing periods.
compacting the initial Ettringite is broken and further Ettringite 2. Volumetric shrinkage behavior is unaffected by the
formation is hence not possible due to the lack of reactive presence of sulfates and mellowing periods indicating
sulfates. that the shrinkage behavior was succesfully reduced
It is reported in the literature that Ettringite formation with lime treament.
depends on the amount of reactive alumina present in the 3. Low alumina contents facilitated Ettringite formation
system. For example, low alumina contents in soils favor the and heaving (Childress soil) whereas at high alumina
trisulfate hydrate (Ettringite) formation. High alumina contents, contents both Ettringite and pozzolonic reactions
on the other hand, lead to simultaneous formations of occur simultaneously but due to dominance of
pozzalonic and ettringite reactions. As a result, attractive forces pozzolonic reactions less heave is observed in this
formed from pozzalonic formation will resist the disruptive case (Sherman soil).
forces caused by Ettringite hydration reactions. This explains 4. Compaction void ratio is an important parameter that
low heaving in high alumina soil (Sherman soil) of the present need to be emphasized in lime treament of sulfate
research. soils because Ettringite induced heaving is more
Low initial reactive alumina contents coupled with high critical in dense soil matrix compared to loose matrix.
sulfate contents in Childress soils are attributed to large heaving
and here the mellowing is deemed ineffective primarily due to
low alumina content in the soil. Also, the loss of alumina and 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
silica at both 0 day and 3 day mellowing periods were higher in Authors would like to thank Texas Department of
case of Childress soil compared to Sherman soil. Though the Transportation (TxDOT) for the funding the project. Authors
loss of alumina and silica is less in 3-day mellowed soils, this would like to thank Mike Arellano and Richard Williammee of
soil still exhibited high swelling due to high sulfate content TxDOT as well as Pat Harris of Sam Houston State University
(44,000 ppm) present. for their assistance with the research.
Table 4. Reactive Alumina and Silica (ppm) in present soils
6 REFERENCES
6%L, 6%L,
Untreated Berger, E., Little, D. N. and Graves, R. (2001). Technical
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(Natural) Memorandum: Guidelines for Stabilization of Soils Containing
mellowing mellowing
Soil Sulfate. http://www.lime.org/publications.html Accessed October,
% loss % loss 2012.
Al(ppm) Si(ppm) Chittoori, B., and Puppala, A. J., (2011). Quantitative estimation of clay
Al Si Al Si
mineralogy in fine-grained soils. Journal of Geotechnical and
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December 2011.
Sherman@WOMC 279 137 57 64 52 63 Foster, M. (1953) Geochemical Studies of Clay Minerals III. The
determination of free silica and free alumina in Montmorillonites,
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Harris, J. P., Sebesta, S., and Scullion, T. (2004). Hydrated Lime
Childress@WOMC 76 13 62 62 58 54 Stabilization of Sulfate-bearing Vertisols in Texas. Transportation
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Also, authors have made attempts to link the formation and Hausmann, M. R. (1990). Engineering principles of ground
growth of Ettringite to the compaction density/void ratio of the modification, McGrawHill, New York.
soil specimens. Based on specific gravity and maximum dry Hunter, D. (1988). Lime-Induced Heave in Sulfate-Bearing Clay Soils,.
density (@OMC condition), the compaction void ratio is Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 114, pp. 150-
calculated. Compaction void ratios of Childress and Sherman 167.
soils are 0.52 and 0.86, respectively. In soils with high void Mitchell, J. K. (1986). Practical Problems from Surprising Soil
Behavior. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE,
ratio (Sherman), the initial Ettringite formation, growth and Vol. 112, No. 3, pp. 259-289.
heaving on hydration can be accommodated in the soil matrix Puppala, A. J., Hanchanloet, S., Jadeja, M., Burkart, B. (1999). Sulfate
provided there is no further nucleation of new compounds. If InducedHeave Distress: A Case Study. Proceedings, Transportation
there had been further Ettringite growth, heave would have been Research Board Annual Meeting, Washington D.C, USA.
higher in Sherman soil. In soil with low void ratio such as the Puppala, A. J., Wattanasanticharoen, E. and Punthutaecha, K. (2003).
present Childress soil, the dense soil matrix could not Experimental Evaluations of Stabilization Methods for Sulphate-
accommodate both initial Etringite formation and their growth rich Expansive Soils. Ground Improvement Vol. 7, No. 1, 2003. pp.
on hydration and as a result, this soil exhibited higher heaving. 25-35.
Overall, both alumina amounts and compaction void ratio Puppala, A.J., Katha, B., Hoyos, L.R. (2004) Volumetric Shrinkage
Strain Measurements in Expansive Soils Using Digital Imaging
conditions contribute to soil sulfate heaving and this Technology. ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 27, No. 6,
information is used in the development of alternate chemical November, 2004, pp.547-556.
treatments for high sulfate soils. Puppala, A.J., Naga S. Talluri., Bhaskar S. Chittoori and Ahmed Gaily .
(2012). Lessons Learned from Sulfate Induced Heaving Studies in
Chemically Treated Soils. Proceedings of the International
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Publishing, Vol. 1, November, 2012, pp.85-98.
3128
Geotechnical aspects in sustainable protection of cultural and historical monuments
Les aspects gotechniques de la protection durable des monuments culturels et historiques
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the geotechnical aspects of comprehensive methodology that has been developed at Institute for
Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology for protection of cultural and historical heritage. The methodology has been
applied on numerous domestic and international projects. Primarily focus is given on geotechnical conditions related to seismic
actions because the history showed that many of the historical monuments have been heavily damaged due to earthquakes.
Multidisciplinary approach was used to have clear insight of key parameters that driven the seismic potential of the sites. Seismic
hazard and risk analysis defined the level of the seismic potential of the sites. Practical implementation of the methodology is
described through three case studies for protection of cultural and historical monuments in Macedonia: the St. Mary Peribleptos
Church, from the 13th century, located in old town of Ohrid; the mosque Mustafa Pasha in Skopje, from the 15th century and the 19th
century Clock Tower located in the city of Prilep. The obtained results point out the significance of involving local site conditions into
the seismic assessment and retrofit of historical structures in general.
RSUM : Dans cet expos sont prsents les aspects gotechniques dune mthodologie complte qui a t dveloppe lInstitut
de gnie sismique et dingnierie parasismique pour la protection des monuments historiques et culturels. La mthodologie est
applique plusieurs projets domestiques et internationaux. Lattention est particulirement porte sur les conditions gotechniques
lies au chargement sismique, puisque lhistoire a dmontr que beaucoup de monuments historiques avaient trs endommags
pendant le sisme. Pour obtenir une ide claire des paramtres cls du potentiel sismique des localits, on a utilis une approche
multidisciplinaire. A partir de lanalyse du danger et du risque sismique, on a dfini le niveau du sisme potentiel sur les localits.
Limplmentation pratique de la mthodologie est dcrite sur trois exemples dtude pour la protection des monuments historiques et
culturels en Macdoine: lglise Sainte Marie Peribleptos du 13 sicle, dans le vieille ville dOhride, la mosque Mustafa Pasha de
Skopje datant du 15 sicle et la tour de horloge de Prilep construite au 19 sicle. Les rsultats obtenus montrent limportance de la
prise en compte des conditions locales dans lestimation des paramtres sismiques et plus gnralement, des informations en retour
sur les constructions historiques partir de leur tat initial.
KEYWORDS: geotechnical aspects, sustainable protection, historical monuments
1 INTRODUCTION 2 METHODOLOGY
Located in the south east part of Europe, having central position The ground conditions in the seismic design process are
in Balkan region, Republic of Macedonia is characterized with usually taken into account through determination of the base
significant cultural and historical heritage, which originated seismic shear force, where the coefficient, which represents the
from early ancient until recent modern periods. For such long ground conditions, is multiplied by other coefficients to
life times these monuments have experienced many unexpected calculate the seismic force. Then quasi-static analysis can be
loading actions which produced different consequences, from performed in order to design the structural elements and check
minor cracks to heavily damages and collapses. Common thing the seismic performance of the structure. In cases where the
for these destructive situations is when the monument is design engineer has the task to design buildings of higher
heavily damaged or collapsed the new monument is built on the importance such as historic monuments, there should be no
foundation of previous-older monument so the location of the doubt that the engineer has to perform a time history analysis of
monuments remains the same. This is very common situation in the structure subjected to seismic loading (Sesov et al., 2012).
Macedonia where several civilization and empires passed This analysis has to be based on the seismic parameters which
through this territory and everyone leaves monuments from are defined by the results from the in-situ and laboratory
their own period. This emphasis the importance of the investigations performed for the site.
information and data for the site conditions where these This paper is primarily focused on application of this
monuments are located toward sustainable preservation and methodology on historical structures, which are by themselves
protection of cultural and historical heritage. Comprehensive and in most of the cases, unique structures of significant cultural
approach for sustainable protection involving geotechnical importance and as such deserve a multidisciplinary approach to
aspects is presented through three chosen case studies of very their strengthening and preservation. No matter how
unique and specific type of historical monuments: the Mustafa
sophisticated the structural analysis may be (starting from
Pasha mosque in Skopje, from the 15th century, the church of
linear-elastic, pushover and nonlinear time history analysis), yet
The Holy Mother of God Peribleptos, from the 13th century,
the variation and the uncertainty associated with the local soil
located in the old town of Ohrid and the Clock Tower, from the
19th century, located in the city of Prilep. conditions, the design seismic input parameters, determine
considerably the response of the structure.
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The applied methodology for definition of the seismic input the region of Skopje in Macedonia are relatively uniform
parameters in the case studies presented in this paper follows according to stiffness so that the variations along soil depth lead
the following steps: to different levels of damage to structures.
The representative soil models have been defined based on
The first step, Figure1 includes characterization of the comprehensive geotechnical and geophysical investigations
design seismic motion based on existing earthquake arried out at the location of the mosque. The soil profile mainly
catalog and seismotectonic data and the seismic hazard consists of sand, clay as well as marl below depth of 12m. For
through attenuation of ground motion intensity. the needs of this project, the effect of the local geotechnical
The second step is definition of the subsurface profile of the media has been defined by analyses of the dynamic response of
studied area based on geological geotechnical, geophysical representative mathematical models of the foundation soil.
and topographic data. Site characterization is mainly done The input motions at bedrock have been selected as a result
by geotechnical boreholes, Standard Penetration Test of the hazard investigations and taking into consideration the
(SPT), Cone Penetration Test (CPT), PS-Logging, regional seismogeological characteristics. The maximum
Refraction Microtremor (ReMi), seismic reflection and accelerations have been selected as amax=0.20(g) and amax
refraction measurements and laboratory index test results =0.30(g) which are the expected maximum accelerations at the
to provide engineering bedrock (Vs > 750m/s) depths. selected location. The acceleration spectra are given in the
The next step is selection of earthquake input motions following figure 3.
which are applied on the bedrock level and PGA Soil Profile No. 1 - Layer 5
4
acceleration to which the earthquake motions are scaled Normalized PSA for 10%
damping - ELCENTRO
based on the results from the seismic hazard analysis Normalized PSA for 10%
damping - ALBATROS
Period (sec)
The Mustafa Pasha mosque in Skopje is located in the As the second case study, presented are the investigations
Skopje valley, which was created as a result of neotectonic related to the local site conditions in the seismic assessment of a
movements of the surrounding structures. The geological historical structure in Macedonia: the St. Mary Peribleptos
characteristics of the location play an important role as to the church in Ohrid (figure 6) , dating back to the 13tn century.
amplitude and frequency content of the seismic action. Soils in
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The parameters for analysis of the structure of St. Mary provide the return period.. In the case of the St. Mary
Peribleptos church in Ohrid for the effect of seismic excitations Peribleptos church in which the soil conditions are mainly
expected at the site, have been defined on the basis of the results represented by stiff soils and rock, the amplification does not
obtained from the performed investigations that are described in play a significant role regarding the response of the structure.
details in the previous case study.
Based on the realized investigations and the obtained results
on the seismic potential of the site of the St. Mary Peribleptos 3 CASE STUDY 3 - CLOCK TOWER
church in Ohrid, the following conclusions are drawn:
The data on the seismic activity of the wider area of the site The Clock Tower in Prilep (Figure 5) was built in 1858, on the
point to moderate exposure to earthquake effects with expected location of an older wooden Clock Tower, which was burnt to
maximum magnitudes of M=6.9. the ground. It is an particularly important structure in Republic
of Macedonia and beyond, in the Balkan region. It is a unique
structure of this kind that has been preserved until present in its
authentic architectonic and structural form.
A problem which is to be solved as soon as possible is the
evident inclination of the tower, i.e., the displacement of the
vertical axis in respect to the vertical line in west and southwest
direction by which the existing stability of the tower is
disturbed in static, and particularly dynamic conditions. Since
1998, there have been different kinds of research works for the
purpose of precise measurement of the extent and the direction
Figure 4. St. Mary Peribleptos church, Ohrid of the inclination and defining the reasons for this problem.
3.5
3.0
The main model has been analyzed for the effects of dead
2.5
weight of the tower and seismic forces according to the national
2.0
regulations. The effects of the seismic forces increase the
1.5
inclination in the direction as well as reduce the global safety
1.0
coefficient. The inclination angle of the tower in this case of
0.5 effects has increased for 40% in respect to the situation with the
0.0 effects only due to the dead weight. This situation clearly points
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period (sec)
out that the capacity of the existing state is limited and that the
deformation capacity of the tower along with the foundation
Figure 5. Mean normalized response spectrum and normalized spectrum soil is exhausted regarding maintenance of a satisfying level of
in accordance with EC8 ground type B, for 5% da mping safety. Therefore decision for strengthening the Tower has been
The results from the analysis of the seismic response of the made.
site show that the effects of amplification of the local soil are The main concept of this technical solution for strengthening
not much expressed (Sesov et al., 2011). The dynamic is to reduce and prevent further uncontrolled inclination of the
amplification factor ranges within 1.15 1.20. tower by means of additional structural elements (RC jackets,
Based on the analyses of the seismic risk, the maximum pile slab and piles) that are connected and make an integral
acceleration as one of the main seismic parameters for seismic structure (figure 7). This structural unit enables that additional
analysis is given in function of the return period and the design effects contributing to further inclination be sustained and
engineer also has the possibility to adopt a maximum transferred to the soil layers with good strength-deformability
acceleration level based on the adopted level of acceptable risk characteristics and provides, at the same time, the required
and serviceability period of the structure which will indirectly stability and safety of the Tower under seismic loads that, in the
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case of the present inclined position, may cause catastrophic 4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS
consequences.
