May the Whole Earth Be Happy:

Loka Samastat Sukhino Bhavantu

STAFFORD BEER Team Syntegrity inc.

34 Palmerston Square
Toronto, Ontario M6G 2S7
Canada

Teachings of Vedantic philosophy, developed in India several

thousand years ago, are relevant to today's world. The most re-
nowned script, the Bhagavad Gita, can be viewed as a treatise
on management action. I examine Vedantic creation myths for
their approach to the creation, recursion, and closure of system;
they prefigure these features in contemporary physics. I make a
direct and startling comparison between the Vedantic creation
model and the viable system model of current managerial cy-
bernetics. I examine Vedic mathematics for its relevance to
school teaching and to computers and consider the role of yogic
meditation in management training.

W est Churchman and I have been

friends since we met at the first in-

timal Decision [Churchman 1961], he wrote

a note thanking me touchingly for my crit-

ternational conference on operational re-
search in Oxford in 1957. About 25 years
ago, he stayed at my house in Surrey out-
side London and roamed around my li-
brary. After he left, I found that he had
written on the flyleaves of my copies of his
own books.
In his influential book Prediction and Op-
Copyright Co 1994, The Institute uf Management Sciences
0091-2102/94/2404/0083$01.25
ical review essay, which had appeared in
the American journal Philosophy of Science
[Beer 1963]. His subtitle to the book was
Philosophical Issues of a Science of Values.
This is a far cry from the technique-ori-
ented aridity that we have since come to
expect under titles concerned with either
forecasting or optimality. Churchman is
PROFESSIONALMS/OR PHILOSOPHY

INTERFACES 24: 4 July-August 1994 (pp. 83-93)

BEER

surely the outstanding modern philosopher Lokham refers to the worldto Gaia her-
of systems theory, and his concern with self, as we might sayand is taken to in-
ethical questions has never been merely an clude all living species whose habitat is
academic preoccupation. His book ap- here. Sukham. happiness in brief, is close to
peared as the turbulent '60s begana de- what Aristotle later called eudemonia. well-
cade of grave moral disquiet: civil rights, being; but it encompasses the satisfaction
Viet Nam, and free speech were all matters of needs that are not only physical and
that split the American nation. Churchman mental, but spiritual. We can link these an-
the activist emerged from behind the cient Eastern ideals to our (less) ancient
dreaming spire of the Berkeley campanile Greek heritage through the words satyam
to run personal risks that others will cata- (truth), sundaram (beauty), and sivham
logue but I remember. (goodness); these ideals are upheld in both
Towards the end of the decade he pub- cultures as marks of civilization. Our ma-
lished The Systems Approach [Churchman terialistic age takes instead such a measure
1968]: I believe it was equally influential. as the gross national product and divides it
In my copy of this book. Churchman by the population. The statistical fiction
wrote a brief testimonial of friendship that this "GNP per capita" somehow rep-
"without the necessity of frequent feed- resents "quality of life" for the individual
back because of love." And so it has citizen is exposed by the fact that wealth is
worked out between us ever since those heavily concentrated at the top end of the
days. What do we know about any such national spectrum of income. But apolo-
mode of communication? For certain, it has gists for Third World exploitation make
nothing to do with E-mailpsi-mail, sanctimonious reference to improvements
maybe. What do we know about the that are unreal for the ordinary person.
brotherhood of love itself? Very little, it Management as Action
would seem, as we look around at the de- Each of the three lanes approaching my
vastation of our world today. But remote cottage in the Welsh hills runs
Churchman has devoted much of his prac- through a small farm, and each farm is
tical effort to the causes of love and peace. guarded by sheep dogs. As my battered
As the Churchman oeuvre attests. West old truck comes near, dogs rush upon it
is a great expertappropriately enough barking, and as the truck passes by, they
on Western philosophy. In this essay, I put chase it off their territory. They drop off
forward some thoughts based on ancient the chase after 100 yards or so with their
Vedantic philosophy. I transmit them from tails in the air^quite evidently satisfied
East to West in the hope that he may enjoy with a job well done. I was just going
them, in the spirit of his messages to me. It home anyway, fellows, but never mind.
is appropriate that I take as title an ancient Once there was a successful company
invocation [Murthy 1988, p. 3] of which he whose staff constituted a real team. The
would surely approve: "May the whole work force was hard working and well or-
earth be happy." In the Sanskrit: ganized. The company had wonderful re-
Loka samastat sukhino bhavantu. lationships with both suppliers and clients

