The Genius Famine

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TheGeniusFamine
Friday,23October2015 AboutMe
TheGeniusFamine:Whyweneedgeniuses,Whytheyredyingout,and BruceCharlton
Whywemustrescuethem ProfessorBruceG
Charlton.Commentsare
moderated(ratherstrictly).
(Notethisbookisaround30,000wordsinlengthtoolongforonline Anonymouscommentsare
perusalandanyseriousreaderisadvisedtocopy,paste,editandprinta seldom/neverpublished.
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welcome:brucedot
charltonatoutlookdotcom...
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Whyweneedgeniuses,Whytheyredyingout,andWhywe
2015(1)
mustrescuethem
October(1)
TheGeniusFamine:
Whyweneed
EdwardDutton geniuses,Why
they...
and
BruceGCharlton
TheUniversityofBuckinghamPress
FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin2016by
YeomanryHouse
HunterStreet
BuckinghamMK181EG
Themoralrightoftheauthorshasbeenasserted.
http://geniusfamine.blogspot.hu/ 1/93
CIPcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailableattheBritishLibrary
ISBN9781908684608
AcknowledgementsBothauthorsacknowledgetheinfluenceofDr.
MichaelA.Woodley,bothingeneraltermsandalsoinrelationtoseveral
specificaspectsoftheargumentofthisbookalthoughwetakefull
responsibilityfortheusewehavemadeoftheseideas.Inaddition,
EdwardDuttonwouldliketothankDr.DimitrivanderLindenforassorted
stimulatingconversationsonthetopicsinthisbook.Hewouldalsoliketo
thankhiswife,Mimmi,andchildrenMarthaandHenry.BruceCharlton
wishestoacknowledgetheessentialsupportandencouragementofhis
wife,Gillandhischildren,BillyandNancy.
Contents
Introduction
1.WhatistheEndogenouspersonality?
2.WhatisPersonality,WhatisIntelligence?
3.Differentunderstandingsofgenius
4.TheCreativeTriad
5.WhatmotivatestheGeniusQuest?
6.Successfulcreativity
7.Identifyingthegenius
8.DestinyversusConscientiousness
9.TheShamanversustheHeadGirl
10.NewtonversusJung
11.Theevolutionofgenius
12.Theriseandfallofgenius
13.Theneglectandsuppressionofgenius
14.Thewarongenius
15.Whattodo
16.InSearchoftheBoyGenius
Conclusion:Sevenstatementsaboutgenius
AbouttheAuthors
Introduction
Thisbookisaboutgenius:whatitis,whatitdoes,whereitcomesfrom.[1]
Andaboutgeniuses:especiallywhythereusedtobesomanyandnow
therearesofewwhatwastheeffectofaneraofgeniuses,andwhatwill
betheconsequencesofourcurrentGeniusFamine.
ThisbookdescribesthegeniusasanEndogenouspersonalitythatis,a
personofhighintelligencecombinedwithapersonalitydrivenfromwithin,
aninnerorientatedpersonality:thatis,adominatedbytheCreative
Triadof(1)Innatehighability,(2)Innermotivationand(3)Intuitive
thinking.
Whenhighintelligenceandthistypeofpersonalityareconfluent,a
potentialgeniusistheresult.ButtofulfilthispotentialtheEndogenous
personalitymustfindandaccepthisownDestiny,andmustundergothe
trialsandtribulationsofaQuestbeforeheislikelytoberewardedbyan
Illumination:abreakthrough.
Eventhen,thebreakthroughmustbenoticed,understood,accepted,
implementedbysocietyatlargeandwedescribehowpastsocieties
weremuchbetteratrecognizingandmakingaplaceforthepotential
genius.BecausetheproblemisthattheEndogenouspersonalityis
usuallyanawkwardandasocialcharacteratbestandoftenanactively
unpleasantpersonandadisruptiveinfluence.
Geniusesarealtruistic,inthesensethattheirworkisprimarilyforthe
goodofthegroupandnotfortheusualsocialrewardssuchasstatus,
money,sex,andpopularity.
Thereforemanygeniusesneedtobesustainedinalongtermwayand
theirworkdemandscarefulattentionandevaluation.
Wearguethatmodernsocieties,bymeansbothindirectanddirect,have
becomehostiletogeniusandindifferenttotheworkofthoserelativelyfew
remaininggeniuses.
However,becausetheworkofageniusisnecessaryandirreplaceable,
weargueforachangeofattitude.Modernsocietyneedsgeniusesforits
ownsurvivalinthefaceofunfamiliar,oftenunprecedented,threats.
Therefore,wemustinfuturedoabetterjobofrecognizing,sustainingand
acceptingguidancefromasmanygeniusesofthehighestqualitythatcan
befound.
ChapterOne
WhatistheEndogenous
Personality?
WhatistheEndogenousPersonality?Andwhyishesoimportant?
Inanutshell,wearguethattheEndogenouspersonalityisthetypeofa
potentialgeniusacompoundofabilitiesandattitudes,ofintelligence
andinnerness.Asastronggeneralization:thetruegeniusesare
EndogenouspersonalitiesanditisfromEndogenouspersonalitiesthat
geniusesarise.
TheEndogenouspersonalityistheinnerManapersonwhoseoutlook
onlifeisinward.Heisinnerdirected,innerdriven,innermotivated
onewhousesinnermodesofthinking,innerevaluations,intuitionone
whoistoahighdegreeautonomous,selfsufficientonewhoisrelatively
indifferenttosocialpressures,influencesandinducements.
HestandsinstarkcontrasttotheExogenouspersonalitythatis,tomost
people.TheExogenousPersonalityisorientatedtowardtheenvironment,
particularlythesocialenvironment.Thesearepeoplewhowantmore
thananythingelsesocial(includingsexual)status,worldlysuccess
peoplewhoseperceptionsaredirectedoutwardsandwhotrytoaligntheir
behaviourwithgroupnorms.
Whendescribedinsuchterms,theEndogenouspersonalitymightappear
antisocial,uncooperative,adreamer,notthekindofpersonwemight
wishtohavetodealwithonaregularbasis.Wewouldprobablybe
accurateinperceivingtheEndogenousPersonalityinthisnegativeway.
Weprobablywouldntwanttogoforadrinkwithhim,letalonebefriends
withhim.
Butheisimportantheisveryimportant.BecausetheEndogenous
personalityisthearchetypalgenius.Heisthetypeofageniuswhether
alargescale,worldhistoricalgeniusofthehighestlevelachievedby
humanityaShakespeare,aBeethovenoranEinsteinoralocal,tribal,
ortowngeniusashaman,asculptor,aninventorwhosenameis
unrecorded(yetwhomightbetheoriginatorofsomegreatbut
anonymousballad,folksong,paintingoratechnologicalbreakthrough
suchasthespade,spearthrower,archorstirrup).
Genuinebreakthrough,worldimpactcreativityissorare,sodifficult(far
moredifficultthancommonlyimagined)thatitrequiresaspecialkindof
mindamindespeciallydesignedforthiskindofwork(innerwork).
Thereneednotbemanysuchmenindeed,thereshouldnotbetoo
many,sincethenecessarymindisrelativelyunfitfortheprimary,dayto
day,activitiesofsurvivalandreproductionofthespecies.Butsuchmen
areneededsoonerorlater,fromtimetotime.
Thesearethepeoplewho(whetherweknowtheirnamesornot)will
almostcertainlybebehindthescientificandtechnicalbreakthroughsthat
arethemotorofcivilization,thesearepeoplewhosecaninspireandunite
societymovingittowardsgreaterthingsoroutofthedepthsofdespair
andennuithesearethepeoplewhocanrescueasocietyonthebrinkof
catastrophe.
TheEndogenouspersonalityisrecognizedbecausewhenthiskindof
creativepersonalityiscombinedwithhighgeneralintelligence,wegeta
potentialgeniusofgreatnessinproportiontotheirability.
So,anInner,IntuitivepersonalityplushighIntelligence(oranotherspecial
ability)istheCreativeTriadandequalstheEndogenouspersonality,or
potentialgenius.Thehighintelligenceservesasakindofguaranteethat
theEndogenouspersonalityispositivelyadaptedbyhislopsidedfocus,
andinclinationtobeacreativespecialistproblemsolverinsocietyandis
notmerelyabroken,sickordamagedindividualwhosimplycannot
participateinnormalsocietyperhapsthroughmentalorphysicalillness.
TheEndogenouspersonalitywillstayfocusedonaproblemlongerthan
mostmenandhewilllookattheprobleminadifferentway.Hewill
deploydifferent(moreinward)proceduresofunderstandingmore
detached,moreabstracting.Henceheismorelikelytoseesomething
newandusefulinanewanddifferentway.
Hisstanceislesspersonal.Hestandsbacktoagreaterextentthanmost.
Heseestheprobleminawiderscopepreciselybecauseheseesthe
problemdetachedfromnormalpersonalconcerns,suchasstatus,sex,or
wealthnoneofwhichhereallyseemstocaremuchabout.Forhim,
solvinghisproblemisnotameanstoanendawayofgainingstatus,
wealthorsexitisanendinitself.Theinnermangetsthegreatest
satisfactionfrominnerworkitiswhathemostwantstodo.
Inthisshortbook,wewillexploretheGeniustheEndogenoustypeof
personalityincludingitsexceptionallyhighintelligence.Wewillarguethat
thehighlyableEndogenouspersonalityisindeedthearchetypalgenius
theengine,inparticular,oftheoriginalinnovationsthatarevitalto
civilizationitself.Withoutgenius,civilizationwillcertainlycontinueto
decline(andwewillshowthatitisdeclining),andeventuallycollapse.
Withmoregeniuses,takennoticeof,theprocesswouldbeslowedand
whoknows?perhapssomegeniuscoulddiscoverawayout?
Wewilldemonstrate,inmoredepth,theimportancetoanysocietyof
nurturingasmallnumberofsuchpersonalitiesand,worryingly,wewill
findthattheyarelesslikelytomanifestthemselvesnowthanwasthe
casejustafewgenerationsago.
Wewillargue,indeed,thatwehaveaGeniusFamine.Geniushasnow
allbutdisappearedfrompublicviewpartlybecauseintelligence(whichis
stronglygenetic)isindeclineintheWest,partlybecausesocial
institutionsnolongerrecognizeornurturegenius,andpartlybecausethe
modernWestisactivelyhostiletogenius.
Finally,wewilllookatwhatifanythingcanbedonetorescuethe
geniusandthuspreservecivilization.
However,inordertounderstandtheEndogenousPersonality,weneedto
understandthenatureofpersonalityitself,aswellasthenatureof
intelligence,asthesetwotraitsareattheheartoftheEndogenous
personalityandofGenius.
ChapterTwo
WhatisPersonality,Whatis
Intelligence?
IntelligenceandPersonalityarethetwomainwaysthatpsychologists
havedevelopedfordescribingdifferencesbetweenpeople.
InbriefIntelligenceisanability,whilepersonalityischaracter
intelligenceisgeneralwiththelevelofintelligenceaffectingmany
specificabilities,whilepersonalitycanbeunderstoodasapatternof
motivations,preferences,satisfactions.
Intermsofcomputersintelligenceissomethingliketheprocessing
speed,whilepersonalityisaboutthetypesofsoftwareinstalled.Or,
intelligenceisabouttheefficiencyofthebrain,whilepersonalityisabout
whatthatbrainisdesignedtodo.Orintelligenceisabouthowwellthe
brainworkswhilepersonalitydescribesthecircuitry,thehardwiring
whatkindofbrainitis.
AfurtherdifferenceisthatintelligenceismeasuredbytestsIQtests
whilepersonalityisevaluatedbyhumanbeingseitherselfratedusing
selfdescribingscales,orelseratedbyotherpeople.
ButasimilarityisthatbothIQandpersonalityare(nearlyalways)
comparativemeasurements.Apersonhighinintelligence,orhighona
personalitytraitsuchasConscientiousness,ishighrelativetoother
people.HighorLow,inbothintelligenceandpersonality,thereforedoes
notdescribeanobjectivemeasurementofapersonalattributeintheway
that(forexample)highorlowbloodpressureorbloodsugar
measurementswould.
Personality
Personalityis,inessence,ourgeneralwayofbeing.Differencesin
personalitypredictdifferencesinhowpeoplewillrespondinacertain
situation.
Personalityevaluationsareusuallymeasuredbyquestionnaires:How
closetoyoudoesacarmovingatacertainspeedhavetobebeforeyou
judgethatitistoodangeroustocrosstheroadinfrontofit?Howmany
annoyingthingshavetohappentoyouinadaybeforeyouloseyour
temperandraiseyourvoice?Howstronglydotheemotionsofothers
impacthowyoufeel?
Differentpeoplewillgivedifferentanswerstothesequestions,inpart
becauseofvariationintheirpersonality.Typically,peopleareasked
whetheracertainbehaviour,orlikeordislike,ispresentorabsentin
themorelseaskedtorateitsstrength.Multiplesuchquestionscanbe
analysedandaveragedtoyieldafewpersonalitytraitswhichcluster
together.
Theexactnumberofthesetraitsusedbypsychologistsdependsonthe
purposeofthepersonalityevaluation.Thenumbercanbeasfewasone
generalmastertrait(e.g.prosocialversusasocialseebelow),or
dozensofspecifictraitssuchasaggression,orcouragebutusually,for
convenience,thenumberoftraitsusedfordescribingpersonalityhave
beensomethingbetweenabouttwoandfive.
Althoughwewillbesuggestingrevisionsandimprovementstothe
scheme,manypsychologistscurrentlysuggestthatpersonalitycanbest
beunderstoodintermsoffiveessentialpersonalitycharacteristics:these
aretheBig5,whicheachmakeascalebetweenextremesseparatedby
adash:
(1)ExtraversionIntroversion.Extraversionisaneedforexternal
stimulationespeciallysocialstimulationintroversionissufficient
internalstimulationthereforeindependencefromexternalstimuli.
(2)NeuroticismEmotionalStability.Neuroticismrelatestoemotional
instabilityespeciallynegativemoodswingssuchasanxiety,
depression,shyness.
(3)ConscientiousnessImpulsiveness:Conscientiousnessrefersto
responsivitytosocialnorms,usuallyleadingtoorganizedandself
disciplinedbehaviour.
(4)Agreeableness(whichisessentiallythesameastheEmpathizing
trait)Indifferencetootherpeople:Agreeablenessshowsitselfinahigh
interestinotherpeople,whattheyarethinkingandhowtheyfeel.
(5)OpennessIntellectAversiontochange/intellectualconservatism:
Opennessreferencesintellectualcuriosityandapreferencefornovelty,
creativity(insomesenseoftheword),hypnotisability,unusual
psychologicalexperiences.Opennessweaklybutsignificantly
correlateswithintelligence,asitismeasuringsomeofthesamethings.
Thesefivepersonalitytraitsare(exceptforOpennessIntellect)regarded
asindependentofIQscores(atleastwithinnormalIQranges)andour
placingonthempredictshowwebehave.
Forexample,highConscientiousnessasachildpredictsgreatersuccess
ineducationandemploymenthighNeuroticismpredictsproblemswith
moodswings,anxietyanddepression.HighOpennessIntellectwilltend
toresultinbeinganoveltyloving,impractical,perhapsartistic,academic
orspiritualdreamer.Amoderatelyhighscore,however,isapredictorof
artisticsuccessoratleast,onsomemeasuresofartisticsuccessthat
focusontheproductionofnovelty(although,wewillargue,High
Opennessdoesnotpredictthegeniustypeofcreativity).[2]
TheBigFiveweredevelopedfromtheBigThreetraitsdefinedby
psychologistHansJ.Eysenck(19161997),whoarrivedinEnglandfrom
Germanyinthe1930sandbecamethemostdominantpersonalityin
Britishacademicpsychology.TheBigThreeareExtraversion,
NeuroticismandPsychoticism.[3]Ineffect,theBigFivedimensionsof
ConscientiousnessandAgreeablenessaretheoppositesofvarious
aspectsofEysencksPsychoticismandOpennesstakessomeaspectsof
Psychoticismandblendsthemwithbehaviourscharacteristicofmodern
intellectuals(asmaybeinferredfromthisdescription,weregardthe
Opennesstraitasaconceptofdubiousbiologicalvalidity).
LikeEysenck,theBritishbornCanadianpsychologistJ.PhilippeRushton
(19432012)wasanoriginalthinker,unafraidtotacklecontroversialideas.
[4]RushtonshowedthattheBigFive(andBigThree)areallcocorrelated,
andcouldallthereforebecollapsedintoasinglepersonalityvariable,
whichhecalledtheGeneralFactorPersonality(GFP).[5]GFPcanbe
conceptualizedasthesingledimensionofpersonalityfromprosocialto
asocialwhichunderliesthemorespecificpersonalitytraits
analogouslytohowgeneralintelligenceorgunderliesallthespecific
cognitiveabilities,somethingwhichweexplorebelow
SoGeneralFactorofPersonalitycanbeconceptualizedasthedegreeto
whichapersonalityisprosocialinotherwords,thedegreetowhich
someonehasthekindofpersonalitytypeandbehavioursthatunderpin
manysociallydesirabletraits,thedegreetowhichsomeone
approximatestothetypeofpersonthatmakesforfriendliness,
helpfulness,beingagoodneighbourforpeaceful,orderly,cooperative,
hardworking,placidcitizens.
GFPdescribesabasicpersonalitydimension,highlevelsofwhich(itis
suggested)evolvedasanadaptationincomplexandstablesocietiesso
thatpeoplewouldgetalongtogether.SoapersonwithhighGFPwould
besociablyextraverted,beempathicandconcernedwiththefeelingsof
others,conscientiousandselfdisciplinedinpursuitofsociallyapproved
goals,havestableemotions,andbeopentonewideas.
MarvellousasthehighGFPpersonsounds,throughoutthisbookwe
arguethatapersonalityofalmosttheoppositetypeisnecessaryforthe
truegenius(nottheonlythingrequired,butnecessary)wecallthisthe
Endogenouspersonality,andthisnewconceptwillsoonbedescribedin
detail.
Butinsummary,theEndogenouspersonality,necessaryforgenius,is
selfsufficient,indifferenttotheopinionsofothersornormalsocialaims,
beinginsteadwrappedupinhisownpersonalgoals,andmaking
judgementsusinghisowninternal,subjectiveevaluationsystemshe
willworkveryhardandforlongperiodsonhisownprojects,butwillnot
willinglygoalongwithotherpeoplesplansandschemes.Butmoreon
thislater
Personalitytraits,dependingonhowtheyaremeasured,havebeen
showntobeintheregionof50%toaround70%heritable,basedmainly
ontwinandadoptionstudies.[6](Heritabilityisameasureofhowclosely
parentsresembletheirchildreninagroupstudythenumberrefersto
howcloselytheparentspersonalitiespredictthechildsheritabilityof
onewouldmeanthatchildrenspersonalitieswerewhollyaproductof
theirparentspersonalitieszerowouldmeanthemathematical
relationshipbetweenparentandoffspringspersonalitieswasrandom.)
Sincetheheritabilityofpersonalityislessthanone,somecombinationof
chanceandtheenvironmentdoesaffectthekindofpersonalitywhichyou
develop,butonlywithincertaingeneticlimits.Anunstable,dangerous
childhoodwilltendtoincreasementalinstability,andthosewho
experienceitwilllearntoseetheworldasadangerousplaceandthis
mayhavealastingeffectontheirbehaviour(thiscalibrationofadult
behaviourtochildhoodenvironmentisthesubjectofLifeHistorystudies
inbiologyhumansaswellasanimals).[7]
Forinstance,whenchildhoodisunpredictableanddangerous,children
willtendtobecalibratedtoliveforthenow,sodisplayinglower
Conscientiousness,andtheymaybesuspiciousofotherpeople,leading
tolowerAgreeableness.
Anotherexampleisthatgirlswhohavegrownupinsexuallyunstable
situationsseemtoadoptashorttermistsexualstrategy,havingchildren
withavarietyofmenwhoarechosenfortheirdominance(hence
probablygoodgenes)ratherthantheirabilitytoremaincommittedtoa
relationshipandprovideresourcesoverthelongterm.Inslangterms,
girlsfromunstablehomesmayexhibitapreferenceforcadsratherthan
Dads.[8]
Intelligence
Somuchforpersonality,whatthenisintelligence?
Intelligencecanbeseenastheabilitytothinkabstractlyandtolearn
quicklythisleadstoanabilitytosolveproblemsquickly,butonlywhen
thoseproblemshavepreviouslybeenencountered.Inproblemsolving,
intelligenceprovidesfastprocessingandalargerknowledgebase,but
intelligenceisnotaboutbeingoriginalorcreative.
IntelligenceismeasuredbyIQtests(meaningIntelligenceQuotientsee
below)andIQtestscoresinchildhoodwillpredictmanyimportantthings
higherintelligencepredictshighereducationlevel,highersocio
[9]
economicstatus,highersalary,betterhealth,greatercivicparticipation,
lowerimpulsivity,andlongerlifespan[10]lowerintelligencepredictshigher
criminality,and(probablycausallyrelatedtocrime)shortertermfuture
orientation.[11]
Ingeneral,therefore,highintelligencepredictsdesirableoutcomes
howeverthereisoneimportantexception:highintelligence,inmodern
societies,predictslowerfertilityespeciallyamongwomen.Thus,in
modernsocieties(withaccesstobirthcontrol)themostintelligentwomen
averagelessthanonechild,becausesomanyintelligentwomenhave
zerochildren,andveryfewhavelargefamilies.[12]
Somepeopleargueforabroaderormultipledefinitionofintelligence,
includingemotionalintelligenceforexample.Butthereis,ingeneral,no
needtoseparatethisfromintelligenceaswedefineit.Theabilityto
solvesocialproblemshasbeenshowntobepredictedbyintelligence
andallcognitiveaptitudesalwayscocorrelateinrigorousgroupstudies,
eventhoughindividuals(includinggeniuses)mayshowsignificantly
divergentspecificcognitivestrengthsandweaknesses.[13]
IntelligenceismeasuredbyIQtests.Thesetypicallymeasurethreeforms
ofintelligence:verbal,numerical(mathematical)andspatial(geometric).
Someindividualpeoplearehigherinoneformofintelligencethan
another,andrarelytheymayhaveaboveaveragemeasuresinone
measureofintelligenceandbelowaverageinanotherbut,overall,in
groupstudiesallofthemanydifferentmeasuresofcognitiveability
(vocabulary,generalknowledge,readingability,puzzlesolving,algebra,
whatcomesnextsequencesofnumbersorofsymbolsetc.)willalways
positivelycorrelate.Itisconsistentlyfoundthat,withingroupsand
betweengroups,highabilityinonetaskgoeswithhighabilityinother
tasks,andviceversa.
Thisiswhyintelligenceiscalledgeneral,andwhyitcanbecompared
withprocessingspeedinacomputerafasterprocessingcomputeris
betteratdoingalmosteverykindoftaskallthetypesofsoftware
(graphics,statistics,wordprocessingetc.)willrunmoreefficiently.And
notonlydoesafastcomputercompletetasksmorequickly,butafast
computercanalsodothingsthatareinpracticeimpossiblefora
slowercomputer(whichwillbeunabletocopewiththeloadand
sequenceofcomputations,andwillseizeup.).
Thepositivecorrelationbetweencognitivemeasuresmeansthatwecan
talkaboutageneralfactorthatunderpinsallofthem.TheIQisa
statisticalconstructwhichmeasuresaninferredabilitywhichunderliesall
ofthesecognitiveabilities.Thisunderlyingabilityisknownasgfor
generalintelligence.
Intelligenceincreasesthroughoutchildhoodanddecreasesfrommiddle
ageonwards(probablyfromearlyadulthood,butslowly)and,assuch,IQ
isusuallyacomparativemeasurecomparingtheindividualwithagroup
sampleofthesameage.TheIQnumberisawayofexpressingthe
individualspositioninarankorderingofIQtestscoresforhisagegroup
hencethetermintelligencequotient(IQ)(theaverageIQiscalled100,
oftencalibratedagainsttheUKpopulationaverage),largernumbersare
aboveaverageintelligenceandlowernumbersarebelowaverage
(expressingthisinpercentagetermsbasedonanormaldistributioncurve
withastandarddeviationof(usually)15IQpointsforinstanceanIQ
above120isapproximatelyinthetoptenpercentofthepopulationand
130inthetoptwopercent).
ItisveryimportanttorecognisethatIQisthereforeacomparative
measureandthislimitsitsusefulnessbecauseintelligenceina
personorgroupisbeingmeasuredonlyrelativetoanotherpersonor
group.
TheresultsofIQtestsstronglycorrelatewithintuitivemeasuresof
thinkingability(suchasschoolwork)andtheyarenotmerelyculturally
influenced(although,naturally,cultureandfamiliaritydohavesome
influence).WeknowthatIQtestingisvalidandrobustacrosscultures,
becausethecultures(orsubcultures)thatdobadlyinIQtestsdothe
leastbadlyonthemostculturallybiasedpartsofthetest,andalso
becausetheIQtestresultscorrelatepositivelywithsomethingobjective
thatis,withdifferencesinsimplereactiontimes.[14]Thecorrelation
betweenintelligenceandreactiontimesmeansthatintelligenceisagood
indicatorofhowwellthenervoussystemisrunning.
Asalreadynoted,intelligenceisavitalpredictoroflifeoutcomes.
Approximately70%ofthevarianceinschoolperformanceisexplainedby
differencesinintelligence,50%ofthevarianceamonguniversity
undergraduateperformanceand40%ofthevarianceinpostgraduate
performance.Intelligenceexplainsabout30%ofthevarianceinsalary
andisaclearpredictorofjobstatus.[15]
Ithasbeenfoundthatlessselectiveprofessionals,liketeachersand
nurses,haveanIQofabout110,whileitis120fordoctorsandlawyers,
andevenhigherforthosewhorisetothetopoftheseprofessions.[16]
Withinacademia,theaveragePhDstudentineducationhasanIQof
around117,whiletheaveragePhDstudentinPhysicshasanIQof130.
[17]
Aswithpersonality,intelligenceisstronglyheritableindeedthe
heritabilitymeasuresarehigherforintelligencethanpersonality,perhaps
becauseIQisamorepreciseandvalidmeasurethanarepersonality
ratings.Around80%ofthevarianceinintelligenceisprobablygenetic
overwhelmingly,therefore,intelligenceisinheritedfromparents.[18]
Environmentalfactorsincludesufficientnutritionandasufficiently
intellectuallystimulatingenvironmentwhengrowingup.Justasimportant
isanintellectuallystimulatingadultenvironment,whichthosewithhigh
intelligencewilltendtocreateforthemselves.Forthisreason,among
others,thegeneticcomponentofIQduringchildhoodisrelativelylow,as
thechildsenvironmentwillreflectitsparentsintelligence.Onlyasthe
childreachesadulthoodwillitsenvironmentreflectitsownintelligence,
leadingtoageneticcomponentof80%.[19]
Highintelligenceisasignofhavinganoverallefficient,fastprocessing
brainrequiring(asAmericanpsychologistGeoffreyMillerhaspointed
out)goodgeneswhichmostlymeansaminimalloadofdeleterious
mutations.[20]
Deleteriousgeneticmutationsoccurspontaneouslyineverygeneration
duetoanycauseofmutation(radiation,chemical,heatetc.)orfromDNA
copyingerrorsandsomenonlethalbutpotentiallydamagingmutated
genesareusuallyinheritedfromparents.Nearlyallchancegene
mutationsareharmfulandonlyveryrarelyaretheyadaptiveand
improvingoffunction(butitistheseveryrarebeneficialmutationsthat
arethebasisofevolutionbynaturalselection).[21]
Ingeneral,however,spontaneousmutationsreducefitness(i.e.reduce
reproductivepotential,bydamagingheritablegeneticquality)andthe
humanspecieshasneededtopreventmutationsfromaccumulating
everygenerationasinheritedmutationsareaddedtobynewmutations.
Somehow,thesemutationsneedtobecontinuallyremovedfromthe
humanpopulation,orelsetheywouldoverwhelmanddestroythespecies
inaprocesstermedMutationalMeltdown.Thus,followingMiller,we
wouldexpectthemoreintelligenttohavebodiesandespeciallynervous
systemsthatfunctionparticularlywellandespeciallyincertainspecific
respects.Forexample,ahighfunctioningnervoussystemhasbeen
showntobeassociatedwithamoreefficientandstrongerimmune
response.[22]
ThedifferencebetweenintelligenceandIQ
ThedifferencebetweenintelligenceandIQisthatintelligenceisthereal,
underlying psychological function, whereas IQ is a score achieved in a
testascorewhichisintendedtocompareandmeasureintelligencebut
which is an indirect, only partlyprecise and only partlyvalid measure of
intelligence. The IQ test is clearly a sound measure of intelligence
because IQ scores correlate with other measures of cognitive problem
solving ability and thus brain functioning but it is imperfect, meaning
other factors than intelligence can impact the score. In much the same
way,abathroomscalesmeasuresweightitsresultscorrelatewithother
measures of weight but some scales are better than others and no
scalesisperfect.
Therefore, we can think of a qualitative, subjective understanding of the
phenomenonofrealintelligenceasanirreducibleentitynotunderstood
intermsofotherthingsnoronlyintermsofwhatitdoes,butintermsof
itselfasarealthingwhichwecandetectandmeasureonlyindirectly.And
we can then conceptualize IQ as the practical, simplified, publicly
shareablewayofconceptualizingandinvestigatingintelligence.
IQ can be, and usually is, researched in a theoryfree fashion, with
operational definitions based on proxy description, measurement by
comparison,andcorrelationindeedintelligenceissometimesasserted
tobenothingmorethanamathematicalderivationfromIQscores.
But we would emphasize that to understand intelligence requires
understanding that sometimes a person may be of high intelligence
andnothave a similarly high IQ score (in other words, their IQ score is
underestimating their intelligence) and that this may be the case no
matterhowvalidly,howoftenandhowcarefullytheIQismeasuredand
calculated. And another person may have high IQ scores, measured in
the best ways and by the best methods, yet not be of similarly high
intelligence (in other words, their IQ score is overestimating their
intelligence).
HighlyintelligentpeoplewhodonotscoreashighlyonIQtestsareeasy
tounderstandbecauseanythingwhichreducestestperformancecould
leadtothisoutcome:illness,pain,impairedconsciousnessandimpaired
concentration from sleepiness, drugs, drugwithdrawal, mental illness ...
there are multiple causes, and some are chronic (longlasting, perhaps
lifelong).
AndpeoplewithhighIQscoreswhoarenotofsimilarlyhighintelligence
totheirscoresarefamiliartoanyonewhohasattendedahighlyselective
college or educational programme or who are members of intellectually
elite professions since they typically makeup a large proportion of
participants. The Flynn Effect, named after its discoverer New Zealand
psychologistJamesFlynn,referstothephenomenonofrisingaverageIQ
scoresoverthetwentiethcenturyinWesterncountries.Thefactthatthis
hastakenplaceinacontextofdecliningaveragerealintelligencemeans
thattheFlynnEffectcanindeedbeunderstoodasevidencethatIQtests
measureissuesotherthanjustintelligence,meaningtheyareimperfect.
(Plus, even the most reliable IQ test only has a reliability of about 0.9
whenretestingthesameperson.)
OnepossibleexplanationfortheFlynnEffect,proposedbyFlynnhimself,
isthatmodernsocietyduetohigherlevelsofeducationinthegeneral
population makes us think in a more scientific way and this ability is
partially a reflection of intelligence and partially of a separate ability that
doesnotrelyonintelligence.[23]Assuch,IQtestscanbeusedtocompare
intelligencewithinacurrentpopulationbuttheycannotbeusedaseasily
to make comparisons over time because they are examinations and
people will tend to get better at them by practicing them and thinking in
the way that permits optimum performance in them as society becomes
more educated. So, up to a point, IQ scores may increase over time,
despitethefactthatintelligenceisdecreasing.
After(probably)sixoreightgenerationsofrisingaverageIQscoresand
fallingrealgeneralintelligencetherehasbeenaprogressivebreakdown
inthestrengthofcorrelationbetweenintelligencemeasuredintermsof
IQscores,andintelligenceunderstoodasarealunderlying,brain
functionalphenomenon.Indeed,itseemslikelythatmanyormostpeople
amongmodernhighIQscorersdonothavesimilarlyhighreal
intelligence.Thiswouldbeexpectedtoapplyespeciallyathighly
educationallyselectiveinstitutionswhereEndogenouspersonalitiesare
substantiallyselectedoutbythedecadeslongtrendforanincreasingly
highminimumthresholdofconscientiousnessimposedbyeducational
qualifications.
ThecorrelationbetweenIQscoreandgwasprobablymuchhigherinthe
past(acenturyplusago)thanitisnowmeaningthatthedistinction
betweenIQscoreandreal,underlyingintelligenceismoreimportantnow
thanitusedtobe.
Theevolutionofhigherintelligence
GeoffreyMillersemphasisonintelligence(heemphasizesparticularly
creativeintelligence)providingafitnessmeasurewhichonepersoncan
evaluateinanotherandhisnotingthatrelativeIQprovidesaquantitative
correlateofdeleteriousmutationsisworthpausingoverandamplifying.
ThisimpliesthathighIQservesasakindofguaranteeandadvertisement
ofgoodgenesandthisiswhyhighintelligenceisregardedas
attractive,andthereforewhymenandwomenofhigherintelligencetend
topairupinmarriageinmuchthesamewaythatgoodlookingmenand
womentendtopairup(thissystemoflikepairingwithlikeistermed
assortativemating).
Wehavealreadynotedthatintelligencecorrelateswithfastreaction
times.Thisstronglyimpliesthatintelligenceissimplythefunctionofa
brainthatisworkingwell,justasstrengthisthefunctionofmusclethatis
workingwell.Thehumanbodyhasevolvedtoworkoptimallywellina
particularenvironmentandthesameistrueofthehumanbrain.Detailed
historicalresearchbyBritisheconomistGregoryClarkhasshownthat
untiltheIndustrialRevolutionaformofnaturalselectionwasoperatingin
Westernsocieties.Thosewhowerenotphysicallystrong,whodidnot
havestrongimmunesystems,whowereoflowintelligenceandunableto
worksteadilyforlonghourswouldusuallyeitherdieaschildrenorbe
unabletoraisechildrenoftheirownandwouldthusbeunabletopasson
theirdeleteriousgenes.[24]
Inotherwords,untilabout1800onlytheminorityofpeoplewith(on
average)thebestgenes(i.e.thelowestmutationload)wouldbeableto
surviveandreproduceandamongthegreatmajorityofthepopulation
onlyaverysmallproportionoftheiroffspring(averagingmuchlessthan
two,probablylessthanone,perwoman)wouldsurvivetoahealthy
adulthood,reproduceandraisechildrenoftheirown.Inthiscontext,
whichwasforalmostallofhumanhistoryuntilabouttwohundredyears
agobothnewandinheriteddeleteriousmutationswerefilteredout,or
purged,fromthepopulationeverygenerationbythisveryharshformof
naturalselection.
Inmuchthesameway,thenumberofsurvivingoffspringwaspredicted
bysocioeconomicstatusandespeciallybyintelligenceinpre
IndustrialEurope.ClarkshowsthatinseventeenthcenturyEngland,for
example,thericher50%ofthosewholeftwillshad40%highercompleted
fertility(childrenoftheirown,stillalivewhentheypassedaway)thandid
thepoorer50%.Inessence,theEnglishintellectualmiddleclasses(e.g.
seniorclerks,merchants,lawyers,churchmen,physiciansetc.)andupper
classseemtohavebeenthemostsuccessfulatreproducingforseveral
hundredyearsprovidingthemajorityofviablechildrenwitheach
generationsothatovermanygenerationstheirdescendants(inheriting
theirancestorshighintelligence)expandedasaproportiontobecome
almostalloftheEnglishpopulation.
Thosewiththelowestlevelsofdeleteriousmutationswould,forthat
reason,havehighintelligenceandahighfunctioningimmunesystem.As
such,theywouldattainormaintainhighsocioeconomicstatus,and,ina
contextoflimitedmedicine,theiroffspringwouldbemorelikelytosurvive.
Inaddition,genesforintelligencewouldpermitthemtobecomewealthier,
meaningtheycouldbetterprotectthemselves,andtheiroffspring,from
disease,poorlivingconditionsandaccidentsandtheycouldaffordto
havelargenumbersofchildren(ensuringatleastsomesurvived),without
riskingstarvation.Thesetworelatedprocesseswouldensurethatthe
childrenoftherichersurvivedbetter.
ThemessageseemstobethatinpreindustrialEurope(beforeabout
18001850)naturalselectiononhumansoperatedmostlyviamortality
ratesespeciallychildmortalityrates.Anaverageofmorethanhalfof
childrenwoulddiebeforeadulthood,butthisconsistedofneartotal
mortalityratesamongthechildrenofthepoor,andill,andoflow
intelligenceorfecklesspersonalitywhereasamongtheskilledmiddle
classes(clerks,merchants,lawyers,doctorsetc.)themortalityrateswere
lowerandfertility(numberofbirths)washigh.Thereforeineach
generationmostofthechildrencamefromthemostintelligentgroupin
thepopulation,andoverseveralgenerationsalmostallthepopulation
wouldhavebeenchildrenwhoseancestorswerethemostintelligent(also
conscientious,andrelativelypeaceful)sectorofthepopulation.
(ThisiswhyanyoneEnglishwhohasevertracedtheirfamilytreewillfind
thatbythesixteenthcenturywhenrecordsbegintheirancestorsare,
attheveryleast,wealthythoughnonaristocraticfarmers(yeomenor
richerhusbandmen).[25]AndthisiswhyeveryEnglishpersonaliveis
descendedfromKingEdwardIII13121377.).[26]
Clarkarguesthatthisharshnaturalselectionresultedinanincreaseof
averageintelligencewitheverygeneration,andultimatelyculminatedin
theintellectualandsocialbreakthroughsoftheIndustrialRevolution.It
meantthattherewasalargepercentageofthesocietywhoseintelligence
wassohighthatthenecessarybreakthroughscouldbemade,andthat
thesocietyasawholewassufficientlyintelligentsuchthatitcould
maintainandevendevelopthesebreakthroughs.Furthermore,the
workforcedevelopedapersonalitytypewhichwaspreadapted(by
precedingMedievalnaturalselection,operatingoverseveralhundred
years)totheneedsoflargescaleindustryandcomplexsocial
organization.
Theendingofselectionforhigherintelligence
Thiseugenic(i.e.geneticquality,orfitnessincreasing)environment
rapidlystoppedinthewakeoftheIndustrialRevolution,andsoonwent
intoreversewithsocioeconomicstatusbecomingnegativelyassociated
withfertility,especiallyamongwomen.Inotherwords,aftertheIndustrial
Revolutionthedirectionofnaturalselectionturnedupsidedown,with
highersocialstatus,wealthandeducationleadingtolowerreproductive
success.
Thisprocessknownasdysgenics(i.e.selectionthatisreducingfitness
inthesenseofheritablegeneticquality,wheredeleteriousmutations
aretakenasanindexoflowheritablequalityhencefitness)hasbeen
documentedbyBritishpsychologistRichardLynn.Inaddition,Lynnnotes
thatthepatternofreproductionceasedtoeliminategenesthatwouldlead
toapoorimmunesystemorvariousphysicalimpairments.Modern
medicinemeansthatgeneticallydamagedpeoplecanprocreateleading
toadysgenicimpactonhealth,moredeleteriousgenesandthusafurther
negativeimpactonintelligence.[27]
ProbablythemostsignificantimpactoftheIndustrialRevolutionwasin
reducingchildmortalityratesfrommorethanhalfto(eventually)just
aboutonepercent.Forthefirsttimeinhistory,almostallthepopulation,
includingthepoorestclassesandthosewiththeheaviestmutationloads,
wereleavingbehindmorethantwosurvivingchildren.Overafew
generations,themutationalloadmusthaveaccumulatedfitnessmust
havedeclinedandaverageintelligencemusthavereducedduetothe
effectsofdeleteriousmutationsonbraindevelopmentandfunctioning.
Sinceintelligenceiscorrelatedwithgeneticquality,thisinferred
populationlevelmutationaccumulationimpliesthataverageintelligence
shouldhavedeclinedsincetheIndustrialRevolution.
Theinferreddeclineingeneralintelligenceduetobothmutation
accumulationplusdysgenicpatternsoffertility,canbemeasuredusing
simplereactiontimes,whichcorrelatewithgandithasbeenfoundthat