Large scale restoration and retrofitting projects were under
concern at two of the important historical monuments in
Macedonia, Mustafa Pasha Mosque and the St. Mary
Peribleptos church, which have suffered considerable damages
during their life time. Within the scope of these projects,
detailed soil investigations and site response analyses have been
carried out in order to understand the causes of structural
damage during the past earthquakes and determine the dynamic
parameters needed for structural analysis and retrofitting design
for a probable future earthquake. In this paper, the findings from
the investigation of the effects of the local soil conditions on
the soil amplification in the mentioned case studies are
presented. The objective of the described procedure is to take
into consideration the regional and microlocation geological
and seismological parameters as correctly as possible in order to
define the input seismic parameters for dynamic analysis of
important structures. The obtained results point out the
significance of involving the local site conditions into seismic
assessment of historical structures.
Figure 7. Tehnical solution for strengthening, numerical model of the The site specific earthquake parameters are used in dynamic
structure and soil analysis of structures and to develop retrofitting techniques to
Based on the obtained results (presented in figure 8) it can be increase the level of safety against future earthquake damages.
noted that the deformations and the stresses in the soil As a result of this investigation, it is concluded that the local
significantly decrease compared to the existing conditions. soil conditions which led to amplification of the ground motions
in the case of the Mustafa Pasha Mosque during the past
earthquakes had played a major role as to the structural damage
experienced by the mosque. For the future safety of this
valuable monument, the structural system and the elements are
strengthened to withstand the inertial forces compatible with the
dynamic behavior of the foundation layers during a probable
earthquake. In the case of the St. Mary Peribleptos church in
which the soil conditions are mainly represented by stiff soils
and rock, the amplification does not play a significant role
regarding the response of the structure. The presented
methodology has been proved to be successful in preservation
of the safety level in historical monuments which require
strengthening and rehabilitation. This approach is recommended
to be used in future rehabilitation and strengthening of old
monuments of significant cultural importance located in
seismically prone regions.
Based on the analyses of the existing conditions of the Clock
Tower and considering the state in which this important cultural
historic structure is, a technical solution for consolidation
elaborated to a level of a main project has been proposed.
The main concept of the proposed technical solution
Figure 8. Horizontal and vertical displacements in soil due to dead load involves design of new additional structural elements to prevent
and dead + seismic forces further inclination of the Clock Tower and raise, at the same
A particularly indicative element is the global coefficient of time, the safety of this structure to a satisfying level of
safety obtained through the incremental phi-c analysis which functioning in the next period. It should be pointed out that
shows the ultimate state of the soil. The results are presented in most of these new structural elements are anticipated to be
table 1 for cases of effects due to dead weight and dead weight constructed below the terrain level, meaning that the anticipated
along with the effect of seismic forces. The increase of the solution will have a minimal impact upon the external faade of
global coefficient points to the fact that the newly designed the structure.
solution enables a more uniform distribution of the effects of
additional loads and their transfer to deeper soil layers with
5 REFERENCES
better strength-deformability characteristics.
Table 1. Coefficient of global safety through incremental phi-c Berilgen M. M. (2007) Evaluation of Local Site Effects on Earthquake
analysis Damages of Fatih Mosque. Engineering Geology 91. 240253
Conditions Load case Safety coefficient Marchi M et al. [2011]. "Stability and strength analysis of leaning
Existing Dead weight 2.44 towers". Geotechnique, 61(12), 1069-1079
conditions Dead weight + 1.91 SAP 2000. Computers and structures inc.
Sesov, V. et al. (2007) Definition of Seismic Input Parameters for
seismic load
Evaluation of the Seismic Stability of Mustafa Pasha Mosque (in
Conditions of a Dead weight 4.90 Macedonian). IZIIS Report 2007047
strengthened Dead weight + 4.02 Plaxis V9.0 [2011]. Tutorial Manual, Balkema / Rotterdam / Brookfield
structure seismic load publications
Wolf [1985] Dynamic soil structure interaction Prentice Hall Inc
3132
Modern methods of geotechnical defense of buildings in the difficult geological
conditions of Ukraine
Mthodes modernes pour la dfense gotechnique de btiments dans les conditions gologiques
difficiles de l'Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Ukraine is characterized by the considerable variety of geological conditions which complicate the construction and
maintenance of buildings and structures. Among them structurally unsteady collapsible soils (more than 60% territory of country),
underworked areas and karsts, landslide slopes, seismic districts. The most widespread types of difficult geological conditions are col-
lapsible soils and underworked areas because of mining. For construction the new methods, directed on defense and normal mainte-
nance of buildings, are constantly developed. In this paper the examples of geotechnical defense methods for new and historical build-
ings in difficult geotechnical conditions are presented.
RSUM : L'Ukraine est caractrise par la varit considrable de conditions gologiques qui compliquent la construction et l'entre-
tien de btiments et de structures. Parmi eux les sols pliants structurellement instables (le territoire de plus de 60 % de pays), regions
travailles peu et karsts, des pentes d'boulement, des rgions sismiques. Les types les plus rpandus de conditions gologiques diffi-
ciles sont de sols pliants et des rgions travailles peu cause de l'exploitation minire. Les nouvelles mthodes pour la construction,
orientees sur la dfense et l'entretien normal de btiments, sont constamment dveloppes. Dans ce journal les exemples de mthodes
de dfense gotechnique pour les btiments nouveaux et historiques dans les conditions gotechnique difficiles sont prsents.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
At the same time the wall in soil have the functions of ex-
ception of the influence between existing and new buildings.
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
decor, game of light and shade, is characteristic for. A church is 2.2. General conception of reconstruction works
erected on tailings of earthen fortress of 17th century. Building
is crowned with the central dome and four angular decorative The reconstruction works of the St. Andrews church were
towers. Sizes of church are: length 32 m, width 20 m, height executed after the followings directions:
from a terrace to the top of cross of central dome 50 m. - geotechnical measures;
- repair and strengthening of the damaged structural members of
building;
- restoration of facades and interiors;
- improvement of the technical state of surrounding territory.
The geotechnical measures were:
- research and analysis of geological conditions of the territory
of the St. Andrews church;
- research, analysis and prognosis of changes in geological con-
ditions and mode of hydrogeology of adjoining territory with
development of hydrogeology model;
- research and analysis of slope stability on the area of the St.
Andrews church and adjoining territory;
- research of modern erosive processes of slopes on this area;
- research and analysis of stress-strain state of the ground basis
of building.
On the results of geotechnical researches the design decisions
were developed.
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3136
Geotechnical problems related to the development of territories in the conditions
of the Republic of Tajikistan
Problmes gotechniques lies au dveloppement de territoires dans les conditions de la
Rpublique du Tadjikistan
ABSTRACT: in this paper features of construction of buildings and constructions in difficult engineering-geological conditions of the
Republic of Tajikistan are presented. Methods of design and construction of the bases and other foundations on loess collapsing soils,
on weak water-saturated soil, and prospects of development of the hilly territories needing a difficult relief are considered.
RSUM : Il est question dans cet article de la construction de btiments et de constructions dans des conditions difficiles la fois
dingnierie et de gologie rencontres en rpublique du Tadjikistan. On voque les mthodes de calcul et de ralisation des radiers et
autres fondations sur les sols lssiques, sur les sols peu rsistants saturs d'eau, ainsi que les perspectives de dveloppement des
territoires en terrains trs accidents ncessitant de difficiles reprises en sous-oeuvre.
KEYWORDS: loess collapsing soils, weak water-saturated soils, hilly territories, static and seismic influences.
1 INTRODUCTION 30 m less often. More than 2/3 territories of the country are put
by loess collapsing soil II of type, with the size of expected sag
In the Republic of Tajikistan more than 90% of the territory from a coefficient of relative collapsing sl = 30150 cm.
are presented by a mountains, and the areas of plains are made The majority of the cities, objects of civil and industrial
by only 7%. The basis of development of a national economy of function are erected in these territories. Thus till 80 years of the
the republic is made by the agrarian sector which is based on twentieth century, 4-6 floor buildings therefore for practical use
irrigated agriculture under which about 70% of all flat territories researches were conducted were generally erected and the
are allocated. The deficiency of the earth being the main reserve following superficial methods of consolidation of soil, the
for development of agricultural production, housing, industrial, device of the bases and foundations (fig. 1) are
etc. types of construction always represented a special problem developed(Musaelyan A.A. 1982, Krutov V. I. 1982, Galitsky
and demands very reasonable and careful use. V.G. and Popsuyenko I.K. 1985, Ruziyev A.R. and Usmanov R.
Development of the country and growth of the population A. 1991):
demands increase in volumes of agricultural production and a) Consolidation by heavy tampers weighing 50200 kN in
construction of buildings of different function. Therefore, combination with constructive and water protective measures.
preservation and increase in land fund put before designers and Advantages simplicity and use of the simple equipment, rather
builders of adoption of effective decisions. In this direction the low cost. Shortcomings fast wear of the mechanisms, limited
most effective are: application in the conditions of dense building.
- substantial increase of number of stores of buildings and b) The device of the condensed soil pillows 3-5 m thick and
constructions erected in flat territories that will allow to keep more from a clay material in combination with constructive and
and free territories for development of agricultural production; water protective measures. Advantages simplicity and use of
- development under construction of buildings and the simple equipment, possibility of application in the
constructions of foothill (hilly) territories. conditions of dense building, rather low cost. Shortcomings
It should be noted that in the Republic of Tajikistan seasonality of work, big labor expenses when finishing soil to
construction of buildings and constructions is carried out, optimum humidity, increase in terms of construction at increase
generally in territories presented by loess collapsing and weak of thickness of a pillow.
water-saturated soil, and in recent years as well on foothill c) Consolidation by energy of underwater explosions in
(hilly) sites. Practically all territory of the republic is combination with constructive and water protective measures.
characterized by 8-9 mark seismic intensity. In the specified Advantages simplicity and use of the simple equipment, low
conditions design, construction and reliable operation of cost. Shortcomings limited application in the conditions of
buildings and constructions is closely connected with use of dense building.
effective methods of preparation of the artificial bases and d) The device of the bases in tamping ditches with creation
devices of the foundations. Taking into account it in the in their basis of broadenings from rigid materials. Advantages
republic the complex researches which results are generalized in use of the simple equipment, combination of processes of the
considered article were conducted. device of a ditch and consolidation of collapsing soil, the
minimum use of a timbering, decrease in reinforcing of the base
1.1 Construction on the loess collapsing soils to 50% and more, low cost. Shortcomings fast wear of the
About 70% of flat territories of the republic are everywhere mechanisms, limited application in the conditions of dense
presented by loess collapsing soil which capacity changes from building.
5 to 300 m, and their thickness makes Hsl = 530 m, exceeds
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
e) Fixing of soil by way of silicification with activization of reduction of terms of consolidation of soil, rather low cost.
soil by carbon dioxide. Advantages use of the simple Shortcomings - are similar to point a.
equipment, high quality of fixing, possibility of fixing of soil in c) The accelerated consolidation by preliminary soaking in
the basis of the emergency and deformed buildings. combination with deep explosions. Advantages improvement
Shortcomings very high cost and therefore, it is generally of quality of consolidation and decrease in risk of development
applied to strengthening of soil in the basis of the deformed of seismic deformations. Shortcomings are similar to point
buildings and constructions. a.
f) The device of the pile bases from lovering piles. d) Reinforcing of collapsing thickness by soil piles,
Advantages technological effectiveness, use of the high- including high-strength materials. Advantages simplicity of
performance equipment, ensuring appropriate quality. production, use of the simple equipment, use of a local material,
Shortcomings difficulties at immersion of piles in soil of the rather low cost. Shortcomings - application restriction in the
firm and semi-firm consistence, limited application in the conditions of dense building, fast wear of the equipment.
conditions of dense building, cost increase at increase in
thickness of a collapsing layer of earth and removal of places of Note: at consolidation of soil on points a, b, c and d
production of piles. in the top part of the basis the buffer non condensed layer 3-5 m
Figure 1. Methods of the device of the bases and the foundations on loess collapsing soil I of type:
1- loess collapsing soil; 2- non collapsing soil; 3- condensed soil pillow; 4- charges of explosive; 5- driven piles; 6- injektor for chemical fixing
of soil; 7- fixed soil; 8- base in a tamping ditch; 9- condensed zone; 10- tamping rubble
All given methods of preparation of the bases and the device thick (hf) which needs to be condensed further with heavy
of the bases were investigated on joint action of static and tampers is formed or to replace with the condensed soil pillow.
seismic influences by intensity of 8-9 points on the basis of e) The device of the bored piles with a diameter from 0,5 to
which the relevant normative documents on technology of the 1,2 m cutting all collapsing thickness. Advantages possibility
device and a calculation procedure were made. However the of the device in various conditions with use of the modern
know-how showed on possibility of development of uneven equipment. Shortcomings use of the expensive equipment,
deformations and violation of operational suitability of complexity of quality control of works, need of carrying out
buildings and the constructions erected on the specified artificial expensive static tests of piles, rather high cost.
bases. Use of these methods expediently and effectively in the f) The device of the combined pile bases when in advance
conditions of collapsing soil I of type, and on collapsing soil II drilled well the pile of factory production is established, and a
of type in combination with deep methods of consolidation cavity of a well is filled with cement and sand solution.
and fixing. Advantages simplicity of the device and use of the simple
After the 80th years design and construction 9-12 floor and equipment, control and improvement of quality of the device of
more buildings in this connection researches were conducted the pile bases, decrease in their cost. Shortcomings restriction
began and the following methods of deep consolidation of soil of possibility of application and cost increase at increase in
and a design of the pile bases are recommended for practical length and distances of transportation of piles.
application: All above-mentioned methods were investigated on joint
a) Consolidation by preliminary soaking. Advantages action of static and seismic influences by intensity of 8-9 points
simplicity and low cost. Shortcomings application restriction on the basis of which the relevant normative documents on
in the conditions of dense building, long terms of consolidation, technology of the device and a calculation procedure were
need for large volume of water, need of the device of no made. Researches and operating experience testifies to
filtration veils in the conditions of dense building. opportunity and expediency of their application at the device of
b) The accelerated consolidation by preliminary soaking the bases and the foundations of high-rise buildings. In the
with application of drainage wells. Advantages considerable
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
conditions of the republic application of the slabby and pile of sufficient volume of a sandy material; refusal of metal and
bases which well proved in practice of high-rise construction of cement application. Shortcomings use of the special
many countries is also expedient. equipment; difficulties of quality control of works; considerable
Figure 2. Methods of the device of the bases and the foundations on loess collapsing soil II of type:
1- loess collapsing soil; 2- non collapsing soil; 3- condensed soil pillow; 4- condensed thickness of soil; 5- drainage wells; 6- charges of
explosive; 7- soil piles; 8- bored piles; 9- lowering driving piles; 10- cement and sand filler
1.2 Construction on weak water-satureted soils labor inputs at the device and removal of a loading
embankment.