reactiontimeshaveslowedconsiderablysincethelate1800swhen
reactiontimesmeasurementswerefirstperformed.
Wewillreturntodiscussthismatterfurtherbutsofaritseemsthat
intelligencefirstincreasedduetonaturalselectionintheMedievalera
thenhasdeclinedduetothechangesinnaturalselectionatthetimeof
theIndustrialRevolution.
So,whataboutpersonalityhowwaspersonalityaffectedbynatural
selectionontheEuropeanpopulation,firstintheMedievalera,then
throughtheIndustrialRevolution?
Insum,itseemsthatMedievalEuropewasabreedinggroundforhigh
intelligencewhichisonecomponentofgeniusbutalsoabreeding
groundforprosocialextravertedpeopleofstablehighGFPpersonality
type,highinconscientiousness,empathicobedient,goodatworking
regularhoursandgettingalongwiththeirneighbours.
However,althoughhighintelligenceisacomponentofgenius,and
althoughanaverageprosocialpersonalitytypeisuseful,andperhaps
essential,forsuccessfulindustrialsocietiesthehighGFP/prosocial
personalityisalmosttheoppositeofthatrequiredtomakeagenius.And
yet,lateMedievalandRenaissanceEuropewasaveritablehotbedof
genius,anditwasthesegeniuseswhoenabledandtriggeredthe
IndustrialRevolution.
So,howcantheaveragepopulationincreaseinprosocialpersonality,yet
thatsamepopulationgenerateindividualsofexceptionallyhigh
intelligencewhohavetheasocialEndogenouspersonalitytype,someof
whommademajorbreakthroughsandbecamerecognizedasgeniuses?
TwowaysofbeinghighlyintelligentGoodgenesorthe
Endogenouspersonality
MostpeoplewouldprobablysaythatanEndogenouspersonalitywasa
matterofsheerchancethatinapopulationcharacterizedbyhighGFP,
afewindividualsjusthappened(byrandomvariation)tohavelowGFP
andthislowGFP/Endogenouspersonalitygroupincludedsome
individualsofveryhighintelligencewhowerethepotentialgeniuses.
Butoursuggestionisdifferent:pickinguponasuggestionfromBritish
psychologistMichaelA.Woodley,wesuggestthatthehighrateof
Europeangeniuswasnotanaccident.WewillarguethattheMedieval
Europeanpopulationwasundergroupselectionaswellasindividual
naturalselectionandspecificallythatitwasgroupselectionwhichledto
theevolutionofgeniuses.
Inanutshell,theEndogenouspersonalityevolvedinahighintelligence
populationtoprovideasignificantminorityofgeniuses,whosefunction
wastobespecialistsincreativeproblemsolvingandinvention.The
activitiesofthisminorityofgeniuseshaddisproportionateimpact,and
wereofgeneralbenefittothesurvivaland/orexpansionofthesocial
groupamongwhomthegeniuseslivedandworked.
Indeed,wewouldarguethattherearetwowaysofbeingexceptionally
intelligent.Theusualwayisthatsomeoneinapopulationisexceptionally
intelligentisbywhatistermedGoodGenes:thatis,havingfewgenetic
faultsorerrorsthepersonhasastructurallynormalbrain,butwith
nothing(ornothingmuch)wrongwithit.Inotherwordshehasalowload
ofdeleteriousmutations(or,conversely,heisnotsufferingfrommutation
accumulation).
ButthereisanotherwaywhichisbyhavinganEndogenouspersonality
whichmeansthathisbrainispurposelydesigned(bygroupselection
themechanismsofwhicharecurrentlypoorlyunderstood)tobecreative,
tomakebreakthroughs.Suchapersonis,insum,agenius(albeitvery
probablynotaworldhistoricalgeniusbutatribalorlocalgenius).
Ourassumptionisthatinthepotentialgeniusandifwecouldmeasure
it,whichisnotpossibleatpresentwewouldseeabrainwireduptobe
intelligentandnotmerelyintelligent,butalsowireduptobemore
orientatedtowardsinternalprocessingmoreintuitivelycreative,more
internallymotivated.
ThereforethebrainofanEndogenouspersonalityisanevolutionarily
specializedbrainwhichhashighintelligencenotsomuchnegativelyfrom
lackofmutationsaspositivelybecauseitisabraindesigned(by
naturalselection)tobehighlyefficientforthepurposeofcreative
discovery.
Andthisiswhythegeniushasaspecial(Endogenous)personality.
Usuallypersonalityandintelligencearealmostdistinctandlittle
correlatedbutthebrainofageniusisdifferentlywiredfromanormal
brain:itisaspecializedandpurposivebrain,alopsidedbrain,abrainin
whichsomecircuitsusuallyusedforsocialintelligenceandreproductive
successarecooptedtoservingacreativepurpose.
Insum,thebrainofageniusisonethatisspecializedforcreative
discoveryandbothhighintelligenceandaninnerorientedpersonality
arefeaturesofthisspecialization.Thisiswhypersonalityandintelligence
gotogetherinthegenius,whereasinnormalpeoplepersonalityand
geniuscanvaryalmostindependentlyandthereislittlecorrelation
betweenthetwo.
Wehavediscussed,then,theconceptsofpersonalityandintelligence
andthefactorsthatleadtodifferencesinthem.Wewillnowattemptto
understandhowtheserelatetogenius.
ChapterThree
Differentunderstandingsof
Genius
Whatisthenatureofgenius?Therearemanylayerstogenius
althoughtypicallyonlythosenearestthesurfaceareconsidered.Someof
themainlayersare:
1.Sociological:Impactonhistory
2.Biologicaldifferential:ReproductiveSuccess
3.Biologicalideal:Fitness
4.PhilosophicalTheological:Fitnessforwhat?UltimatePurpose?
Letusconsidereachinturn.
1.Sociologicalthisistheusuallevelofanalysis,theusualdefinitionof
agenius.Ageniusisseenasapersonwhohasmadea
disproportionatelylargeimpactonhumanhistory.Thiscanbemeasured
moreorlessobjectivelybyevaluatingtheconsensusofexperthistorians
ofscience,technology,arts,literatureetc.sincetheseexpertsexhibita
highlevelofagreementconcerningwhatismostimportant.
Whilethisis,broadly,theinterpretationweuseinthisbookwithwhichto
framegeniusthesociologicalcategoryisoverinclusive,since
individualsmayhavealargeimpactonhumanhistorydespiteanon
exceptional,nongeniuspersonalityormediocreabilityasexamplesdue
toaccidentofbirth(e.g.somemonarchs),accidentsofpublicresponse
(thefamousforbeingfamousphenomenon),beingmarriedtoamajor
figureandtherebyhavingpowerandinfluencebestowedforthatreason
orsimplyfromtheluck,ormisfortune,ofbeingintherightplaceatthe
righttime.
2.BiologicalDifferential.Ageniusisseeninbiologicaltermsasone
whomakesadisproportionatelylargeimpactonhumanreproduction.
Thisismeasuredintermsofreproductivesuccess,whichismeasuredin
termsofthenumberofdescendantsofageniusand/orthegroupto
whichhebelongstoor,intherelevantcaseofgroupselection,
biologicalsuccessismeasuredintermsofthesurvivalandexpansionof
thesocialgrouptowhichthegeniusbelongs.
Bythismeasure,ageniusisonewhocausesameasurableincreasein
thenumbersorproportionofhissociety(bysomemeasure)examples
ofsuchgeniuseswouldbethosewhocreatedthetechnical
breakthroughsleadingtotheAgrarianandIndustrialRevolutionsfor
exampleRobertBakewell(172595)theanimalbreeder,CokeofNorfolk
(ThomasCoke,EarlofLeicester,17541842)thedeviserofmoreefficient
farmingmethodsorRichardTrevithick(17711833)theinventorofthe
highpressuresteamengine.
Andanantigeniuswouldbeonewhodidtheopposite:causedadecline
inthenumberorproportionofdescendantsorgroupmembers.
CandidateswouldincludeNapoleon,whosepoliciesandwarsseemto
havecausedacollapseintheFrenchpopulationrelativetotheBritish
one.[28]
3.BiologicalIdeal.Thistakesaccountoftheobjective,notdifferential,
effectoffitness(heredefinedintermsofheritablegeneticquality)by
estimatingorganismalfunctionalitythereproductivepotentialofan
averageorganismisagivenenvironment.
Forexample,alineagemayincreaseinitsnumbersorproportionofthe
populationeventhoughthereisanaccumulationofdeleteriousmutations
whichdamagebasicfunctionality.Wewouldarguethatthiswas
happeninginEuropeamongthelowerclassesduringthe19thcentury.
OneeffectoftheIndustrialRevolution,inGregoryClarkswork,wasthat
thelowerclassesincreasedbothnumericallyandasaproportionofthe
Europeanpopulation(duetomaintaininghighfertilityaschildmortality
ratesdeclined)however,wearguethatdespitethissuccessthe
underlyingfitness/geneticqualityofthelowerclasseswasactually
declining,duetomutationaccumulation.
Soreproductivesuccess(absoluteorrelative)canincreaseevenasthe
underlyingfunctionalityorfitnessdeclines.Thiscanhappenwhenthe
environmentislessharsh,inflictsalowermortalityrateaswithanimals
inazoo,orhumansinmodernsociety.Thiswouldbeseenifthe
experimentwasdoneofreturningananimal,orhuman,toitswildor
originalenvironmentwhenthecapacityoftheorganism(orspecies)to
surviveandreproducewillbeseentohavedeclined.
WeassumethatthishashappenedtomodernManingeneraland
everywheresincetheIndustrialRevolution:i.e.hisidealfitnesshas
declinedandthiswouldbeseeniforwhenmodernManhadtoreturnto
pre1800conditions,forexampleiftheIndustrialRevolutionunravelled
andtheworldreturnedtoaMedievaltypeagrariansociety.
Iforwhenthishappens,wewouldpredictthatthehumanpopulation
wouldcollapsetonumberssignificantlybelow1800levels,andwould
staylowforseveralormanygenerationssimplybecauseMenwouldbe
lessfit,lesswelladapted(theiradaptationshavingbeendestroyedby
mutationaccumulation).Butthisfitnessdeclineispresentlyobscuredby
thesoftnessandabundanceofmodernlife,whichisitselfaproductof
breakthroughsbygeniusesofthepast.
Thusthereisalagbetweentheonsetofmutationaccumulationandthe
effectsworkingtheirwaythroughthepopulation.Andtheinertialbenefit
ofpastgeniusescontinuestoproduceacomfortableandlowmortality
environmentManforsomegenerationsaftergeniushasitselfdwindled.
4.PhilosophicalTheologicalFitnessforwhat?
Ifanideal,notactual,conceptoffitnessistobeused,thenitisnotclear
whattheenvironmentagainstwhichfitnessorfunctionalityshouldbe
measuredis.Thiscreatesaneedfor,opensspacefor,aphilosophical
discourseaboutwhatMansfitnessoughttobe.
Bythisaccount,ageniusisonewhoenhanceshisgroupsfitnessfor(or
functionalityin)thekindofenvironmentwhichManisaimingfor,orwants
tohave.OneversionofthiswouldbeageniustendingtocreateMen
fittedforutopia.Suchadefinitionwouldincludephilosophersinthebroad
senseofthewordartists,painters,poets,literaryauthorsetc.from
PlatotoHegelandbeyond.
Inultimateterms,thedeepestunderstandingofgeniusisperhapsone
whopromotestheultimatepurposeofLifeitself,intermsofthedivine
planorultimatepurposeoflife.Thisdefinitionwouldincludereligious
founders,prophets,saints,holymenandwomenandalsosomeartists,
poets,andthinkers.
Overall,itcanbeseenthatthesefourdefinitionsofgeniusdissociate.For
example,ageniuswhopromotestheologicalultimatepurposemay
damagereproductivesuccess(ifagoodnewreligiousgroupis
exterminated).Ageniuswhopromotesreproductivesuccessmay
damageidealfitness(i.e.thepopulationincreasesbutsodoesthe
deleteriousmutationload).
Inthisbook,wewillunderstandgeniusprimarilyinthesociological
sense:thatis,aworldhistoricalgeniusisseenasapersonwhohas
madeadisproportionatelylargeimpactonhumanhistorybutwewill
restrictthedefinitionofgeniustoaspecificpsychologicalgroupwithinthis
category:thus,ourconceptofageniusisonewhohastheEndogenous
personalityandwho,becauseofthis,hasmadeadisproportionateimpact
onhumansocietyandhistory.
Furthermore,weconsiderthepotentialgeniustobesomeonewhohas
theEndogenouspersonalitybuthasnot,ornotyet,madealargeimpact
andgeniusesmayalsobeclassifiedbythescaleanddepthoftheir
impactsomewithanimpactthatisinternationalandpermanent,some
withalocalandmoretemporaryimpact.
And,ofcourse,thepersonalidentityofageniusmayormaynotbe
knownormaybelosttohistorysoweknowtheidentityof
ShakespearewhowrotetheSonnetsbutthenamesofthosegeniuses
whowrotetheBorderBallads(comingfromtheBorderofEnglandand
ScotlandinthelateMedievalera,andlaterrecordedfromoraltraditionby
thelikesofthegreatnovelistandpoetSirWalterScott17711832)are
alllost,andperhapsneverwereknown.[29]
This,ofcourse,meansthat,fromaparticularvantagepoint,itispossible
todistinguishbetweentheimpactofagoodgeniusandanevilgenius
accordingtothenatureofthesociohistoricalimpactandwewillalso
considerthesemigeniusorborderlinegeniussomeonewhohasmade
asignificantimpactshortofcrossingthethresholdintoworldhistorical
importance.
ChapterFour
TheCreativeTriad
TheEndogenouspersonality,aswehavediscussed,referstosomeone
whoisinnerorientated.Oursuggestionisthatthispersonalitycomplexis
associatedwithgenuinecreativityandinrareinstances,withcreative
genius.Thisraisesanimportantquestionimmediately.Whatdoesitmean
tobecreative?Whatisthenatureofcreativity?
WecanconceiveofaCreativeTriad.Itiscomposedof(1)Innateability
(2)Innermotivation,and(3)Intuitivethinking.Thistriadistheessenceof
howweusethewordcreativeineverydaylife.Thecreativetypeisthe
artytype:thenovelist,thepoet,andespeciallytheartistandby
extension,alsothetrulyoriginalscientistandtechnologicalinnovator.
GeniusismadepossiblewhenallpartsofthisTriadflowtogetherina
particularway:apersonisinternallymotivatedtopursuethatforwhichhe
hasanaturalabilityanddoessoinanintuitivewaythatmobilizeshis
deepestself,allhismentalpowers.Majorgeniusoccurswhenthenatural
abilitydimensionisalsoextremelyhigh.
Butpeoplecanstillbecreativeyetnotreachthelevelofgenius,they
maybeconsideredassemiorborderlinegeniuswhentheirhistoric
impactonasocietyisrealbutmodest.Forexample,therearenumerous
localgeniuseswhoarerelativegeniusescomparedtothosearound
them,andmakegeniustypesocialcontributionsbuttheirimpactis
geographicallyortemporallyrestricted.Mostgeniusesare,infact,ofthis
type.
And,ofcourse,apotentialgeniusmay(forreasonswewilldiscusslater)
failtomakeaninfluentialbreakthroughormaymakeabreakthroughthat
failstoberecognizedandactedupon.
Beforeturning,then,tothenatureofthecreativeweneedtobeclearon
thenatureofeachofitscomponentpartsandhowtheycontributeto
creativityandgenius.Itisclearhowinnateabilitydoes,butwhatabout
intuition?Whatisintuition?
Wecouldapproachintuitionbystatingthatintuitionisthemodeofthought
oftheprivatesoul/therealself/innerconsciousnessthatistosaythe
mostprofound,themostsecret,fundamentalmodeofthought.Intuition
canbecontrastedwithtwo(lower,subordinated)modesofthinking:
passionsversusreasonthebodyvthebraingutfeelingsvhead
knowledgeinstinctvlogic.Thesetwomodesarenotabsolutelydistinct,
butwethinktheycanusefullybedistinguished.
So,whatisthethoughtmodeofintuition?Itisnotbyinstinctnorbylogic
butbysomethingofboth,andmore.Therefore,intuitionisamodeof
thinkingwhichsimultaneouslyusesemotionandlogicbutoperatingina
contextof(forexample)motivation,purpose,meaningandrelationships.
Inanutshell,intuitionusesallpossiblemodesofthinkingandthisiswhy
intuitionleadstoagreaterfeelingofsureness,ofcertainty,thandoother,
morepartialformsofthought.
Theresultofintuitionisthereforeanevaluationwhichisuniquely
convincingbecauseitisvalidatedbythefullrangeofpositiveresponses.
Itisaninsightthatsatisfiesbothlogicandreason,andalsofeelsright.
Bycontrast,ifweuseonly(forexample)logic,oronlyemotions,to
evaluatesomethingthentheevaluationwillbeincomplete,and
evaluationinonesubmodemaybecontradictedbyevaluationinanother
submodeaswhenlogicandemotionsreachdifferentconclusions,
pointindifferentdirections,contradictoneanotherandwefeel
confusedortornbecauseourheadandourheartareinconflict.
Onlytheevaluationsofintuitionarefullysatisfying,fullyconvincing,and
harmonious.Onlytheevaluationsofintuitionmobilizethewholerangeof
thoughtmodes.Thusintuitionisthemostpowerfulmodeofthought,and
theonlymodeofthoughtcapableofmobilizingthefullestdegreeof
motivation.Intuitioniswhatmakesuscaremostaboutideas:itiswhat
engagesuswithcreativity.Thisiswhyintuitionisnecessarytothehighest
levelsofcreativity,tothegreatestattainmentsofgenius.
Oursecondquestionis:whatisinnermotivationandwhyisitnecessary
forcreativityandgenius?
Thegeniusmustcombinetheinnerorientationofthecontemplativein
ordertofindhisownproblem,theproblemheisdestinedtoworkonwith
aninnermotivationtowardsactiondirectedtosolvingthisproblem.He
mustdesiretotranslateunderstandingintoengagementnotjustto
contemplatereality,buttosolvereality.
So,somethingdeepwithinthegeniusandnotthepromiseofan
externalrewardmakeshimwanttofullycomprehendorimproveor
expressthenatureofreality.Becausehismotivationcomesfromwithin,
andheisfocuseduponaproblemwhichalsocomesfromwithin,the
geniusisnoteasilydiscouragedhisdrivewillenablehimwillindeed
compelhimtokeeppushingandpushing,evenwhensupportis
withdrawnorheismetbydiscouragementandfailure.
Thereforewhenitcomestohisownproblemthegeniusis
autonomous,selfmotivating,tenaciousandstubborninpursuitofhis
Destiny.HewillseetheGeniusQuest,aswemighttermit,throughtoits
conclusioninIlluminationordieintheattemptunlessheisactively
preventedfromdoingso.
Insummary,thecreativepersonalityofageniusinvolvesanInner
orientationwhichincludesabasisinintuitivemodesofthinkingandan
innersourceofmotivationwewillnowfurtherexplorethenatureofthis
motivation.
ChapterFive
WhatMotivatestheGenius
Quest?
Thegeniushasajourneytomake,apathtotakeawaytolive:a
Quest.
PursuingthisQuestistheDestinyofthegeniusitiswhatheismeant
todo.
Afterthis,variousthingsmayhappen.TheQuestmaybediscoveredand
embarkedupon,butthereisnoguaranteeitwillbecompleted.Itmaybe
triedbutmayfail.Thegeniusmaydie,orgetsickbeforeitisfinishedor
insomewaybethwartedordefeated.TheDestinymaybeaccepted,but
maylaterbeabandonedbecausethecommitmentmustberenewed
manytimes.Illuminationmayactuallybeachievedbutrejectedbysociety
thegeniusunrecognised.Or,Illuminationmaybeachievedbutstolen
andnocreditgiven.OrtheQuestmaybeachieved,andtheIllumination
sociallyaccepted,andacknowledgementmayevenbegivenbutthen
thegeniusbecomescorruptedintocareerism,statusseeking,pleasure
seeking,orwhatevertakeshimawayfromhisDestiny.
AsanexampleofanabandonedQuest,themathematicianandhistorian
ofscienceJacobBronowski(19081974)claimed,ininhis1972TV
seriesTheAscentofMan,thatthiswasthefateofthemathematicaland
computinggeniusandfriendofBronowskisJohnvonNeumann
(19031957).VonNeumannwas,lateinlife,luredawayfromfocusingon
hisintellectualpursuitsbyloveofpower,statusandprestigeleavinghis
workincomplete.AndsuchwasthegreatnessofvonNeumann,thatit
proveddifficult,indeedimpossible,foranyoneelsetocompleteit.So,
herewasarealgeniuswhoacceptedandpartiallycompletedhisunique
Questyetwithoutquitefinishingwhathebegan.
PsychoticismversusOpenness
ThisemphasisonDestinystressesthatthegeniushasanunusuallife,
comparedwithnormalpeople.Butwhatdoesthegeniusgetoutofhis
unusuallife?
Usually,hewillsimplyenjoybeingcreativeand,indeed,beingcreative
willbeasignificantpartofhissenseofself,consequentlyhewillbea
noticeablydifferentkindofpersonfromtheonewhomwewouldseeas
conventional.
HansEysenckregardedcreativityasanaspectofthePsychoticismtrait
indicatingaparticularwayofthinkingandrelatingtotheworldwhich
incorporatedcreativityaspositive,andpsychoticandpsychopathictraits
asnegative,aspectsofthistrait.
Workingmorerecently,BritishpsychologistDanielNettlesreviewofthe
psychologicalliteraturehasshownthatcertainpersonalitytraitsin
particularOpennessIntellectandNeuroticismareassociatedwithbeing
creative,quiteindependentofbeingahighlysuccessfulcreativeand
indeedmostpersonalitypsychologistsnowadaysregardOpennessasthe
characteristictraitofacreativeperson.[30]
Sowhichisthebestwayofconceptualizingthepersonalityofacreative
person?Isittheeccentricityandoriginalityandsemicrazinessof
Psychoticism,orthenoveltygenerationandclever,fashionablefertilityof
Openness?
Thisisatopictowhichwewillreturn,butinbriefwefavourtheolder
conceptofPsychoticismasabetterdescriptionofcreativityandwe
havederivedtheEndogenouspersonalityfromEysencksanalysisofthe
genius.However,wehavedepartedfromEysenckbyemphasizingthat
thehighEndogenicityvariableisrootedingroupadaptiveness,andnotin
individualpathology.Also,wefocusonabrainspecializedbyaninnate
innernessoforientationasthebasisofthepersonalitytraitcluster
whereasEysenckexplainedhigherPsychoticismintermsofabroader
fieldofassociations.
Ourreasonforourpreferenceandemphasisforrejectingthecurrently
dominantexplanationofcreativitybyOpennessandouradvocacyofa
developmentoftheolderideaofPsychoticismisthatOpennessand
Psychoticism(Endogenouspersonality)areatoppositeendsofthe
GeneralFactorPersonalitydimension:Opennessisprosocialand
Psychoticism/Endogenousisasocial.
Inotherwords,Opennesstypecreativityisaresponsefroma
conscientiousandempathicpersontosocialdemandsorneedswhile
Psychoticism/Endogenouscreativitycomesfromtheinnerandinnate
driveofsomeonesubstantiallyindifferenttocurrentsocietalself
awareness,knowledgeandroles.
Assuch,wewouldsuggestthatcreativeisnotwhatyoudobutwhat
youare.
Thesatisfactionsofcreativity
Creativepeoplethusreflectacertainkindofpersonality,leadingto
characteristicbehaviours.Butwhydocreativepeoplebehavecreatively?
Whatexactlydocreativesgetoutofbeingcreative?What,inother
words,isthephenomenologyofcreativity?(Note:Phenomenologyrefers
tofirstperson,inner,subjectiveexperiencehowthingslookfromthe
inside).
Peoplecouldonlybecreativebydispositionifcreativityweresupported
withpositiveandrewardingemotionsand/orprovidedrelieffromnegative
oraversiveemotions.Thiswouldseemtoworkinthreestages:
DiscontentDelightSatisfaction
Correspondingto:
PerceivingaProblemHavinganInsightGeneratingaSolution
Therefore,creativityisdrivenbyanegativeorDysphoricfeelingthat
somestateofaffairsproducesanemotionofdissatisfaction.The
creative(asweshalltermhim)thenturnshisattentiontothisproblem
andheenjoysworkingontheproblem(thatis,heenjoysbeingcreative)
andfinallyhemaycomeupwithaninsightwhichleadstoaeuphoric
feelingofdelight.
So,thecreativeisrewardedupfrontforgeneratinginsightsbyworking
onaproblemhebothgetsrelieffromanegativestateofinner
dissatisfactionandisalsopositivelyrewardedbyaninnerfulfilmentbythe
workandthishappenswhetherornothisinsightseventuallyturnoutto
beanswers.Assuch,thecreativewilltendtogenerateinsightsforthe
sheerfunofit!andeveniftheinsightsturnouttobetrivial,erroneous,
useless,orharmful.
But,finally,withpersistenceandluckonhissideletussaythatthe
creativecomesupwithasolutiontotheproblem:asolutionwhich,fora
shortishperiod(minutesorhours,perhaps),makeshimfeeljoyously
happyorEuphoric!
ThusaDysphoricstateofDiscontenthasthenbeenreplacedbya
EuphoricstateandwhenEuphoriasubsidesthesuccessfulcreativewill
moveontoalongertermandsustainedstateofsatisfactionor
gratificationandthiscanbetermedEuthymic,meaningastateof
normalgoodmood.Therefore,firstEuphoria,thenEuthymiaarethe
emotionalrewardsforcreativity.
So,intermsofphenomenology,itgoes:
DysphoriaEuphoriaEuthymia
Or,inEnglish:Discontent,Bliss,Satisfaction
IntermsofthelargerpictureofLife,thisisthediscontentedstateof
seekingDestinyandthegratificationofdiscoveringitembarkingona
Questwhichisitselfasatisfyingalbeitfrustratingactivityandfinally
achievingIlluminationwhichleadstoanacutestateofblissthena
chronicstateofsatisfaction(andquitelikelyanewsearchforanother
Destiny).
Therefore,forthecreativeperson,anormallifeinconformitywithsocial
expectationsisunsatisfyingbutbeingcreativeisrewarding.Sucha
personwillbespontaneouslycreative,asaconsequenceoftheirinner
drivesandpersonalsatisfactionsandcreativewhetheraskedtobe
creativeornot,whetheritisusefulornot,andwhetherheissufficiently
knowledgeableandcompetentforthetaskornot.
Accordingly,ifrealcreativityiswantedorneeded,thenthejobabsolutely
requiresacreativeperson.Andifyouhaveacreativepersoninplace,
andheissufficientlyinterestedinwhatyouwanthimtodo,thenhewillbe
creative.
However,sincecreativityisinwardlygeneratedbyinnatemechanisms,
suchcreativityisnotexternallycontrollableanddirectablebynormal
socialpressures,rewards,priorities.Bothtogetthebestfromacreative,
andalsotohavethatbestbedirectedwheredesired,requiresthatthe
creativebeanimated,inspiritedandenergizedbythetaskandallowedto
workinhisownway.
Thereforeageniuscanneitherbemanagednorregulatedalthough
hemaytosomeextentbeledbyasufficientlyinspiringandinsightful
individual
ChapterSix
SuccessfulCreativity
Nowthatwehaveanunderstandingofthecreativeperson,his
personality,andwhatmotivateshim,wemustteaseoutthedifference
betweenthecreativeandthegenius.Inessence,wearguethatthe
creativegeniusisasubspeciesofthecreativetype,andthegenuinely
creativeischaracterizedbytheEndogenouspersonalitytype.So,the
geniusisthemostsuccessfulandableandobvioustypeofcreative
andgeniusisanextremeformofcreativitycombinedwithotherattributes
(mainlyexceptionalability,andespeciallywithexceptionalintelligence).
Wehavealreadyproposedacorrespondencebetweengenius
understoodashavinganenormousimpactinsomefieldthroughhighly
originalactivityandcreativity.Wewouldexpectthegeniustobe
creativebutthereisadifferencebetweenbeingcreative(asitis
commonlydefined)andactuallybeingoriginalandinsightful.
Forexample,peopletendtothinkthatpoetryisintrinsicallyacreative
activitybutwewouldemphasizethatmostselfstyledorprofessionally
recognizedpoetsarenotespeciallycreative,andthatmuchgreater
creativitymaybefoundamongsomepeoplewhoaredoing(forexample)
practicalwork,orcaringforchildrenthanamongthetypicalwriterand
publisherofpoems.
Inotherwords,properlyunderstood,poetryisasocialfunction(ajob,a
hobby,aneducationaloracademictask)whichmaybedonemore,or
less,creativelyandthisisprobablytheusualsituationformostsocial
roles.However,attheveryhighestlevelalevelthatisatbestrareand
sometimesabsentfromsocietypoetryisindeed(ofcourse!)aparadigm
ofcreativity,andThePoettheepitomeofgenius.
Whatoforiginality?Theoriginalityofacreativepersonislikelytobe
achievedwithoutbeingaimedat,throughcombiningcreativitywithinnate
ability(inparticular,intelligence)andalackofconcernaboutthereaction
toonesoriginality.Sometimes,inhonestandcreativepursuitofsome
goal(onaQuest),youneedtobreakconventionsandrules.Thereaction
tothatwhichchallengesthevestedinterestsofthestatusquoisgenerally
negativesocreativityrisksalienatingpowerfulpeopleandcausing
irritationorevenhostility.
Thereforethereisanassociationbetweencreativityandoriginality,and
betweenoriginalityandoffensiveness.But,ontheotherhand,the
oppositeisuntrueso,itisnottruetosaythatthatwhichcausesirritation,
offenceandhostilityisthereforeoriginalnortosaythatwhatisoriginalis
thereforecreative.
Nonetheless,thisfalselyreversedcausalityhasbeentheprevalentwayin
whichcreativityandoriginalityhavebeenidentifiedinthemodernerafor
instanceinthevisualartssincetheeraofDadaismaboutacenturyago.
[31]Inavantgardecircles,successfullyprovokingoutrage(especially
amongrespectablepeopleandthereligious)hasusuallybeenregarded
assufficientevidenceoforiginality,hencegeniusleadingtothe
ludicroussituationinwhichartisticallytalentlessconfidencetrickstersand
publicrelationsmanipulatorshavesuccessfullypassedthemselvesoffas
artisticgeniuses,andforthreeorfourgenerationshavedominatedthe
professionalworldofArt.
Furthermore,indiscussingcreativity,adecisionmustbemadeasto
whetherwearegoingtogiveprimacytocreativeprocessorcreative
outcome.Notneglectingtheotherofthepair:butoneofthetwomust
comefirst.
Weputprocessfirstandthereforewediscusscreativityasadisposition
andprocess,andhowtheseleadtowhataregenerallyregardedas
creativeoutcomes.Thisopensapotentialgapbetweencreativeactivity
andcreativeoutcomes.SoifascienceNobelPrizeisregardedasa
creativeoutcome,thenwewouldsaythatsomescienceNobelPrize
winnerswerehighlycreativepersonsalthoughsomewerenot.
SomeNobelistsseeminglygottheprizeinotherways:forinstanceby
stealingorotherwisegettingcreditfortheideasorworkofotherpeople,
orbycarefulandconscientiousworkextendingthecreative
breakthroughsofothers,orbyselfpromotion,orfromlackofanyreally
deservingprizewinners(this,especially,inrecentyearswhenthe
supplyofgeniuseshasallbutdriedup,andsciencehasbecomemore
bureaucraticandlesscreative)orsimplybyerrorsorcorruptionor
committeethinkonthepartoftheNobelprizecommittee.
Andmuchthesamewouldapplytogreatcomposers,greatwriters,great
visualartistsetc.
Butif,instead,creativityisdefinedintermsofprocess,asamodeof
thinkingthenthismeansthatmanyormostofthepeoplewhoproduce
work(oroutcomes)thataregenerallyregardedasextremelyuseful,
beautifulortruearenotcreativepeople.
Forexample,theworkofBritishNobelistDorothyHodgkin(19101994)
wasmostlyacarefulextensionoftheprimaryworkofDesmondBernal
(19011971hermentorandlover)whowastherealgeniusbehindX
RayCrystallographybutitwasHodgkinwhodidtheworkthatgotthe
prize.Significantly,Bernalhadtheclassicalgeniustemperament[32]while
Hodgkinalthoughextremelycleverandskilfulshowedhardlyaspark
ofrealEndogenouscreativity.[33]
Furthermore,manyormostcreativepeople(creatives)nowadaysdonot
achieveanythingthatisgenerallyregardedasuseful,beautifulortrue.
Weknowofrelativelyunknownandunacknowledgedcreativeswhoalso
havetrulygreatabilitiesandareprobablypotentialgeniuses,butlack
eithertheapplicationorthelucktohavemadeaninfluential
breakthroughorelsetheirbreakthroughswerenotacknowledgedas
such.Indeed,somehavesufferedaggressiveandharmfulpersecutions,
suchasprofessionalharassmentandmassmediamobbing,fortheir
honesty.Forexample,aninsightfulandoriginalscientistworkinginan
obscurebranchofmedicine,amajortheoreticianworkinginafieldwhere
onlyempiricalandlargescaleresearchisvalued...
Sometimes,theachievementofageniusseemstohavehungbya
threadifBritishNobellistandDNAdiscovererFrancisCrick(19162004)
haddiedatage35,orhadlivedagenerationlater,hewouldhavebeen
regardedasoneofthesemerelyabrilliant,restless,unfulfilled
dilettante.
Theevilgeniusphenomenon
Itmayhappenthatahighlycreativeperson,bychanceordesign,deploys
theircreativityinsuchawaythatitdestroystheirownfield:aPicasso,a
JamesJoyce,aSchoenbergmenofgeniuswhoseworkwashighly
influentialandbrilliant,butwholefttheirsubjectsandtheworldaworse
placethantheyfoundit:theywereeach,artistically,adeadend.These
areversionsoftheevilgeniussonamedbecauseoftheireffects,
ratherthannecessarilytheirmotivations.
Fromthevantagepointofcreatingsomethinguseful(tomaintainingand
developingcivilization),beautifulortrue,PabloPicassos(18811973)
artisticphilosophyinvolvedrejectingtheideathatartshouldcreate
beautyandaroadtotranscendence.Hispurposewastochallengethe
acceptedwayofdoingartandsochallengeallthatwasestablished,
includingthatwhichisuseful.Insodoing,hisartcreatedasenseof
shock,confusion,andmeaninglessnessandcontributedtoanarchy.[34]
ThenovelsandstoriesofJamesJoyce(18821941)sharemuchofthis
philosophy.TheDubliners,forexample,horrifiedaudienceswithits
detaileddepictionsofdepravedbehaviourandtheseactuallyoccurringin
real(named)streetsandpubs.Thestoriestakethereaderintoaworldof
nihilismandFinnegansWakesimplycreatesasenseofprofound
confusion.[35]AsforArnoldSchoenberg(18741951),heshunnedmusical
harmonyandtraditioninfavourofahighlystructuredbut
incomprehensiblekindofmusicwhichmostpeoplefinditactively
unpleasanttolistento...aworldinwhichnothingmakessense,thereis
nomeaning,thereisnegativity,thereistheVoid.[36]
So,theseevilgeniusesmayormaynothavehadexceptionallywicked
personalities,althoughallweresomewhatunpleasantcharacters[37]but
theydidhaveanetdestructiveeffectonsociety.Thiseffectwasnet
destructivebecausetheyadvancedacompellingbutdestructive
worldviewonewhichledtothesuppressionof,forexample,theabilityof
peopletoperceivemeaningandpurposeinlife,oractiveencouragement
ofselfish,parasitic,orcruelbehaviour.
OtherexamplesmightbephilosopherssuchasRousseau,Marxor
Nietzsche.[38]Fromthevantagepointalreadyoutlined,thephilosophyof
JeanJacquesRousseau(17121778)rejectedcivilizationinfavourofa
morenaturallifemodelledonaromanticidealofthetribeinwhichall
weresupposedlyequalandfree.Thiswouldbeadictatorshipofthe
peopleinwhichdissent,however,couldnotbetoleratedwithdissenters
labelled(intheRousseauinfluencedFrenchRevolution)asenemiesof
thepeople.
KarlMarxs(18181883)philosophyheavilyinfluencedbyRousseau
alteredtheidealizedgroupfromthetribetotheworkerandarguedthat
aworkersdictatorshipmustinevitablydeveloptoensureequalitybased
onMarxsfatebasedunderstandingofHistory.Again,dissentwasnotto
bepermittedanddissenterswereenemies,imperialistsandsoon.Its
culminationwastheworldhistoricalhorroroftwentiethcentury
Communism,anditsdescendantPoliticalCorrectness,inwhichthe
workerisreplacedbysupposedlyoppressedormorenaturalcultural
groups.Dissentersareracistandothercatchall,highlyemotiveterms
(suchashaterordenialist)employedtodiscouragedissent,suchthat
eventheslightestdeviancefromorthodoxyistermedracistinorderto
reproveitandintimidatethedeviantintosilence.[39]Theseideologiescan
distilleddowntothreeessentialdogmas:(1)Thosewhohavepower
whetherfinancialorculturalandwhetherdeservedornotarebadand
shouldrepentbygivingittothosewholackpowerandcreatingequality
(2)Thosewholackpoweronwhatevermeasureisseenasimportant
aresuperiortothosewhohaveitbecausetheyaresomehowmore
genuineand(3)Thosewhodissentfromthisviewarewicked.Assuch,
thedogmaofequalityservestocreateathoughtprisonwhichwouldbe
antitheticaltogeniusand,inbothcases,thedesiresofanaturalgroup
mustbeputbeforeallelse,includingmakingthedecisionsrequiredto
maintaincivilization.
MulticulturalismisrelatedtoPoliticalCorrectness,arguingthatWestern
countriesbenefitfromdisempoweringtheirculturalmajorityinfavourofa
culturalmeltingpot,andsystematicallyprivilegingnonnativeethnic
groups.Thisisunderpinnedbyculturalandmoralrelativismandthis
bringsustothegeniusofF.W.Nietzsche(18441900).
Nietzschesworkiscomplex,selfcontradictory,evolvingesotericand
brilliantinstyle,ofsuperbliteraryqualityandshotthroughwith
memorable,incisiveinsights.NonethelesstheneteffectofNietzschehas
beenbad.Hearguedforakindofmoralandculturalrelativism,orevena
moralinversionbywhichtraditionalhumanvaluesarereversed:whatwas
evilbecomesgoodandviceversa.Thebasicideawasthatpeoplein
general,andthenaturalleadersofSupermeninparticular,should
pursuetheirwild,instinctive,amoraldominantdesires,helpingthemtobe
creative,lifeaffirmingandtoexperiencetheheightsofecstasy.InBeyond
GoodandEvil,heclearlyadvocatesmoralrelativism,arguingthatwhatis
moraldependsonwhetheryouareamasteroraservant.InTheAnti
Christ,itisarguedthattheonlygoodisthegainingofpower.So,in
essence,Nietzscheadvocateslivinganutterlyselfishlifeinpursuitof
onesownpower.Clearly,ifeveryonelivedinsuchawaycivilization
wouldcollapseandtherewouldbenoroomtophilosophizeatall.[40]
OntopofthisNietzschessisteredited,emphasizedandalteredhis
workstomakethemevenmoreappealingtotheembryonicNational
SocialistseventuallytheNaziscametoregardhisThusSpake
ZarathustraasanequivalentoftheBible,andissuedtensofthousandsof
copiestosoldiersfortheirspiritualguidanceOntheonehand,thereis
nodoubtthatNietzschehimselfwouldstronglyhavedisapprovedofthis
ontheotherhand,itdoesnotrequiremuchinthewayofselectionand
distortiontoextractNazismfromNietzsche.
Soitisnotnecessarilyacomplimenttocallsomebodycreativeora
creativereally,itissimplyadescriptionofapersonalitytype.
Onceweunderstandgeniusorhighimpactoriginalityintermsof
achievement,thenthereisaclearquantitativebasisforassertingthata
relationshipexistsbetweenthisandbeingdisagreeableanditisthis
combinationofcreativity,abilityandbeingdisagreeablewhichcanleadto
genius.AmericanpsychologistDeanSimontonhasconductedagreat
dealofresearchonthissubjectandhasfoundthatacademicswhoare
consideredhighlyoriginaland,indeed,recognizedgeniusestendto
havedistinctivepersonalityfeatures.[41]
AccordingtoSimonton,geniusesusuallyhaveapersonalitytype
characterizedbymoderatelyhighPsychoticismthatis:apsychosis/
dreamlikemodeofthinkingindifferencetopublicopinionmoderately
lowAgreeableness/EmpathizingandmoderatelylowConscientiousness.
This,accordingtoSimonton,isusuallycombinedwithhighOpenness
Intellect(stronglyassociatedwithcreativity),andhighNeuroticism(inthe
caseofartisticgeniuses)andhighExtraversion(inthecaseofscientific
geniuses).
Asareminder,wearguethatthisrathervagueandcomplexconstellation
ofstatisticalassociationsbetweentraitscanmoreparsimoniously,and
validly,beconceptualizedastheEndogenouspersonality.Furthermore,
wewilllookbelowathowhighlevelsofNeuroticismandExtraversion
mayactuallybeanartefact,duetotheonlyapproximatevalidityof
measuringwhatareinferredtobedispositionaltraitsintermsofovert
behaviour.
Bothgeniusartistsandscientistsinturncombinethiskindofpersonality
withextremelyhighoutlierlevelsofintelligence.Outlierintelligence
occurswhenchancecombinationsofgenesinrelativelyintelligent
parentsleadtoextremeintelligenceinoneoftheoffspring.Mostchildren
haveintelligenceatasimilarleveltotheaverageoftheirparentsbutitis
quitepossibleforchildrentobefarmoreorlessintelligentthantheir
parents,thoughthisisrare.Itisevenrarer,thoughstillpossible,that