In the Republic of Tajikistan, as a result of influence of a e) Consolidation of soil by vertical sandy drains. Advantages
number of natural and technogenic factors sharp lifting of level simplicity of technology of the device and low cost; existence
of underground waters and flooding of the extensive territories of sufficient volume of a sandy material. Shortcomings use of
put by big thicknesses of earlier low-damp loess soil owing to the special equipment; difficulties of quality control of works;
what they pass to category weak and strong compressibly (R considerable labor inputs at the device and removal of
100 kP, E 5 MPa) is observed. Thus processes of flooding of embankment.
territories promote increase of seismic intensity of sites of
construction on 12 points. Now about 40% of the mastered
areas in the republic are presented by the specified soil and the
steady tendency of their increase is observed.
Effective design, construction and operation of buildings on
the specified soil are connected with application of various
methods of the device of the artificial bases and the foundations
taking into account high seismic activity of mastered sites. In
this direction the corresponding researches were conducted and
the following methods of the device of the bases and the
foundations (fig. 3) are offered for practical application
(Usmanov R. A. 2009):
a) The device high-condensed (d 2,2 t/m3) sandy, gravel
and pebble pillows. Advantages use of the simple equipment
and simplicity of the device; low cost and small labor input;
high reliability; existence of large volume of a local material.
Shortcomings difficulties at the device during the winter
period; scope restriction with buildings to 6 floors.
b) The device of the bases from the driving and stuffed piles
which are cutting through a weak layer of earth. Advantages Figure 3. Methods of preparation of the bases and the device of
use of the modern equipment, reliability. Shortcomings the foundations on weak water-saturated loess soils
substantial increase of cost and restriction of a scope of driving 1- weak soil; 2- strong layer; 3- soil condensed pillow;
piles at increase in thickness of weak soil; difficulties of quality 4- driving and stuffed piles; 5- limy piles;
control of production of a stuffed pile and increase of its cost at 6- sandy piles; 7- vertical sandy drains
increase in length. All above-stated methods were investigated on joint action
c) Fixing of soil by limy piles. Advantages simplicity of of static and seismic (seismoexplosive) influences by intensity
technology of the device and low cost of a method, refusal of of 8-9 points. Except the device of the high-condensed soil
metal and cement application. Shortcomings use of the special pillows, other methods of preparation of the bases and the
equipment, complexity of quality control of works. device of the foundations can be recommended for the device of
d) Consolidation of soil by vertical sandy piles. Advantages the bases and the foundations of high-rise buildings. And
simplicity of technology of the device and low cost; existence
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3140
The preservation of Agrigento Cathedral
La conservation de la cathdrale dAgrigente
ABSTRACT: The Agrigento Cathedral was built about nine centuries ago on the edge of a steep slope made up of alternating inclined
layers of soft calcarenites and fine-grained soils; its behaviour has never been satisfactory especially as far as the North aisle is
concerned. Many corrective measures have been attempted during its lifespan and also a few years ago. They have been proved
invariably to be unsuccessful. Recent geotechnical investigations, referred to in the paper, permitted to find out that the main cause of
the Cathedral distress is a sliding mechanism involving the upper zone of the slope underlying the North aisle; consequently the
essential requirement for the preservation of the Cathedral is the stabilisation of the slope.
RSUM: Le Cathdrale dAgrigente a t leve voici environ neuf sicles sur le bord d'une pente raide, compose d'une alternance
de couches inclines de calcarnites tendres et de sols grain fin. Le comportement de la Cathdrale n'a jamais t satisfaisant en
particulier dans sa nef Nord. De nombreux remdes ont t essays au cours de sa vie et jusqu' il y a quelques annes. Ils se sont
rvls toujours sans succs. De rcentes investigations gotechniques, dcrites dans le papier, ont permis de dcouvrir que la
principale cause de la dsordre de la Cathdrale est un mcanisme de glissement impliquant la zone suprieure de la pente situe sous
la nef Nord. En consquence, la condition essentielle pour la prservation de la Cathdrale est la stabilisation de la pente.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Cathedral as well as on the adjacent northern slope; AGG) is about 12m. The contact with the underlying
(max depth of borings: 70m); 14 vibrating wire calcarenites is clearly defined by a thin transition layer, made
piezometric cells, 1 Casagrande piezometer, 2 open up of clay intermingled with carbonatic shell shreds, and
standpipe piezometers, and 7 inclinometer tubes were dipping 15-18 towars the South.
installed. Piezometric and inclinometric readings d) Silty sand and sandy silt, from grey to yellowish, SL. The
started in 2012 and are still carried out. Five thickness of this layer ranges from 4 to 6m.
exploratory pits were also excavated in the Cathedral. e) Soft yellowish or reddish calcarenite interbedded with
During the 2012 investigation campaign: SPT, Menard yellowish silty sand, CL. The rocks are frequently fractured.
pressurimeter and in situ permeability tests were carried out, The thickness of this layer ranges from 4 to 12m. Small
and many undisturbed samples were taken for laboratory cavities have been found in these rocks in which an unlined
testing. passable adit has been excavated many years ago (Ismani
hypogeum in Fig. 1).
3 GROUND CONDITIONS Soil and rock b, c, d, e belong to AF.
A schematic vertical profile of the ground is shown in Fig.
The Agrigento Hill is made up of layers of soils and soft 2. It may be noted that the various layers bend down when
rocks belonging to the northern limb of an asymmetric approaching the slope. Similar ground conditions have been
syncline with approximately E-W axis (Croce et al., 1980; ascertained within the zone relevant to the Cathedral.
Cotecchia et al., 2005). The core of the syncline is known as
Agrigento Formation, AF, and dates back to Lower 4 GEOTHECNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS AND
Pleistocene; it overlies Monte Narbone Formation, MNF, ROCKS
(Middle-Upper Pliocene). Within the area pertaining to the
Cathedral the following layers have been recognised from Some data derived from results of laboratory and in situ
bottom to top: tests are summarised in tables 1 and 2.
a) Grey, heavily overconsolidated clay with rare, thin lenses
of silty sand, A; this layer is about 200 m thick and belongs to 5 POREWATER PRESSURES
the MNF; its altered upper part A contains gypsum veins.
b) Soft, reddish biocalcarenites interbedded with yellowish The few available piezometric data point out to the
calcarenitic sands, CLR. The thickness of this layer ranges existence of a perched groundwater table within the fine-
from 24 to 37m. The contact with the underlying clay is sharp grained soils overlying calcarenites CLR. This hypothesis is
and dips approximately towards the South. consistent with the high permeability coefficient of
c) Grey clay AG, and grey-yellowish clay with thin calcarenites CLR and CL and with the observation that
subvertical veins or spars of minute crystals of secondary drilling water was systematically lost when boring in these
gypsum, AGG. The overall thickness of this layer (AG plus rocks. A tentative groundwater table is drawn in Fig. 2.
266.8 S9*
B
S15
S27 N
S23
S225
S12 S29
S223 S28
S221 S222
S224
S222b
S202b
S220
S201b
S204
S205ter S205
S204b S205b
S206 S206b
Fig. 1. Schematic plan of the Cathedral and of the adjacent slope, and location of the most relevant borings. It is also shown the longitudinal fracture
or tension crack running through the northern aisle, the archiepiscopal palace and the Ismani hypogeum on the East side, and through the parvis and
Don Minzoni square on the West side. Borings S201-S227 drilled in 2012; borings S12-S29 drilled in 2008; borings S1*-S9* drilled in 2005.
Boreholes equipped with inclinometer tube: S1*, S2*, S3*, S4*; S13, S16, S20, S22, S26, S29; S203, S204, S207, S208, S209, S220, S221.
6 FOUNDATIONS OF THE CATHEDRAL The columns and the southern wall have been founded
directly on, or slightly above, the top surface of calcarenites
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
CL,whilst the northern wall and a small stretch of western The most striking sign of ground movement is a
(facade) wall rest on intensely fractured calcarenites or on longitudinal subvertical tension crack running in East-West
silty sands SL, see Fig. 2. The columns have been direction through the floor of the northern aisle, and extending
underpinned by groups of fourteen root piles about 15 m continuously to the parvis, the staircase and the Don Minzoni
long, slightly inclined to the vertical so to describe a ruled square, and in the opposite direction to the apse, the
surface flaring downwards (Lizzi, 1993). Each root pile was archiepiscopal palace and the Ismani Hypogeum as shown in
reinforced with a single, 24 mm diameter, steel bar. Shorter Fig.1. This fracture has been firstly surveyed by Commissione
root piles were used to underpin the northern wall of the del Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici for the investigation of the
Cathedral. Root piles groups under the nave columns have great Addolorata landslide (1968). The aperture of this
been tied at the top by a grid of reinforced concrete beams. It fracture exceeds more than 20 centimeters in the Ismani
is clear from Fig. 2 that the foundation ground of the hypogeum. After the restoration works completed in 2000, the
Cathedral is far from uniform and that the thickness of the soft fracture formed again in the Cathedral floor and in the parvis;
calcarenite layer CL diminishes or vanishes as the northern its aperture slowly progresses and has now attained 4 cm.
slope is approached. During the underpinning works in 1976- There is a step, from 2 to 3 cm high, between the northern and
1980 it was ascertained that the CL calcarenite layer was the southern walls of the fracture. The northern wall settled
dissected by a long and deep fracture (or tension crack) about 4 cm
located inside the Cathedral near the northern wall, as shown The floor of the nave and the southern aisle have
in figures 1 and 2; it was stitched by cement pressure undergone negligible settlements.
grouting.
7 GROUND MOVEMENTS, FISSURATION PATTERN
OF THE CATHEDRAL AND CAUSES OF ITS
UNSATISFACTORY BEHAVIOUR
wn wl wp S CF s sat c p p r Eed
Soil 3 3 (kPa) () () (MPa)
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (kN/m ) (kN/m )
R / / / / / / / 0 30-35 / /
SL 11-28 35-40 18-23 100 2-10 27-27.4 19.5-20.5 15-25 29-30 / 4-20
AGG 18-30 45-55 20-22 100 35-45 26.8-27.3 19.6-20.5 30-35 27-29 14 10-40
AG 18-30 43-51 20-23.3 100 31-43 26.9-27.4 20.2-20.7 30-40 28-30 16 20-60
n s sat f k E
Calcarenite
(%) (kN/m3) (kN/m3) (MPa) (cm/s) (MPa)
Buttress
RCB
Tension crack
(*) Duomo
Root piles group street
S211
Fig. 2. Vertical cross ground profile B-B. R: made ground or topsoil; CL: upper soft yellowish or reddish biocalcarenites interbedded with sand
lenses; SL: silty sands and sandy silts; AG: grey clays; AGG: grey-yellowish or light brown clay with veins of minute crystals of secondary gypsum;
CLR: lower soft reddish biocalcarenites with sand lenses; A: heavily overconsolidated grey clays; A: grey-yellowish clays with gypsum veins.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
An idea of the cumulative differential settlements and Recent geotechnical investigations permitted to identify a
horizontal displacements towards the slope of the northern rather large sliding mechanism involving the North aisle of
wall can be drawn from the deformed shape of an arch the Cathedral as well as long adjacent stretches of the edge of
transversal to the axis of the northern aisle and adjacent to the the slope. It is now evident that the preservation of the
transept. According to a fairly credible reconstruction depicted Cathedral requires prioritarily the stabilisation of the slope.
in Fig. 3, the northern springline of the arch might have
undergone an horizontal displacement so large as 69 cm and a
settlement of 93 cm relative to the other springline. Likely original shape
The pattern of the present-day fissuration and movements
remarkably resembles that observed recurrently since 1904 as Present shape
documented by photos and descriptions recorded in archival
sources (Di Fede, 2011).