averageorevenbelowaverageparentscouldproduceahighlyintelligent
child.
Thereforegeniusismostfrequentlyfoundamongoffspringofthemost
intelligentpeople,butcanbefoundalmostanywhere,albeitatlower
frequencies.
Thisseemsdifficulttoexplaininthewaythatintelligenceisnormally
consideredintermsofintelligencebeingaconsequenceofverylarge
numbers(thousands?)ofgenesforintelligence.Withintelligencegenes
conceptualizedasadditiveineffect,andinsuchlargenumbers,itishard
tounderstandhowaveryhighlyintelligentchildcouldemergebychance
fromlowintelligenceparents.Butifapersonslevelofintelligenceisalso
determinedbythenumberofdeleteriousmutationstheyinheritfromtheir
parents,andthesemutationsarenumberedintensthenitisimaginable
that,bychance,achildmaybebornwithveryfewdeleteriousmutations,
despitehisparentshavingarelativelyheavymutationload.
Thisnotionisperhapstestable,onthebasisthatalowmutationload
shouldbeassociatedwithgenerallyhigherfitness,andthereforewith
traitsassociatedwithhighfitnesssothehighintelligencechildoflow
intelligenceparentswouldbeexpectedtobe(onaverage)taller,healthier,
moresymmetrical,andmorelonglivedthanhislowintelligenceparents.
Thefaceandbodyhaveevolvedtobesymmetrical.Thus,facial
symmetryshowsthatrelativelyfewgeneticmutations,whicharealmost
alwaysnegative,havebeeninherited.Italsoshowsthatasymmetrical
phenotypehasbeenmaintainedinthefaceofdisease,implyinga
geneticallygoodimmunesystem.Symmetricalpeopleare,therefore,
regardedasattractivebecausetheirappearanceadvertisestheirgenetic
goodhealth.[42]Studieshaveactuallyshownaweakpositivecorrelation
betweenintelligenceandfacialsymmetry.[43]
But,althoughhighlyintelligentchildrenoflessintelligentparentshave
been,bychance,sparedfromtheeffectsofdeleteriousmutationsonthe
brainnonethelesstheywouldbelikelytobecarryingmoredeleterious
mutationsthanthehighlyintelligentchildrenofhighlyintelligentparents
(becausenotallmutationsaffectthebrain).Soamongthehighly
intelligentchildrenoflessintelligentparents,theremightbeevidenceof
relativelyhigherlevelsofothermutationrelateddysfunctionse.g.social
maladaptiveness,psychosexualdysfunctions,psychiatricproblems,
fluctuatingasymmetryorphysicalillnesseswithageneticbasis.
Itshouldalsobenotedthatintelligenceaffectsbehaviour.High
intelligencemayactasacounterbalancetoapersonalitytypethatwould
otherwisebeassociatedwithasocialbehaviourscharacteristicoflow
GeneralFactorofPersonality(GFP).HighIQinalowGFPperson
providesastrongfutureorientationandselfcontrolduetoaheightened
abilitytopredicttheconsequencesoftheiractionsandagreaterconcern
withthelongterm[44]thatsuchindividualswouldotherwiselackfrom
theirinheritedpersonalitytraits.
WhereaswithhighintelligencealowGFPpersonmaybemerelyasocial
uninterestedbysocietylowGFPpersonandlowintelligencemightwell
beantisocialthatis,significantlyhostile,oractivelysociallydestructive
intheirbehaviour.
ChapterSeven
IdentifyingtheGenius
Whengeniusisdefinedasatypeofpersonwhoevolvedtobenefitthe
group(byinnovativelybeingabletosolvenovelproblemsandenhance
socialcohesion,survivalandpopulationgrowth),itcanbeunderstood
thatitisbeneficialforsocietiestobeabletorecognizeandidentify
potentialgeniusessothattheymaybehelped,toleratedorattheleast
notactivelyattackedandsuppressed.
Buttherehaslongbeenaconfusionorblurringofthegeniuspersonality
typewithpsychosiswithinsanity:asinthephraseofEnglishpoetJohn
Dryden(16311700):Greatwitstomadnesssurearenearallied,and
thinpartitionsdotheirboundsdivide.Furthermore,thereisarelatively
higherincidenceofsomeformsofmadness(especiallymelancholiaand
mania)andalsoalcoholismanddrugabuseamonggeniusesandother
creativepeoplethanamongcomparablecontrolsubjects.[45]
Yetwearguethatcreativityisnotcausedbymadness,notevenbypartial
degreesofpsychosisratherwearguethatmostmadnessisutterly
uncreative,beingmaladaptiveandcausedbyaccidentalpathologywhile
therootofcreativityistobefoundintheEndogenouspersonality,which
isanadaptationthatevolvedtoperformavaluablesocialfunction.
However,andthisisasubtlebutvitaldistinction,weacknowledgethat
thereisindeedasH.J.Eysenckdescribedinhis1995bookGenius[46]
ahigherthannormalrateofpsychoticillness,ahigherthannormalrateof
psychopathictraits(whichincludelowAgreeablenessandlow
Conscientiousnessbutalsomoresubtlecharacteristics)[47]anddrugand
alcoholproblemsamonggeniuses.Wewouldexplainthisintermsofthe
Endogenouspersonalitybeinganevolvedadaptationforcreativity,but
onewhichismorethanusuallyvulnerabletopsychosis,psychopathyand
drugaddictionwhentherearefurtherpredisposingfactorsgenetic,
environmental,socialorwhatever.Butweregardthegeniusasbeinga
specializedtypearisingasaresultofevolutionbynaturalselectionand
thereforegeniusisnotasEysencktendedtothinkaresultofapartial
degreeofillness,antisocialpersonality,sicknessorstress.
Butthecooccurrenceofmadnessandgeniusleadstoapractical
problemwhentryingtoidentifygeniushowcouldwediscriminate
betweenuncreativeinsanityandthepotentialforcreativegenius?How
canonetellifsomeonehastheEndogenouspersonalitytype,ratherthan
justbeingsociallyimpairedforsomereason?Thedifferenceisrealand
important.
Todothis,weneedtoexaminetheEndogenouspersonalitytypeinmore
detail.Wehaveseenthattherearetwomainaspectstogenius:
characteristicpersonalitytraitsandoutlierlevelsofhighintelligence.We
willbeginwithpersonalitytraits.
TheEndogenouspersonhasastronginnermotivation.Hedoesnotavoid
groupsandsocialresponsibilitiessimplyfornegativereasonssuchas
lackofinterest,becausehewantstodonothingbutbecausehewantsto
dohisownthing,becauseheispowerfullyinterestedinsomevery
specificthing.
TheEndogenouspersonisthereforebeingdriventodosomething.His
mindisusuallybroodingonhisproblem,fullofplansandaimsand
aspirations.Thesemayormaynotcometofruitionsomepeoplewith
anEndogenouspersonalityarelatedevelopers,andmaysuperficially
seemtobeadrift,ortochangedirectiontoofrequentlytobecome
successfulbuttheyareactuallytryingtofindtheirsubject,tryingtofind
theirDestiny.
ForexampleEinsteindidnotshineatschoolandfailedtoachievehis
firstcareeraims,doinghisfirstmajorworkandcompletingaPhDinhis
sparetimewhileemployedasaPatentOfficeclerk.[48]FrancisCrick
(19162004)attendedhissecondchoiceuniversity(hewasrejectedfrom
CambridgesowenttoUniversityCollege,London),achievedonlya
secondclassdegree,startedandgaveuptwoPhDs,andworkedon
navalresearchbeforehefoundwhatheshouldhavebeendoingonlyin
hismidthirties,goingontocodiscoverthestructureofDNAthenmaking
furtherfundamentalcontributionstounravellingthegeneticcode.[49]
Wasthereanythingthatcoulddifferentiatebetweendriftingpotential
geniuseswhohavenotyetfoundtheirdestinypeopleliketheyoung
EinsteinandCrickandpeoplewhoaremerelydrifting,startingand
failing,unabletoapplythemselvesbecausetheyhavesomethingwrong
withthem?
ExtraversionIntroversiontrait
Whatkindofpersonalityresultsinsuchadispositiontowardsgenius?We
havealreadylookedatthepersonalitytypeseeminglyassociatedwith
academicswhoareregardedascreativeintheirfieldsand,indeed,as
geniusesintermsofthemainstreamBigFivetraits.
Thereare,however,problemsinmeasuringsomeofthesetraitswhenit
comestogenius.Ingeneral,itwouldbeexpectedthatthegeniusoughtto
behighintheIntroversiontraitinthesensethatintrovertsareinner
stimulatedandautonomousoftheirenvironment,incontrastwith
extravertswhodependonexternalstimulustomaintainastateofarousal
oralertness.
ButtheselfratingscalesformeasuringIntroversionfocusonbehaviours
andnotpsychologicalmechanisms,focusonoutcomesnotprocesses
thereforethosescoringhighinIntroversionwillincludepeoplewhoare
simplyanhedonic(unabletoexperiencepleasure),inactivewholack
motivationanddriveandtheseattributeswouldbefataltotheprospects
ofageniusaccomplishinganythingsignificant.
Inotherwords,true,underlyingIntroversionwouldbeacharacteristicof
genius,butahighscoreontheIntroversionratingscalewouldalso
containundermotivatedpeopletherebyblurringthemeasurementby
misclassificationerror.
Thus,ageniusneedstobeagenuineIntrovertbutpeoplewithvarious
pathologiesmightleadtofalsepositivemeasuresofhighIntroversion.
Thismayexplainthecounterintuitivefindingthatcreativescientistsare
highinExtraversionsincegeniusesareveryrare,mostofthehigh
Introversionscoresarecontributedbythosesufferingfrompathology.
NeuroticismEmotionalStabilitytrait
Analogously,butintheoppositedirection,highNeuroticism(N)wouldbe
badforagenius,inthesensethatNreferstoanunpleasantand
overwhelmingsensitivityofemotionsandmoodstotheenvironment
suchthatahighNpersontendseasilytobeoverwhelmedwithnegative
emotionssuchasanxiety,shyness,lowselfesteem,miseryetc.
ButtheoppositestateoflowN(orhighEmotionalStability)asitis
measuredbybehaviouralquestionnaires,isalsopotentiallyhostileto
genius,sinceitimpliesaninsensitivitytoeventsalackofemotional
responsivenessandlowNscorersincludepeoplewithweakemotions
andpeoplewithemotionalinsensitivity.Thesewouldalltendtobea
disadvantagetogeniussinceemotionsareusedtoevaluatesituations
andevidencesoweakemotionswouldtendtoimpairdiscrimination.
ThesewouldbetheunderlyingprocessesofNeuroticism,butinpractice
Nismeasuredusingatallyof(usuallyselfreported)superficial
behaviouraltraitsandthesecouldnotdistinguishbetweendifferent
causesofthesamebehaviourandsowouldconflatesubtleanduseful
emotionalsensitivity,withthepathologicalstateoftooeasytriggeringof
negativeemotions.
So,ageniusmightscoreassomewhathighinN,simplybecausehe
experiencesemotionsstronglybutthiswouldnotnecessarilyreflecta
pathologicalsensitivity.
PsychoticismConscientiousness/Agreeablenessand
Agreeableness/Empathizing
WehavealreadyseenthatgeniusisassociatedwithtraitPsychoticism.
TheinversecorrelationofCreativityintermsofConscientiousness(C)
andAgreeableness(A)isunderstandable,andnecessaryonceCandA
areproperlyunderstood.
Creativityimpliesastrongego,apersonwholooksatasituationand
comesupwithsomethingdifferentbecausehebelievesitpossibleeven
probablethatheknowsbetterthanotherpeople,andis(tosome
extent)indifferenttotheopinionsofothersonthismatter.
WhydoesthisentaillowC?Well,Conscientiousnessissometimes
conceptualizedintermsofdelayedgratificationtheabilitytoputoff
gratificationnow,inreturnforgreatergratificationinthefuture.For
example,todeferthepleasureofplaying,andinsteadstudyacademic
subjectsforegoingthecurrentpleasureofplay,andsufferingthetedium
ofwork,fora(hopedfor)greaterpleasureinthefuture.
Butthisisanerrorbecauseitisnotthewaythemindismotivated.The
mindactuallyworksbymaximizingcurrentgratificationbydoingwhatis
positivelyrewardinghereandnow,andavoidingwhatyieldsnegative
emotions.Therefore,theproperwaytoconceptualizeConscientiousness
isthatahighCpersongetsmoregratificationhereandnowbydoing
whathefeelsitisbesttodo,ornecessarytodo,orwhichhehasbeen
toldtodobyanauthority,orwhatheissupposedtodoaccordingtopeer
pressure.
Therefore,highCimpliesahighdegreeofconcernforinternalizedsocial
normsatendencytofeelgood(hereandnow)whenconformingto
thesesocialnorms/valuesand/oratendencytofeelbad(e.g.guilty,
ashamed,afraid)whentransgressingorfailingtofollowthesesocial
norms.
AndthisiswhatlinksConscientiousnesstoAgreeableness(orSimon
BaronCohenstraitofEmpathizing,whichcorrelateshighlywithA).[50]
HighAgreeablenessisaselfevaluationforhavingadominatingconcern
withtheviewsofotherpeoplepayingcloseattentiontoknowingthe
emotionsandwishesofothers:thatis,acalibrationofonesown
(observedorperceived)behaviourstostayinlinewiththeexpectationsor
desiresofothers.Suchaconcernwouldbefataltothechancesofa
geniusattaininghisDestiny.
So,itcanbeseenthatConscientiousnessandAgreeablenessaretwo
sidesofthesamecoin(andtheinverseofPsychoticism)whichisthata
personhighinConscientiousnessandalsoAgreeablenessisonewho
hereandnow,andinthepresentmomentderivesthegreatest
satisfactionfromhisconformitytothesocialgroup,andisattentiveto
cuesofsocialgroupvalues:and(moreimportant)whohasaversive
feelingsifhetransgressesorhefailstofollowsocialnorms,suchas
wouldhappenifcreativethinkingwasinplay.
Andsuchapersonisnotcreativebecauseheisfocusedonlearning
anddoingwhatthesocialgroupwantshimtodo,insteadofwhathis
innerdrivestellhimheoughttodo:needstodo.
CreativityinlowPsychoticismpeople
Althoughcreativityisstrongestinthosehighinthepersonalitytraitof
Psychoticism(P)whencombinedwithhighintelligence(indicatinga
fundamentallyfunctionalandhealthybrain),itisnotrestrictedtothoseof
highPpersonality:probably,everyoneiscreativetosomeextent.
HowthendoescreativityshowitselfinlowPindividuals?giventhatthe
distributionofPsychoticismwithinthepopulationispositivelyskewed
inotherwordsamajorityofpeoplearelowinPsychoticism,andonlya
smallproportionhighinP?
InpeoplelowinPsychoticism,creativityistherebutweak,seldom
activated,notdominant,shortlivedandasarulesubordinatedto
social(includingsexual)imperativeswhicharetheprimarydriveformost
people.Ofcourse,almostbydefinition,creativityinthenormalmajorityof
peopleisnotnecessarilyimpressive,andisalsorarelyactivated.Sothis
lowlevel,relativelyinfrequentcreativitytendstobeprivate,andalmost
invisibleatasocietallevel(especiallyinlargemodernsocieties).
Theeasiestwaytoseelowlevelcreativityisperhapsinchildren
especiallyinolderbutprepubertalchildren(agedabout612),andtheir
crazesandhobbies.Boysoftenhaveverycreativehobbiesinwhichthey
becomeminiexpertsandaviddissentersonsuchsubjectsascars,
aeroplanes,sports,dinosaursetc.alsoinreading(andmemorizing)
particularbooks(onfavouritethemesorbyfavouriteauthors),orTV
series.Thesechildrenoftenlivechunksoftheirleisuretime
psychologicallyinsideaveryintenseparallelfantasyworld.
Normalandaveragecreativityisthereforeseeninhobbies,andhow
peopleusetheirdiscretionarytimeandthefactthathobbiesareformost
peoplesubordinatedtowork,relationshipsanddailylifeisduetothelow
P,lowcreativitypersonality.
Normalpeoplearecreative,tosomesubsidiaryextentandtheyfit
creativityintotheirlives.Butgeniusesdotheopposite:fittheirlives
aroundtheirhobbiesandgeniusesusuallymaketheirhobbies(their
avocations)intotheirlife(theirvocations).
TheAsocialgenius
Humansaresocialanimals:mostMenseetheworldthroughsocial
spectacles.
Butageniusisnotlikethis.Thegeniusdoesnothaveasingle,
stereotypical,positivepersonalitytype(becauseEndogenous
personalitiesareveryvariousintermsoftraitssuchaslikeableness,
helpfulness,andpersonalwarmth)butgeniusesarecharacterisedby
notbeingprimarilysocialanimals.Ageniusisonewhosemainfocusand
motivationisnotsocial,norsexualbutinsteadabstract,asocial
whetherartistic,scientific,technical,orwhateveritmaybe.
Coulditthenbethatthegeniususesforabstractthinking,thosebrain
systemswhichinmostpeopleareusedforsocialintelligence?Thatinthe
geniusthesocialintelligencesystemiswireduptointernalstimuliinstead
oftosocialsituations?Itseemsthatthegeniusdeploysthesocial
intelligencepartsofthebrainforotherpurposesandthatthereforethe
usualspontaneousmotivationandattentionthatgoestosocialmaterialis
insteadautomaticallybeingharnessedanddeployedtodealwith
otherandinnergeneratedmaterial.Thisseemstousverylikelyalthough
suchaspectsofbrainstructurehavenotyetbeenreliablymeasured.But
giventhatthegeniusbrainseemstobehardwiredforbothcreativityand
intelligenceitisplausiblethatthismaybemadepossiblebyfunctional
redeploymentofatleastsomeaspectsofsocial/sexualcircuitry.
So,itisnotthatgeniuseslacksocialintelligence(thegeniusisnot
autisticinthesenseofhavingadeficitordefectinsocialintelligence)
ratherthatgeniuseshavealltheequipmentnecessaryforsocial
intelligence,butarewireduptousetheirsocialintelligenceforotherand
notsocialpurposes.
Specifically,thegeniusssocialintelligencemaybewireduptointernally
generatedmaterial(insteadofattendingtoactualpeopleinthe
environmentandfrommemory).Thespontaneousinterestandconcern
withotherpeoplethatischaracteristicofmostpeopleis,inthegenius,
directedtowhateverabstractsubjectthegeniushasavocationfor.
Anotherwayofthinkingaboutthisisthatthegeniusmaybeableto
deployextrabrainpowerinproblemsolving,bycooptingthebrain
regionsnormallyusedforsocialintelligence.Andnotonlybrainpower
butthedistinctivetheoryofmindmodeofthinkingwhichcharacterises
socialintelligence.Sothegeniusoftenthinksabouthissubjectina
sociallikewayasaworldpopulatedbyentitieswithmotivationsand
dispositionsandeachhavingapurpose.
Socialintelligencecouldbemuchofwhatiscreativeaboutcreativity
becausetothinkaboutabstractthingsanthropomorphicallywithsocial
intelligence,oranimisticallyasiftheyweresentientsocialagents,
perhapsopensupanewandprobablymorecreative,intuitiveandflexible
wayofthinking.[51]
TheEndogenouspersonalityalsohasveryhighintelligence.Thismaybe
apparentthroughgoodexamresultsinagloadedevaluation,butmay
requireformalintelligencetestingtodetect,iftheindividualhaseither
sufferedfrompoororabsenteducation,orelselacksthe
conscientiousnesstoapplyhimselftohisstudies.Andsometimes
intelligencetestswontdojusticetothegeniussabilities.
ThattheintelligenceoftheEndogenousPersonalitycansometimesnot
beidentifiedinaconventionalwayisofcrucialimportance.Often,the
geniuswillhaveextremelypronouncedabilitiesinoneareaofintelligence
suchasverbalintelligencebutwillbelessskilledinotherareas.
Einstein,forexample,hadsuchhighmathematicalabilitiesthathe
developedanoriginalproofofPythagorastheoremattheageof12.
However,hislinguisticabilitiesweresodeficientthathefailedthe
entranceexamfortheFederalInstituteofTechnologyinZurich.[52]
Consequently,thoughanIQtestcancapturegeneralintelligenceitwill
notnecessarilybeabletocapturegenuinegenius.
So,theEndogenouspersonalitymayberecognizednotjustbytheir
relativeautonomythatis,theirlackofneedforsocialvalidationand
consequentlackofinterestinsocialandsexualmattersbutalsobytheir
highintelligenceandpositivemotivationtodo(ortofind)...whateveritis
thattheyareequippedbytheirnaturetodo.
ChapterEight
Destinyversus
Conscientiousness
TheCreativeTriadisaminimumrequirement,ofcourse,andthereare
otherfeaturesthatmayhelptoidentifyagenius.Oneofthemarked
featuresoftheEndogenousPersonalityisasenseofDestiny.Thisleads
toaQuestand,eventually,Illumination.Wearepronetothinkofonlythe
laststepinthisjourney:theEurekamomentofIlluminationwhenthe
geniusisfloodedwithinsightandseestheanswertohisproblem,and
whattheanswermeans.Butthereareatleastthreedistinctphasesof
whichthiscomeslate.
1.Destiny
Fromchildhood,youthorearlyadultlifethereisasenseofdestiny,of
havingsomespecialroletoplay.Thisdestinyisaccepted,notchosenso
thatthetaskisnottomanufacture,inventordeviseadestinybutrather
todiscover,tofindoutthenatureofonesownpersonalandunique
destiny.Suchaprocessofdiscoveryisamatteroftrialanderror,
followinghunches,driftingfalseleads,blindalleysandredherrings
thereisnorecipeforfindingonesdestiny.Nobodyelsecandoitforyou.
2.Quest
Afterseeking,thegeniusrecogniseswhatitisthatheismeanttodo(or,
meanttoattempt):thisishisQuest.Nowhehastochoosedoeshe
embracehisDestinyandaccepttheQuest?Ordoesherefuse?Only
hecandecideandhewillinevitablydecide:thedecisionisunavoidable.
3.Illumination
Afterprolongedeffortmonths,years,adecadeormore:Eureka
momentIlluminationisachieved:thethingisdone!(Eurekameans
somethinglikeIhavefoundit!andisattributedtoArchimedesinhis
bath.)
Theexperienceaccumulated,theskillsgained,theunderstanding
achievedduringtheQuestatlastcometogetherandthebreakthroughis
made.AtextbookexamplewouldbetheEnglisharchitectMichaelVentris
(19221956).Ventriswasplaguedbyillhealthasachild(healsosuffered
fromnightblindnessandextremeshortsightedness)butwasblessed
withanabilitytolearnlanguages.HemetthearchaeologistSirArthur
Evans(18511941)onaschooltriptotheRoyalAcademyinLondonin
1936,whenVentriswas14.EvansheldupsomeCretantablets,writtenin
LinearBscript,declaringthatnobodycoulddecipherthis.Ventris
dedicatedtherestofhislifetocrackingLinearB.Ventrisfinally
succeededin1952,afterwhichhewasreportedtolackasenseof
purpose.Hediedinanighttimecarcrashin1956,aged34.[53]
OfcoursethereareotherphasescomingafterIlluminationforinstance
theIlluminationmustbecommunicatedtoothersbutbeyondacertain
minimaleffortatrecording,reproducingandrevealing,effective
communicationisofteninthelapofthegodsandbeyondthescopeof
purposiveactivitiesofthegenius.ThentheIlluminationmustbe
understood,considered,implemented,andsoon.
TheusuallifeofanEndogenouspersonalityisinstarkcontrasttothatof
aConscientiousperson,helpingustoidentifywhoisclosertoandwhois
furtherfromgenius.TheConscientiouspersonalityisdrivenbyexternal
socialperceptionsheisattunedtopeerpressure,heacceptspeer
evaluations,andmayworkhardonproblemsandjobswhicharederived
fromthesocialmilieu.
TheConscientiouspersonalityhasnotchosenhisproblemmoreexactly
hisproblemdoesnotderivefrominnersources.Heismotivatedtoact
butbyotherpeople,notbytryingtosolvehisownproblem.The
ConscientiouspersonalityhasnosenseofbeingonatrackofDestinyhe
doesnotowntheproblemheisworkingon.Thatlineofworkmaybe
adoptedfromobedience,ordutyorasamatterofexpediency(e.g.for
status,ormoney,ortogetsex).Butwhenalineofworkceasestobe
externallyrequired,orisexternallydiscouraged,orbecomesinexpedient
thenitwillbeabandoned.
FromthisitisclearthattheConscientiouspersonalityisnotsuitedtoa
genius,isunoriginalandunlikelytoleadtobreakthroughs.Hehasthe
drivetodosomethingintheworldbutthatsomethingdoesnotderive
fromwithinhim,andthereforedoesnotmobilizehisfullinnerresources.
Andhismotivationwillfailwhentimesaretoughhewillnotpush
throughdiscouragements.
IncontrasttotheexternallyorientatedConscientiouspersonality,the
Contemplativepersonalityisfocusedupontheinnerworld.Theminds
eyeisturnedinwardandtheContemplativepersonalityismeditative
occupiedbythoughts,fantasies,speculations...
However,thecontemplativepersonalityisnotcreativebut...
contemplative.ForaContemplative,actionismeditative
understanding,experience,theobservationofthetranscendentalsuchas
truth,beauty,virtue,unity...thisiswhatprovidesthegreatestsatisfaction.
TheContemplativepersonalityisadreamer,notadoer.Therefore,the
Contemplativewillnotsummonthelongterm,stubborndetermination
requiredtodogeniustypecreativeworktheQuesttokeeppushingand
pushingataproblemuntilityieldstoIlluminationthentocommunicate
theoutcome.
TheContemplativepersonalityhasthekindofautonomyofpublic
opinionwhichisnecessarytocreativitybutlacksmotivationtowards
actions,lacksthedrivetosolveaprobleminsteadheiscontentto
contemplateperceivedrealityratherthantoreconceptualizereality.
ChapterNine
TheShamanversustheHeadGirl
Power,Preeminence,Personality
Inconsideringthenatureofgenius,itisnotpossibletodefineitinterms
ofasinglevariablebutitrequiresseveralfactors:thethreePs1.
Power,2.Preeminence,and3.BeingassociatedwithaPersonality.
1.Power
Geniusisaformofpower.Itisindeedanewsourceofpowerthataddsto
humancapability.Ananalogywouldbethatgeniusislikediscoveringa
newsupplyoffuelanewforest,coalseamoroilfield.Thisnewpower
canbeusedconstructively,ordestructivelyfortoolsorforweapons
andaweaponcanbeusedforlegitimatedefenceorformalicioustorture.
Geniusissomewhatlikealocalreorganizationofrealitytocreatenew
capabilityorefficiencyoreffect,theinsightsandtheorynecessaryfor
suchareorganization,oratechnologyortoolthatenablessucha
reorganization.
Butiftheprimaryrealityofgeniusisanewsourceofpower,the
secondaryeffectistoredistributepowerspecificallytoconcentrate
poweraroundtheresultsofgenius(notnecessarilyaroundthegenius
himself,butconcentratepoweraroundtheproductofgenius).Butit
shouldbenoticedthatthetendencyisforthispowertodiffuseand
disseminatesothattheconsequencesofgeniustypicallyspreadmuch
morewidelythanthesituationorsocietyinwhichtheoriginatinggenius
dwelt.
Forexample,technologiessuchasthearchitecturalarch(inventor
unknown)spreadrapidlyandwidelyacrossEuropeandAsiaMinor.The
oppositesituation,whenabreakthroughisconfinedtotheoriginating
group,israrebutdoessometimeshappenoneexampleisGreekFire
(inventorunknown)whichwasasubstanceusedasadeadlyincendiary
weaponbytheByzantineEmpire,thatcouldcontinueburningevenwhile
floatingonwaterthesecretrecipeforwhichhasneverbeendiscovered.
2.Preeminence
Thepowerofgeniusisassociatedwithpreeminence.Ageniusmustalso
bepreeminentinhisfield,mustbeapersonofhighability.Thus,itisnot
geniuswhenapersonisofmediocreabilitybutmerelyhaspower
conferreduponhim,orhasalargeeffect,butbyaccident.
3.Personal
Geniusispersonalthatis,itoriginatesinaspecificperson.Thepower
andpreeminenceofageniusmustalsobederivedfromwithin
themselves,mustoriginatefromthepersonandnotmerelyfromhis
positioninasystemorinstitutionorfromheadshipofateam(orfrom
someotherpersonaswhensomebodyelsesworkisappropriated).
TheShaman
So,ifwewantausefulmetaphorthepowerofthegeniusislikethatof
theshaman,incontrasttothatofthechief.Thepowerofthegeniusislike
thatofGermansociologistMaxWebers(18641920)Charismaticin
contrasttotheBureaucrat[54]whothenadministersthesocietywhichthe
Charismatic(theonewiththegiftstomakeacoldworldseemwarm)has
founded.Thegeniusmayimpressherteachersatschool,butsheisnot
goingtobemadeHeadGirl.
Theshamancomparisonis,perhaps,themostuseful.Now,thecategory
ofshamanisamodern,Westernconceptualizationwhichunifies
disparatefiguresfoundinawiderangeoftribalsituationsandfrom
differenthistoricaltimes.ThetermwasoriginallySiberianandthismay
linkculturallytoAmerindianexamples(includingamongEskimos/Inuit,
throughclassicRedIndians/NativeAmericanstoAmazoniansand
Patagonians)butshamansarealsoinstancedamongtheBushmenof
theKalaharidesertinAfricaandAboriginesinAustraliaandindeed
whereverthereisananimistic,orsimpletotemistic(whereananimal
totemisworshippedandsacrificed)religion.Theshamanlivesinaworld
dominatedbyspirits,everythingintheworldhasitsownspiritandthat
spiritmustbeappeasedthroughritual.Hehastheabilitytoenterthespirit
world,negotiatewiththespirits,andsoimprovethelifeofthetribe
throughhealingorensuringgoodhunting.[55]
Assuch,despitethemanyfairpointsmadebyrevisionistswhichtendto
suggestthatthewholeareaofshamansissovagueandconfusedthatit
wouldbebettertodispensewiththetermwebelieveitdoeshavevalue.
Thekeypointisthatshamanswereunexpectedfiguresfor
anthropologistsfoundinsometypesofsimplesocietybutapparently
eithercompletelyabsentfromWesternsocietiesorelsehiddenso
deeplyastobeundetectablebyofficialinvestigators.Soanthropologists
mighthaveexpectedtofindpriests,analogoustothealreadyknown
priestsoftheWestern,MiddleEasternandFarEasternsocietiesbut
shamanswerenotpriests.Anewcategorywasneeded.
Whatdoshamansdo?Theyarecalledupontodealwithexceptional
situationssituationswherethereisnotraditionalguidance,orwherethe
traditionalguidancehasbeentriedandfoundtobeineffective.Such
situationscouldincludesometypesofillness,whenandwheretomove
forbetterhunting,whattodoaboutthreatsfrompredatorsorothertribes,
legaljudgementindifficultcasesmanytypesofadviceandguidance,
interpretationandprophecy.
Todothis,shamansusealteredstatesofconsciousnesstrancestates
ofvarioustypesorvisionarydreamsduringwhichshamanscontactthe
underlyingspiritworldforinformationandprediction,ortointerveneand
changethings.Inanutshell,shamansarebelievedtobeabletocome
intocontactwithadeeperlevelofrealitythantheeverydayandthatis
thesourceoftheirabilitiesandtheirsocietalrole.
So,shamansarehighlycreativepersonsandthereforewewould
expectthattheywouldshowthePsychoticismliketraitsofhighcreativity
andthisseemstobeconfirmedbyanthropologicalaccounts.Shamans
usuallyemergefromanearlyageoflifeeitherchildhoodorteensthe
shamaniseithermarkedfromanearlyageasbeingdifferent,orelse
goesthrougha(typically)traumaticexperienceofillness,accidentor
someotherstress,whichchangesthempermanently.Thus,shamansare
seenasflawed,damagedpeoplewhoalso(becauseofthis,notdespite
it)havespecialgifts.[56]TheyarethewoundedhealersastheDutch
CatholicpriestFr.HenriNouwen(19321996)putit.[57]
Theshamanisusuallyamanusuallynotsociallyintegrated,usually
livessomewhatapart,maybeunfriendlyapersonfearedandrespected
ratherthanlovedandcherished.Oftentheshamanisunmarried,without
knownchildrensomeonewhohandsonhissocialroleby
apprenticeshipratherthanfoundingalineage.Someonewhodoesnot
work,butissupportedbypaymentsforservicesandcharity/protection
moneyatleasthedoesnotdoworkasitappliestotherestofthetribe
huntinggathering,agriculture,warfare,childcare.[58]
Itwouldobviouslyhelpiftheshamanwasmorethanusuallyintelligentas
wellasmorethanusuallycreativebutitisprobablethatthesenomadic,
simplehuntergatherersocietieshavenotbeenselectedforhigher
intelligenceoverhundredsofyearsashavesomeofthemorestable
andmorecomplexagriculturalsocieties(aswewillseelater).
Sotheobjectiveintelligenceofreallifeshamansmayhavebeenrelatively
lowerthanwhatEuropeansofrecentgenerationswouldhaveconsidered
tobeaverage.However,itislikelythatshamanswererelativelyhighly
intelligentbythestandardsoftheirpeople.
Butitisnotonlytheexceptionalintelligencethatsetstheshamanapart
ratheritisthedifferentcognitivestyle:theshamanapproachesproblems
differently,orcreativelyaswewouldsayhedoesnotapplytheusual,
traditional,highstatusorsociallysanctionedrulesorpracticesbut
insteadgenerateshisunpredictableanswersusingquitedifferent
processesandprocedures.
Andthisissomethingthattheshamancannothelpdoing:heismadethat
way,heiscalledtoarole.TheshamanisprobablyanEndogenous
personalityheembodiesthatpowerwhichcomesfromhighability
combinedwithhighcreativity,anditisthiswhichenableshimtoservea
crucialsocialfunctionincertainrarebutimportantsituations.Mostofthe
timeheisnotwanted,scary,chaotic,nasty,anuisance,aparasitebut
therearesituationswhenheisneeded.Anditisforthesesituationsthat
theshamanisprotectedbytherestofthetribe.
This,then,isthesamekindofpowerthegeniushas:theshamancanbe
consideredanexampleofthelocalgenius.
TheHeadGirl
Asalreadymentioned,acomparison,oranticomparison,withgeniusis
theHeadGirl.
ThefirstissueissimplythiswordGirl.Geniustendstomorecommonin
males.Thereareanumberofreasonsforthis:
1. Womensintelligenceismorebunchedtowardsthemeanthanmaleintelligence,meaningtherearemore
intelligenceoutliersamongmen.
2. Adult men probably have a moderately higher average IQ score than women (perhaps one third of a
standarddeviationhigher)which(likethewiderstandarddeviationofmaleIQ)alsotranslatestoamore
substantialproportionofmenattheveryhighestlevelsofintelligence.[59]
3.Insurveys,menarenearlyalwaysratedhigherthanwomeninaveragePsychoticismandpeoplewithhigh
levels of Psychoticism are much more likely to be men than women (the distribution of Psychoticism is
positivelyskewedinmoststudiesthatismostpeoplehavelowlevelsofP,andonlyasmallproportion
havehighlevels).Wewouldinterpretthissexdifferenceaspartlybeingduetohigherratesofpsychopathy/
psychopathic personality disorder in men but partly also an aspect of the more creative, Endogenous,
personalitytype.[60]
Itisnoticeablethatgirlscrazestendtobemoresociallyinflectedand
lessabstract(e.g.princesses,fairies,clothes,ponies)andthisfollows
throughtoadultlife,andtothesubjectsofmajorachievementforwomen.
Thehighestfrequencyofgeniuslevel,orneargeniuslevel,achievement
amongwomenisfocusedonthemostsocialandhumanaspectsofthe
artsandsciencesandmuchrarerinabstractareas.Forinstance,there
aremanyandwellknownwomennovelistsinthefrontrank(notablyJane
AustenandGeorgeEliot)thenovelbeingthemostsocialofartforms.
Andinscience,thehighestachievementsofwomenareinthehuman
sciencesratherthanthephysicalsciencesandwithinbiologywomen
havebeenveryprominentinsocialareaslikeprimatology(e.g.Jane
Goodall,SarahBlafferHrdy)andanthropology(e.g.RuthBenedict,Jane
Jacobs).
Itisatenetoffeministscholarshipthatthereweremanywomen
geniuseswhowereneglectedbecausetheywerewomenandalarge
partoffeministscholarshiphasbeendedicatedtoraisingawarenessof
womengeniuses.Thatthereareindeedwomengeniusesisclear
examplesabound,especiallyinliteraturebutwedonotthinkfeminist
scholarshipofthepastfiftyyearshascomeupwithasingleneglected
exampleofamajorwomangenius.
Insteadtherehasbeenacombinationofthepretencethatrealwomen
geniuseswerepreviouslyneglecteduntilfeminismcamealongplusthe
hypingofwomennongeniuses(suchasHildegardofBingenasa
composerandspiritualwriter,theDNAscientistRosalindFranklin,and
playwrightAphraBenn).ButFeministscholarshiphasfailedtodiscover
anyrealwomengeniuses,becausetherehavebeenrelativelyfew.
TheHeadGirlisthusevenmoreproblematicintermsofgenius.The
stereotypicalHeadGirlisanallrounder:performsextremelywellinall
schoolsubjectsandhasaveryhighGradePointAverageasitistermed
intheUSA.Sheisexcellentatsports,Captainingallthemajorteams.
Sheisalsopretty,popular,sociableandwellbehaved.
TheHeadGirlwillprobablybeabigsuccessinlife,inwhateverterms
beingabigsuccesshappenstobeframed(shewillgravitatetowards
suchaspectsoflife)soshemightinsometimesandplacesmakea
goodmarriageanddoagreatjobofraisingafamilyinanothertimeand
placeshemightgotoatopnotchcollegeandgetatopnotchjoband
pursueaglamorousandinfertilelifestyleofserialmonogamywith
desirablemates.
ButtheHeadGirlisnot,cannotbe,acreativegenius.Thegeniusispretty
mucheverythingtheHeadGirlisnot.He(orshe)islopsidedinhis
abilitiestrulyexcellentatsomethingsormaybejustonething,heis
eitherhopelessorboredbymanyothers.Hewontworkhardforlong
periodsatthingshedoesnotwanttodo.Hewillnotgravitatetothe
prestigeareasoflifeandcannot,orwillnot,dothenetworkingnecessary
togeton.
TheHeadGirlcanneverbeacreativegeniusbecauseshedoeswhat
otherpeoplewantbythestandardstheymostvalue.Shewillworkharder
andatahigherstandardindoingwhateveritisthatsocialpressuretells
hertodoandshewilldothisbywhateversocialstandardsprevail,only
morethoroughly.Meanwhilethecreativegeniuswilldowhathedoes
becausehemust.
TheHeadGirlwillnotwanttoalienatepotentiallypowerfulallies.
Meanwhilethecreativegeniusisindifferentorhostiletotheopinionsof
otherssolongasheknowsheisright.
TheHeadGirlisgreattohavearound,everybodythinkssheiswonderful.
Meanwhilethecreativegeniusisatbestapersonwhodividesopinion,
strongly,inbothdirectionsatworstoftenasignedupmemberofthe
awkwardsquad.
Thevulnerablegenius
ThepropersocialroleofthehighlyableEndogenouspersonalityisnotas
leader.Indeed,theEndogenouspersonalityshouldbeexcludedfrom
leadershipashewilltendtolackthedesiretocooperatewithorcarefor
thefeelingsofothers.Hisroleshouldbeasanintuitive/inspiredadviser
ofrulers.
Adviserofrulersisatermwhichshouldbetakentoincludevarioustypes
ofprophet,shaman,genius,wizard,hermit,andholyfooltheSocrates
oftheearlyPlatonicdialoguesisanhistoricalexample,asisDiogenes,
theCynic,ofSinope(c.412323BC),wholivedinabarrelandis
supposedtohavesnubbedAlexandertheGreat(withoutbeingpunished),
oreventheFoolcharacterinShakespeareplays.
TheseareextremesbutthedescriptionofEndogenouspersonalityand
ofaninnerorientationalsoappliestomosthistoricalexamplesof
creativegenius.TheEndogenouspersonalitythereforedoesnot(as
mostmen)seekprimarilyforsocial,sexualoreconomicsuccessinstead
theEndogenouspersonalitywantstolivebyhisinnerimperatives.
Thewayitissupposedtowork,thedeal,thesocialcontractisthatthe
Endogenouspersonality,byhisnonsocialorientation,isworkingforthe
benefitofsocietyasawholeatthecostofhisnotcompetingintheusual
statuscompetitionswithinthatsociety.Hisrewardissimplytobe
allowed,orbetteractivelyenabled,tohavetheminimalnecessary
sustenance,psychologicalsupport(principallybeingleftaloneandnot
harassedormolestedbutideallysustainedbyhisfamily,spouse,patron
orthelike)tobesomehowprovidedwiththetimeandspaceand
wherewithaltodohisworkandcommunicatetheoutcome.Forthe
Endogenouspersonality,thisisitsownreward.
Inreturn,theEndogenouspersonalityshouldnotexpect(althoughhe
might,bychance,get)socialesteem,wealth,orsexualsuccess.Often,
hemayneedtobehighlysolitary,secluded,ascetic,perhapscelibate.He
shouldnotseek,andshouldtrynottoaccept,leadershippositions,or
administrativeresponsibilities.
MichaelA.Woodleymakesthepointthatindividualswhocanproperlybe
classifiedasgeniusesnecessarilyhavebrainsthatarewireddifferently
fromnormaltheyareprogrammedtofocusontheirdestinedtasksand
thereforemaybeunabletodealwiththesmalldetailsofdaytoday
affairs.[61]Forinstance,Einsteinoncegotlostnotfarfromhishomein
Princeton,NewJersey.Hewentintoashopandsaid,Hi,ImEinstein,
canyoutakemehomeplease?Hecouldnotdriveacar,andmanytasks
andchoresthatmostpeopletakeforgrantedwerebeyondhim.[62]
Woodleysconclusionflowsfromtheideaofgeniusasagroupselected
traitadaptedtobeanassettootherpeople.Insum,thepotentialgenius
needstobelookedafterbecauseintermsofnegotiatingthecomplexities
ofhumansocietyheislikelytobevulnerableandfragile.Thecorollaryof
whichisthatwhengeniusesarenotlookedafter,theyarelesslikelyto
fulfiltheirpotential,andeverybodyloses.
Forinstance,theAmericanreclusivepoetEmilyDickinson(18301886)
wasmanagedbyColonelT.W.HigginsonJaneAusten(17751817)
flourishedintheobscurityofherfamilyandthecriticandsocial
philosopherJohnRuskin(18191900)wasshelteredandnurturedbyhis
parents,thenacousin.ThomasAquinas(12251274)waslookedafterby
hisbrotherFriarsGeneticsfounderJohannMendel(18221884)was
secludedinamonasteryPascal(16231662)waslookedafterbyhis
aristocraticFrenchfamily.[63]Plusmanyanothergeniuswassustainedby
acapablewifeKurtGdel(19061978)dependedonhis,older,wife
Adeleandwouldonlyeatfoodpreparedbyhersothatwhenshewas
hospitalized,Gdelliterallystarved.[64]
Whenthereisacloseknitandidealisticcommunity,thismayalsodoit
forexample,thecommunityofmathematicianslookedafterHungarian
PaulErdos(19131996),whoneverhadahome,possessedonlythe
contentsofasmallsuitcase,andcampedoutatinthehouseofone
mathematicsprofessorafteranotherfordecades,whilecollaboratingon
researchpapers.TheIndiangeniusmathematicianSrinivasaRamanujan
(18871920)wasdiscoveredandprotectedbytheCambridgeProfessors
HardyandLittlewoodalthoughhedied,weakenedbyhisinabilitytoeat
adequatelyduetoBrahmindietaryrestrictionsthatweretoorigorousfor
Englishlife.
TheunfortunateWilliamSidis(18981944),anAmericanchildprodigyof
theearlytwentiethcenturyandreputedtohavethehighesteverrecorded
IQscorewasexploitedandexposedtosocialstressesratherthan
protectedbyhisparents(hisfatherwasaHarvardprofessorof
Psychology).Sidiswasasensitiveandawkwardmanwhohadtosurvive
inahostileandmockingworldsohiscreativeachievementsalthough
greaterthancommonlysupposedwerelimited,andindeedlargely
unknownandunappreciated.[65]
Theriseofbureaucracy
Modernsocietyisdominatedbybureaucracy,thatisbydivisionof
function,votingcommitteesandformalproceduresratherthanby
individualhumans,closeknitandinformalgroupsmakingpersonal
judgments.
Thisimpersonalityofbureaucracy,thelackofindividualautonomyand
responsibilityseemstobeamajorfactorinthemodernfailuretolook
after,butinsteadtoneglectoreventopersecute,geniuses.
Furthermore,initself,theriseinbureaucracyinacademiaandalso
morebroadlymightbeseenasfurtherevidenceofthetrendfordecline
inintelligence.Thereareanumberofcomplementaryexplanationsforthe
riseinbureaucracywhichwouldbecongruentwiththistheory.
1.Parasitism:Bureaucracycanbeseenasaparasite,growingatthe
expenseofthehostsociety.Somebureaucracyisnecessaryassociety
becomesmorecomplexandorganizationsbecomelarger.However,the
abundanceofwealthandresourcescreatedbyindustrializationhas
meantthatitispossibleforagroupofquiteunnecessarypeoplee.g.
micromanagingandinefficiencygeneratingbureaucratstolatchonto
thehostandevenpersuadethehostthattheyarenecessary.Once
attachedtothehosttheyspreadlikeacancerbecausecriticismof
bureaucracyleadstofurtherregulatorybureaucracytosortoutthe
bureaucracy.Amoreintelligenthostwouldrealisethatthebureaucracy
wasparasiticandwouldremoveitbutoncethebureaucracyislarge
enough,thenitwilldominateallseniorpositionsandcommittees,and
becomeimpossibletoexcise.Atthatpoint,deathofthehostalongwith
theparasitebecomesalmostinevitable.[66]
2.DivisionofLabour:Bureaucracytendstoinvolveanincreasingdivision
oflabourandtheassumptionthatthedecisionofacommitteewillbe
superiortothe(potentiallycorrupt)decisionofanindividual.Suchdivision
andoversightfunctionswouldbemorenecessaryinasocietywith
decliningintelligence,becauseindividualdecisionswouldbemoreprone
tocorruptionandplainstupiditythaninamoreintelligentsocietyand
peopleingeneralwouldbelesslikelytotrustindividualsasintelligence
predictstrust.[67]Accordingly,inthecontextofuniversities,forexample,
therewouldincreasinglybeaneedformorerigidandimpersonal
personnelselectionintheformofrequiringformalqualificationsachieved
viarigidcriteria.Inaddition,bureaucracyincludesbreakingupataskinto
smallercomponentfunctionscoordinatedinahierarchicalsequence.It
takeslessintelligencetoperformthesesmallerfunctionsthantheentire
specialisedtask.Thus,associetybecomeslessintelligentsogreater
bureaucracyisrequiredforevennecessarybureaucracytocontinue(or
forparasiticbureaucracytocontinuetogrow).
3.TheGrowthofAcademia.Associetyhasbecomespecialised,
academiahasgrownenormouslyinitiallyfromsocialneed,laterfromthe
parasiticgrowthoffunctionallyredundantandineffectivedemandsfor
certificationsustainedbyincreasingstatesubsidies.Astheacademic
staffingofevermoreinstitutionsexpandsmanyfold,theintelligence
rangeofacademicsislikelytobecomefarbroaderthanitoncewas,and
thetailoflessableacademicscomestodominatenumerically.In
addition,thepopulationtrendofdecliningintelligencewillmeanthateven
thebestacademicswillbelessintelligentthanagenerationago.Assuch,
alargerandmoreeffectivebureaucracyapparentlybecomesmore
necessary(or,atleast,desirable)topoliceandmanagealessintelligent
(andlessselfmotivated)academiawhichislikelytobeincreasingly
corrupt,incompetentandfactious.Inaddition,wehaveseenthat
intelligencecorrelateswithIntellect,anduniversitieshavebecomefar
lessintellectual.Insteadofactingprimarilyasaspecialistintellectual
finishingschool,theytrainpeopleeitherpartiallyorcompletelyfor
variousprofessions:solicitor,engineer,schoolteacher,government
administrator,privateindustrymanagersofmanytypes,architect,
accountantetc.Untilasrecentlyasthe1970s,noneoftheserequireda
degreenowtheydoasdoamultitudeofskilledmanualjobslike
pharmacy,physiotherapy,nursingetc.Thiscanbeseentoheralda
changeinattitude.Universitieswereprimarilyabouttrainingprofessionals
whichwereoriginallypriests,barristersandphysiciansonlybutthe
notionofprofessionhasbeenexpandedahundredfoldandnowa
universitydegreeisaprerequisiteforevenreasonablypaidjobs
unrelatedtotheactualneedsofthosejobs.Thiswillselectforstudents
whoarebetteratattainingqualifications,atworkinginabureaucracy
hencetheselectionproceduresfavourthosewhoareConscientious
ratherthangeniuses.
4.TheOnlyMeansofAchievement.Wehaveseenthatacademic
achievementispartlypredictedbyintelligenceandpartlypredictedby
personalitytraits,especiallyConscientiousness,whichpredictsyears
spentineducationat0.55.[68]Accordingly,inprinciple,someonecanget
intoagooduniversityvia1.Thecombinationofveryhighintelligencebut
onlymoderateConscientiousness,2.VeryhighConscientiousnessbut
onlymoderateintelligenceor3.Byscoringreasonablyhighlyonboth
measures.Bureaucracythekeepingofrecords,planning,and
adherencetoformalprocedures(thequalitiesofaConscientiousperson
inmanyways)shouldbesmaller,atanygivenstageofcomplexity,the
moreintelligent(onaverage)isagivensociety.Thisisbecause
intelligencereflectsahighfunctioningbrainandthussuperiormemory
(swifterlearningandlessneedtorecordthings),superiorabilitytosolve
anygivenproblem(andsolessneedforformalproceduresand
planning),andbeingmorefunctionallyprosocialandmoreforward
thinking(meaninglessconflict,lessfreeriding,moretrust,andfewer
unforeseenproblemstomanage).Thus,associetybecomesless
intelligentitcanonlymaintainitsachievementlevelthroughmore
Conscientiousbehaviour:thatis,throughmorebureaucracy.
But,whateverisbehindthegrowthinbureaucracy,whatevermixtureof
needandparasitismthatmightprevailinanyparticulartimeandplace,it
leadstodecisionbycommitteesofbureaucratswhowillimplicitlybe
lookingforpeoplewhowillmakegoodbureaucratsandoftenwhowill
makeauniversitymoneyintherelativelyshortterm.Theywillnotwant
peoplewhowillupsetthesmoothfunctioningofthebureaucracywhich
geniustypesmaywelldoandtheywillberigidinstickingtorules,which
geniuseswontbe.Itwillalsobeverydifficulttopunishbureaucratsin
votingcommitteesformakingapoordecisionforinstance,rejectinga
personwholaterturnsouttobeageniusinthefield,andwhose
appointmentwouldthereforehaveeventuallypaidoffasrejectionwasa
collectivedecisionwheretheymerelyfollowedtherulesalsothe
compositionofthedecisionmakingcommitteeis(typically)unstableand
constantlychanging.Moreover,bureaucraticstickingtotheruleswill
typicallyworkagainstgeniuses,becausebureaucratsusuallyhavea
blackandwhiteinterestinqualifications,gradesandthelike.Thiswillbe
problematicforthegenius,withhishighlynarrow,lopsidedfocus.(We
havenotedelsewherethatNewton,Einstein,Crickandmanyanother
geniusdidnotexcelacademicallybyformalcriteria).
Insum,committeesdonotlookaftergeniusesrathertheyignorethem,
orpersecutethem.ItislikelynocoincidencethatEnglishgeniusvery
suddenlyallbutdisappearedintheerafromabout19551980[69]inwhich
bureaucracywaxeddominantinnationallifeandnowadaysgeniuses
areabsent,invisible,orfightingforsurvivalagainsttheforcesofmass
media,committees,peerreviewersandotherfacelessofficials.
Thisissadforthegeniusesperhapsfatalforoursociety.
ChapterTen
NewtonversusJung
Tofurtherillustratethenatureofgenius,itwillbeusefultoexploretwo
examples.ThefirstisSirIsaacNewton(16421727)agenius,andoneof
theverygreatest.[70]ThesecondisCarlJung(18751961),whodisplayed
aspectsofgeniusperhapsahighlyinfluentialpartialgenius.[71]
Newtonsintellectualability,hisintelligence,wasveryobviously
stratosphericsohispersonalitybecomesasourceoffascination.Hans
Eysenckestablishedthatthehighlevelcreativepersonalitytypewas
approximatedbythetraitofHighPsychoticism,whichwehavealready
discussed.
Newtonsbiographyrevealsthathewasanextremeexampleofthe
Psychoticismtrait.Psychoticismisimportanttogeniusbecauseit
describessomeonewhoisuninterestedanduninfluencedbythenormal
humanconcernswhichareessentiallyotherpeople.Mosthumansare
socialanimals,whoseelifethroughsocialspectacles,andwhoare
motivatedbythedesireforfriends,sex,status,andsoon.Butnot
Newton.Inhisearlyandmostcreativeyears,hesimplywantedtobe
allowedtogetonwithhiswork.
Asachildandyoungmanofsciencehewouldspendnearlyallofhistime
alone,whenincompanyhewouldbesilent,hehadessentiallynofriends,
formednorelationshipswithwomen,andmadeverylittleefforttofitin.
Indeedasaboyhisrelationshipswithotherboystendedtobe
antagonisticandattimesrathersadistic(Newtonwasnotlikeable).
NewtonwastaughtLatinatschoolandlittleelse.Intermsof
mathematicsandsciencehewasanautodidact.Whateverhedid,hedid
becausehewantedtodoitandhediditatcloseto100percenteffort.
Thusinayearorsohewentfromknowingnomathematicstomastering
thesubjectandbeingamongthebestintheworldandthenimmediately
wentontomakesomeofthegreatestevermathematicaldiscoveries.
Newtonsownexplanationofhisachievementemphasizedthedistinctive
creativepersonalityhewasaskedhowhemadehisdiscoveriesand
gavesuchanswersasBythinkingonitcontinuallyandIkeepthe
subjectconstantlybeforeme.
Thenheallbutdroppedmathematics,andinsteadworkedononeareaof
physicsafteranothermakingmajordiscoveries,thenmovingon.This
mayremindyouoftheschoolboycrazesorobsessions,typicalofsome
highlyintelligentyoungmen.
StoriesofNewtonsconsumingfocusaboundhewouldthinksolidlyfor
houruponhoursometimesstandinglostinabstractionhalfwaydown
thestairsforgettoeat,forgettosleepforgetthathehadvisitors.For
yearsheseldomlefthiscollege,almostneverleftCambridge.Inallof
humanhistorytherecanhavebeenveryfew(andperhapsnobodyof
Newtonsastonishingintelligence)whogavesuchintenseandsustained
concentrationtowhateverproblemtheywereworkingon.
AndwhileNewtonsacademicperformancewasgood,itwasnot
amazing,andwassomewhaterratic.Itseemsheperformedbadlyinhis
BAexaminationwhichwasavivavocedisputationneedingtogoonto
asecondroundofquestions(ratherthanpassingstraightaway).This
wasregardedassomewhatdisgraceful.
Hismethodswerehighlyintuitive,reasoningfromarelativelysmallbase
ofaxiomsandprinciples,buildingoutfromthem,makingpredictionsand
testinghisideasagainstgeneralobservations.Thiscanbecontrasted
withthemethodtypicalofhighlyintelligentandconscientiousuncreative
peoplewhoreadwidely,learnmanyfacts,andthentrytoapplyother
peoplessolutionstoproblems.
ButNewton,theautodidact,workedthingsthroughforhimselfthought
thingsthroughusingonlythosefactsandprincipleshetrusted.Fromthis
originalityfollowsquitenaturallyandwithoutbeingdeliberatelysought.
ItisclearthatNewtonssolitary,wilfulandautonomouspersonalityhis
unempathic,unconscientious,antisocialandeccentricwaysinsum
hishighPsychoticismtraitswereasnecessaryapartofhissupreme
geniusaswasultrahighintelligence.
LetusnowcontrastNewtonwithJung.CarlJungisunusualamong
probablegeniuses,inthathewasdishonestabouthisownworkandits
implications.
ThatJungwasaneargeniuswethinkiscorrecthemadenumerous
discoveriesandconceptualbreakthroughsandheisanunseenbut
pervasiveinfluencebehindvastareasofmoderncultureincluding
psychology,psychiatry,therapyand(especially)thatvastandvague
phenomenoncalledtheNewAgemovement(almosteverythingaboutthe
NewAgehasaJungianlineageevenwhenthisisnotgenerallyknown
oracknowledged).
ButthatJungwasathoroughlydishonestanddeceptivemanis
somethingequallyundeniable.Jungwasneverplainandhonestwhen
thatwasinexpedientJungwasnotdrivenbyapurepursuitoftruth
becausetruthwasreadilyandrepeatedlysacrificedwhenthe
consequenceswereunwantedbyJung.(Eysenckregardedlyingas
typicalofthehighPsychoticismpersonality.)
HecravedrespectabilityasaProfessor,psychiatrist,scholar,scientist
andwouldtrimhispublishedviewstoensurethis.Hewantedwealth,
status,admirationandpatientswerecharmed,seduced,strungalong
andgenerallyexploitedtoensurethis.Jungwantedtoberegardedasan
unworldlysagebutworkedtocreateanorganizationdedicatedtohis
ownselfpromotion.Heapparentlyhadmanysexualrelationshipswithhis
patientsandtraineesrightintooldageandhadalongtermlivein
mistresswhofunctionedasasecondwife(whilebeingunmentionedin
hisautobiographyhealsousedhispersonalmagnetismtomaintaina
householdofhandmaidenstodoteuponandservehim).
ThepointisthatJungsmanycompromises,deceptions,evasions,and
liesaresoconsistentlydedicatedtohisowncomfort,convenienceand
gratificationthatthepictureisoneofahighlycharminganddominantbut
heartless,manipulativeandselfishpsychopathtypicaltraitsofhigh
Psychoticism,butwhichinterferewithcreativeachievement.Furthermore,
Jungexperiencedasignificantpsychoticepisode(hisconfrontationwith
theunconscious,from1913)characterizedbyhallucinationsandprobably
delusions.
Insum,JunglikeNewtonexhibitedsomeaspectsofthedarksideof
Psychoticism.
Jungis,inseveralrespects,theprecursorofthepostmodernintellectual
thecleversillywhoespousesanillogical,incoherent,dogmatic,
opaquelyexpressed,andoverlycomplexidea.Doingthishelpshimto
displayhisintelligencebecausetheideaiscomplexandhardto
understand,makinghimseemprofoundtosillyoremotionalpeople
eveniftheideaisnonsenseoncloserinspection.Also,iftheideagives
peoplehope,thenhewillcomeacrossasaltruistic,furtherboostinghis
status.[72]
Butthiscouldbeputasideasmerehypocrisyandthatissomethingof
whichweareallguilty(itwouldbehypocriticaltopretendotherwise).But
Jungsdishonestywentevendeeperthanthat,toinvadehisprimary
achievement.BecauseJungsworkisincoherentattheverydeepestlevel
andthisincoherencehasafflictedhislegacy.Andthisincoherencewas
nottheresultofconfusion,buttheresultofdishonesty.
Anexampleistheideaofsynchronicitywhichhasbecomeanextremely
influentialculturalidea,asabuzzwordandavagueconceptbutwhich
wasdeployedbyJunginawaythatmakesnosense.Andthis
incoherenceisnotduetomisunderstandingJung,butcomesdirectlyfrom
Jungswrittencontradictoryaccountsandevasionsoftheimplicationsof
hisowninsight.
BritishphilosopherColinWilson(19312013)exposedthisinhis
marvellouslyinsightfulshortstudy:LordoftheUnderworld:Jungandthe
TwentiethCentury(1984)especiallythechapterTheSageofKusnacht,
whereWilsongoesthroughthewritingsonsynchronicitywithafine
toothedcomb,andtriestopindownwhatJungreallybelieved,ormeant
andcomesupagainstamassofobfuscationandselfrefutation:ofgiving
withonehandandtakingbackwiththeother.[73]
ThiskindofcontradictionandvaguenessvitiatesJungslegacyandisa
directconsequenceofhismixedmotivations.Itdemonstratesthatgenius
dependsondedicationtothework,andanyfailuresinthisregardwill
detractfromthelevelofachievement.
Jungslastrecordedwordsfromhisdeathbedseemappropriate:Lets
haveareallygoodredwinetonight.Thefinalstatementofamanwhose
personalgiftswereastonishinglygreatbutwhoconsistentlyand
successfullydeployedthemforhisowncomfort,convenienceandglory.
ChapterEleven
TheEvolutionofGenius
Buthowdidhumansocietiesevolvesuchthatgeniuswhichisatleast
asocialandperhapsseemsantisocial,andoftenindifferentto
reproductioncouldmanifestitself?Onthefaceofit,geniusseemslike
somethingthatcouldnothappen.
Inbiological,thatisevolutionary,termsandfollowinguptheinsightsof
MichaelA.Woodleyweregardgeniusisanaltruistictrait.
Altruisticinthissensemeansthatonaverage,intheenvironment
whereandwhengeniusevolvedbeingageniuswilltendtoreducethe
geniussownpersonalreproductivesuccess,whilegeniuscaused
inventionsandotherbreakthroughswillusuallysubstantiallyenhancethe
reproductivesuccessofthegroupofwhichthegeniusisamember.But
thisgeniuscausedenhancementofgroupsurvivalandgrowthincludes
unrelatedgroupmembers,andgroupmemberswhohavenothelpedthe
geniusmeaningthatkinselectionandmutualassistance/reciprocity
(themainpositedevolutionarycausesofaltruism)donotseemtoapply.
Thatis,beingageniusonaveragereducesthechancesofreproducing
successfully,andreducestheprobablenumberofviablechildrenbut
theactivitiesofageniuswilltendtoincreasechancesofsurvivalofhis
group,orexpandthenumbersofpeopleinthegroup.
Manygeniuseshavehadnoknownoffspring,andstatisticalstudieshave
indicatedaconsiderablylowerthanaveragenumberofchildrenforthe
geniusesofhistory.[74]Andhoweverimpreciseorsubjectivethesestudies
maybe:certainlythereisnosignificantevidencetosuggestthatgeniuses
haveonaverageanincreasednumberofoffspringwhichwouldbe
neededtoexplaintheoccurrenceofgeniusbyordinary,individuallevel
selection.
Thus,intermsofsurvivalandreproduction,beingageniusisbadforthe
geniusandgoodforhisgroup.
Biologicalaltruismdoesnot(ordoesnotnecessarily)correspondwith
socialaltruism,oranaltruisticpersonalityi.e.helpingpeoplebecause
thegeniusscontributiontohiscommunityisviahiswork.
Indeed,itischaracteristicofthebehaviourofageniusthathewillprotect
theconditionsnecessaryforhiswork,evenwhenthisgoesagainstusual
andexpectedsociallyaltruisticbehaviour.Thegeniusmaythereforebe
solitarymayindeedbeselfish,maynotmarryorhaveafamily,maynot
beagoodneighbour.Butheisselfishnotreallyforhisownbenefitnot
formoneyorstatusbutprimarilyforthework:selfishtoenablehim
bettertodo(ortodoatall)whatitisthathedoes.Heisselfishinpursuit
ofhisDestiny,andthatDestinyisforthebenefitofothers.
Somegeniusesarenice,manyarenastybutthatisnotthepoint.The
pointisthatthegeniusfeelshisfirst(oraveryhigh)responsibilityistodo
hisutmosttocreateandsustainthebestconditionsheneedsforhis
work,andtodothatwork,andcommunicatethatwork.Hefeelshisduty
istofollowhisDestiny.Andthismotivationcomesabovethedesireto
helpotherpeople.
(Ifasked,ageniusmighttruthfullyclaimtobeworkingforthelongterm
benefitofhisgeneralgroupevenwhenthiswasatthecostoffailingto
behelpfulhereandnow,intheimmediateandshorttermtohis
immediatefamily,friendsandcolleagues.)
Thusitisquitepossible,indeeditisquitenormal,forbiologicalaltruismat
thegroupleveltogowithpersonalselfishnessandforpersonalun
selfishnesstobeantialtruistic,andtodamagethereproductiveinterests
ofthegroup.DeanSimontonhasfoundthatmanygeniusesmost
obviouslyNewton,butalsomanyotherssuchasEinsteinwere
extremelydifficultpeople.[75]Bycontrast,onecanimagineaselflessand
kindlypersonwhomightassistanindividual,outofutterkindness,who
waspartofagroupthatwaseffectivelyatwarwiththegroupofwhichshe
wasapart.Altruismandbeingnice:twoverydifferentthings.
TheParadoxoftheEndogenouspersonalityisthatdespitetheirrelative
indifferencetosociosexualimperativeswebelievethatgeniuseshave
(inevolutionaryterms)evolvedtoservethegroup.
TheParadoxisthatonlyaninnerorientatedpersonalitycanbe
sufficientlyindependentofthesocialconsensussoastobeableto
changethesocialconsensuswhenthatisneeded.
GroupselectionoftheEndogenouspersonality.
Ineffect,andonaverage,theEndogenouspersonalitysacrificeshisown
differentialreproductivesuccessincludinghisinclusivefitness,thatis,
thereproductivesuccessofhiscloserkintofavourthereproductive
successofthegroup.Bythisgroup,weusuallymeanthegeniussethnic
orlocalgroup.
AustralianbiologistFrankSaltersdetailedmathematicalmodellingbased
onpopulationgeneticdatahasshownthat,althoughthereisasocial
dimensiontoethnicidentification,thecoreofethnicgroupmembershipis
genetic.Ethnicgroupsarebreedingpopulations,andarandommember
ofoneethnicgroupwillhavemoregeneticallyincommonwitharandom
coethnicthanhewillwitharandommemberofanotherethnicgroup.As
such,therearetwowaystopassoneonesgenes:directly(through
havingchildren)orindirectly(byabettingoneskininhavingchildren).[76]
Thisiscalledinclusivefitnessorkinselectionanditmeansthatwhat
lookslikealtruismattheindividuallevelmaybeselfishnessatthegenetic
levelindeed,individualaltruismiswhatmakespossiblegenetic
selfishness.Itworksinsuchawaythattheclosertherelationshipof
thosewhoarebenefitted,themorepowerfulisthismechanismsokin
selectionisthepresumedmechanismthatgeneratestheclose
cooperationandselfsacrificeofsocialinsectssuchasbeesandants,
andmostaspectsoftheclannishnessoffamiliesandcloselygenetically
relatedhumans.
Afurthertheoreticallypossiblemechanismforkinselectionwouldbe
whenanindividualdoesnothimselfreproducebutsubstantiallyassists
thereproductionofhisgeneticrelatives,asmighthappenifanuncle
withoutchildrengavealotofhelptohisniecesandnephews,and
therebyindirectlypromotedthereproductionofthegenesheshareswith
hisbrotherorsister.However,thereisnoevidencetosuggestthat
geniuseshelptheirgeneticrelativesanymorethannongeniuses,and
indeedthegeniusislikelytodoless(notmore)thanaveragetoassisthis
familygiventhatheissodevotedtohisdestinedworkandproblem
solvingorotherwisecreativeactivities.
Butgroupselectionmaybelessdirectthanthisbecausegeniusis
enhancingthereproductivesuccessofthewholegroupinawaythat
typicallybenefitsthosewhoareonlydistantlyrelated,tothegeniusas
muchormorethantheworkofageniusbenefitsclosegeneticrelations
(andthefamilyofthegeniusmayalsobelosingresourcesbyhelpingto
supporthim).
Theethnicgroupismerelyahighlyextendedkinnetworkandthegenius
hasnointerestinsexorevenkindnesstohisnearkin,itwouldmake
sensethathisevolutionarystrategywouldfavourmoredistantkin.The
groupareinbroadtermsanextendedfamilyandthegrowthofthe
groupmayindeedfavourthekinofthegeniusbutthisexpansionwould
notnecessarilybenefitclosekinmorethanremoterelationsandthe
closekintypicallyhavetobearthecostsofsupportingthegenius.
Soifweassumethatthegeniusisanevolvedadaptationforthegoodof
thegroupthenwhatfunctiondoestheEndogenouspersonalityperform?
Inanutshell,wesuggestthatthefunctionofthegeniusistosolve
problemswhicharisefromintergroupconflictandthebenefitsagenius
providesaretypicallysharedamongthewholegroupamongwhomhe
dwells.
Justasthenormalsituationofindividualselectionarisesfromconflict
betweenindividuals,sothelesscommonsituationofgroupselection
arisesfromcompetitionbetweengroupsespeciallywhenthegroupis
cohesiveandthereproductivesuccessofindividualsdependsuponthe
survivalandexpansionofthegroup.
(Note:Thereisnot,atpresent,ageneralandacceptedmechanismto
explainmanyormostinstancesofgroupselectionalthoughthereare
somespecificsuggestionsforspecificsituations.Wearetherefore
arguingthatgroupselectionisprimarilyresponsibleforevolvingthe
Endogenouspersonalitybutwemakenogeneralclaimshereabout
howexactlythisgroupselectionisoperating,atamechanisticorprocess
level.)
Groupconflictandgroupselection
Groupconflictincludessituationsinwhichtheindividualisdependenton
thegroup,andwhenthegroupisunderextremepressurefromthe
environment.Thisisasituationinwhichonlythegroupasagroup(and
notindividualsnorextendedfamilies),cansurviveinaharsh
environment,especiallyincompetitionwithothergroupsinasimilar
situation.
Theenvironmentincludesbothnaturalandsocialenvironments.Natural
environmentalpressurecouldbeextremetemperatures(hotorcold),
markedseasonalityoffoodavailability,orpredationfromlargeanimals
whentheseproblemscanonlybesolvedbythegroup(e.g.theclanor
tribe)cooperatingandworkingtogether,andcannotbesolvedby
individualsorfamiliespursuingtheirownspecificgeneticinterests.Social
environmentalpressurecouldincludegroupversusgroupconflicts
(warfare)drivenbyfactorslikecompetitionforlandorotherfinite
resources.
Inthefaceofapotentiallyfatalsocialproblemanindividualwiththe
Endogenouspersonalityoffersthepossibility(butofcoursethereisno
guarantee)ofanovelbreakthroughanswer.Forinstance,inthefaceof
theprospectofannihilationbytheenvironment,orbyanothergroupa
situationinwhichthegroupisdoomedunlessthereisabreakthrough
perhapssomenewtechnology,somesociallyunifyingartorformof
religion,somewayofextractingmoreresourcesperunitarea,somenew
weaponordefence.Forthiskindofcreativesolution,ageniusisneeded.
Ifawholesocietywascomposedofgeniustypepeople,itcouldnot
functionindeeditwouldnotbeasociety.Butifitaltogetherlacked
Endogenouspersonalities,thenitwouldonlygrowveryslowly(perhaps
byincrementaltrialanderrorwhichdoesntalwaysyieldananswerto
novelproblems)andwouldbeatgreaterriskofbeingwipedoutby
naturalforcesorgroupcompetition.
Thus,wecanconceiveofroughlytwokindsofgenius.Thescientific
technicalgeniuswillincreasethechancesofascitechbreakthrough,ora
noveltheorythatwillleadtothese.Forexample,inventionssuchasthe
spade,bowandarrow,wheel,plough,railway,radiotheseareassumed
tobeproductsofscitechgeniusesandtheirvalueisobvious.Thiskind
ofgeniusmayhelpeithergroupsurvivalorevenhelptoexpandthegroup
ofwhichheispart.
Bycontrast,anartistic,philosophicalorreligiousgeniuswillimplicitlyaid
groupcohesionwetermthesecohesiongeniuses.Improvedcohesion
couldthereforebetheexplanationfortheoccurrenceofartisticgenius,or
thegeniusofastorytellerandalsoanexplanationforreligiousgeniuses
whoinventnewinterpretations,beliefs,practices,rituals,stories,
scriptures,priesthoodsorotherformsofinstitutionthathavethe
consequenceofbindingtogetherthegroup.
Improvedcohesionfromareligiousinnovationmightthenhelpto
enhancegrowthofthegroupofreligiousadherents,perhapsthegrowth
ofnewformsofpoliticalorganization,andthesemightresultinthe
increaseof(forexample)economicactivityormilitaryprowess.
ConsiderthedifferencebetweentheKalahariBushmeninAfrica,and
AustralianAborigines.Thesearebroadlysimilarhuntergatherersocieties
withasimilarleveloftechnologyandasimilartypeofenvironment.The
mainsocialdifferenceisingroupsizetheAborigineshavesignificantly
largergroups,whichmeansthattheycoherebetterandcouldassemble
largerfightingforces.AndthelargerAboriginegroupsarebasedaround
theirTotemicreligion,whichismorefixedandmorecomplexthanthe
fluid,impreciseAnimismoftheKalahariBushmen.Animismisthebelief
thatalllivingthingshavesoulsorspiritsandtheseneedtobeappeased.
Totemismdevelopsthisbelief,andinvolvestheviewthatthereisone
primarysourceinnaturewhichprovidesthebasisofhumanlifeinones
tribe.Thetribethentendstowardsworshippingthisspecificanimalor
whateveritmaybetoagreaterextentthanothers.Indeed,regular
ritualsbringthetribetogetherastheysacrificetheanimalinquestion.[77]
TheAboriginereligionbothrequiresandbenefitsfromamoreelaborate
socialstructureofauthorityandlearningofthelegendswhichmustbe
transmittedthroughthegenerationsbysongsandchants.Presumably(of
coursethereisnodirectevidence)some(ormorethanone)Aborigine
religiousgeniuscreatedthisTotemicsocialstructureandthegroupwho
adopteditwasrewardedbyimprovedcohesion,whichenabledthemto
outgrowanddisplacerivalgroups[78].
Thisisconjectural,albeitplausibleitmayormaynotbehistoricallytrue
butourpointisthatsomebodyatsometimemadethesereligious
innovationsandenabledlargerscaleandmorepowerfulsocialcohesion
andthispersoncouldbetermedagenius(albeitonalocalscale)And
perhapsmanyotherexamplesofgeniuscouldberegardedasmaking
creativebreakthroughsofacohesiongeneratingtype.
Moreobviousarethemotivationalandorganizationalcohesiongeniuses
whoexpandthegeographicalterritoryoftheirgroupthegeniusesof
militarydefenceorconquestthelikesofAlexandertheGreat,Julius
Caesar,AdmiralLordNelson.
Wewouldalsoexpectdifferentpopulationstoproducedifferinglevelsof
genius,duetodifferencesinlocalandregionalenvironments.Thisis
somethingthathasbeenhighlightedbyCharlesMurrayinhisbook,
HumanAccomplishment.[79]
MurrayfindsthatEuropeansarebehindtheoverwhelmingmajorityof
importantscientificandartisticaccomplishmentsbetweenClassicaltimes
and1950.NortheastAsiansareinsecondplace,buttheircontributionis
relativelysmall.ThisisdespitethefactthatRichardLynnhasfoundthat
NortheastAsianshavesignificantlyhigheraverageintelligencethan
Europeans,outscoringthembyaround5IQpoints.[80]
OurproposedanswertotherelativelackofgeniusamongNortheast
AsiansisthattheylacktheEndogenouspersonalitypresumablyfrom
havinghadadifferenthistoricalenvironmentthanEuropeansan
environmentwhichimposedlessintenseandlesssustainedgroupversus
groupcompetition,andthereforelesspowerfulgroupselectionfor
creativeinnovation(i.e.naturalselectionforonegrouptogainan
advantageoverrivalgroups).Anotherpossibilityisthattheenvironment
ofNortheastAsiawasharsher,leadingtostrongerselectionagainst
Psychoticismandlessgeneticdiversityassurvivorswouldneedtobe
verystronglyadaptedtotheenvironment,leadingtointelligencebeing
bunchedtowardsthemean.Accordingly,thechanceoccurrenceofoutlier
intelligencecombinedwithmoderatelyhighPsychoticismwouldbeless
[81]
thaninEurope. Butthisisatopicforfutureresearch.
ChapterTwelve
TheRiseandFallofGenius
Theriseofgenius
Sofar,wehavediscussedpossiblegeneralmechanismsfortheevolution
ofgeniusandwehavearguedthatgeniusisthecharacteristicoutcome
oftheEndogenouspersonalitywhoishighlyselfmotivated.Butoneof
themostobviousandstrikingthingsaboutgenius,isthatthereusedtobe
alotofgeniusesandmajorgeniusesandnowthereareveryfew.
TheresearchinHumanAccomplishmentbyCharlesMurray,whichis
broadlyconfirmedbyothers,[82]indicatesthatgeniusinrecentcenturies
hasbeenessentiallyaphenomenonoftheEuropeanpopulation,
includingthediasporaofEuropeanstootherpartsoftheworld.Itseems
thatinEurope,andonlyinandaroundEuropeandamongitsdiaspora
population,weretheconditionsnecessaryfortheevolutionofthe
Endogenouspersonality,whocombinesbothveryhighgeneral
intelligence(g)andtheinnerorientatedpersonalitytype.
Thecurrentevidencesuggeststhatunusuallyhighintelligencebutnotthe
EndogenouspersonalityhasalsoevolvedinEastAsiaindeedthe
intelligenceisprobablyevenhigherthaninEurope.Thereareplausible
historicalscenarioswhichexplainhowhighintelligencecanevolveby
multigenerational,individuallevelnaturalselectionwhichfavoursthe
reproductivesuccessofthemostintelligentmembersofthepopulation
(assistedbysexualselectionviaassortativematingwherebythemost
intelligentmenandwomentendtomarryeachother,andwomenin
polygamoussocietiessexuallyselectforthehigherstatusandso
usuallymoreintelligentmen).GregoryClarkhasdescribedthis(ingreat
detail)forEurope,andRonUnz(inoutline)forChina.[83]
ButthoseaspectsofadaptivehighPsychoticismwhichareessentialto
theEndogenouspersonalityseemonlytohaveevolvedinEurope,
presumablyduetothespecificgroupselectionfactors.Thesecould
includebetweengroupcompetitioninaharshenvironmentbutonethat
isnottooharsh,suchthatpsychoticismandthechanceoccurrenceof
geniusisallbuteliminated.Inaddition,itislikelythattheBlackDeathof
thefourteenthcentury,whichkilleduptohalfofEuropeansbutaround
80%oftheserfs,[84]providedasignificantboosttoEuropeanintelligence
sincethemostintelligentclassesandgroupssufferedthelowestmortality
rates.
Atanyrate,inEnglandandlaterelsewhereinEurope,andfromthe
MiddleAgesonwards,therewasatremendousconcentrationofmajor,
worldhistoricalgeniuses,andofmajorbreakthroughswhichcamethick
andfastandinteractedinasynergisticfashiontotriggerfirstan
Agricultural(orAgrarian),thenanIndustrialRevolutionacceleratingfrom
about1700andtakingoffabout1800.Theresultwasatremendous
increaseinagriculturalefficiencyandproduction,andtheadventofanew
formofsocialorganizationbasedonsteam,ironandsteel,machines,and
transportationwhichtakenaltogetherreducedmortalityrates,especially
childmortality,andenabledrapidandmassivepopulationgrowth.
Ourassumptiondefendedearlierinthisbookisthatbreakthroughs
requiregeniuses,evenwhentheidentityofthesegeniusesisnotknown
oruncertainasisoftenthecaseinagriculture.
Behindmanyofthebreakthroughsofthemodernworldliestheprinciple
ofdivisionoflabourwhichwasfirstarticulatedbytheScottish
philosopherAdamSmith(17231790).Herecognized,describedand
promotedsomethingthathadalreadybeguntohappen.Divisionoflabour
entailedtwothings:thattheworkforceshouldbesubdividedtospecialize
intheirfunctions,andthatthesespecializedfunctionscouldbe
coordinatedtowardsthefinalresult.Theresultwaspotentiallya
massiveincreaseinefficiency(outputperunitofinput)purelyresulting
fromachangeofsocialorganization.Smithsexamplewasapinfactory,
whereheshowedthatdividingthetaskofpinmakingintospecialized
functionsandthencoordinatingtheseworkersintoaworkshoporfactory
wouldleadtomorethanatwohundredfoldgreaternumberofpins:from
afewdozenpinspermanperday,toseveralthousandpins.
Thisistheessenceofthatincreasedproductivitywhichdefinesthe
IndustrialRevolutionmoreoutputforthesameamountofinput.Indeed,
inagriculturetheproductivityincreasewentevenfurther,withmore
productionoffoodforlessinputofmanhoursmeaningthat,aswellas
supportinganincreasingpopulationsize,muchofthepreviouslyfarming
workforcewasavailabletoberedeployedintothenewindustries(indeed,
theyweremoreorlessforcedintothenewindustriesinordertosurvive).
Inagriculturetherewasenclosureofthelarge,openfieldseffectivecrop
rotationswithnewwinterfodderplants(suchasturnips)tosustainlarger
flocksandherdsofanimalstheuseofmanuringandlimingtoimprove
cropyieldstheinventionofselectiveanimalbreeding(i.e.accelerated
naturalselectionsupervisedbymen)whichyieldedmoremeat,wool,
strengthetc.fromthesamenumberofanimalsandtheinventionofmany
newtoolsandmachines(oftenusingmetalinsteadofwood)enabling
fewermentodomoreandabetterstandardofwork.
Weassumethateachofthesebreakthroughswasenabledbyoneor
moregeniusesandthecombinationofthesemultiplegeniusesand
breakthroughswasanincreaseinagriculturalefficiencyfarbeyond
anythinginthehistoryoftheworld.Someofthecontributinggeniuses
probablyincludedpeoplesuchasCokeofNorfolk,TurnipTownsend
(Charles,2ndViscountTownshend,16741738),JethroTull(16741741),
RobertBakewell(172595)andmanymore.[85]
IncreasedfoodproductionpartlyenabledtheIndustrialRevolution,and
wasalsoenabledbyitsotherewerebreakthroughsincoalmining
(includingdivisionoflabourandmassivecoordinatedworks),
transportation(canals,railways,roads),steampower,ironandsteel
productionalsointernationaltradeandgreatimprovementsinship
building,communicationsystems,andthePaxBritannicaofmilitary
strength(especiallynavalstrength)toenableinternationaltradewhich
itselfhadtheeffectofincreasingproductivitybyspecializationand
coordination,aswasfirstunderstoodbytheEnglishphilosopherDavid
Ricardo(17721823)inhislawofcomparativeadvantage.
ThegeniuseswhocontributedtotheIndustrialRevolutionareextremely
numerousandbetterknownthantheAgrariansamereselectionwould
includethelikesofTrevithicandWattwiththesteamengine,Bessamer
(steel),Crompton(Mule),Hargreaves(SpinningJenny),engineerssuch
asGeorgeStephenson,Telford,Macadam
IndeedfromthelateMiddleAgesandthroughtheRenaissance
especiallyfromabout1600andacceleratinggeniuswasmoreand
moreapparentinEuropeansciences,art,music,literature,mathematics,
philosophyalmosteverywhere.Andthiscontinuedthroughintothe
twentiethcentury,especiallyinthescienceswithanespecially
astonishingconstellationofgeniusesinphysicstoppedbyEinstein.