The relevant inclinometer readings, begun on June 2011
and summarized in Tab. 3, show that the ground mass located x=0.58m
y=0.30m
downhill of the longitudinal fracture undergoes significant
horizontal displacements and point out the existence of shear
surfaces at depths between 7 and 17m. x=0.01m
Based on these data and observations it is possible to x=0.69m y=0.09m
identify a slide mechanism shown in Fig. 2. Similar y=0.93m
mechanisms apply for the whole length of the Cathedral and Northern
the parvis zone, the archiepiscopal palace and Ismani wall
x
hypogeum. y
The above mechanism appear to be the main reason for the
anomalous behaviour of the ground-Cathedral system. It has
not been identified nor postulated up to now, and Fig. 3. Distorted arch located at the eastern extremity of the North
consequently the attempts to stabilise the Cathedral were aisle showing large differential movements between the springlines
unfounded. The sliding mechanism passes along the cumulated probably during some centuries. (Reconstruction by Arch.
subvertical fracture and through silty sands SL and altered G. Renda).
clays AGG. A stability analysis of this sliding mechanism,
which involves the North aisle of the Cathedral, points out
that the use of peak or residual shear strength parameters of 9 REFERENCES
soils SL and AGG is not warranted. In fact, if peak
parameters are considered values of the factor of safety FS Commissione del Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici della Repubblica
within the range 1.4-1.6 will be calculated, whether if residual Italiana, 1968. Technical Report on the 1966 Agrigento
strength is considered a value of FS much smaller that 1 is Landslide. Citt Spazio, N 1-2. (In Italian).
obtained: these values are inconsistent with the observed Cotecchia V., Fiorillo F., Monterisi L., Pagliarulo R., 2005. Slope
instability in the Valley of Temples, Agrigento (Sicily).
behaviour of the ground-Cathedral system. It is likely that the
Giornale di Geologia Applicata, 91, 91-101.
shear strength is gradually approaching the fully softened Croce A., De Miro E., Fenelli G.B., Jappelli R., Liguori V., Morandi
value for which the value of FS is 1.05. R., Nocilla N., Pace E., Pellegrino A., Rossi Doria P., 1980.
Agrigento town and the Valley of Temples. Problems of
stability of the territory and of preservation of monuments. Atti
Table 3. Superficial (top) horizontal displacement h, and depth d of del XIV Conv. Naz. di Geotecnica, Florence, 1, 109-124. (In
sliding surface indicated by inclinometric measurements from June Italian).
2011 to Dec. 2012. Location of inclinometer tubes relative to the Di Fede M.S., 2010. L invenzione della Cattedrale interventi di
longitudinal fracture. U: uphill; D:downhill. N: north; NW: north- restauro nella prima met del Novecento. In G. Ingaglio
west. (editor): La Cattedrale di Agrigento tra storia, arte,
architettura. Edizioni Caracol, Palermo, 167-186. (In Italian).
Lizzi F., 1993. Pali radice structures. In S. Thorburn and G.S.
Inclinometer h d
Direction Location Litteljohn (editors), Underpinning and retention. Blackie
tube (mm) (m) Academic & Professional, London, 84-156.
S1* 2 / / U
S2* 12.8 NW 7 D
S3* 6 15; D SYMBOLS
N
22
S4* 4 / / U c p peak cohesion intercept
E Young modulus
S13 3.2 / / U
Eed constrained modulus
S16 8 NW 11;16 D clay fraction
CF
S20 8.3 N 17 D k coefficient of permeability
S22 10 NW 6; 11 D n porosity
S26 2.3 / / U S saturation degree
wl liquid limit
wp plasticity limit
8 CONCLUSIONS wn natural water content
p peak angle of shear strength
The behaviour of Agrigento Cathedral has been r angle of residual shear strength
unsatisfactory since its construction in the XI century on the s specific weight
crest of a very steep slope. Many attempts to stabilise the sat saturated unit weight
ground-Cathedral system have failed because a sound f uniaxial strength
diagnosis of its problems has not been formulated.
3144
Geotechnical characteristics of glacial soil deposits at Punta Arenas in Chilean
Patagonia
ABSTRACT: In the city of Punta Arenas, Chilean Patagonia, soils of glacial origin were deposited during the Last Glacial Maximum
(LGM), with soft, organic and alluvial materials dominating during interglacials and the post-glacial period. The superposition of
sedimentary environments together with glacial loading and unloading events, resulted in a heterogeneous stratigraphic succession
with a variety of mechanical properties. This study proposes a geotechnical classification for the different deposits, which include
tills, glacio-lacustrine and overbank materials observed in the urban and sub-urban areas of the city. Undisturbed samples obtained
from excavations and open pits were tested for their index properties, shear resistance and compressibility. Additional tests included
X-ray diffraction. For the geotechnical classification a composite mapping technique was used which included information of a great
number of existing borings. It was established that low quality soils are located in depressions molded by glacial action as well as in
overbank areas, which were filled by layers of normally consolidated clays and organic materials interbedded with coarser-grained
deposits.
RSUM: Dans la ville de Punta Arenas, Patagonie chilienne, les sols d'origine glaciaire ont t dposs au cours du dernier
maximum glaciaire (DMG), dont des matires meubles, organiques et d'alluvions dominent pendant les priodes interglaciaires et la
priode post-glaciaire. La superposition des environnements sdimentaires avec des vnements de chargement et de dchargement
glaciaires, ont-ils abouti une succession stratigraphique htrogne avec une varit de proprits mcaniques. Cette tude propose
une classification gotechnique pour les diffrents dpts, qui comprennent lamas de dbris mineral de la moraine et les dpts
glacio-lacustres. Des chantillons intacts provenant de fouilles ont t tests pour leurs proprits d'index, de la rsistance au
cisaillement et la compressibilit. Des tests supplmentaires ont t inclus comment ceux de diffraction des rayons X. Pour la
classification gotechnique nous avons utilis une technique de cartographie composite. Il a t tabli que les sols de mauvaise qualit
sont situs dans des dpressions rsultant du travail du glacier ainsi que dans les zones de dbordement, qui ont t remplis par des
couches d'argiles normalement consolides et des matires organiques interstratifis avec des dpts de grain plus grossier.
KEYWORDS: Magellan Lobe, Patagonia, glacial clay, till, consolidation, composite maps
1 INTRODUCTION. and peat bogs are thus situated in areas with low gradients,
mostly in the northern part of the city, whereas coarser
The city of Punta Arenas is situated on the western shore of the sediments are deposited by the Las Minas River in the central
Magellan Strait, (see figure 5). The pressure of rapid urban area.
development has led to building construction on soils that are Understanding the complexity of the geological processes
almost always saturated, and due to their low bearing resistance, that operated in the area, allows the soils to be classified
high compressibility and excessive variation, present according to their origin and loading history, which is a key
unfavorable conditions for foundation design. The origin of the factor in their geotechnical characterization. We propose a
soils is mainly glacial, being due to the cyclic advance and paleogeographic interpretation method that includes SPT
retreat of a glacial lobe during the LGM, which caused (Standard Penetrometer Test) values, and differentiates and
stratigraphic successions that are highly variable both laterally demarcates soils of low bearing capacity.
and vertically. Temperate conditions during interglacial events
and the post-glacial period, allowed the deposition of soft clays
and the proliferation of peat bogs. Sand and gravel were also 2 THE LGM ADVANCE AND RETREAT
deposited within the channels of a drainage system.
The local physiography is one of the most important factors In the study area at least five glacial advances (A - E) of the
in the classification or zonation of the soils. In the context of Magellan Lobe are recorded, which were dated using 14C and
surface hydraulics, Punta Arenas is crossed in an east-west cosmogenic isotopes (Bentley 2005, Clapperton, 1995,
direction by six natural channels: the Los Ciervos, La Mano, McCulloch, 2005a). The LGM is represented by glacial advance
and Las Minas Rivers, and the DAgostini or Pitet, Llau-Llau, B and is characterized by the evolution of the Juan Maza
and Bitsch Creeks (see figure 5). The drainage patterns are Peninsula (figure 5), which happened after 31,250 calibrated
variable; the southern area is dominated by the relict glacial years before present (Cal yr BP) and culminated between
morphology, with the La Mano River mostly confined to a 25,200 23,100 Cal yr BP, followed by advance C of lesser
glacial valley. In the central area, the Las Minas River is extent, dated between 22,400 and 20,300 Cal yr BP. Glacial
dynamic and frequently overflows its banks, with occasional advance D, also of smaller extent, culminated between 17,700
mud flows being considered a risk factor. Finally, in the north, and 17,600 Cal yr BP, succeeded by a glacial retreat. Glacial
the hydraulic pattern is more disperse with little incision. This is advance E caused the damming up of a lake between 15,500 and
problematic with regard to the impermeable basal sediments 11,770 Cal yr BP. The retreat of this glacier coincides with the
that increase the risk of inundation. Fine overbank sediments maximum cooling period referred to as the Younger Dryas in
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
the Northern Hemisphere, which was the last record of the Quaternary climatic changes, provided the necessary
Pleistocene glacial advance (Bentley 2005, McCulloch, 2005a). conditions for the evolution of peat bogs. Due to the fact that
The glacial processes deposited different sediments in the form the area around the Strait was subjected to various glacial
of terminal, basal and lateral moraines, whereas glacial retreats, it is common to find significantly thick, vertically
meltwater during the interglacial periods generated outwash repeated peat bog deposits (see figure 4).
plains. During warmer intervals peat bogs proliferated.
There is evidence that a large pro-glacial lake formed in the 3.2 Structures
present Magellan Strait. Dating of a volcanic ash layer from the
Reclus Volcano indicates that this happened before 12,640 60 The soils derived from glacial environments show structures
14
C yr BP (McCulloch et al. 2005b). The low level of the such as cracks, fractures, and complex deformation that depend
Atlantic Ocean and the glacial barriers between the fjords, on the material, the flow regime, the types of forces to which
which did not allow the influx of waters from the Pacific Ocean, they had been subjected, as well as the water content. Sandy
favored the deposition of varved clay and glacio-lacustrine clays sediments deposited by slow currents may show undulating,
in a freshwater environment, thus preventing the development continuous laminas, whereas soft sediments such as silty clay, if
of quick clays. they have a high humidity content, develop structures like load
casts, soft-sediment and recumbent folds, chaotic bedding, fluid
3 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS escape structures, and polygonal mud cracks, inter alia. During
field work it was common to observe slickensides, smooth
3.1 General oxidized surfaces caused by foliation slip in the tills, which
indicate the intermittent laminar flow of fluids along
The term mazacote is locally used to refer to a group of soft, discontinuities. At a macro-scale, the collapse of sub-vertical
bluish grey soils, considered in engineering as having poor blocks in excavations could also be observed (see figure 2A).
geotechnical properties. Nevertheless, recognizing the This can be explained by the vertical loading caused by the
complexity of depositional environments, events and structures overlying glaciers and the subsequent lateral pressure-release
that were superimposed during different geological periods, it is within the excavations.
of prime importance to differentiate between push, basal and Another specific characteristic of the study area is the
flood tills, outwash plains, lacustrine varved clays, organic significant sub-glacial deformation of the sediments due to the
clays, peat, and fine as well as coarse fluvial sediments with shear force exerted by the overriding glaciers (see figure 2B). In
different compaction properties. road cuts, moraines show complex folds, faults and foliations
Till or moraine, a product of glacial erosion and plucking, is with orientations indicating the direction of glacial advance.
one of the most heterogeneous sediments because of its poor
sorting. Its composition and structure depend on the manner in AA
which it has been transported and the diagenetic history, so that
it may vary from a dense till with a non-plastic matrix to a clay-
rich till with a low consistency. Its sedimentary provenance is
difficult to determine due to the fact that the material was
transported from different, proximal or distal source areas, and
subsequently suffered reworking. Geotechnically, it is important
to differentiate between strongly pre-consolidated basal tills and
melt-out till that is generally similar to normally consolidated
clays.
The large pro-glacial lake and the presence of co-existing
smaller lakes along the shores of the Magellan Strait provided B
the conditions for the deposition of lacustrine sediments, among
which one of the most important types is varved clays.
The fine sediments associated with fluvial overbank areas
with lower flow-regime currents, were deposited during modern
inundation events, and geotechnically behave like normally
consolidated clays (Vsquez 2012). These materials may show
specific properties such as interbedded clay and silt,
sedimentary structures including troughs and ripples (see figure
1), a high organic content (transported by water or formed in
situ by local vegetation), laminas of coarse or fine sand with
gravel lenses, the presence of sporadic gravel clasts with a
maximum size of 1 cm, mica, carbon spheres, and strong Figure 2. Structures in glacial sediments, Punta Arenas. A) Collapse of
oxidation. sub-vertical blocks in excavations. B) Foliations in sub-glacial till.
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Technical Committee 301 / Comit technique 301
ample spectrum reflects the percent of clay size materials, as undrained strength. It is evident that the percentage of sand
well as the number and types of clay minerals, which vary and/or silt in the mixture (i.e., varved clay, overbank soils) has a
according to the depositional environment, humidity, depth and strong influence on the shear strength, which is why it would be
amount of weathering. common to find different results in series of triaxial tests.
An important aspect to consider in the field is the horizontal
60
and vertical heterogeneity of the sediments. Figure 4 shows the
wide variation that occurs over a distance of less than 50 m in
50 boreholes 1 and 2. As regards the occurrence of peat at a depth
CH
of about 12 m, it is linked to more temperate geological periods,
Plasticity Index, IP
40
in a sub-basin where fine, soft sediments were deposited
30 together with intercalated horizons of coarse sediments (gravel,
sand).
20 CL
10 ML
CL - ML
N-SPT Number of blows
0
N
S
P
T
_
2
2
9
N
o
.
G
o
lp
es
0 20 40 60 80 100
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
Liquid Limit, wL
0
GWT
Loose, coarse gravels.
N
.F
Figure 3. Casagrande Chart. Wide range shown by the types of soils,
S1
1
above line A.
Soft bluish grey clay, medium
S2
Considering the above, granolumetric tests were carried out plasticity, high humidity. GWT
with laser beam technology in the Sedimentology Laboratory of
N
.F
the University of Chile with a Mastersizer 2000, determining
that the clay fraction, with a size less than 0.002 mm, does not Dense, coarse gravels.