Thedeclineofgenius
Thereareanumberofreasonstothinkthatintelligenceisindecline,and
thishasbecomemoreandmoreevidentfromthemiddleofthetwentieth
centuryuntilitisnowdifficulttodenysincethereareveryfew
acknowledgedgeniusesatall,andsomefieldswithoutany.Thisis
despiteamuchlargerpopulation,andmuchbetterfacilitiesand
opportunities.
Itisnotjustthenumberofgeniusesthathavedeclinedbuttheirquality
so,forexample,inthelate1800searly1900stherewasClarkMaxwell,
Einstein,Rutherford,Heisenberg,Schroedinger,Planck,Bohr,Dirac
andsoonandsoforthbutahundredyearslaterthereareonlyafew
elderlygeniusesleft.Inbiology/biochemistry,whichhaditsgoldeneraas
recentlyasthemiddletwentiethcentury,therearenowonlyahandfulof
elderlygreatsleftoverfromthosedayssuchasAmericanJames
Watson,thecodiscovererofDNA,andSidneyBrenner,theSouthAfrican
experimentalgeneticist.
Thesamepicturecanbeseenevenmorestarklyinclassicalmusicthe
nineteenthcenturyhadBeethoven,Schubert,Schumann,Mendelssohn,
Chopin,Debussy,Berlioz,Weber,Verdi,Wagner,Mahler,Brahmsthe
listjustgoesonandon.Intheearlytwentiethcenturytherewereafew
leftoversinSchoenberg,StravinskyandRichardStraussandthen
nothing.
InEnglishpoetryfromthefifteenthcenturyrightupintothemiddle
twentiethcenturytherewereprobablyalwaysseveral,sometimesmany,
geniuspoetsbutsincethedeathsofPhillipLarkin,JohnBetjemanand
RobertGravesin19845therearenone.
Suchimpressionsareconfirmedbysystematicstudiesofexceptional
individualsandmajorinnovations,andthroughoutEuropeandthe
Europeandiasporathereisapictureofdeclineinitiallydeclineinper
capitaratesofgeniusproduction,followedbydeclineinabsoluterates
andaccompaniedbyadeclineinthemagnitudeofgeniuses.[86]
Whyshouldthisbe?IftheEndogenouspersonalityisthegeniustype,
andiscomposedmainlyofintelligenceandpersonality,themain
explanationislikelytobedecliningaverageintelligence,withadownshift
inthedistributionofgeniuses,and(becauseofthepropertiesofnear
normaldistributioncurves)averysubstantialdeclineinthenumberof
peoplewithveryhighintelligence.
Andindeedthatisexactlywhatwefind:alargeandrapiddeclinein
generalintelligence,insofarasintelligencecanbemeasuredobjectively
(notrelatively).
Declineofintelligenceduetothemostintelligenthavingthefewest
children
Sincegeneralintelligencehasahighheritability(approximately80per
cent),thewellknownfactthatthemostintelligentpeople(especiallythe
mostintelligentwomen)havethefewestchildreninotherwordsthe
inversecorrelationbetweenintelligenceandfertilitymusttendtoreduce
averageintelligenceoverthegenerations.
So,IQtestscores,andproxymeasuresofintelligencesuchas
educationallevel,yearsofeducation,socialclass,incomearestrongly
negativelyassociatedwithfertilityamongwomen,andtoalesserextent
amongmen.Inotherwords,overall,themoreintelligentthewoman,the
fewerchildrenshewillbear.[87]
Thisisparticularlysignificantinthemodernworldwherethechildhood
mortalityratehasdeclinedfrommorethanhalfofchildrendyingbefore
adulthood(evenhigheramongtheleastintelligent)toaboutonepercent
inWesterncountries.Inotherwords,nearlyallchildrenwhoarebornwill
nowsurvivetoadulthood,andprematuremortalityrateshavebecomeso
lowastobealmostirrelevantatthepopulationlevel.Therefore,inrecent
generations,differencesinreproductivesuccessarealmostentirelya
matterofdifferencesinfertilitythemorebabiesthatareborn,the
greaterthereproductivesuccess.
Ontopofthis,sincethemiddle1960sthefertilityamongEuropean
populationshasgonebelowreplacementlevels(modernreplacement
fertilityisjustabovetwochildrenperwomanabovetwotoaccountfor
prematuremortality)sotheagecorrectedpopulationofEuropeanshas
beendecliningforseveraldecades.(Thisdeclineinnumberswas
temporarilymaskedbyanincreaseinlifeexpectancyleadingtoan
ageingpopulationwithamedianaverageageofEuropeansbeing
typicallyaroundthemidfortiesandclimbing).
Subfertilityespeciallyappliestointelligentwomenforexample,inrecent
decadesmorethanathirdofwomencollegegraduateshavezero
childrenandmostcollegegraduatesarewomen.Themostintelligent
andmosthighlyeducatedwomenhaveextremelyfewchildrenon
averageinLewisTermansfollowupstudiesofhighlyintelligent
Californiansfromtheearlytwentiethcentury,themostintelligentwomen
hadonlyapproximatelyhalfachildperwoman:onlyaboutaquarterof
thereplacementrate.[88]
Theextensionofyearsofformaleducationandtrainingintothemiddle
andlatetwenties,resultingingreaterandgreaterdelaysininitiating
families(theaverageageofawomanhavingherfirstchildinBritainis
nowabout30)combinedwithincreasedinvolvementofwomeninthe
workforce(atrendthathasbeenstronglyencouragedbothbyradical
feminismandbycapitalism),seemstohavehadaparticularlylethaleffect
onreproductionofintelligentwomen.
Thischangetoextremesubfertilityamongthemostintelligentseemsto
beduetoseveralspecificfactorsworkingtogether.Oneissurely
secularismandthedeclineofreligion,whichismostevidentamongthe
mostintelligent.[89]Evenundermodernconditions,traditionalpatriarchal
religionsoftenhaveabovereplacementfertility[90]sometimesveryhigh
ratesoffertilitysoreligioncanbeanantidotetosubfertility,butitisone
whichthatisseldomusedbythemostintelligent.
Alsoimportantistheriseofcontraception,theeasyavailabilityofmultiple
methodsofcontraception,anditssocialacceptabilityinacontextwhere
contraceptionismoreefficientlyusedbythemoreintelligent,whowould
belessimpulsiveanyway.Thelegalizationandmassusageofabortionis
afactorinenablingthedeclineofbirthratesintosubfertility,although
probablynotafactorindifferentialfertilitybyintelligence.
Thereareothermoregeneralfactors,suchasamorestableenvironment
meaningthereisnoneedtohavelotsofchildren,solargefamilieswill
tendtoaccidental,andunderpinnedbyimpulsivenessandthuslow
intelligence.Theseadversetrendswereprobablycompoundedbya
dysgenicaccumulationofdeleteriousmutationscausedbytherelaxation
ofmutationfilteringfromnaturalselection,mostlycausedbythesharp
declineinchildmortalityrates.
Insum,thereseemslittledoubtthatthepatternofdifferentialreproduction
inrelationtointelligencemusthavehadaneffectonreducingaverage
intelligence.
Measuringthedeclineofintelligence
Itisonethingknowingthatinprincipleintelligencemustbedecliningbut
theproblemisthatIQtestingisnotsuitableformeasuringlongterm
trends.AnIQquestionnaireisarelativemeasure:itputspeopleintorank
orderbytheirtestresultsbutitdoesnotgiveanobjectivemeasureof
intelligencelevels.
Inotherwords,IQtestingislikerunningracesandplacingpeopleinto
first,second,thirdpositionsetc.,butneverusingastopwatch.Thismakes
itimpossibletoknow,overthedecades,whetherpeoplearerunning
faster,slowerorstayingthesame.Whatisneededissomekindof
objectivemeasureofintelligence:astopwatch.
ThislimitationinIQtestingledtotheideabyoneofthisbooksauthors
(BruceG.Charlton)ofmeasuringlongtermtrendsinintelligenceusing
exactlyastopwatchmeasure:inotherwordsstudyingthehistorical
changesinthesimplereactiontime(sRT)measurementbecause
reactiontimeshavebeenmeasuredsincethelate1800s,andprovidean
objectivecorrelateofgeneralintelligence.
Simplereactiontimes(sRT)typicallyinvolvesomethinglikepressinga
buttonasrapidlyaspossibleinresponsetoalightcomingon,and
measuringthetimetakenthisprocedureusuallytakessomesmall
fractionofasecond:i.e.somefewhundredsofmilliseconds.Such
reactiontimesarewellknowntobecorrelatedwithg(general
intelligence).Whilethecorrelationwithintelligenceisnotlarge,sRTshave
thegreatadvantageofbeingobjectiveandquantitativephysiological
measurestheyaremorelikemeasuringheightorbloodpressurethan
gettingpeopletodoanIQtest(whichisessentiallyaformofexam).
WorkingwithCharlton,MichaelWoodleydiscoveredanalreadypublished
surveyofhistoricalreactiontimedatathatdemonstratedastriking
slowingofsRTsfromthetimeofFrancisGaltoninthelatenineteenth
centuryuntilthelate20thcentury.Thisdatacarriedthestrongimplication
thattherehadbeenarapidandsubstantialdeclineinintelligenceoverthe
pasthundredplusyearsandopenedupanewfieldofresearchwhich
Woodleyhasbeenactivelypursuingeversince.
Thisinitialfinding,whichCharltonpublishedonhisblog,hassincebeen
[91]
improved,replicatedandconfirmedbyWoodleyandhiscolleagues
whohavedeployedotherconvergentmethodsforindirectlymeasuring
longtermintelligencechanges.[92]Usingreactiontimedata,thedeclinein
genotypicIQisoftheorderof1.5IQpointsperdecadethatisabout15
points,oronestandarddeviation,inacenturyandprobablymore,over
thepasttwohundredyears.[93]Toputthisinperspective,15pointswould
beapproximatelythedifferenceinaverageIQbetweenalowlevel
securityguard(85)andapoliceconstable(100),orbetweenahigh
schoolscienceteacher(115)andabiologyprofessorataneliteuniversity
(130).
Inotherwords,intermsofintelligence,theaverageEnglishmanfrom
about18801900wouldbeinroughlythetop15percentofthe
populationin2000andthedifferencewouldbeevenlargerifwe
extrapolatedbackfurthertowardsabout1800whentheIndustrial
RevolutionbegantoinitiatemassivedemographicchangesintheBritish
population(althoughthiswasatimebeforereactiontimemeasures
existed).
Thesenumbersarenotintendedtobepreciseindeedrealprecision(in
thesenseofexactaccuracyinaveragesandmeasuresofscatteraround
averages)isnotavailableinIQstudiesformanyreasonstodowiththe
difficultiesoftrulyrandomandsufficientlylargepopulationsampling,lack
ofafullrangeofunbiasedandobjectivedataandthefacttheIQpoints
arenotonaratioscalebutarederivedfromputtingapopulationsample
intorankorderonthebasisof(usually)oneofftesting.
However,thetakehomemessageisthattherehasbeenalargeand
importantdeclineintheaverageintelligenceofWesternpopulationsover
thepastcenturyandmore.Ineverydaytermstheacademicsoftheyear
2000weretheschoolteachersof1900,theschoolteachersoftheyear
2000wouldhavebeenthefactoryworkers(theaveragepeople)of1900,
theofficeworkersandpolicemenof2000werethefarmlabourersof
1900,whilethelowlevelsecurityguardsandshopassistantsof2000
wereprobablyintheworkhouse,onthestreetsordeadin1900.
Thesubstantiallongtermunemployedorunemployable,chronicallysick
orphysically/psychologicallydisabled,dependentunderclassof2000,
simplydidntexistin1900.Andeventhisestimateisignoringthe
expansionofeducationsince1900,whichexpandedthemiddleclass
occupationsandwould,initself,reducetheaverageintelligenceof
academicsandteachersin2000comparedto1900.
ButwhatabouttheFlynneffect?
Objectivemeasuresshowthatintelligencehasdeclinedrapidlyand
substantiallyoverthepastcenturyortwobutitisalsotruethattheso
calledFlynnEffecthasbeenevident.
ThisnamereferstothefactthatIQrawscores(i.e.theresultsonIQ
tests,theproportionofcorrectanswers)havebeenrisingthroughoutthe
20thcenturyinWesterncountries.[94]So,performanceinIQtestshas
beenincreasingatthesametimeasreal,underlyinggeneralintelligence
hasbeendecreasing.
ThiscanhappenbecauseIQscoreisarelative,notanabsolute,measure
ofintelligenceandbecauseitisessentiallytheresultofatimed
examinationinvolvingansweringquestions.Therearelikelytobemany
reasonsforincreasingIQscores,indeedanyreasonforincreasedexam
scoresmightbecontributoryforexampleimprovedhealth,cultural
change,educationalexpansion,socializationoftestingprocedures,test
questionandformatfamiliarity,teachingofteststrategies,increaseduse
ofmultiplechoiceformats(whereguessingisencouraged),probablyalso
increasedlevelsofcheatingallmaycontributevariouslytoIQtest
scoresrisingevenasintelligencedeclined.
ButeventheFlynneffecthasnowplateauedorgoneintoreverseina
numberofcountries,[95]andtheriseinscoreshavebeenshowntobe
occurringmostontheleastgloadedpartsofthetests.[96]So,general
intelligencehasbeendecliningsubstantiallyandrapidlyeventhoughIQ
testscoresusedtobeincreasing.
Furthermore,itseemslikelythatwhileunderlyingintelligencewasmuch
higherinthepast,themeasurableintellectualperformanceforexample
inexaminations,intelligencetests,andinreallifesituationsofmost
peoplewasseverelydamagedbylackofeducation,harshphysical
conditionssuchascoldanddamp,starvation,disease,exhaustionand
endemicsevereinfectiousdisease,painanddisabilitiesandsoon.Such
factorswouldbeexpectedsubstantiallytoreduce(orabolish)many
aspectsofintellectualperformanceindifficulttasksby(forexample)
impairingconcentrationandmotivation.
ImaginedoinganIQtest,anexamination,orattemptinganychallenging
intellectualactivitysuchasreadingadifficultbookorperforming
calculationswhilesufferingwithafeverorchronicpainorgnawedby
hunger:imaginesufferingfevers,pain,orhungercontinuouslyformostof
yourlifebutthiswasthenormalsituationformostofthepopulationin
earliertimes.Nomatterwhattheirunderlyinglevelofintelligencemight
be,theirperformancewassignificantlyimpairedformuchofthetime.
HighIQgenesversuslowIQgenes
Atageneticlevel,intelligencemayinprinciplereducebecauseofa
reductioninhighintelligencegenesinapopulationand/orasan
accumulationofintelligencedamagingmutationsinthepopulation.
Differentialfertilitywouldleadtoadeclineinintelligencebyareductionin
theproportionofhighIQgenesinthepopulation.Thishappensfroma
combinationoftherelativelylessintelligentpeoplehavingonaveragethe
mostchildren,andthemostintelligentpeoplehavingverylowfertility.
Sincethemostintelligentpeoplearesubfertile,withlessthantwo
offspringperwoman,thegeneswhichhavemadethemthemost
intelligentwilldeclineineachgenerationfirstdecliningasaproportion
ofthegenepool,andthendeclininginabsoluteprevalence.
Forinstance,whenthereisawomanwithultrahighintelligencewhohas
zerochildren(whichisthemostusualoutcomeamongultraintelligent
women),thenwhateveritwasabouthergeneswhichmadeherso
intelligentiseliminatedfromthegenepool:thisisthelossofhighIQ
genes.[97]
Butoursuggestionofmutationaccumulationisthatthereisanadditional
mechanismofanaccumulationofwhatcouldbetermedlowIQgenes.
Tobeclear:thesearenotgenescodingforlowintelligenceratherthey
aredamagedgeneswhichpathologicallyreduceintelligence.So,aswell
astherebeingadeclineinintelligencefromthereducedproportionof
highIQgenes,thereisalsoanincreaseintheproportionoflowIQ
genesinthepopulation.
HighIQgeneshave(presumably)beenselectedforinthepastbecause
theyincreasedintelligence,andthereby(underancestralespecially
Medievalconditions)increasedreproductivesuccess.
ButlowIQgenesarenot,ingeneral,aproductofnaturalselection:rather
theyarespontaneouslyoccurringdeleteriousmutations,whichhappen
witheverygenerationduetoanycauseofgeneticdamage(e.g.
electromagneticradiation,chemicaldamage),orerrorsinreplication.
Thesemutationswill,ifnoteliminated,accumulategenerationupon
generation.Thereforewhentheyhaveaccumulated,thelowIQgenes
werenotselectedforratheritwasamatteroflackofselection,
relaxationofnaturalselection.LowIQgenethereforeusuallymeans
somethinglikeageneticmutationthatinpotentiallyawiderangeof
ways,byimpairingalmostanyaspectofbrainstructure,organizationor
functioningactivelydamagesbrainprocessingspeedandefficiency,
hencereducinggeneralintelligence.
Intechnicalterms,theselectionmechanismforeliminatingthese
spontaneouslyaccumulatinglowIQgenesismutationselectionbalance.
Theideaisthatmutationsspontaneouslyoccurandneedselectivelyto
beeliminated.Inotherwords,bysomemeans,thoseorganismswhich
havedamagingmutationsmust(onaverage)failtoreproducemust
indeedbepreventedfromreproducingsotheywillnothandonthe
mutationstothenextgeneration,andcontaminatethegenepoolwith
mutations.
Conversely,onlyasmallproportionofthepopulationi.e.thosewith
goodgenesareallowed(bytheselectiveenvironment)toreproduce
andtypicallythisminoritywillprovidenearlyallofthenextgeneration.
Sincetherearenewmutationseachgeneration,aswellasthepossibility
ofsomeinheritedfromparents,theprocessneedstobeperfectoverthe
longterm,otherwisetheaccumulationofdamagingmutationswill
eventuallypreventreproductionanddamagesurvivaltocauseextinction.
Thetermforsuchextinctionismutationalmeltdownandthishasbeen
observedtooccurinsomelowerorganisms,especiallywhenmutations
areaccumulatingandthepopulationisreducing.Thisprobablyhappens
insomeinbredcaptivepopulationssuchasinzoos,aswellasinmodern
humansociety.
Thetermmutationselectionbalancereferstothefactthattheoccurrence
ofmutationsmustbebalancedbytheeliminationofmutations:natural
selection(includingsexualselectionmatechoice)mustbepowerful
enoughtosieveoutallthedeleteriousmutations.Ifnaturalselectionis
notstrongenoughtodothis,thenmutationswillaccumulate,brain
functionwillbedamaged,andintelligencewilldecline.
Eachspontaneousmutationhasaboutafiftyfiftychanceofdamaging
brainfunction,becausethebraindependsonaveryhighproportionof
genestodevelopnormallyandmakeitsstructuralcomponents,its
proteins,enzymes,hormones,neurotransmittersandsoon.Thusthe
brainisalargemutationaltarget(asGeoffreyMillerhastermedit)and
willusuallyshowup,inaquantitativefashion,theamountofmutational
damageapersonhas.Inotherwords,highintelligencerequiresGood
Geneswheregoodgenesmeansagenomelowinmutations
converselyahighmutationalloadwillcauselowintelligence.
BeforetheIndustrialRevolution,individualswithahighermutationalload,
whichmeansahigherloadoflowIQgenes(andthereforelower
intelligence)hadlowerthanaveragereproductivesuccessduetovery
high(indeed,probablyneartotal)childhoodmortalityrates.Butsincethe
childmortalityratesfellfrommorethanhalftoaboutonepercentinmost
ofEurope,almostallbabiesthatarebornhavesurvivedtoadulthood,
andmostofthemhavereproduced.Therefore,wemustassumethat
therehavebynowbeenseveralgenerationsinEnglandatleasteight
generationsofmutationaccumulation.Andwemustalsoassumethat
thishashadasignificanteffectinreducingintelligence.
Thisproduceswhatistrulyadysgeniceffectonintelligence,sinceitis
notevolved,notadaptive,notanewabilitybutinsteadaloweringof
intelligenceduetoapathologicalprocessadestructionofadaptive
humanintelligencecausedbyanaccumulationofdamage.
Andalthoughintelligencedeclineisasensitivemeasureofmutation
accumulationitisnottheonlyconsequence.Manyotherhuman
adaptationswouldbedestroyedbymutationaccumulationincluding
evolvedhumanpersonalitytypes.Aswellaspullingdownhuman
intelligencemutationaccumulationwouldbeexpectedtodestroythe
Endogenouspersonality,toimpairhumancreativityandwouldbea
furthernailinthecoffinofgenius.
Declineofintelligenceduetomutationaccumulation
So,thedeclineofintelligencethathasnowbeenmeasuredusingreaction
timesandconfirmedwithothermethods,hasbeentoofast,andgonetoo
far,fullytobeaccountedforbythemechanismofdifferencesinfertility
betweenmostandleastintelligent.
Toreemphasizewehavenodoubtthatthismechanismofdifferential
fertilityhashadaneffectinreducingintelligenceoverthepasttwo
hundredyears,buttheremustbeotheradditionalexplanationsforso
greatandrapidadeclineinintelligenceadecline(weargue)thathas
beensufficienttoallbuteliminateworldclassgeniusesfromthe
Europeanpopulation,andhencetheworld.
Wethereforesuggestthatthemainadditionalmechanismtoreduce
intelligencemayplausiblybethegenerationbygenerationaccumulation
ofdeleteriousgeneticmutationsasaresultoftheneareliminationof
historicallyhighchildmortalityrateswhichusedtoclearmutationsfrom
thegenepoolwitheachgeneration.[98]
ButaftertheIndustrialRevolutiongotgoing,mortalityratesdeclinedfor
theleastintelligentalongwitheveryoneelsesothateventhepoorest
familiesusuallyraisedseveraltomanychildren,thentherewasadouble
whammydysgeniceffect:areducedproportionofhighIQgeneswith
eachgeneration(duetoprogressivelyloweringfertilityamongthehigher
IQ)andalsoanincreasingaccumulationoflowIQgenes(intelligence
damagingdeleteriousmutations)witheachgeneration.
Insum,sincetheIndustrialRevolution,individualswiththegreatest
mutationalload(IQharmfulgenes)havebeeninitiallybeenabove
replacementfertile(havingonaveragemorethan2survivingchildrenper
woman,forthefirsttimeinhistoryperhaps),andalsodifferentiallymore
fertilethanthosewiththeleastmutationalload.Andcomparedwith150
200yearsago,thereisnowalowerproportion(andaloweringabsolute
amount)ofIQenhancinggenesinthegenepoolofEngland,plusa
higherproportionandaccumulationofdeleteriousIQdamaging
mutations.Andthisdoublewhammyeffectis,wethink,whyaverage
generalintelligencehasdeclinedsorapidlyandsomuchinEnglandover
thepastcoupleofcenturies.
Historicaltrendsintheprevalenceofgenius
So,thefirsteffectoftheperfectstormofEnglishgeniuses(alsoprobably
seen,althoughnotyetdocumented,inseveralotherEuropeannations
suchasFranceandGermany)wastoexpandthepopulationandthereby
increasethenumberofEnglishgeniusesbutasthegenerationswentby,
theadverseselectionfactorsandmutationaccumulationwouldhave
sabotagedtheexpansionofgeniusesbyreducingtheaverage
intelligenceinthepopulationfirstlytheproportion,andthentheactual
number,ofpeopleofveryhighintelligence,sothatthenumberofnew
geniusesoccurringdwindledintoagainbeingextremelyrareandoneoff.
Asaconsequence,ithasbeendocumentedbyWoodleyandothersthat
thenumberofbreakthroughmacroinventionsmajorinventionsthat
reallyalterhowwelivehasdecreasedmarkedlysincetheVictorianEra,
thoughtherearestillmanymicroinventions,whicharemerelytinkering
withmacroinventions.[99]
Forexample,amacroinnovationlikethecomputerwasinventedby
geniuses(suchasBabbage,TuringandvonNeumann)uptothemiddle
twentiethcenturyandthemultipleimprovementsinminiaturization,
processingspeedandmemoryetc.whichhavemadethecomputerso
widelyusefulareclassifiedasmicroinnovations,andweremadebya
multitudeofpeopleandorganizations,oftenemployingtrialanderror
typemethods.
So,microinnovationsareextremelyimportant,andmakeabigdifference,
andtakesomedecadestoemergethefactisthatmicroinnovationsare
notsodifficultasmacroinnovations.Inparticularmicroinnovationsdo
notrequiresuchexceptionallycreativepeopleasmacroinnovationsbut
insteadcanemergefromknowledgeaccumulation,highnormallevelsof
cleverness,communication,androutineresearchanddevelopment.
Theimportanceofgeniusinhumanhistoryandspecificallyinmodern
societyisthatwearguethatitwastheuniquelyhighnumberand
concentrationofgeniusesintheEuropeanpopulationthattriggeredand
sustainedtheIndustrialRevolution.Geniusgeneratedmacroinnovations
providedthefoundationforamplificationbynumerousmicroinnovations
andthecombinationsupportedanexpansioninworldpopulationfrom
aboutonetosevenbillion,andstillgrowing.
Asintelligencedeclines,thefoundationsforthissocioeconomicsystem
willberemoved.Thebreakthroughuponbreakthroughneededtoprovide
andsustaingrowthwillpresumablybethefirsttodryup.Thentherewill
beaperiodofplateauwhenpeoplecancontinuetoexploitand
marginallyimproveuponthesuccessesofthepastsomedecadesas
microinnovationsaredeveloped.(Thesestagesareprobablyalready
behindus.)
Butasintelligencecontinuestodecline,thengrowthinproductivitywill
reverseintodeclineandinefficiency,astheabilityofpeopletosustain,
repair,eventomaintain,thehighlytechnical,specializedandcoordinated
worldcivilizationwillbelost,justasoccurredwiththefallofWestern
Romancivilizationwhenagriculturalandindustrialproductionandtrade
allcollapsed,thestandardoflivingandpopulationplummeted,and
generaltechnicalandorganizationallevelstookmorethanamillennium
torecover.
Whenthesupplyofmajorgeniusesbecomesinadequate,ordriesup
altogether,thenthepasttwotothreecenturiesofworldproductivity
growthwhichdependedonacontinualstreamofmajordiscoveries
oneinnovationmakingpossibleanother,onerepairingtheproblems
generatedbyanother,andalloftheminteractingtoenablefurther
innovationallthiswillcometoanend.Andsincemodernity(thesocio
economicsystemsincetheIndustrialRevolution)dependsongrowth
specificallygrowthincapabilityandefficiency/productivitythen
modernitywillfirsthalt,thenreverse.
ArguablythisreversalhasalreadyhappenedinTheWest,andweare
nowlivingoffcapitalwellembarkedonadownslopeofreducedsocietal
efficiencywhichaffectsallnations(becausetheinnovationsand
breakthroughscreatedbygeniusesofEuropeanoriginhaveusually
spreadtotherestoftheworld).
So,webelievethattheendoftheageofgeniusentailstheendof
modernitytheendofthetypeofsocietythathasdominatedandspread
acrosstheworldsincetheAgriculturalandIndustrialRevolutions
whetherthecauseisthatwehaverunoutofgeniuses,orbecause(as
somepeopleargue)wehavemerelyrunoutofmajorthingsforgeniuses
todiscover.Eitherway,theconsequencesarethesame:thecollapseof
modernity,whichabsolutelydependsonasteadysupplyofgeniusesand
breakthroughsandreversiontopreIndustrialRevolutionconditions,of
onesortoranother.
ChapterThirteen
Theneglectandsuppressionof
genius
Geniusandtheeducationalsystem
TheGeniusTriadisintelligence,intuitivecreativityandlongtermself
motivationallfocusedonthesamedomain.Psychologicallythetriad
couldbetermedQuestingCreativeIntelligenceandQCIwillbefoundnot
onlyamongpotentialgeniusesofthemajortype,butalsowithlower
strengthamongsmallscalegeniuses,morelocalorpartialgeniuses
who,althoughcapableoffarlessthanthelikesofRutherford,George
StephensonorAlanTuringnonethelesswillworkfor,andtendtomake,
originalbreakthroughs.Itisuptootherpeoplewhetherthese
breakthroughsarenoticed,understoodandusedor(assooftenhappens
atpresent)ignored,vilifiedandsuppressed.
Withthedeclineinaverageintelligence,andtheresultingdeclineof
genius,societybecomesevermoreshorttermorientedandpolitically
lessstableasthesefactorshavebeenshowntobeunderpinnedby
nationalintelligence.RichardLynnandFinnishpoliticalscientistTatu
Vanhanen(19292015),forexample,haveshownthatnumerous
measuresofcivilizationeducationlevel,sanitation,democracy(andso
smoothtransfersofpower),politicalstability,andlackofcrimeand
corruptionareallmoderatelytostronglypredictedbynationalIQ.[100]
AndtheyhaveshownthatthesenationalIQsarehighlyreliableasthey
stronglycorrelatewithnationalmeasuresofproxiesforIQ,suchas
internationalstudentassessments.
Inasocietyofdecliningintelligence,wewouldexpect:risingcrimeand
corruptiondecreasingcivicparticipationandlowervoterturnouthigher
ratesofillegitimacypoorerhealthandgreaterobesity,anincreased
interestintheinstinctive,especiallysexgreaterpoliticalinstabilityand
declineindemocracyhigherlevelsofsocialconflicthigherlevelsof
selfishnessandsoadeclineinanywelfarestateagrowing
unemployableunderclassfallingeducationalstandardsandalackof
intellectualismandthusdecreasinginterestineducationasagoodin
itself.Wewouldalsoexpectmoreandmorelittlethingstogowrongthat
wedidntusedtonotice:busesrunningoutofpetrol,trainsdelayed,
aeroplaneslandingbadly,roadsnotbeingrepaired,peoplearrivinglate
andthinkingitsperfectlyokayseverallargeandlotsoflittlelies...
Inaddition,thebroadermodernsystemespeciallyofextendedformal
education(stretchingeverfurtherintoadultlife),examresultsand
continuousassessments,requiredsubjectsandcoursesthesupposed
meritocracysuppressestheinfluenceofgenius,sincetheEndogenous
personalityisseeking,evermorestronglywithage,tofollowhisinner
drives,hisDestiny,andalltheparaphernaliaofnormal,standard
requirementsstandsinhispath.Whileothersneedsticksandcarrots,
andaregratefulforencouragement,disciplineanddirectionthe
Endogenouspersonalityisdrivenfromwithinand(beyondabasic
minimum)heneitherneedsnorappreciatesthesethingsatbestthey
slowhimdown,atworsttheythwartandexcludehim.TheEndogenous
personalityrequiresmainlytobeallowedtodowhatheintrinsicallyand
spontaneouslywantstodobutinmodernsocietyheismorelikelytobe
prevented.
Creativepeoplealwayshavedifficultpersonalitiesandconverselynice
peoplewithconscientious,obedientreliablepersonalitiesarenotcreative.
Thismeansthatinstitutions,employersandpatronsmusttoleratethe
difficultiesofEndogenouspersonalities,iftheywantthosethingsdone
thatonlygeniusescando.Mostofthetime,potentialgeniusesarea
nuisancebuttherearetimeswhensuchpeopleareessential.
However,inordertodothesethingsgeniuses,havetofindthemselvesa
joborauniversityplaceorapatron.Inalessmeritocraticsociety,this
mightbeviafamilyconnectionsorinformallydemonstratingonesgenius.
Inotherwords,thedifficultshorttermdecisiontoappoint,tolerate,
perhapsevenrewardanasocialEndogenouspersonalityinsteadofa
conscientiousandpopularHeadGirltypemightbemadebyanindividual
whoknewthenatureandpotentialoftheEndogenouspersonality
(perhapsbecausehewashimselfanEndogenouspersonality).
But,nowadays,suchdecisionsareusuallymadebycommitteevote,by
officialsandbureaucratswhoarethemselvesusuallytheoppositeof
geniusesanddoneaccordingtoguidelinesandprotocolsstandard
proceduresandanattitudeofriskminimizationwillalmostinvariablytend
toexcludegeniuses,whoarenearlyalwayslopsidedwithweaknesses
aswellasstrengths,andeachaoneoffintermsofaptitude.
TheEndogenouspersonalitycombineshighintelligencewiththeinner
personalityanditusedtobefairlynormalforEndogenouspersonalities
togainadmittancetothemosteliteinstitutions.However,nowadays,itis
clearthatcollegeadmissioncriteriaaremuchlesslikelytoselectfor
intelligencethaninthepast.Inotherwords,attendanceatthemost
selectiveinstitutionsisnolongeramatterofbeingofthehighest
intelligence.Partlythisisbecauseofthechangingnatureofeducational
evaluationsthebestreportsandgradesatschoolortopperformancein
examsarenolongersogloadedthatis,theyarelesscorrelatedwith
generalintelligencethantheyusedtobe(someofthismaybeduetothe
IQtestscoreinflationwhichistermedtheFlynnEffect).
Butitseemscertainthatelitemoderninstitutionsarenotevaluatingand
selectingprimarilyonthebasisofintelligencesincetheydonotuse
intelligencetests,highintelligenceisonlyselectedforinsofarasit
correlateswiththeeducational,personalandotherassessmentswhich
areusedforselectionandthecorrelationbetweentheseand
intelligenceisnotclose(around0.5forhighschoolachievement),and
muchlessclosethanitusedtobe.
Noraretheelitemoderninstitutionsselectingforpersonalityqualitiesof
independentandinnermotivationsandevaluationsthatareanintrinsic
partoftheEndogenouspersonalityquitetheopposite,infactsince
therearemultiplepreferencesandquotasinplacewhichnetexclude
Europeandescendedmen(thatgroupwithbyfarthehighestproportion
ofEndogenouspersonalitiesi.e.havingtheultrahighintelligenceand
creativepersonalitytype).Thiscanbeseeninexplicitgrouppreference
policiesandcampaignsenforcedbygovernment(andthemassmedia),
andinformal(covert)preferencesleadingtoratiosandcompositionsat
eliteinstitution(especiallyobviousinSTEMsubjects:i.e.Science,
Technology,Engineering,Medicine)thatdemonstrategrosslylower
proportionsofEuropeandescendedmenthanwouldresultfromselecting
fortheEndogenouspersonalitytype.
Indeedmoderninstitutionsarenoteventryingtoselectprimarilyby
intelligencetherealityofwhichtheyoftendenybutinsteadare
implicitlybythenatureoftheirevaluationsandalsobyexplicitly
statedpoliciesselectingonothergrounds,especiallyfortheHeadGirl
personalitytheconscientious,empathic,sociallyintegratedallrounders.
Modernsocietyis,ofcourse,runbyHeadGirls,ofbothsexes(plusa
smatteringofcharmingorcharismaticpsychopaths),hencethereisno
assignedplaceforthecreativegenius.Moderncollegesaimatrecruiting
HeadGirls,sodouniversities,sodoesscience,sodothearts,sodoes
themassmedia,sodoesthelegalprofession,sodoesmedicine,sodoes
themilitary.Andindoingso,exceptinsofarastheymakeerrorsthey
filteroutandexcludeeventhepossibilityofcreativegenius.[101]
Ifacreativegeniusdoessomehowhappentogetthrough,byerroror
accidentthatis,someonewhocanrecognizetheEndogenous
personalityandmaybeexpectedtofavouritthenhewillnotinpractice
beallowedtoselectmoreofhistypebecauseofthewaythatall
significantdecisionsaretakenbycommittees(dominatedbyHeadGirl
types)andcontrolledbychecklists,guidelinesandprotocols.Thesewill
havebeendesigned,andareenforced,byHeadGirltypeswiththeaimof
excludingthosewhodonotconformtowhatisnormallyrequired
(therebyexcludingthosewhoarebetterthannormal,alongwiththose
whoareworsethannormal).
Asaresultoftheabovetrends,themostintelligentandthemostcreative
peoplearenowadaysdispersedamongvariouslyrankedinstitutions(and
noinstitutionsatall)andtypicallyhavesuboptimalsometimesfrankly
badacademicandemploymentrecords.TheEndogenouspersonalities
areveryseldomtobefoundinthemostprestigious,bestfunded,or
fashionablesubjects(unlesstheyweretheoriginalfoundersofthefield,
orperhapsatalowlevelorinamarginalcapacity)sinceageniusis
stubbornlyselfmotivated,andwillworkonlywherehisdestinyleadshim
(andhemayrefuseorneglectworkthatinterfereswithhisdestiny).The
fieldsinwhichgeniusisquestingareasvariousasthepeoplewith
geniusandwilloftenstrikeotherpeopleasfutileorabsurdnonetheless,
eccentricityisintrinsictothenecessaryautonomyofgenius.
Geniusandsocietalselfinterest