4
Silty sands.
exceed 15%. Because it is the clay fraction that largely controls
the soil behavior, X-ray diffraction analysis was also carried out
5
Depth (m)
minerals were identified: vermiculite and montmorillonite. Soft bluish grey clay, medium plasticity,
Vermiculite is an alteration product of biotite (mica), whereas high humidity.
8
2012). A
Peat
Using edometric tests and classifying the samples with
1
1
that the soils that had not suffered geological loading, have
larger initial void ratios (e0) and compression indexes (Cc),
1
3
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Flow direction
Isoline composite map
Station
Zones
Pennsula 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
B Juan Maza
This study was possible thanks to the support of Professor
B C
Ramn Verdugo, Coordinator of the Master Program in
Estrecho de Magallanes Geotechnical Engineering at the University of Chile, Gonzalo
Punta Arenas Espinoza, Regional Director of DOH (Hydraulic Works Office),
D Tierra del XII Region, Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica, Hctor
BC Fuego Szigethi for the valuable information on boreholes drilled under
his supervision, and to the deceased geotechnical engineer Issa
Figure 5. Location map of the study area. Composite map of Punta Kort for his important support in the field.
Arenas. Google Earth view of the city and Magellan Strait with stages
of deglaciation labelled B-D, where B is the oldest and D the youngest
moraine (after Bentley et al. 2005). 5 REFERENCES
Using a spreadsheet and normalizing the data of topographic Bentley M.J., Sugden D.E., Hulton M.R.J., and Mcculloch R.D. 2005.
elevation, type of sediment (employing a scale of 1 to 7 for the The landforms and pattern of deglaciation in the Strait of Magellan,
coarsest to finest sediments, respectively) and the mean number Baha Intil, southernmost South America. Geogr. Ann., 87 A (2):
of blows (N-SPT) for every station, the resultant composite 313333.
Clapperton, ch., Sugden D.E, Kaufman D., and Mcculloch R.D. 1995.
value varies between 1 y 100 for the 57 stations. Finally, the The last glaciation in central Magellan Strait, southernmost Chile.
composite values were contoured and interpreted (see figure 5). Quaternary Research, 44:133-148.
The composite map technique highlights the sub-basins Le Roux, J.P. 1997. Palaeogeographic reconstruction using composite
scoured by glacial action, in which soils of low bearing capacity maps, with case studies from three continents. Palageography,
(soft clays and peat) coincide with isolines having values higher Palaeoclimatology, Palaeocology, 131: 51 63.
than 60 and clearly demarcated by isolines having values above Mcculloch, R.D., Fogwill, C.J., Sugden, D.E., Bentley, M.J. and Kubik,
80 (see figure 5). Additionally, the phreatic water levels in these P.W., 2005a. Chronology of the last glaciation in the central Strait
areas are close to the surface, which is one of the most of Magellan and Baha Intil, southernmost South America.
unfavorable conditions for foundation design. Geografiska Annaler, 87 A (2): 289312.
Mcculloch, R.D., Bentley, M.J. Tipping, R.M. and Clapperton, C.M.
2005b. Evidence for late-glacial ice-dammed lakes in the central
Strait of Magellan and Baha Intil, southernmost South America.
4 CONCLUSIONS Geografiska Annaler, 87 A (2): 335362.
Szigethi, H.; 1995-2010. Informes de laboratorio de mecnica de suelos
Soils in the city of Punta Arenas show an extraordinary y comunicaciones personales, Punta Arenas.
variation in their index and engineering properties, which makes Uribe P.; 1982. Geologa y consideraciones geotcnicas para el estudio
them difficult to assess for sound geotechnical designs. de los suelos de fundacin de la ciudad de Punta Arenas. Informe
The combined, non-dimensional parameters of the composite taller de ttulo II. Departamento de Geologa Universidad de Chile.
map reveal the complex geological processes these areas have Vsquez, A.; 2012. Suelos de fundacin de la ciudad de Punta Arenas.
experienced. A study of the geological events during the Last Tesis magster en ciencias, mencin ingeniera geotcnica.
Glacial Maximum allows the characteristics of the soils to be Santiago, Universidad de Chile. 136 p.
explained in terms of composition as well as in their effect on
existing structures.
The composite map allows the definition of a tentative
zonation which shows areas with more compressible soils and
low shear strength associated with depressions containing
lacustrine sediments such as clay and peat.
3148
Geotechnical Issues of Megaprojects on Problematical Soil Ground of Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Astana has become the new capital of Kazakhstan. In the past decade, many
modern architectural and engineering megaprojects have emerged (such as Khan-Shatyr, Peace Palace Pyramid, house estate of
Severnoe Siyanie, Abu-Dhabi Plaza Hotel and so on). These modern megaprojects put forward new requirements to engineers utilizing
more economical and technologically effective design and construction methodologies. The territory of the city of Astana is located on
the Kazakh Steppe and the most apparent problem is the soil condition presented by inhomogeneous sandwich soil layers, characterized
by various types of soft and dense soil, and hard soil bands, including freezing ground. At present, pile foundations are widely used, but it
is very hard to use precast piles because they may break in the soil during driving or their heads may be damaged too, while the bearing
capacity is not high. The best geoengineering solution in this case is the use of new pile technology like CFA (continuous flight auger),
FDP (full displacement piles), DDS (drilling displacement system) and H-beam piles, that lead to increased bearing capacity. The present
lecture includes static and dynamic, integrity piling test results and also data of numerical analysis of interaction of piles with soil ground.
RSUM : Aprs l'effondrement de l'Union sovitique, est devenue Astana, la nouvelle capitale du Kazakhstan. Dans la dernire
dcennie, de nombreux mgaprojets modernes d'architecture et d'ingnierie ont vu le jour (comme Khan-Shatyr, Palais de la Paix -
Pyramide, immobilier maison d'"Severnoe Siyanie", Abu-Dhabi Plaza Htel et ainsi de suite). Ces mgaprojets modernes proposer de
nouvelles exigences pour les ingnieurs qui utilisent conception plus conomique et techniquement efficace et mthodes de construction.
Le territoire de la ville d'Astana est situ sur la steppe kazakhe et le problme le plus vident est la condition du sol prsent par
inhomognes couches de sol sandwich, caractrises par diffrents types de sol souple et dense, et des bandes de sols durs, y compris
conglation du sol. l'heure actuelle, les fondations sur pieux sont largement utiliss, mais il est trs difficile d'utiliser des piles
prfabriques, car ils peuvent se briser dans le sol pendant la conduite ou la tte peut tre trop endommags, tandis que la capacit
portante n'est pas lev. La meilleure solution dans ce cas, la go-ingnierie est l'utilisation de la technologie nouvelle pile comme CFA
(tarire continue), FDP (piles dplacement complets), DDS (systme de dplacement de forage) et H-beam pieux, qui conduisent
augmenter la capacit portante. La confrence prsente comprend statiques et dynamiques, les rsultats de tests d'intgrit des pieux ainsi
que les donnes de l'analyse numrique de l'interaction avec des tas de terre du sol.
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settlement of the tested pile is depending on category of According to Kazakhstan Standard requirements it is
construction and is equal 16 or 24 mm. The last argument necessary to test 60% of boring piles and 50% of driving piles.
shows conditional character of SLT method. Geomonitoring. Geomonitoring for foundation settlement is
According to Kazakhstan Standard 1% of constructed piles one of the quality control methods that can be carried out during
on construction site must be tested by SLT, but at least 2 SLTs and after construction in exploitation period. Monitoring is
in a site must be done. indirect control of pile installation evaluation.
Comparison of SLT and DLT. SLT and DLT both are The principle of this method is monitoring the settlement of
practiced in Kazakhstan construction. According to experience special marks which are installed to interested points of
on construction sites of Astana, some difference exists between construction. Monitoring starts from the beginning of
SLT and DLT results. Moreover, results of bearing capacity of construction and allows revealing defects of foundation
pile depend on type of hammer. Thus, DLT results obtained by installation.
using hydro-hammer are more approximate to the SLT results,
namely more reliable than results obtained by using diesel
hammer (Ashkey Y. 2008). The safety factor as defined by 4 COMPARISON OF SLT RESULTS
comparative analysis of many DLT and SLT data is presented in
Figure 4. SLT of different types of pile was performed with a view to
compare bearing capacity of traditional (namely, boring casing
pile and driving pile) (Zhussupbekov A.Zh. 2012).
All the piles were designed to the criteria of 2200kN bearing
capacity. Designed parameters of piles (length and cross
section) by Kazakhstan Standards are presented in Table 2.
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7 REFERENCES
Zhussupbekov A.Zh. and Lukpanov R.E. 2012, Geotechnical issues of
megaprojects on problematical soil in Kazakhstan, Volume of
Abstracts of ACEM`12, Seoul, Korea, 127.
Sultanov G.A., Zhussupbekov A.Zh. Lukpanov R.E. and Enkebaev S.B.
2010, Research of Interaction between Displacement Pile and Soil
Basement. Proc. of Kaz-Kor joint geotechnical seminar. Astana,
Kazakhstan, 84-91.
Figure 7. FEM modeling of DDS Ashkey Y. 2008, Interaction of CFA bored piles with soil condition in
Astana. A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the
The comparison diagram of bearing capacities of DDS and requirements for the PhD degree.Astana, Kazakhstan.
SNiP RK 5.01-03-2002 Pile foundation.
traditional bored piles by Plaxis is presented in Figure 8 Zhussupbekov A.Zh. and Lukpanov R.E. 2012, Geotechnical issues of
(Expressed by k=Fd/Fu, where Fd DDS bearing capacity, Fu megaprojects on problematical soil in Kazakhstan, Proc. of 3rd
traditional bored pile bearing capacity). The points on diagram ICNDSMGE-ZM 2012, Near East University, Nicosia, TRNC,
are lying above the diagonal line; it means that the values of 67-75.
DDS bearing capacity are exceeding traditional bored piles [2].
After some transformation it was got FEM coefficient of
DDS pile works, which vary from 1.23 1.35 depends on type
of soil (See Table 1).
3152
General Report of TC 307
Sustainability in Geotechnical Engineering
Rapport gnral du TC 307
Durabilit en gotechnique
Basu D.
University of Waterloo, Canada
Puppala A.J., Chittoori B.
University of Texas at Arlington, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT: Sustainable geotechnics is an emerging sub-discipline within geotechnical engineering that covers a wide range of
topics related to the sustainable development of civil infrastructure and society. In this general report, a brief overview of this new
sub-discipline is provided with an aim to connect the broader scope of sustainability to geotechnical engineering research and
practice. In addition, the papers allocated to the sustainability session (TC 307) of 18th ICSMGE are reviewed in the context of the
big picture. Most of the papers deal with material recycling, reuse, and use of alternate materials in geotechnical engineering
constructions. These apart, the topics covered in the allocated papers include use of geosynthetics, sustainable foundation engineering,
subsurface remediation and site redevelopment, and sustainability assessment. Some of the important topics related to sustainable
geotechnics not covered by the allocated papers are also mentioned.
RSUM: La gotechnique soutenable est une nouvelle sous-discipline de la gotechnique qui couvre un large ventail de sujets lis
au dveloppement durable des infrastructures et de la socit. On prsente dans ce rapport gnral un bref aperu de cette nouvelle
sous-discipline avec lobjectif de relier le champ plus large du dveloppement durable avec la recherche et la pratique en
gotechnique. En outre, les articles de la session ddie la gotechnique soutenable (TC 307) de la 18e ICSMGE sont examins dans
un contexte plus large. La plupart des articles traitent de recyclage de matriaux, de rutilisation, et de l'utilisation de matriaux
alternatifs dans les constructions gotechniques. En plus de cela, les sujets abords dans les articles incluent l'utilisation des
gosynthtiques, les travaux de fondation durable, la dcontamination et le ramnagement de sites et lvaluation de la durabilit.
Certains sujets importants lis la gotechnique soutenable non couverts par les articles considrs sont galement mentionns.
KEYWORDS: sustainable geotechnics, geosustainability, geohazard, resilience, life cycle assessment, recycling, reuse, remediation.
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
earthquake, disruptions and distress in an underground transit multi-hazards, and (11) incorporation of geoethics in practice.
system due to terror attack are examples of disasters related to Basu et al. emphasized the need for reliability- and resilience-
geotechnical systems. Thus, geotechnical engineering has a based design as a part of sustainable geotechnical engineering.
wide gamut and a global reach, and can influence the Additionally, Basu et al. summarized the different sustainability
sustainable development of infrastructure and civil societies in a assessment tools available in geotechnical engineering and
significant way. According to Long et al. (2009), there are seven categorized them into (1) single criterion based metrics (e.g.,
categories where geotechnical engineering can contribute to carbon footprint), (2) multiple criteria-based tools (e.g.,
improve the sustainability of the societal system. These include GeoSPEAR and life cycle assessment), and (3) point-based
(i) waste management, (ii) infrastructure development and rating systems (e.g., I-LAST and GreenLites).
rehabilitation, (iii) construction efficiency and innovation, (iv) Based on the above discussion, it is evident that sustainable
national security, (v) resource discovery and recovery, (vi) geotechnics is an emerging sub-discipline of geotechnical
mitigation of natural hazards, and (vii) frontier exploration and engineering that covers a wide area ranging from reliability- and
development. A similar set of sustainability objectives for resilience-based design and environment-friendly construction
geotechnical engineering was also identified by Pantelidou et al. practices to energy geotechnics and geohazard mitigation. It
(2012): (i) energy efficiency and carbon reduction, (ii) materials also includes the development of sustainability assessment tools
and waste reduction, (iii) maintaining natural water cycle and applicable to geotechnical engineering practice.
enhancing natural watershed, (iv) climate change adaptation and
resilience, (v) effective land use and management, (vi)
economic viability and whole life cost, and (vii) positive 3 THEMES COVERED IN SUSTAINABILITY SESSION
contribution to society.