Thereasonforsocietytotolerateandsustaingeniusesisnotthat
geniusesdeservemoreconcernthanotherkindsofpeoplethebottom
linereasonissocietalselfinterest.
Geniusesareforthegoodofthehumangrouptheyarepeoplewitha
specialgiftforsolvingspeciallydifficultproblemsandallhumansocieties
areconfrontedsoonerorlaterandusuallysoonerbythekindsof
problemsthatcanonlybesolvedbygeniuseslackingwhich,the
problemsaresimplynotsolved.BritishmathematicianAlanTurings
(19121954)crackingoftheEnigmacodeportrayedinthe2014film
TheImitationGameisacaseinpoint.Thisintenselydifficultmanhadto
struggleagainstHeadGirltypestogetajobforthegovernmentandthen
tobuildhiscodecrackingmachine.ButiftherehadbeennoTuring,the
Warwouldhavelastedsignificantlylonger,withterribleconsequences.[102]
Toreiterate,geniusesarepeoplewhocombineanespeciallyhigh
intellectualabilitywithaspontaneoustendencytofocusonsomeabstract
(byabstractwemeannotsocial)problem,andtheinnermotivationto
maintainthisfocus,toquestforananswer,forrelativelylongperiodsof
time.However,thereareonlytwowaysthattheycanrealisticallyfindthe
spacetopursuetheirgenius:apatronor,insomecases,awellfunded
university.
Indeed,ifthegeniuscanbecomeanacademicheisconfrontedwith
furtherproblems.Onceuponatime,hecoulddooccasionalteachingand
thendevotehimselftohisresearch,publishingifhediscoveredanything.
Now,thereisconstantpressuretopublish,publishincertainjournals,
attendconferences(Hellishsocialeventsforgeniuses),andobtain
researchgrants.Thiswoulddrivemanygeniusesoutofacademia,
leavingitdominatedbytheHeadGirls.
Toreadofsuchdifficult,annoying,disruptivegeniusesasmathematical
physicistPaulDirac(19021984whoalmostneverspoke)[103]orthe
philosopherLudwigWittgenstein(18891951whorefusedtosocializeor
eveneatwithcolleagues,ordoadministrationandtaughtonlythepeople
hewantedtoteachandinexactlythewayhewantedtoteachthem),[104]
andthentorealizethatthesewereProfessorsattheworldleading
UniversityofCambridgeistorecognizethatsuchcharacterswould
nowadaysgetnowherenearaCambridgechairoranyotherchair(not
leastbecauseactualabilitytoperformatareallyhighlevelinones
subjectorfunction,isnolongerregardedasofprimaryimportancein
modernBritishuniversities,orindeedanywhereelseinBritain).
Whereinsteaddosuchmenfindthemselves?Theanswerisnotknown
forsurebutanecdotalinformationandourpersonalknowledge
suggeststhattheyarescatteredinmultipleandvariousmarginalandlow
statuscircumstances,wheretheirpotentiallyvitalworkisassiduously
ignored,mockedorattackedandthisendemicandchronichostility
soonerorlatertendstohaveaknockon,deleterious,distortingeffecton
theirattitudesandoutputinducingabitterness,pride,aggressive
irritability,asiegementality,despairandinertiaorsomeotherwholly
understandablebutprofoundlyunhelpfulandachievementdestructive
frameofmind.
Meanwhile,compliant,careerist,sociablemediocrityiszealouslyenforced
bytherulingHeadGirltypeswhoseprimary,oftensole,concernistheir
ownsocialmicroenvironment.Andasaverageintelligencehasdeclined,
twothingshavehappenedthathavehadamajorimpactontheuniversity.
Firstly,theidealofthepursuitoftruthhasbeenreplacedbythepursuitof
anideology.Andsecondly,theideathateducationisagoodinitselfan
intellectualidea,requiringhonesty,personaldedication,andlongterm
thinkingintermsofthefutureandnatureofsocietyhasdisappearedto
bereplacedbytheviewthatitisameanstoanend,awayofgettinga
certificate,makingmoney,havingapartylifestylethingsinwhichthe
potentialgeniusisnotreallyinterested(andshouldnotbecome
interested).
Socollegesanduniversitieswhichusedtobeahavenforgeniuses
haveinsteadbecomeamixtureofideologicalchurchesholidaycamps
schoolsofdissipationandirresponsibilitylearningshopsrunby
managers,accountantsandpublicrelationsprofessionalsandresearch
factoriesgeneratingevidenceasrequiredbywhomsoeverhasmoney
enoughtofundthem.
ThusinBritain,andinalltheotherEuropeanandEuropeandiaspora
nations(theUSA,Canada,Australiaetc.)weseethesamepictureofa
societywithahighconcentrationofeffectivegeniusesthatflipped,quite
suddenlyandinthespaceofagenerationortwointoasocietywhich
isinpractice,andalmostuniversally,activelyantigenius:asociety
selectingagainstgenius,excludingofgenius,persecutingofgenius.
Fakecreativity
Althoughthepictureisoneofanextraordinarilyrapiddeclineinthe
prevalenceofgeniuses,thetrendhasbeenconfusedandcloudedbythe
simpleexpedientofrelabellinganddenial.
Byrelabelling,somenoncreativenonentity(maybesomeoneofhigh
careerstatus,maybeofhighbutuncreativeability,maybeacharming
character,maybejustanoveltymerchant)issimplystatedtobeagenius,
repeatedlytalkedaboutasageniusprobablygivenawardsandmedals
forbeingageniusandtheconceptofgeniusistherebyblurred,
relativizedandevenfurtherdiscredited.
Bydenialwemeanthecommonnotionamongsophisticatedmodern
peoplethatgeniusesarenodifferentfromanyoneelsethedenialthat
thereisindeedsuchathingasageniusthatthewholethingisamatter
ofluckorlabelling,oracultofpersonality,orromanticismorpartofan
hierarchical(andprobablypatriarchal)conspiracy.Bytheendofthis
deconstructionandsubversion,thedisappearanceofgeniushasbeen
disguisedbydenyingthatthereeverwasgenius,andthewholething
relativizedintoamatterofprofessionaleminence,orevenjustfameor
notorietysothelatestshockingnovelistisactually,basically,thesame
asShakespearethelatestartgalleryinstallationdoingthesamething
asaRembrandtportraitoraRodinsculpture.
Thiscanbeseenmostobviouslyinfieldswhere,bytheevaluative
standardsofacenturyago,therearenolivinggeniusesatall.For
exampleclassicalmusic,fineart,andpoetry(inEnglish).
Worsestill,originalityratherthanconsequencehasbecomethetest
ofgenius.Thefactthatsomethingisoriginalmeaningnovel,makesit
praiseworthy.Infact,originalityhasnowbecomeindistinguishablefrom
merechangesoffashion.
Inpreviouseras,therewasnotaspecialstatusgiventonoveltyasan
aspectofhighqualityworkbutsinceabout1800intheWesttherehas
been:greatnessissupposedlymostlyamatterofbeinginnovative.Yet
whilegreatgeniusesmayinnovatethisisnottherule,forinstanceGluck
andJ.C.Bachweregreaterinnovators,butmuchlessercomposersthan,
J.S.BachandMozartConstableandGainsboroughwerelessoriginal,
buthigherquality,paintersthanFrancisBaconorLucienFreud.
Thereforewecurrentlyhaveanincentivesysteminplacetogenerate
fakecreativity:anincentivesysteminwhichthereareuncreativepeople
whodishonestlystrivetoberegardedasoriginalbecausetheywantto
appropriatethelabelofcreativeandusurpthetitleofgenius.Insum,
undermodernitycreativityhasbeenreducedtonoveltyandnoveltycan
besimulated.
Itistriviallyeasyforcleverandwelltrainedpeopletogeneratemere
novelty,sothereisanexcessofit(wecallitfashion).Thereforethe
discriminativetestappliedtonoveltiesiswhethertheyareapprovedby
thesocialsystemsthatallocatehighstatus.Whennoveltyissocially
approved,thenthepersonwhogenerateditgetstobecalledcreative
maybeevenacreativegenius.
Thus:Noveltyofoutcome+SocialApprovalofthatoutcome=Fake
creativity
Andfakecreativityisanattributebestoweduponanoutcomeorperson
bestowedbythesocialsystemsforgeneratingstatusinotherwordsthe
massmedia(primarily),politics,civiladministration,thelegalsystem,
education...inanutshelltheLeftistEstablishment.
WeregarditasquiteobviousandundeniablethattheEstablishmentis
nowLeftistasevidencedbydominanceofthosewiththisperspectivein
academia,amongseniorchurchmen,inthemedia,andinallmainstream
politicalpartiesallofwhichpromotesomedegreeofPolitical
Correctness.Theradicalsofthe1960s,andtheirfollowers,arethe
honourloadedEstablishmentoftoday.TheBritishphilosopherSean
Gabbhasdocumentedhow,sincethe1960s,theLefthasdisplacedthe
traditionalconservativeEstablishment,takingoveralmostalloforgans
ontheBritishState,includingthepoliceandlegalsystem.[105]The
dominanceofLeftisminacademiahasbeendocumentedinnumerous
studies.[106]
So,aswouldbeexpected,politicalcorrectnesshascapturedcreativity
andreplacedrealcreativitywithafakecreativitywhichiscontrolledbythe
arbitersofmodernity:thatis,mostlythemassmedia.Somodern
creativesarecelebratedfortheirsubversionof(orexposureofthe
supposedhypocrisyof)traditional,bourgeoisandreligiousvaluesand
rewardedfortheircelebrationsofequality,pacifism,rebellion,feminism,
sexualexperimentation,antiracism,multiculturalism,andtherestofit...
Thismatterofbeingabletodefine/bestowtheaccoladeofcreativityisof
extremeimportancetothemodernintellectualestablishmentindeed,
fakecreativitystandsclosetotheheartoftheideologicalprojectofthe
modern(Leftist)elitebecausetheLeftworksmainlyviamanipulations
ofesteem,includingselfesteem.Itsenemiesareportrayedasimmoral
(especiallyselfish,judgementalorracistandthusassociatedwiththe
Nazisandtheirhorrors)andoflowintelligence,knuckledraggingcrudity,
retardationand/orlunacy.
Thustoclaimtobeacreativepersonhasbeenchangedfrombeingthe
mereobservationofapsychologicalfacttoanarrogantclaimof
deservinghighsocialstatusforhavingachievedsomethingwhichis
approvedbysocialarbiters.
ChapterSixteen
TheWaronGenius
Whenweobservepastsocieties,andhowtheywereabletosustain
geniusesandmakeusawareoftheworkofgeniusesthequestion
arises:Howwasitthatsuchsimpleandunselfconscioussocietiescould
spontaneouslyrecognizeandrespondtosomethingascomplexand
unpredictableanduniqueasageniuswhenourmuchmoreprosperous
andcomplexsocietycannot?
Thereasonisjustthatmosthumansocietiesofthepast,andcertainly
thosesocietieswheregeniusmostthrived,wereserioustheyrecognized
thatlifeisaseriousbusiness,thatthereisareasonforitall,apurposeto
itall,and(inthosesocietieswheregeniuswasmostprevalent)thateach
personhadaparttoplaybycontrast,atleastinmainstreampublic
discourse,modernWesternsocietydoesnotacknowledgeanyofthis.
CharlesMurray,inHumanAccomplishment,suggestedwhatwebelieve
tobeonecorrectanswer:thatforpeopleinthepast,thehumancondition
was(inonewayoranother)eternallysignificant.Notonlythat,butlife
wasperceivedtobefragile,existentialthreatssuchasconquestor
collapsewerecloseathandandthepeopleresponsibleforrulership
knewacertaintypeofpersonalityhadbeenabletosolvemajorand
unprecedentedproblemsinthepast.
Butmodernsocietyhasallbutlostthissenseoftheseriousnessoflife.
WeagreewithMurraythatthisissubstantiallyaconsequenceofthe
processofsecularization,amatterofthelossofreligionsincethemost
geniusconducivereligionscreateaperspectiveextendingbeyondour
mortallifeandimmediatesensoryandemotionalexperiences.Inpublic
discourse,religionhasbeenreplacedbyvarioussecular,thisworldly
sociopoliticalideologies.ButallmodernWesterncountriesnowsharea
triumphant,genericallyLeftistideology(extremelyLeftistbyworld
historicalstandards)thatembracesallmainstreampolitics,
administration,massmediaandleadership.Thisunderpinsallthe
powerfulpoliticalpartiesincludingthosewhichareselfidentifiedas
Conservative,Republican,Nationalist,Libertarianandreligiousand
includingleadershipofalllargeorganizations,institutions,and
corporationswhatevertheirtitlesorselfdefinitions.
Themodernideologyiscompoundedofhumanrights,equality,
individuality,minimizationofsufferingandmaximizationofselfrespect,
diversity,inclusionandastrongemphasisonnontraditionalsexualself
expressionandidentity.Butthepointisnotsomuchthesepositive
doctrinesasthenegativeones:thislifeisallthereis,andthereisno
meaningtolifebeyondthehappinessormiseryexperiencedthereisno
objectivitytomorality,humansareexistentiallyaloneandcommunication
isuncertainandmostlyamatterofselfdeception.Insum,themodern
ideologyissecularandnihilistic,andmodernpeopleareshorttermist,
pleasureorientated,andalienated.
Onereasonforthedeclineofreligionisluxurythatisthehighlevelsof
comfortandconvenienceinmodernlife,andthedetachmentfromthe
naturalworldandimmediatethreatstosurvival.WiththeIndustrial
Revolution,thereductionofchildandyoungadultmortality,thedefacto
eliminationofstarvationandmasslethalepidemics,theprovisionofnear
universalshelterandwarmthetc.plusactualandtheexpectationof
continuallyrisingstandardsoflivingandevermoreabundantprovisionof
pleasuresandentertainmentsfromallthesefactorsandothersthe
causesofouracutesufferingsandfearshaveverymuchbeentaken
awayand,onadailybasis,wearesoinsulatedthatthereseemstobeno
pressingneedtobelievethatlifehaseternalsignificance.
Religiousnessseemstobemotivatedandenforcedbydirect
environmentalstress.Forinstance,itreducesstressattheprospectof
mortalitybymakingusbelievethatourlifeiseternallysignificant.Thisis
whyperceivedreligiousexperiencestendtooccurattimesofdangerorto
peoplepronetostress.[107]Eliminationofdirectlyactingstressestendsto
weakenoraltogetherabolishreligion.Incontrast,theabstract,free
floating,impossibletolocateangstofmodernlifeclearlydoesnotlead
toreligiousnessbutrathertodespair.
Itseemsparadoxicaltomoderns(whousuallybelieve,oratleastassert,
thattheexistenceofsufferingrefutestherealityofGod)buttheharder
lifeisthemorestronglyreligiouspeopletendtobe(forinstance,themost
recentsignificantChristianrevivalinBritainoccurredduringtheSecond
WorldWar)andthemorecomfortableandconvenientlifebecomes,the
lesspeopleseemtoneedreligion,ortogetimmediatepersonal
satisfactionfromchurchmembershipandparticipation.
Ofcoursepeoplestillfeelgnawinganxiety,depressionanddespair.But
thesedonottriggerreligiousness,beingincreasinglydealtwithby24/7
distractionprovidedbythemassmedia,interpersonalcommunicationand
quicktransportationanydysphoria(milddepressionorotherwise
unpleasantfeelings)isdealtwithbymassmedicationwithtranquillizers
andemotionnumbingantidepressants,antipsychoticsormood
stabilizers(thesewordsareplacedinscarequotesbecausetheyareall
marketingtermswithnegligiblescientificorclinicalrationale).
ModernMancan,ifhewishes,ignorehismortality,notthinkaboutitso
distantisitfromeverydaylifesomanyandsothickaretheinsulating
layersbetweenhimselfandtherealenvironmentoffood,clothing,shelter
andwarmthinvaders,predatorsandparasites.Hecanliveabsorbedina
worldofdruggeddistraction.Andthisis,prettymuch,thetotalityofthe
modernvisionoflife.
Assuch,theEndogenouspersonality,orpotentialgenius,isperceivedas
aproblemformodernitybecausethegeniusisonlyappreciated,only
makespeoplehappy,whenthereisanacknowledgedcrisis.Andwhen
thereisnoobviouscrisisor,ifthereis,itissofarinthefuturethatmostof
uslackthefutureorientation(inotherwords,theintelligence)toworry
aboutitorevenbelieveinitorwhenwecansimplybepersuaded(bythe
massmedia)todenyorignorethecrisis,orrelabelcrisisasprogress...
thenthegeniusbecomesjustanannoyingandapparentlyunproductive
person:asocialirritantratherthanapotentialsocietalsaviour.
So,modernsocietyisinpracticeindifferentorhostiletogeniusandthe
productsofgeniussincewearecomplacent,trivialandevasive.Forus,
problemsaremerelypartoftheworldofsensationandentertainment
continuallydefinedthenredefinedandgeniusisjustoneofmany
millionsofthingstobetakenup,contemplatedbriefly,thenimpatientlyset
asideintheunendingquestfornovelstimulations.
Also,moderninstitutionsarealmostalwayscontrolledbymanagersand
managersdonotparticipatedirectlywiththeprimaryfunctionof
organizations(e.g.managersofresearchdonotdoresearch,managers
ofhospitalsdonotprovidehealthcare,managersofwidgetfactoriesdo
notcarvethewidgets)thereforeforthemanager(quamanager)the
bottomline,theeffectiverealityisultimatelytheperceptionofothers.
Thisiswhy,asmanagementtakeoverhasbecomemorecompleteinThe
Westmanagementofperceptions,impressions,opinionsetc.hascome
todominateorganizations.Formanagement,truthiswhatpeople
currentlythinkistrue,andifwhatpeoplethinkcanbeshapedtosuit
expediencythensocantruth.
Therefore,itseemsthatmodernsocietyisindifferent/hostiletogeniusfor
thesimplereasonthatasahumangroupweperceivenorealand
urgentsenseofgroupselfinterest.Wecannotreallybelieveinreal
problemsandtherealneedforrealsolutionswedenythatthereisa
pricetopayforsurvival,andthatgeniusisoneoftheseprices.
Andinsofarasmodernsocietyisawareofgeniuseshavingprovided
solutionstorealandvitalsocietalproblems,theseanswersaretypically
vehementlyrejected.Wedontacknowledgetoughproblemsdemanding
toughsolutionsweinsteaddemandeasyanswers.Indeed,wereally
dontwantanswersbecausewepretendthingsarealreadysolved,or
thatsolutionsjusthappen,naturally,aspartofthenatureofthingsorthat
whatwecurrentlyhappentowanttodowillalso(miraculously!)provide
exactlytheanswerswemostneed.
Thisissignificantbecausewebelievegeniustobegroupselected.
Modernmanseeminglycannotanylongerbelievethathumangroup
cohesionisvitalforcontinuedexistenceandprosperingwesee
ourselvesasinessenceatomistic,autonomousindividualsandnotas
integralmembersofagroup.Allthiscanbeseenintheoftenremarked
lossofsocialcohesionatthelevelofworkplaces,neighbourhoods,clubs,
hobbies,churches,schools,colleges,craftsandprofessionswhatis
termedthedeclineinCivilSocietyallthesegroupshavebeen
weakened,subvertedorevendestroyedbyTheStatetowhichmost
peoplenowlooktoprovidetheirwants.Sincecivicinvolvementhasbeen
showntobepositivelyassociatedwithintelligence,weshouldnotbe
surprisedtoobserveitsdecline.[108]
Asalreadydiscussed,itisnotjustintelligencewhichisdecliningbutalso
otheradaptationssuchastheGeneralFactorofPersonality:soweareon
averagelessprosocial,moreantisocialandasocial.Andfertilityis
inverselyassociatedwitheducation,aswellaswithintelligence
expandingeducationtoincludeeverwidersectorsofthepopulationfor
everlongerperiodsoflifehastherefore(independently)imposedfurther
damageonthefertilityofthemostintelligentontopoflongterm
intelligencerelatedtrends.[109]Educationalsuccessispredictedbythe
GFP.So,wearebecominglessAgreeable,lessConscientious,less
grouporientedinmultipleways.Indeed,mutationaccumulationwouldbe
expectedtodamagealltypesofevolvedadaptationperhapsfirstand
especiallysocialadaptations,whichtendtobemostsensitivetobrain
pathologies(psychiatricandneurologicaldiseasesshowupinsocial
deficitsandpathologiesmoresensitivelythaninotheraspectsof
functionality).
Insum,undermodernconditionsindividualselectionsubvertsgroup
selection,individualselfishnesssubvertsgroupselfishnessandeach
personincreasinglyaspirestobeafreerider:gettingmorethanhe
gives,livingattheexpenseofthegroupaschronicallyunemployed,
chronicallysick,longtermretiredlivinglifeasacontinualparty,
travelogueorholiday.
Shorttermselfishnessreplaceslongtermgroupishnessandanutterly
ineffectual,feelgoodemotionofuniversalorglobalbenevolencehas
replacedthetoughchoices,personalinvolvement,hardworkandspecific
dutiesimposedbylongtermloyaltytodefinedgroups.
Theproblemofevilgeniuses
Althoughwearguefortheimportanceofcreativityinhumanaffairs,and
thereforeoftheimportanceofthecreativeswhodotheprimaryworkof
creativity,itshouldnotbeforgottenthatcreativityisnotonlyapositive
humanvalueinitself,butisalsoameanstoanendandthatendmaybe
sociallygoodorbad,creativeandcohesive,orsociallysubversiveand
destructive.Associetyhaslostasenseofitseternalsignificance,
creativetypesindeedgeniusescanbefoundinthepursuitofthings
thatatraditionalsocietywouldregardasevil.
Modernsocietyhasindeedbecomemoreandmoreevilwhichistosay
(providinghereabriefdefinitionofevil)organizedinpursuitofdestruction
ofTheGoodinthetraditionalsenseofthewordtheGoodbeing
(roughly)thetranscendentalvaluesofTruth,BeautyandVirtue,
underpinnedbyasenseofunityandtheeternal.
Thusmodernleadershipinmanyareasoflifeisengaged,bothpassively
byneglectandactivelybypolicy,indestructionoftruth,beautyandvirtue
indeed,frequentlyininversionofvaluessothatmodernideasofTB&V
areoftentheoppositeoftraditional:forinstance,subversiveisnowa
termofpraise.Thatistosay,modernleadershipembodiesandenforces
amoralitywhichtakesrealityandturnsitupsidedownsothatgood
becomesevilandviceversa.ThisNietzscheanprojectofthe
transvaluationofallvaluesisfaradvanced,albeitincompletelyrealized,
andindeeditcannoteverbefullyrealizednonetheless,progress
towardsitsrealizationcontinuesincrementallyandcumulatively.Insucha
context,itisunsurprisingthatmostexistentcreativityisharnessedin
pursuitofthisevil.Afterall,geniusisaformofpower,andinanevil
worldpowerislikelytobeusedforevilpurposes.
Inthefirstplace,muchofthisdistinctivelymodernformofevilby
inversionisaproductofhighlycreativepersons,suchasNietzsche
himself,andlesseremulatorswhonotonlyextrapolatedhisideas,but
creativelyenhancedthem.Examplesincludemanyofthemodernist
artisticsubversivesofearly20thcenturyart.Wehavealreadymentioned
Picasso,SchoenburgandJamesJoycewhoseemtohaveinflictednet
harmandtherearemanyequallyinfluentialpartialgeniusessuchas
Duchamp,JohnCage,EzraPound,WilliamBurroughs,andSamuel
Beckettmenwhoseconsiderablecreativegiftswereharnessedtowhat
wassometimesactivelyintendedtobe,andsometimesmerelyturnedout
tobe,subversive,inversionalanddestructiveagendas.
Inessence,andinoppositiontothepastcohesiongeniusesofreligion,
philosophy,literature,music,andartthatwementionedearliermodern
evilgeniuseshaveusedtheircreativitytoundermineratherthan
strengthensocialcohesiontoargueordemonstratethatthereisnosuch
thingastruth,orthatthefalseistruetoassertthatlifehasnomeaning,
toassertthatformsofimmoralityshouldbepraisedasvirtuous,andto
rejectbeautyinfavouroforiginalityoreventotrytopromoteuglinessas
beauty.
Inotherwords,theyusedtheirgeniustoreversethevaluesofthepast
andpromoteadark,nihilisticanddespairingVoidofalife.
Secondly,duetothefactofcreativitybeingpartofthepersonalitytypeof
Psychoticismcreativesmaytendtobemorethanusuallyvulnerableto
theconsequencesofimpulsivityandlessrestrainedbysocialethics:they
arelonewolveswithapotentiallypredatoryattitudewhichisrelatively
easilycorruptedbyshorttermandselfishincentives,aswehaveseenof
Jung.
Mostoftenthiscanbeseeninsexualandmonetaryexploitativeness,
shirking,lying,cheating,seducingandspongingofthestereotypical
Bohemianlifestylethatoncedefinedbecamewidelyemulated(for
instancebytheBeatsofthe1950s,ortheHippiesofthesixties)with
predictablyselfdestructiveeffectforinstanceinthelifestyles,anti
moralityandprematuredeathsofwriterssuchasArthurRimbaud(1854
1891),[110]OscarWilde(18541900)[111],JackKerouac(19221969)and
thenumeroustalentedcasualtiesoftherockandpopmusicscene.[112]
Thirdly,creativeswhomightinprincipleexercisetheircreativityon
anythingwillfind,butmaynotnotice,thattheyhavethemselvesbeen
pointedattraditionalinstitutionsandvaluesinacontextwherecreativity
isakintosubversion,wheresuccessfuldestructionofapprovedtargetsis
applauded,andaccordedhighstatusandmaterialsupport.Forinstance,
inthepost1945eraandincreasingly,positivedepictionsofextramarital
orunconventionalsex,drugtakingandcriminalityweregivenpublicity
andelitestatuswhilemockeryorsubversionofChristian,Bourgeoisor
MiddleClassvalueswassimilarlyapplauded.
Insum,moderncreativesarehighlylikelytobeamateurorprofessional,
intentionaloraccidentaldestroyersoftheGoodintheirneteffectifnot
wholly.Thisisoneofthehorrorsofouruniquelynihilisticworld.
HumanshavealwaysfailedtoattainTheGoodduetoourown
weaknessesandbadmotivationbutwearenowinthesituationwhereit
isnormal(alsolegallyandofficiallyencouragedandrewarded)activelyto
attackTheGood,bymanymeansandonmanyfrontssothatboth
creativeabilityandhardworkingconscientiousnessdonotmerelyfailto
reachtheirpromiseandtheiridealsbutareharnessedtoworkagainst
TheGood.
Insum,mostmoderncreativesinflicteithermore,orless,harmful
outcomesoverallandthemoreeffectivetheircreativity,thegreaterthe
harmtheyinflict.
ChapterFifteen
Whattodo
Throughoutthisbook,weseemtohaveevolvedsuchadistinctive
perspectiveonthenatureandeffectofGenius,andproposedsomany
newandunfamiliarideas,thatwecanhardlysupposethatanyoneelse
wouldbelikelytoholdexactlyidenticalviews.Mostpeoplewilltherefore
needtoregardthisbookasasetofstimuliforfurtherthoughtand
appraisal(or,acollectionofwhatMarshallMcLuhanusedtocall
probes).
Intheendweharboursomeambivalenceabouttheplaceofgeniusinthe
modernworld.Inarottenandcorruptsociety,geniusisprobablymore
likelytoleadtoharmthangood,forthesamereasonthatanymachine
willusuallydomoreharmthangoodwhenputintothehandsofawicked
orstupidperson.
Butontheotherhand,theworkofgeniusistheonlyrealistichopeof
WesternManescapingacatastrophicoutcomeinasocietyfaradvanced
ontheroadtoruinbecauseonlythegeniuscanmakethequalitative
creativeleaptodiscoverpathsandoptionsinvisibletothenormalman.
Thismaybeamatterofcreatingnewmethods,butperhapswhatmodern
Manmostneedsisnotbettermeanstoanendbutarestoredsenseof
themeaning,purpose,realityandcommunityoflife.Whatwelackmostof
allismotivationandifamoderngenius,orgroupofgeniuses,could
somehowcreateanewbasisformotivationthenthiswouldperhapsdo
morethananythingelsetoimprovetheprospectsofabetterfuture.
1.ThemodernworldhasbeennecessarilybasedontheworkofaconcentrationofEuropeangeniusesfromthe
MiddleAgesandintothemiddletwentiethcenturybutgeniushasbeendisappearingrapidlyoverthepast
century,andappearstobeextinctinseveraldomains.ThereexistsastateofGeniusFamine.
2.Thissituationhasbeenpartlycaused,andpartlyexacerbatedbythe(seeminglyirrational,butsociologically
explicable) fact that the modern world has become (and is becoming more) hostile to the Endogenous
personality who is the potential basis for genius, and even to the work of actual geniuses so that the
relatively few geniuses who emerge are nowadays usually kept from having any chance of significant
influence.
3. On the one hand there is a famine of genius which afflicts science, technology, the arts, politics,
philosophy, law... pretty much everything with very few people of even potential or partial genius now
working within these fields. Yet, on the other hand, within these fields, among professionals and experts,
there is nearzero awareness, and indeed vehement denial of the blatantly obvious, rapid, and near total
declineingenius.
4. Obscurationofthetruestateofthingshasbeenachievedbytwoopposite(andcontradictory)strategies
denyingthatthereissuchathingasrealgenius,andrelabellingnoncreativefake,noveltycobblersasreal
geniuses using mechanisms such as awarding them genius prizes or by redefining merely fashionable
noveltiesasexamplesofgenuinecreativeexcellence.
5.Modernpeopleareofconsiderablyloweraverageandpeakgeneralintelligencethaninthepastsosuch
geniusesasemergewillgenerallybefiguresoflesserscopeandcreativeimpactthaninthepast.Andinsofar
as the generation upon generation decline of genius is due to an accumulation of deleterious genetic
mutations(causedbytherelaxationofnaturalselection,especiallyviachildmortality)thenthiswouldalso
beexpectedtodamagetheevolvedandadaptivepersonalitycomplexoftheEndogenouspersonality.
6.Sofuturegeniuseswillbelesserfiguresthaninthepast:lessable,lessinnerdirectedandinnermotivated,
with less effective innerevaluations, and demonstrating less independence and commitment in their
creativity.
7.However,evenalocalgenius,aminorfigurebyworldhistoricalstandards,stillprovidesthepossibilityof
agenuinelycreativeanswertorealproblems.Nogeniusesnosuchpossibilities.
So,whatcanwedoaboutallthis?Howcanweimprovethesituationwith
respecttogeniuses?
Probablythereisnotmuchwecandoasindividualsindeed,probably
theproblemofthedeclineofgeniuscannotbesolved,eveniftherewere
awarenessandunderstandingoftheproblemandthedeterminedwillto
solveit:whichthereisnot.
Theonlysolutionsthathavebeenseriouslyproposedwould,inourview,
simplynotwork.SirFrancisGalton(18221911)highlightedtheproblem
ofthelessintelligentoutbreedingthemoreintelligentinVictorianEngland
inhis1869bookHereditaryGenius.[113]Later,hearguedthatthiscouldbe
solvedbyaprogrammeofeugenicswhichwouldfinanciallyincentivise
themoreintelligenttohavethemostchildrencombinedwithinculcating
peoplewithakindoflatterdayreligiositywhichemphasizedthe
importanceofimprovingthehumanstock.[114]Others,suchasRichard
LynninhisbookEugenics:AReassessment[115]havedefendedGalton
butprovidedmoredetail,forexampleadvocatinglicensingtohave
childrenwiththepermittednumberdictatedbythecouplesintelligence
level.
However,evenleavingasidereligiousprohibitionsitseemstousthat
thereareanumberofseriouspracticalproblemswiththeseviews.
Limitingthefertilityofthemajorityofthepopulationinthiswaycouldonly
beachievedinastringentdictatorshipbasedaround,asGalton
suggested,someformofsecularreligionofeugenics.Thiswouldentaila
societyofconformityandcoercion,whichcouldpotentiallybehighly
problematicforgeneratingnewideasorcorrectingwrongideas.Itisquite
possiblethatsuchpolicieswouldresultinprotest,rebellionandwar,
potentiallyworseninglivingconditions.Indeed,thetoughestproblem,and
thegreatestcontroversy,wouldprobablycomefromtryingtomakethe
modernseculareliteshave(onaverage)abovereplacementnumbersof
children,sinceallovertheworldthefertilityofthoseofhighest
intelligenceandmosteducationhasfallenverylowassoonas
contraceptionhasbecomeavailable.
Moreover,aswehaveshown,dysgenicsonintelligenceiscausednotjust
bydysgenicbreedingbutalso,andprobablymainly,bymutation
accumulation.Accordingly,theonlyway,ifwefollowGalton,toreverse
dysgenicswouldbe(atminimum)themonstrouspolicyofallowingtodie,
tosterilize,or(mosteffectively)inflictdeathupon,abouthalfofthe
childrenbornineachgeneration.
Inotherwords,effectiveeugenicswouldentailManartificiallyrestoring
thepremodernharshnessofnaturalselectionandtherebyreversing
whatcouldregardedthesinglegreatesttriumphoftheIndustrial
Revolution(which,arguably,hasbeentheneareliminationfrommodern
humanexperienceofwhatusedtobethealmostuniversaltragedyof
parentssufferingtheprematuredeathofseveralormostoftheirchildren).
Soinpracticewewouldnotbelikelytodomorethanmerelysomewhat
amelioratethegeniusfamine.
Onthewholeitseemsthatweshouldsimplydoourbesttofind,support
andtakenoticeofgenius:tomakethemostofwhatgeniusyetremains.
Thehopeisthatgeniuses,bythefactoftheirgenuinecreativity,wouldbe
ourbest,andperhapsouronly,chanceoffindinganescaperoutefroma
trajectorywhichbyconventionalanalysisappearscertainlytobe
terminalforWesterncivilization.
ChapterSixteen
InSearchoftheBoyGenius
Iftherewasasenseofrealcrisis,andurgentsenseofneed,theremight
emergeabetterandmorewidespreadsearchprocessfordiscovering
geniuses:amoreeffectivewayofunearthingmoreindividualsfromthe
decliningpoolofpotentialgeniusesandgivingthemabetterchanceof
comingthroughtoapositionwheretheymightattainthebestworkof
whichtheywerecapableandthentakingsomenoticeofit.
OurdescriptionoftheEndogenouspersonalitythroughoutthisbook
would,wehope,makepossibleandeffectivethissearchprocess:for
perhapsthefirsttime,peopleinsearchofpotentialgeniuseswouldknow
whatitwastheywerelookingforthecombinationofinnermotivation
andintuitivethinkingwithhighintelligence.
Theywouldalsoknowwhattheywerenotlookingfor:theempathic,
sociable,conscientious,popularandbalancedHeadGirltype,who,
despitehisorhermanyvirtuesandgeneralvaluablenessisthe
oppositeofagenius.
Yet,eventowritethatparagraphistoseethatitwilllikelynothappen,
andalsoperhapswhyitwillnothappen.Howcouldasocietywhichis
rootandbranchhostiletoexactlythekindofpersonwhomight(but
perhapswont)eventuallybecomeageniusthenmakeabreakthroughof
geniusimpact,doanythingeffectivetofind,nurtureandsupport
geniuses?Oursocietytypicallyseestheactuallyexistinggeniusasa
problemtobeeliminated,ratherthanthebest,andperhapsonly,only
hopeofcivilizationalsalvation.
Andthereistheparadoxoforganizingsocietytoencouragethe
emergenceofthedisorganizedanddisorganizinganddisruptive.Butif
somethingofthesortwasactuallyputintoeffect(andthismightwellbea
plotforasciencefictionnovel,perhapsbyPhilipKDick),thenitcould
happenbymeansofaprogramofpsychologicalprofilinganddeep
aptitudetestingbygeniusmastersratherliketheprocesswhichalready
existsfordiscoveringtalentinmusicalperformancethewaysof
discoveringagreatconcertpianistoranoperaticsoloist,orchess
grandmasters.Thatis,amultitudeofindividualcoaches,teachersand
Maestroswouldseekoutandtakeonpromisingyoungstersfortraining
andtherewouldbeavarietyofexhibitionsandcompetitionsaimedat
evaluatingbothachievedperformanceand(moreimportant)potential.
TheEndogenouspersonalityis,infact,usuallydetectablefromaround
schoolageinhisthreeaspectsofhighintelligence,intuitivethinkingand
innermotivation.Intelligencecanbetested,withfairreliabilityandvalidity
intuitivethinkingmaybediscernedbysympatheticobservationof
dreaminessandinspiredinsightsinnermotivationwillemergein
eccentricandindividualisticpatternsofinterestsandbehaviours.Armed
withthisknowledgeitis,inprinciple,quitepossibletopickouttheBoy
Geniustype(includingaminorityofgirls)andhelptosmoothhispath,
andrecognizehisdistinctiveneedsandvulnerabilities.
Theframeworkisthattalentwithpotential(typically,hightechnicalability
inacontextoftheEndogenouspersonality)isbeingdiscoveredthen
developedtoapointwherethetalentcantakeoveritsowndevelopment.
Theapprenticewouldneedtofind,andtrust,aMaster(whowould
himselfneedtobeanEndogenouspersonality).TheMasterwouldneed
towanttofind,andworkwith,thebestapprentices.AndtheMasters
wouldbeincontrolofthesystem(notHeadGirlsorbureaucratsor
committees).BecauseonlytheMasterscanperceivewhatisgoingon
canperceivethedifferencebetweenmerehighabilityandthepotentialfor
creativegenius.Butasidefromthat,thereisnosystem.Noformal
requirements.Nostandardprogression.Noaccreditationofany
significance.
Butitisequally,perhapsmore,essentialthatthepotentialgeniusbe
giventhekindofpersonalandemotionalsupportheneedsoratleast
thathebenotassaultedbywhathewouldperceiveasadditional
stresses.Many(notall)geniusesare(asRuskinperceived,andknew
frompersonalexperience)unusuallychildlikeanddependentandbenefit
fromahigherlevelandgreaterdurationoflookingafterwhichwould
typicallycomefromthefamily,butifnotthemthensomeoneelse
trustworthy,caring,andwiththegeniussbestinterestsatheart.Thesad
experienceofWilliamSidisthrownbyhisparents,stillachildlikechild,
intotheroughturmoilofHarvardshouldbeawarninginthisregard.
Theabovemaysoundalltooprivilegedforthealreadyprivileged,terribly
elitist,veryesoteric.Itisastatementoftheneedforspecialtreatmentfor
specialpeople.Anditseestalentandthepotentialforgeniusas
essentiallyinnate.Ifyouhaventgotityoucantdoitandifevenyou
have,youprobablywont.Itasksforeverythingthatmodernculture
despises,andindeedregardsasimmoral.
Furthermore,thisisantidemocratic,antipopular,andaristocratic.High
intellectualabilityisitselfveryrare,buthighabilityinthecontextofan
Endogenouspersonalityisrarerstill.TheprocessoffindingBoy
Geniusesisaboutsearchingforaveryfewdiamondsamonggreatheaps
of(useful)coalbutwithadistractinganddeceptiveproportionofgaudy
costumejewellery(pretenddiamonds,pseudogeniuses)takingtheform
ofuncreativeskillandfakecreativity.
Inconclusion,ifmodernsocietywasconcernedwithitsowncontinuation
whichveryclearlyitisnot,beinginsteadselfloathingandcovertly
devotedtoitsownextinctionthensomethingofthiskindwouldneedto
occurtolocateandempowersufficientnumbersofgeniusestomaintain
thefrequentandrelevantbreakthroughsnecessarytoenablecontinued
growthinefficiencyandcapability.
But,overall,itseemsthatwehavetoacceptthatWesterncivilizationwill
decline.Itis,essentially,inevitable.Lifewillgobackwards,lifewill
becomesimpler,harshermuchlesscomfortable,muchmoreserious.
Eventually,andafterconsiderablesufferinglikeitornotperhapsenough
peoplewillcometofeelpartofgroups,toseethebenefitsofgeniustothe
group,andtorecognizethenecessityofgenius.
Andthegeniuswillagainresumehisproperroleinsociety.
Conclusion:Sevenstatements
aboutgenius
1.Weneedtorecognizethatsupportforgeniusissocialselfinterestitisariskyinvestment,truebutwhenit
paysoff,ageniusyieldsvastlymorebenefitthanhecosts.
2.Thebenefitsyieldedbygeniusarenotobtainableinanyotherway.
3.Geniusisbornandnotmade.Trainingofnongeniuseswillnotyieldmoregeniuses.
4. Genius can be identified, and may be encouraged and flourish or alternatively genius can be ignored,
thwarted,suppressedandrenderedirrelevant.
5.Ageniusisadifficult,eccentric,asocialpersonwhodespitethisexistsinordertopromotethegoodof
thegroup.
6.Yet,althoughstronginselfmotivation,selfdeterminationandautonomyageniusisnormallyasensitive
andemotionallyvulnerableperson.Hecanbedismayed,demoralized,corruptedordriventodespairand
hispotentialwillthenbediminishedordestroyed.
7. Infuturemostgeniuswillbelocal(byourcurrentstandards),ratherthaninternational:ashamanrather
than an Einstein. This is the best that can realistically be hopedfor but a local genius is better than no
geniusatall.
AbouttheAuthors
EdwardDuttonisAdjunctProfessoroftheAnthropologyofReligionat
OuluUniversityinFinlandandanindependentscholar.HereadTheology
atDurhamUniversityandresearchedaPhDinReligiousStudiesat
AberdeenUniversity,focusingonanthropology.Thiswaspublishedas
MeetingJesusatUniversity(Ashgate,2008).Amonghisotherbooksare
astudyofFinnishculture,TheFinnuit(AkademiaiKiado,2009),Culture
ShockandMulticulturalism(CambridgeScholars,2012)andReligionand
Intelligence(UlsterInstituteforSocialResearch,2014).Hismostrecent
book(withRichardLynn)isRaceandSport(UlsterInstituteforSocial
Research,2015).Hisresearchhasbeenreportedin,andhehasalso
writtenfor,variousnationalnewspapersandmagazines.Hecanbefound
onlineatwww.edwarddutton.wordpress.com
BruceGCharltonisVisitingProfessorofTheoreticalMedicineatthe
UniversityofBuckinghamandReaderinEvolutionaryPsychiatryat
NewcastleUniversity.Brucehasanunusuallybroadintellectual
experience:hegraduatedwithhonoursfromtheNewcastleMedical
School,tookadoctorateattheMedicalResearchCouncil
Neuroendocrinologygroup,anddidpostgraduatetraininginpsychiatry
andpublichealth.Hehashelduniversitylectureshipsinphysiology,
anatomy,epidemiology,andpsychologyandhasaMastersdegreein
EnglishLiteraturefromDurham.From200310BrucesoloeditedMedical
Hypothesesamonthlyinternationaljournalthatpublishedfrequently
speculative,sometimesamusing,andoftencontroversialideasand
theoriesacrossthewholeofmedicineandbeyond.Hehaspublished
considerablymorethantwohundredscientificpapersandacademic
essaysinthesefields,andcontributedjournalismtoUKnational
broadsheetsandweeklymagazines.BruceisauthorofThoughtPrison:
TheFundamentalNatureofPoliticalCorrectness(2011)NotEvenTrying:
TheCorruptionofRealScience(2012)andAddictedtoDistraction:
PsychologicalConsequencesoftheModernMassMedia(2014)all
publishedbyUniversityofBuckinghamPress.Intelligence,Personality
andGeniusisBrucesblog,wheremanyoftheideasforthisbookwere
developed:
iqpersonalitygenius.blogspot.co.uk
[1]ThisbookismostlyderivedfromBruceCharltonsblog:
Intelligence,PersonalityandGenius
http://iqpersonalitygenius.blogspot.co.uk
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The intelligence, personality, and motives of clever silly originators and those
who follow them. Intelligence, 49: 5765. On Nietzsche, see, Kaufmann, W.
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Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/contents.html#n Moral and Political
Philosophy(Accessed15August2015).
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of domainspecific disposition, development, and achievement. Perspectiveson
PsychologicalScience,4,441452Simonton,D.(1988).Genius,creativityand
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[42] Scheib, J., Gangestad, S. & Thornhill, R. (1999). Facial attractiveness,
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[43] E.g. Kanazawa, S. (2011). Intelligence and physical attractiveness.
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analysis.Intelligence,36:289305.
[45]
Storr,A.(1972).TheDynamicsofCreation.London:Penguin.
[46] Eysenck, H. (1995). Genius: The Natural History of Creativity.

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[47] According to the American Psychiatric Association the key
psychopathic(orAntiSocialPersonalityDisorder)traitsare(1)Inabilityto
sustain consistent work (2) Failure to conform to social norms (3)
Irritability and aggressiveness (4) Failure to honour financial obligations
(5) Impulsiveness (6) No regard for the truth (7) Recklessness (8) Poor
parentingskills(9)Failuretoformlongtermsexualrelationships(dueto
inabilitytolove)(10)Lackofremorse(11)ConductDisorderinchildhood.
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Difference.London: Penguin. The Endogenous personality can be seen
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social, or abstract, interests there is a positive and overlapping
relationship with Baron Cohens reciprocal and malerelated trait of
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[51]Charlton,B.G.(2000).Psychiatry and the Human Condition. Oxford:
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[54] See Weber, Max. (1991). The Sociology of Charismatic Authority. In
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SiberianspiritualityandtheWesternimagination.London:Hambledon.
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ContemporaryApproachestotheMasteryofSpiritsandHealing.Oxford:
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[58] Anthropological accounts of shamans indicate that they are such
characters.Forexample,Salamone,F.Op.cit.
[59] Lynn, R. & Irwing, P. (2004). Sex differences on the Progressive
Matrices:Ametaanalysis.Intelligence,32:481498.
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Psychoticism.PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,13:757785Dutton
(2014),Op.cit.,Ch.11.
[61] Quoted in Kealey, H. (14 November 2014). Why do geniuses lack
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BiographicalInsights.London:PalgraveMacMillanCopleston,F.(1991).
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and Trancers: Bushman Religion and Society. Indiana University Press,
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[82]Woodley,M.A.(2012).Thesocialandscientifictemporalcorrelatesof
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slowingofsimplereactiontime.Intelligence,41:843850.Seealso:Woodley, M.A.Madison,G.&Charlton,B.(2014).