There are 28 papers allocated to the sustainability session with
authors from 20 countries representing all the ISSMGE regions.
Environment These papers cover a wide range of topics that can be broadly
Resource and grouped into five areas.
Growth Control Pollution Conflict
Conflict
3.1 Use of recycled and alternate materials
According to Vanek et al., a variety of waste products are
Economy generated in the society that can be utilized in geotechnical
Equity Class and Property
Conflict constructions. These waste products can be categorized into
industrial wastes (e.g., ash and slag), construction and
Access and
demolition wastes (e.g., used bricks, concrete, and asphalt),
Redundancy and
Marginalization Profitability Conflict
mining wastes (mine tailings), and other wastes (e.g., tires,
Conflict plastics, glass, and dredged material). Basu et al. provided an
Engineering overview of the different waste utilization methods in
geotechnical constructions and discussed about chemical soil
Figure 1. The four Es of sustainability in engineering projects (Figure 1 treatment. Waste utilization and use of alternative material is
of Basu et al.). one of the most widely researched areas in geotechnical
engineering and it is not surprising that, out of the 28 papers
On a project level, Basu et al. outlined the necessary steps to allocated to this session, 20 papers contribute to this topic.
achieve sustainability objectives as (i) involving all the The papers on industrial waste recycling deal with a variety
stakeholders at the planning stage of the project so that a of geotechnical applications. Baykal investigated the use of silt-
consensus is reached on the sustainability goals of the project sized fly ash in manufacturing artificial, sand-sized pellets for
(such as reduction in pollution, use of environment friendly use in construction projects (Figure 2). He reviewed the cold
alternative materials, etc.), (ii) reliable and resilient design and bonding pelletization technique, and studied the index and
construction that involves minimal financial burden and mechanical properties of the fly-ash pellets. The manufactured
inconvenience to all the stakeholders, (iii) minimal use of pellets behave like calcareous sands found in the nature.
resources and energy in planning, design, construction and
maintenance of geotechnical facilities, (iv) use of materials and
methods that cause minimal negative impact on the ecology and
environment, and (v) as much reuse of existing geotechnical
facilities as possible to minimize waste. In addition, emphasis
should be put on proper site characterization so that geologic
uncertainties can be minimized, on instrumentation so that
proper functioning of a geotechnical facility can be ensured and
required retrofitting can be performed, and on adaptive
management strategies so that the resilience of the geotechnical
facility can be enhanced and the vulnerability of the community
linked with the facility can be reduced.
According to Basu et al. and Vanek et al., sustainability
related studies can be grouped into the following areas: (1) the Figure 2. Manufactured fly ash pellets (Figure 7 of Baykal).
use of alternate, environment friendly materials in geotechnical
constructions, and reuse of waste materials, (2) innovative and In another example of recycling of fly ash, Vukievi et al.
energy efficient ground improvement techniques, (3) bio-slope investigated the reusability of a class-F fly ash (KFA) from a
engineering, (4) efficient use of geosynthetics, (5) sustainable Serbian thermal power plant as a stabilizer in low plasticity silt
foundation engineering that includes retrofitting and reuse of and in high plasticity expansive clay. Several geotechnical
foundations, and foundations for energy extraction, (6) use of engineering properties including grain size distribution,
underground space for beneficial purposes including storage of Atterberg limits, unconfined compression strength, moisture-
energy, (7) mining of shallow and deep geothermal energy, (8) density relationship, swell potential, and California bearing ratio
preservation of geodiversity, (9) environmental protection (CBR) were determined for the control and treated soils. Based
including protection of greenfields, (10) geohazard mitigation on the study, the authors concluded that the particular fly ash in
including mitigation of the effects of global climate change and question can be used as a stabilizer, and advocated a case-by-
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
and behavior associated with tire-bale use in construction, proportions of EPS-sand mixture, different replacement soil-
example applications, and end-of-service-life options. layer thickness, footing size, and bead density. Abdelrehman et
al. found that the swelling deformation of the footing decreases
as the replacement-layer thickness increases.
Figure 5. A typical tyre bale (Figure 1 of Winter). Figure 7. Friction angle of sand mixed with non-perforated polyethylene
strips versus strip length (Figure 3a of Kalumba and Chebet).
Abdelhaleem et al. considered the use of recycled rubber and
rubber-sand mixtures (RSM) as replacement soils in seismic
areas due to the increased damping capacity of RSM. They
performed site response analysis using the two-dimensional
finite element method with equivalent-linear constitutive
models for the geo-materials. Three earthquake ground motions
of comparable magnitude and varying frequency content were
applied to a deposit of sand with replacement soil and with
different configurations of RSM. A parametric study was
performed for investigating the effect of depth and thickness of
the RSM layer and of the relative magnitudes of the natural
period of the site and predominant period of earthquake on the
sand-replacement soil-RSM system. Figure 8. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) beads mixed with sand (Figure 1
Kalumba and Chebet investigated the possibility of using of Abdelrehman et al.).
discarded polyethylene shopping bags as soil reinforcement, and
performed direct shear tests on Klipheuwel and Cape Flats In another example of EPS recycling, Teymur et al.
sands mixed with perforated and non-perforated polyethylene compared the performance of glass foam and EPS geo-foam as
strips of different lengths and of widths (Figure 6). Direct shear components of controlled low strength material (CLSM) often
tests were performed with sand-polyethylene mixture and it was used as compacted backfill. They performed index tests,
observed that there was an overall increase in the friction angle unconfined compression tests, and CBR tests, and found that
due to addition of the strips and that the increase in the friction glass mixtures have greater unit weight and strength than those
angle depends on the length and width of the strips, perforations of EPS foam mixtures. They concluded that glass foam CLSM
present in the strip, and percent weight of the strips (see, for can be used as pavement subbase, as fill for slopes and retaining
example, Figure 7). Based on their results, Kalumba and Chebet structures, and to increase the strength and stiffness of soft clay
suggested that the polyethylene strips can be used to increase deposits.
the shear resistance of sandy soils. Drinking water sludge (DWS) discharged during water
Abdelrehman et al. performed a laboratory-scale study to purification has potential use as a road infrastructure material
investigate the efficacy of expanded polystyrene (EPS), a (Watanabe and Komini). However, decomposition of the
cellular polymeric material commonly used in the packaging organic matter present in DWS decreases its shear strength
industry, in reducing the heave in footings placed on expansive because of which it is important to determine its durability for
clay (Figure 8). They studied the compaction characteristics of reuse. Watanabe and Komini collected DWS samples from
EPS of different size and bead density mixed with silica sand. Irabaki, Japan that contains aluminum and organic matters in
Subsequently, Abdelrehman et al. studied the response of the solid phase, and performed triaxial tests on the samples after
circular footings of different diameters resting on a layer of subjecting them to aluminum leaching and biodegradation.
sodium bentonite by replacing a part of the bentonite layer with They found that the shear strength of DWS decreases due to loss
the EPS-sand mixture. They performed a parametric study of of organic matter and aluminum (Figure 9). Watanabe and
the footing heave-settlement response as a function of different Komini further quantified the effect of aluminum leaching and
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organic loss on the shear strength by modeling the leaching as a and stiffness of the SGM samples increased with increase in the
diffusion process and the organic loss as an exponential decay number of curing days, and attributed this increase to the growth
process. The study shows that DWS can be used in geotechnical and bonding of needle-like ettringite crystals within the SGM
applications. sample pores caused by the curing process.
Jefferis and Lam discussed the use of polymers as an
40.0
alternative to bentonite in geotechnical construction fluids
Internal friction angle (deg.)
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geosynthetics manufacturing is mostly controlled by the impacts mixture is used in paving the construction site. The high cost of
of raw-material production and electricity consumption during disposal (Table 2) made the first option the most viable one with
manufacturing. a direct cost savings of US$ 1.9 million, which does not even
include the indirect cost-saving benefits from the reduced
Table 1. Selected key figures describing the constructions of one square
meter of gravel and geosynthetics filter (Table 2 of Frischknecht et al.).
environmental impact that the project ensures.
Gravel Geosynthetics Table 2. Costs for final disposition of wastes in licensed places (Table 6
Material/Process Unit of Farais et al.).
filter filter
Gravel t/m2 0.69 0 Disposition place Unit Unitary cost (US$)
Geosynthetics layer m2/m2 0 1 Inert landfill m3 47.30
Diesel used in 2
Processing plant m3 18.36
MJ/m 2.04 1.04 * Transportation cost not considered
building machines
2
Transport, lorry tkm/m 34.5 0.035
Transport, freight, rail tkm/m2 0 0.07 In their study on the use of enzymatic solution and
lignosulfonate as additives in silt (described in section 3.1),
Particulates > 10 m g/m2 4.8 0
Blanck et al. performed LCA-EIA using 10 impact categories
Particulates > 2.5 m
g/m2 1.3 0 proposed in the NF P 01-010 standard. The analysis showed that
and < 10 m
the use of enzymatic solution reduces impacts in seven out of
ten categories (Figure 13). The use of lignosulfate, however, did
Holm et al. developed an assessment and decision making
not produce sufficient environmental benefits.
tool for sustainable management of contaminated sediments in
the Baltic sea, which included an emerging technology of 20 18,8 Non trait
solidification/stabilization. They presented the results of three 18 0,002 % produit enzymatique
15,3
case studies based on the ports of Oxelsund (Sweden), Gvle Valeur de l'indicateur 16 14,5
Pollution de l'eau
Consommation de
Acidification
atmosphrique
(x 10 2 m3)
Destruction de l'ozone
(x 102 kg q. CO2)
ressources naturelles
(x 10 3 MJ)
(kg q. SO2)
ressources nergtiques
Changement climatique
Pollution de l'air
(x 10 4 m3)
atmosphrique
solides (kg)
(x 10-5 kg q. SO2)
(kg q. thylne)
Production de dchets
(kg q. Sb)
statosphrique
Formation d'ozone
Epuisement de
(x 104 L)
Consommation d'eau
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
environmental aspect of sustainability, while some papers on Kalumba D. and Chebet F. C. 2013. Utilisation of polyethylene (plastic)
sustainability assessment focused on the economic and social shopping bags waste for soil improvement in sandy soils. Proc. 18th
aspects. The topics covered by these papers can be broadly ICSMGE.
classified into five sub-themes: material recycling, reuse and use Kataoka S., Horita T., Tanaka M., Tomita R. and Nakajima M. 2013.
of alternate materials, efficient use of geosynthetics, sustainable Effect of dredge soil on the strength development of air-foam
foundation engineering, subsurface remediation and site treated lightweight soil. Proc. 18th ICSMGE.
redevelopment, and sustainability assessment. Although these Kiber C. J. 2008. Sustainable construction green building design and
papers deal with a variety of topics that contribute to the delivery. John Wiley and Sons Inc.
sustainable development of civil infrastructure and society, they Kikuchi Y. and Mizutani, T. 2013. Application of a method to
do not cover all the important topics that are parts of sustainable accelerate granulated blast furnace slag solidification. Proc.18th
geotechnics. ICSMGE.
Long J. C. S., Amadei B., Bardet J.-P., Christian J. T., Glaser S. D.,
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Goodings D. J., Kavazanjian E., Major D. W., Mitchell J. K.,
Poulton M. M. and Santamarina J. C. 2009. Geological and
Alain Corfdir helped us in interpreting the papers written in geotechnical engineering in the new millennium: opportunities for
French for which we are grateful. research and technological innovation. The National Academic
Press, Washington D.C.
6 REFERENCES McIntosh G. W. and Barthelmess A. J. 2013. Building on an old
landfill: design and construction. Proc.18th ICSMGE.
Abdelhaleem A. M., El-Sherbiny R. M., Lotfy H. and Al-Ashaal A. A. Nakano M. and Sakai T. 2013. Interpretation of mechanical behavior of
2013. Evaluation of rubber/sand mixtures as replacement soils to cement-treated dredged soil based on soil skeleton structure. Proc.
mitigate earthquake induced ground motions. Proc. 18th ICSMGE. 18th ICSMGE.
Abdelrahman G. E., Mohamed H. K. and Ahmed H. M. 2013. New Nawagamuwa U. P., Senanayake A. and Rathnaweera T. 2013.
replacement formations on expansive soils using recycled EPS Utilization of waste copper slag as a substitute for sand in vertical
beads. Proc. 18th ICSMGE. sand drains and sand piles. Proc. 18th ICSMGE.
Basu D., Puppala A. J. and Chittoori C. S. 2013. Sustainability in Pantelidou H., Nicholson D. and Gaba A. 2012. Sustainable
geotechnical engineering. Proc. 18th ICSMGE. geotechnics. Manual of Geotechnical Engineering 1, Institute of
Baykal, G. 2013. Mechanics of manufactured soil using powder wastes. Civil Engineers, U. K.
Proc. 18th ICSMGE. Puppala A. J., Saride S. and Williammee R. 2012. Sustainable reuse of
Blanck G., Cuisinier O. and Masrouri F. 2013. Mthodes non limestone quarry fines and RAP in pavement base/subbase layers.
traditionnelles de traitement des sols : apports techniques et impact Journal of Materials, ASCE, 24(4), 418429.
sur le bilan environnemental dun ouvrage en terre. Proc.18th Santos E. C. G., Bathurst R. J. and Palmeira E. M. 2013. Experimental
ICSMGE. reinforced soil walls built with recycled construction and
Bourne-Webb P., Cunningham M. and Card G. 2013. Advanced testing demolition waste (RCDW). Proc. 18th ICSMGE.
and modelling delivers cost effective piled raft foundation solution. Saride S., Puppala A. J., Williammee R. 2010. Assessments of
Proc. 18th ICSMGE.
recycled/secondary materials in pavement. Ground Improvement
Cameron D. A., Rahman M. M., Azam A. M., Gabr A. G., Andrews R.
Journal, Thomas Telford, GI 163(GI1), 3-12.
and Mitchell P. W. 2013. The use of recycled aggregates in
Teymur B., Tuncel E. Y. and Ahmedov, R. 2013. Comparing the
unbound road pavements. Proc. 18th ICSMGE.
properties of EPS and glass foam mixed with cement and sand.
Di Emidio G., Verastegui Flores R. D. and Bezuijen A. 2013. Reuse of
Proc. 18th ICSMGE.
dredged sediments for hydraulic barriers: adsorption and hydraulic
Vanek M., Jirsko D. and Vanek I. 2013. Geotechnical engineering
conductivity improvement through polymers. Proc. 18th ICSMGE.
and protection of environment and sustainable development. Proc.
Dixit M. K., Fernandez-Solis J. L., Lavy S. and Culp C. H. 2010.
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Identification of parameters for embodied energy measurement: a
Vizcarra G., Szeliga L., Casagrande M. and Motta L. 2013.
literature review. Energy and Buildings 42, 1238-1247.
Applicability of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration ash in
Edil T. B. 2013. Characterization of recycled materials for sustainable
road pavements. Proc.18th ICSMGE.
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Vukievi M., Mara-Dragojevi S., Jockovi S., Marjanovi M. and
Edwards A. R. 2005. The sustainability revolution. New Society
Pujevi V. 2013. Research results of fine-grained soil stabilization
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using fly ash from serbian electric power plants. Proc.18th ICSMGE.
Farias A., Fucale S., Gusmo A. and Maia G. 2013. Technical and
Watanabe Y. and Komine. H. 2013. Simplified prediction of changes in
economic analysis of construction and demolition waste used in
shear strength in geotechnical use of drinking water sludge. Proc.
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Frischknecht R., Stucki M., Bsser-Knpfel S., Itten R. and Wallbaum
H. 2013. Comparative life cycle assessment of geosynthetics versus Winter M. G. 2013. Road foundation construction using lightweight tyre
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Guilloux A., Le Bissonnais H., Saussac L. and Perini T. 2013. La
rutilisation des fondations existantes dans les projets de
rhabilitation de constructions anciennes. Proc. 18th ICSMGE.
Herteen G., Vollmert L. and Herold A. 2013. Modern geotechnical
construction methods for important infrastructure buildings. Proc.
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Herteen G. 2012. Reduction of climate-damaging gases in geotechnical
engineering practice using geosynthetics. Geotextiles and
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Holm G., Lundberg K. and Svedberg B. 2013. Sustainable management
of contaminated sediments. Proc. 18th ICSMGE.
Jefferis S. A. and Lam C. 2013. Polymer support fluids: use and misuse
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Jones, R. and Dixon N. 2011. Sustainable development using
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3162
Evaluation of Rubber/Sand Mixtures as Replacement Soils to Mitigate Earthquake
Induced Ground Motions
valuation du mlange sable-caoutchouc comme sol de remplacement
pour attnuer les mouvements sismiques
Abdelhaleem A.M.
Construction Research Institute, National Water Research Center, Egypt
El-Sherbiny R.M., Lotfy H.
Cairo University, Egypt
Al-Ashaal A.A.
Construction Research Institute, National Water Research Center, Egypt
ABSTRACT: Use of recycled rubber and rubber/sand mixtures (RSM) as lightweight material has been widely growing over the past
decade. The increased damping capacity of RSM leads to considering its use as replacement soils in seismic areas to reduce the
amplitude of earthquake induced ground motions. This paper presents a study on the effect of utilizing a layer of RSM within a
replacement soil on the ground response during an earthquake. Site response analyses were performed using 2D finite element
analyses applying an equivalent-linear constitutive model. Three earthquake ground motions of varying frequency content were
applied to a deposit of sand with replacement soil having different configurations of RSM. Placing a layer of RSM within the
replacement soil resulted in increasing the site natural period causing damping of spectral accelerations at low periods and
amplification of spectral accelerations at high periods. Using a thin layer of RSM at deeper depths was more effective in than using
thick but shallow RSM layers. The results indicate that RSM layers may be effective when the predominant period of the earthquake
is lower than the site natural period, while the configuration is subject to the natural period of the intended structure.
RSUM: Le caoutchouc recycl et les mlanges sable-caoutchouc (MSC) en tant que matriaux lgers ont eu une utilisation accrue
au cours de la dernire dcennie. L'augmentation de la capacit d'amortissement de MSC conduit considrer son utilisation en tant
que remplacement des sols dans les zones sismiques afin de rduire l'amplitude des secousses observes pendant les tremblement de
terres. Cet article prsente les rsultats dune tude sur linfluence des couches de MSC comme sol de remplacement sur la rponse du
sol au cours d'un tremblement de terre. Lanalyses de rponses du site ont t ralises en utilisant la mthode dlments finis 2D
applique sur un modle constitutif du type linaire quivalent . Trois rgimes de tremblements de terre de frquence variable ont
t appliqus un dpt de sable avec terres de remplacement ayant diffrentes formulation de MSC. Placer une couche de MSC dans
le sol de remplacement a eu pour effet d'augmenter la priode naturelle du site; et ceci provoque une attnuation des acclrations
spectrales des priodes faibles et une amplification de la mme acclration aux priodes fortes. Lapplication d'une mince couche
de MSC des profondeurs importantes a t plus efficace que d'utiliser des couches paisses peu profondes. Les rsultats indiquent
que les couches MSC ne peuvent tre efficaces que si la priode dominante du tremblement de terre est infrieure la priode
naturelle du site, et ceci en maintenant la configuration soumise la mme priode naturelle de celle de la structure en question.
KEYWORDS: Recycled Material, Rubber-Sand Mixture, Replacement Soil, Earthquake Mitigation
1 INTRODUCTION analyses that can model seismic effects and site response of
multilayered soil profile.
The use of recycled rubber and rubber/sand mixtures (RSM) 2 PROPERTIES OF PARENT MATERIALS
as lightweight material in civil engineering applications has
been widely growing over the past decade. Processed waste tires The properties of parent materials for the RSM used in this
mixed with soils have been introduced as lightweight fills for numerical analysis are based on results of the study by
slopes, retaining walls, and embankments. The mechanical Senetakis et al. (2012). In this study, dry sand of specimen code
properties of the mixture were discussed by (Edil and Bosscher, (C3D06) and rubber material of specimen code (R3) were used
1994; Ghazavi, 2004; Zornberg et al., 2004; and Mavroulidou et as parent materials for the RSM of specimen code (C3D06-R3).
al., 2009), while dynamic properties of granulated rubber-sand The sand is natural of sub-rounded to rounded particles,
mixtures were studied by (Feng et al., 2000; and Anastasiadis et whereas the rubber is granulated from recycled tire shreds. The
al., 2012). Xu et al. (2009) performed numerical studies on properties of the parent materials is indicated in Table 1.
protecting buildings from earthquakes hazards by RSM.
Table 1. Properties of sand and granulated rubber
The utilization of RSM as replacement soils in seismic areas
to reduce the amplitude of earthquake induced ground motions Material Sand Granulated rubber
is addressed in this paper. The effect of changing the depth and Unit weight, (kN/m3) 16.50 6.50
thickness of the RSM layer will be investigated in this study. Specific gravity, Gs 2.67 1.10
The results will be compared for a range of medium amplitude Max. particle size, Dmax (mm) 0.852.00 4.756.35
ground motions. 50% passing size, D50 (mm) 0.56 2.8
Data used in this parametric study is based on a
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu 2.76 2.29
comprehensive set of torsional resonant column tests performed
Coefficient of curvature, Cc 1.23 1.18
for different dry and saturated specimens of sand-rubber
mixture, (Senetakis et al., 2012). Based on these tests, the The RSM used in the analyses herein was assumed to
modulus reduction and damping curves can be generated for the contain 35% rubber content (by weight) and a dry unit weight of
sand-rubber mixture as a function of confining pressure. The 12.5 kN/m2. The modulus reduction and damping curves of dry
parametric study is based on two-dimensional finite element RSM (C3D06-R3) for different confining pressures ('m) were
generated according to Senetakis et al. (2012). The modulus
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
reduction and damping curves of dry rubber-sand mixture 4 EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTIONS
(C3D06-R3), sand (C3D06), and the replacement soil at
confining pressures ('m = 50 kPa) are shown in Figure 1. The Three earthquake ground motions of comparable magnitude
small strain shear modulii for the sand, RSM, and replacement and different frequency content were used to investigate the
soil are 65.6 MPa, 10.4 MPa, and 234 MPa, respectively. ground surface layer response in case of pure sand deposit
(baseline case) and in cases of the existence of the RSM layer.
3 NUMERICAL MODEL The earthquake ground motions data were obtained from the
ground motion database of the Pacific Earthquake Engineering
A number of two-dimensional finite element models were Research Center (PEER). The ground motion database includes
built in QUAKE/W to evaluate the site response during an a very large set of ground motions recorded in worldwide
earthquake. The soil was modeled using an equivalent linear shallow crustal earthquakes in active tectonic regimes. Figure
constitutive model. The baseline case representing the untreated (3) shows the response spectrum of earthquake input ground
site condition constitutes a 20 m thick layer of sand above motions, and Table (2) summarizes their characteristics. The
bedrock. Two additional layers were inserted into the original predominant period of the selected input ground motions varies
model to simulate replacement soil and RSM layers in the between lower than the site natural period (Tsite = 0.5 sec) such
different numerical analyses, as shown in Figure (2). The width as in Lytel Creek (Tp = 0.08 sec) and San Francisco (Tp = 0.26
of the RSM layers was assumed 20m. sec), and greater than the site natural period such as in
Mammoth Lake earthquake (Tp = 0.925 sec) in order to cover a
1.0 range of frequency contents for intermediate earthquakes.
0.035
0.8 Lytel Creek
0.030
San Francisco
Spectral Acceleration (g)
0.6 0.025 Mammoth Lakes
0.020
0.4
RSM (35%) 0.015
Sand (C3D06)
0.2 0.010
Replacement so il
0.005
0.0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 0.000
0.01 0.1 1 10
30 s he a r s t ra in ( %) Period (sec)
RSM (35%) Figure 3. Earthquake ground motions response spectrum at damping
25
Sand (C3D06) ratio (5%)
Replacement so il Table (2): Earthquake ground motions characteristics
20
Peak Grnd. Predominant
Magnitude
15 Event Name Accel. Period, Station
(M)
PGA (g) Tp (sec)
10 Lytel Creek Cedar Springs,
5.33 0.070 0.130
(1970) Allen Ranch
5
San Francisco Golden Gate
5.28 0.095 0.260
(1957) Park
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Mammoth USC Cash
4.73 0.031 0.925
s he a r s t ra in ( % ) Lake (1980) Baugh Ranch
Figure 1. The modulus reduction and damping curves at ('m = 50 kPa)
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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0.08
( a) Lyt el C r eek, 19 70 Creek and San Francisco earthquakes, respectively, compared to
Pure sand
0.07 the baseline case (Pure sand).
Y = 2m
2.5
0.06 Y = 4m ( a) Lyt el C r eek T = 0.1 sec
Y = 6m
0.05 2.0 T = 0.25 sec
T = 0.50 sec
0.04 T = 1.0 sec
1.5
0.03
1.0
0.02
0.01 0.5
0.04
0.5 T = 0.1sec
0.03 T = 0.25 sec
T = 0.50 sec
0.02 T = 1.0 sec
Thickness (h) = 1.0 m
0.0
0.01
0 2 4 6 8
0.00 R SM d ep t h ( m)
0.01 0.1 1 10 Figure 5. Effect of RSM depth on spectral acceleration
0.08 P e rio d ( s e c )
( c) M ammo t h Lake, 19 8 0 Group (2) - (Tp > Tsite)
0.07
Pure sand This group contains only one earthquake ground motion,
0.06 Y = 2m which is Mammoth Lake (1980). Because the predominant
0.05 Y = 4m period of the ground motion is greater than the site natural
Y = 6m period, significant amplification does not occur neither at the
0.04 fundamental site period nor at secondary order periods.