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[92] For example, they have found a secular decline in the use of difficult
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science selects for perseverance and sociability at the expense of

intelligence and creativity. Medical Hypotheses. 72: 237243 and
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geniuses,wasanEndogenouspersonalitysubtypethatalsofittedintothe
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SimonBaronCohen,forexampleFrith,U.(1991)AutismandAspergers
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S. (1995) Mindblindness: an Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind,
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betweenAspergerssyndromeandtheEndogenouspersonalityrequires
further elucidation than we can give it here but in a nutshell the two
definitionsoverlapandindividuals,includinggeniuseslikeNewton,Turing
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otherforinstance,theEndogenouspersonalitymaybesociable,while
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theory. Psychological Inquiry, 4, 147178 or Eysenck, H. J. (1992). The

a general factor of personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1173

[6] See, Lynn, R. (2011). Dysgenics: Genetic Deterioration in Modern

of domainspecific disposition, development, and achievement. Perspectiveson

Socialization. In J. Grusec & P. Hastings (Eds). Handbook of Socialization:

predicts reasoning ability for evolutionarily familiar content. Intelligence, 39:

[16]Herrnstein,R.&Murray,C.(1994).The BellCurve:Intelligence and Class

sympathetic nervous system and attenuation of the innate immune

response in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

[26] Millard, A. (2010). Probability of descending from Edward

[34] See, Leighton, P. (2013). The Liberation of Painting: Modernism and

[37] Picasso possessed almost every symptom of psychopathic personality, for

Nietzsches Moral and Political Philosophy. In Stanford Encyclopedia of

[46] Eysenck, H. (1995). Genius: The Natural History of Creativity.

Oxford University Press or BaronCohen, S. (2004). The Essential

Gerth, H. H. and Mills, C. Wright, (Eds). From Max Weber: Essays in

Princeton: Princeton University Press Hutton, R. (2001) Shamans:

[56] On shamans, see: Jakobsen, M. (1999). Shamanism: Traditional and

[58] Anthropological accounts of shamans indicate that they are such

common sense? Daily Telegraph,

Greenwood Tucker, G. (1995). Jane Austen, the Woman: Some

science, medicine, education and eventually everything else. Medical

generalized trust? An empirical test using the UK birth cohort studies.

Medical research funding may have overexpanded and be due for

so dull? How science selects for perseverance and sociability at the

childless see: Simonton, D. K. (2003). Exceptional creativity across the

and Gatherers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Harvey, G.

Cengage Learning Australia, p.80, and Guenther, M. (1999). Tricksters

Darwinism Made Modern China. The American Conservative.

The First Industrial Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[86] E.g. Huebner, J. (2005). A possible declining trend for worldwide

[90] Rowthorn, R. (2011). Religion, fertility and genes: A dual inheritance

model. Proceedings of the Royal Society (B) Biological Sciences. DOI:

dysgenic decline in intelligence over the past couple of centuries?

[97] In terms of IQ genes, it has been found that the possession of a

science selects for perseverance and sociability at the expense of

Enigma. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Turing, like many other

predicts voter turnout, voter preferences and political involvement in

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