0.03 Increasing the depth of the RSM layer resulted in insignificant
0.02
effect on the surface layer response spectrum. Placing the RSM
layer at depths 2m and 4m resulted in approximately the same
0.01 surface layer response spectrum of the baseline case (Pure
0.00 sand). Placing the RSM layer at 6m depth resulted in a small
0.01 0.1 1 10 reduction in the maximum spectral acceleration equals to 16 %
Per i o d ( sec) compared to the baseline case (Pure sand), and this percentage
Figure 4. Response spectra of surface layer for variable RSM depth may be slightly increased if RSM layer is put in deeper level.
having thickness (h =1 m)
B. Thickness of the rubber-sand mixture layer (h).
Group (1) - (Tp < Tsite) In this section, the numerical simulations were performed for
This group contains two earthquake ground motions, Lytel the baseline model (pure sand) and for another three different
creek and San Francisco. The response of this group due to models including RSM layers of varying thickness. Different
increasing the depth of the RSM layer is summarized below. values for the thickness of the RSM layer (h) were chosen to be
Because the predominant period of the ground motion is less 2m, 4m and 6m in the models, while the depth of the top of the
than the site natural period, amplification may occur at the RSM layer was constant at (Y=2 m) below ground surface in all
fundamental or at secondary order periods of the site. The simulations. The three different input ground motions were
amplification factor between the spectral acceleration (Sa) at applied to each model. In case of Mammoth Lake earthquake,
bedrock layer and at the surface layer has a maximum value at an additional simulation was performed with an RSM layer
the fundamental period of the site. This value is reduced thickness of 9m.
strongly in the successive secondary order periods. The result of simulations was plotted in terms of the
Placing a layer of RSM resulted in increasing the site natural response spectrum of the ground surface layer to investigate its
period causing shifting in the fundamental and secondary site response to the change in the thickness of the RSM layer. Figure
periods to higher periods. Shifting of the site periods leads to (6) shows the simulation results for the three different
maximum amplification at higher more damped periods. This earthquake ground motions. Similar to the previous section, the
resulted in damping of spectral accelerations at lower periods results can be divided into two groups as follow:
and amplification of spectral accelerations at higher periods Group (1) - (Tp < Tsite)
when using RSM compared to the baseline case (pure sand). Increasing the thickness of the RSM layer caused decreasing
Increasing the depth of the rubber-sand mixture layer of low period spectral acceleration and also caused considerable
resulted in increasing the shifting towards the higher periods increasing in the high period spectral acceleration comparing by
that leads to a higher order matching between site periods and the base line case (balancing). This is evident from the
ground motion predominant period (Tp). Thus, increasing the amplification factors plotted in Figure (7) against different RSM
depth of the rubber-sand mixture layer resulted in highly thicknesses for different periods. Comparing to the baseline
damped response spectra of the surface layer at lower periods case (pure sand), at thickness of RSM layer equals to 6m a
and amplification at higher periods (Figure 5). Increasing the reduction in the maximum spectral acceleration in cases of
RSM depth to 4m resulted in reduction in the maximum spectral Lytel Creek and San Francisco earthquakes ranged from 47% to
acceleration reaching up to 56% to 45% in case of Lytel Creek 36%, respectively.
and San Francisco earthquakes, respectively. Placing the RSM
layer at 6m depth resulted in reduction in the maximum spectral
acceleration ranging from 71% to 64% for the case of Lytel
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Group (2) - (Tp > Tsite) Zornberg, J.G., Cabral, A.R., and Viratjandr, C. (2004). Behaviour of
Increasing the thickness of the RSM layer from 1m to 4m Tire Shred Sand Mixtures, Canadian Geotech. J., Vol. 41, April,
caused increasing in the maximum spectral acceleration pp. 227-241.
compared to the base line case. Increasing the thickness of the 0.08
RSM layer from 4m to 6m resulted in a reduction in the ( a) Lyt el C r eek Pure sand
maximum spectral acceleration decreased but still higher than h = 1m
the maximum spectral acceleration in the base line case. 0.06 h = 2m
Increasing the RSM thickness to 9m resulted in reduction in the h = 4m
h = 6m
maximum spectral acceleration equals to 38% compared to the
baseline case. Increasing the thickness of the RSM layer from 0.04
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New Replacement Formations on Expansive Soils Using Recycled EPS Beads
Remplacement sur les sols expansifs en utilisant des perles EPS
Abdelrahman G.E.
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Fayoum University, Egypt
Mohamed H.K.
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering Institute, Housing and Building National Research Center (HBRC), Egypt
Ahmed H.M.
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering Cairo University, Egypt
ABSTRACT: One of the main problems encountered in constructing foundations on clays is volume change independent of loading
caused by swelling of the soil. When the swelling is obstructed, large swelling pressures arise and that can cause damage to structures.
This study examines the role of recycled expanded polystyrene (EPS) beads which is mixing with replaced soil in accommodating soil
expansion and hence reducing swelling pressures on structures foundation. Laboratory tests are presented on the formation of
expansive soil using Bentonite clay. Laboratory model was used to measure the decrease of the swelling, using replacement material
which formed of blending sandy soil with recycled (Expanded Poly-Styrene) EPS-beads. The effect of different compositions and
different ratios between EPS-beads, and sand as a replacement soil on the expansive soil (Bentonite powder, PI=95.4%, and Gs=2.55)
which had free swell equal to 96.7% were studied. Results so far show that the EPS beads mixed with sand significantly reduces the
volumetric change of the expansive soils. The parametric study showed that increasing EPS beads percentage in the replacement soil
decreases bearing capacity and dry density d, and increases OMC while for the Bentonite free swell decreases and settlement
increases. Increasing footing breadth increases swelling and settlement. With increasing replacement layer thickness and beads
density, the swelling and settlement decrease.
RSUM : Un des principaux problmes rencontrs dans la construction des fondations sur des argiles est le changement de volume
indpendant de chargement provoqu par le gonflement du sol. Lorsque le gonflement est obstru, les grandes pressions de
gonflement surviennent et peuvent causer des dommages aux structures. Cette tude examine le rle du polystyrne expans recycl
(EPS) des perles qui est le mlange avec le sol remplac en accueillant l'expansion du sol et donc la rduction des pressions sur le
gonflement de fondation des structures. Des essais en laboratoire sont prsents sur la formation des sols expansifs avec de l'argile
bentonite. Modle de laboratoire a t utilis pour mesurer la diminution de l'enflure, l'utilisation du matriel de remplacement qui a
form de l'assemblage avec des sols sablonneux recycls (Expanded Poly-Styrne) EPS-perles. L'effet de diffrentes compositions et
diffrents ratios entre les EPS-perles, et le sable du sol comme un remplacement sur le sol expansive (bentonite en poudre, PI =
95,4%, et GS = 2,55), qui avait sans gale gonfler 96,7% ont t tudis. Les rsultats obtenus jusqu'ici montrent que les perles EPS
mlangs avec du sable rduit considrablement le changement volumtrique des sols gonflants. L'tude paramtrique a montr que
l'augmentation des EPS perles de pourcentage dans le sol de remplacement diminue la capacit portante et la densit sche d, et
augmente OMC alors que pour la bentonite diminue la houle libres et augmente de rglement. L'augmentation de la largeur de
fondation augmente l'enflure et de rglement. Avec une paisseur de remplacement couche augmente et la densit des perles, l'enflure
et la diminution de rglement.
KEYWORDS: Recycled expanded polystyrene, beads, expansive soils, swelling, sand, Bentonite.
1 INTRODUCTION their lightweight and bulk nature, the waste EPS products
occupy a substantial area of the landfill. Unlike other organic
Problems related to expansive soils exist worldwide. Many materials, EPS is not decomposable or biodegradable. Because
buildings, light structures, highways, railways, airport slabs, of these problems, the European Union has restricted the
water channels, pipelines, earth retaining walls, dams and disposal of EPS into landfills and set recycling targets (PPW
bridges are damaged by expansive soils. One of the main Directive, 2005; UNEP, 2000). These impositions have forced
problems encountered in constructing foundations on clays is manufactures to look for alternative reuse and recycle options.
volume change independent of loading caused by swelling and There are many recycling options available like thermal and
shrinkage of the soil. When the swelling is obstructed, large compression methods. However, possible contamination of the
swelling pressures arise and that can cause damage to structures. products while in transportation and their limited usage make
There are many conventional treatments available for control of some of the products unsuitable for recycling. Hence there is a
these problems. These include soil replacement with need to try other innovative applications for the bulk utilisation
compaction control, moisture control, surcharge loading and of waste EPS.
thermal methods (Chen, 1988; Nelson and Miller, 1992). Since its inception, EPS composite soil has attracted the
However, these methods have their own limitations with regards interests of many researchers. A few papers have been
to their effectiveness and costs. published regarding using EPS composite soil in reducing
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a cellular polymeric material swelling pressures on structures foundation and behind retaining
commonly used as a packaging medium for a variety of walls. Illuri & Nataatmadja (2007) and Illuri (2007)
consumer appliances and electronic equipment. It is a investigated the use of recycled EPS as a partial soil
lightweight material with a very low density (0.10 -0.20 kN/m3) replacement and swell modifier for expansive soils. Artificially
.Due to its convenience and low cost, EPS usage is increasing in prepared expansive soils were manufactured in the laboratory
the consumer market. That in turn results in a continuing by mixing fine sand with sodium bentonite of various
increase in the availability of waste EPS products. Because of proportions. Recycled EPS beads were mixed with these soils
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
and the effects of varying the amount were investigated. The increasing the beads content but there is no significant variation
proposed soil improvement technique is thus showing great in the optimum moisture content. This can be attributed to the
promise in sustainable construction. Nataatmadja and Illuri low bulk density and very low moisture absorbency of the EPS
(2009) prepared an artificially reconstituted soils of different beads. Since the beads are bulk in volume but very low in mass,
plasticity values by mixing fine sand and sodium bentonite. It the mass of the soil-EPS composite is generally controlled by
has been found that the addition of EPS granules into these soils the mass of the soil in the mix. Furthermore, as the moisture is
results in light-weight backfill materials, suitable for reducing held within the soil particles, the optimum moisture content of
swelling pressure behind domestic retaining walls. the mix is controlled by the optimum moisture content of the
The current research was conducted to investigate the sand. From previous stud it is found that the increase of EPS-
recyclability of EPS packaging products in reducing swelling beads density increases the maximum dry density at the same
pressures on structures foundation by using recycled EPS beads beads ratio, Abdelrahman,( 2009)
as a mechanical admixer in replaced soils at their optimum-
20
moisture contents. Mixing recycled EPS beads with soil
Bentonit
replacement is introduced an environment-friendly 19 Pure sand
geomaterials. The applications of recycled EPS as a swell shrink 0.3% Beads
18
modifier as well as desiccation controller of expansive soils 0.6% Beads
3
Maximum Dry Density,d, kN/m
0.9% Beads
were considered in this study. The quantitative evaluation also 17
whether recycled EPS beads provides significant benefits for 16
use in soil replacement to reduce swelling pressures was done
through an extensive experimental program. 15
14
2 MATERIALS
13
2.1 Replacement Soil
12
The replacement soil was sub-angular silica sand and classified 11
according to the unified soil classification (USCS) system as a
poorly-graded clean medium to fine sand (SP) with coefficient 10
of curvature (Cc)= 1.73, coefficient of uniformity (Cu)=3.6 ,
max dry density (dmax=19.2kN/m3) and optimum moisture 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
content (OMC)= 9%. WC%
Figure 1. Compaction curves for mixes with sand and EPS contents
2.2 Expansive Soil at density of t EPS beads = 0.16kN/m3
The expansive soil was a sodium Bentonite. The physical
4 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
properties for the used Bentonite are summarized in Table 1.
4.1 Test Model
Table 1. Physical properties of the used Bentonite
Liquid Limit (LL) % 143 Experimental model consists of cylindrical soil sample
Plastic Limit (PL)% 47.6 container with diameter is 15 cm and height = 18cm , two
Plasticity Index (PI) % 95.4 vertical dial gages to measure the settlement and swelling ,
Free Swell (FS)% 96.7 circular footing with different diameters. Vertical stress equal
Specific Gravity (Gs) 2.55
to 30 kN/m2 was applied on the footing which represented the
Max Dry Density (dmax ) kN/m3 14
applied stress of three stories building.
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) % 24
4.2 Test Program
2.3 Recycled EPS Beads
For the present study, waste EPS beads were collected with A series of tests were performed on circular footing with
three different beads densities and particle sizes. Photo 1 shows different diameters rested on sand EPS mix replacement layer
the beads's size compared to sand particles. The beads densities with different ratios of EPS beads and layer thickness above
and particle sizes are summarized in Table 2. Bentonite layer both sand EPS mix replacement layer and
Bentonite layer were compacted at their optimum moisture
Table 2. Properties of EPS Beads content (OMC). Mixing EPS beads with sand replacement layer
EPS Beads 400 500 600 leads to settlement under loading condition before adding water
Density (KN/m3) 0.10 0.16 0.20 to the swelling layer cause EPS beads are compressible material
Particle Size (mm) 5-6 4-5 1-3
and this explain why swelling and settlement are discussed
together in the test results. The studied parameters are
3 COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS OF SAND EPS
summarized in Table 3.
MIX
To study the compaction characteristics, standard Proctor Table 3. The studied parameters
compaction tests were performed on a number of sand EPS Diameter of footing (d) cm 5, 7, 10, and 12
Beads Density (B) kN/m3 0.1, 0.16 and 0.2
mixes. With the addition of EPS beads, the density of the
Beads Content (B) % 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, and 1.2
resulting composite is much lower than the original soils. Normalized Replacement Thickness (tr/ts) % 0, 12.5, 20, 25 and 33
The EPS beads were added to the moist soil at a certain
percentage of the soils dry mass. Compaction tests of the sand 4.3 Test Results and Analysis
with EPS (SWEPS) composite were subsequently carried out
immediately after mixing the sand and EPS. 4.3.1 Test results presentation
Compaction curves for mixes of sand with different percentages Swelling and settlement on surface soil and circular footing are
of EPS beads are shown in Figure 1. From this figure, it can be presented in a set of curves with the different studied
observed that with the addition of EPS beads the dry density of parameters.
the resulting mix varies considerably, it decrease with
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Swelling (mm)
1.5
1.0
0.5
Settlment (mm)
0.0
-0.5
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
3
Beads Density, B, kN/m
3
Figure 3.Relationship between increasing beads density (B) kN/m on
settlement and swelling for soil and footing
footing.
1.0
3.5
soil Footing Size
S w elling (m m )
3.0 0.5
Footing -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
2.5 Beads content B %
2.0 Figure 4.Relationship between increasing beads content (B) % on
swelling for soil and footing
1.5
1.0
4.3.5 Effect of normalized replacement thickness (tr/ts) %
0.0
layer thickness ts .As shown in Figure 5 increasing the
replaced layer improve the resistance to the swelling pressure
-0.5 and decrease the swelling deformation. But economic point of
-1.0
view also is important taking in to account the swelling layer
thickness. Increasing the normalized replacement thickness
-1.5 (tr/ts) % leads to decrease each of the swelling and settlement on
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
surface soil and circular footing.
footing Diameter, d, cm
Figure 2.Relationship between increasing footing diameter (d) cm on
settlement and swelling for soil and footing
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3.0 swelling and settlement on surface soil and circular footing. The
2.5
third parameter the effect of beads content in the sand
replacement layer ()% which was the most important
2.0 parameter in this study where increasing this content lead to