INTERFACES 24:4 84
LOKA SAMASTAT SUKHINO BHAVANTU
and made steady profits. When the annual
general meeting approached each year, the
company gave a big party for the press: it
had done very well and would be doing
even better next year, announced the man
who organized the party. The published
accounts confirmed it all and revealed that
the party organizer had collected a large
bonus. This was in order because he was
the CEO.
The Bhagavad-Gita [Beer 1962a] says in
chapter 3, verse 27:
In reality, action is entirely the outcome of all
the modes of nature's attributes; moreover, only
s/he whose intellect is deluded by egotism is so
ignorant that s/he presumes "I am doing this."
This sentence expresses the philosophy of
holism writ large in terms of management
action. Managers, like the farmers' dogs,
often claim credit for the details of out-
comes that are actually products of the
system, credit from which they are dis-
qualified by Ashby's law of requisite vari-
ety. When I first offered this quotation in
the context of management 30 years ago
[Beer 1966, p. 299], I wrote that it reveals
an insight into the nature of system, secondly
into the proliferation of variety, and thirdly into to the fruits of action: only the petty-
the generation of spontaneous control activity.
Thefirstclause, translated directly into cyber-
netic jargon instead of English might read: Out- '80s ethic of the first world.
put is a self-regulating black box function of in-
put variety. But the sting is in the second
clause. It speaks of the self-determination of the tion for its own sake, and (as the Gita says,
system from its own nature, of the implicit con- chapter 5, verse 10) is like the leaf of a wa-
trol which cybernetics purports to discover in
nature 5,000 years too late to count as original.
Much more than this quotation recom-
mends the Gita [Prabhavananda and
Isherwood 1944] for management studies;
this scripture is wholly concerned with the
nature of right action, and it is a monu-
mental rebuke to the creed of greed that
July-August 1994
characterizes our era. "The world is impri-
sioned in its own activity," says the Gita
(chapter 3, verse 9). Yes, that is how we
lose sight of the concept of social good and
become latter-day Philistines into the bar-
gain. "There is no such thing as society,"
said Prime Minister Thatcher. So all that is
left is the individual and selfish desire.
"S/he is the slave of his/her own activ-
ity," says the Gita (chapter 4, verse 14),
whose authors had never even seen an ex-
ecutive wrestling with the laptop comput-
er's appointments-and-jobs-to-be-done
program.
You might think from this that the Gita
recommends less action or that people re-
move themselves from the fray altogether.
On the contrary, the Gita teaches that one
has a duty to act. But the action must be in
harmony with the whole situation, not an
"The world is imprisoned in
its own activity."
imposition. Above all, it must be disinter-
ested. The duty to act does not carry rights
minded work for reward. So much for the
Consider a manager who seeks right ac-
ter lily that rests unwetted on water: "She/
he rests on action, untouched by action."
Such a person will try to refuse the credit
for success, which is difficult; what is even
more difficult is to refuse the blame for
failurewhen the action was right. Our
hypothetical manager may find it weari-
some to operate on so lofty a plane and
85
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may consider withdrawing his or her ef-
fort. This was exactly the predicament of
Prince Arjuna before the battle of
Kurukshetra, which is the scene of the
Bhagavad-Gita. He was unhappy to be
fighting a battle against his own kith and
kin. However, Arjuna was fortunate to
have the divine incarnation, Krishna, as his
charioteer, and thence flows the philo-
sophic discussion of the ethics of right ac-
tion. Not only do you have a duty to act,
but personal disinterest in the outcome
must raise you above it; not only must you
not run away from distasteful action, but
only action can free you from the obliga-
tion to act. That last sentence deserves
some thought.
These arguments are of a subtlety and
nobility unknown to the creed of greed.
Recently there has been a spate of confer-
ences on business ethics. It is sad to turn
from the Gita to confront the fact that
these important meetings concern simply
the prevention of fraud. There should be
more to business ethics than that. It is sad
too that the Gita has sometimes been used
among Hindu extremists to justify vio-
lencejust because it draws its high dra-
matic effect from a scene of battle. But
Krishna is not alone in this misrepresenta-
tion. The teachings of another Prince of
Peace have with equivalent perversity
been manipulated in the cause of a multi-
tude of heinous crimes in the Christian
world.
The 4,000-year-old Sankhya philosophy,
part of the Vedantic tradition, is the basis
of raja yoga. It teaches that belief is non-
sense. Only direct experience counts. This
would make a powerful aphorism for
modern management and one that might
INTERFACES 24:4
find approval in the business schools. But
they would need to follow through. They
would find that the ultimate meaning of
their new motto lies in the direct experi-
ence of selfwhich few people ever con-
front. They would also have to face the
lesson of direct experience in the imple-
mentation of the techniques of socioeco-
nomic management that they teach. This is
that they don't work.
A school of vedantic management would
teach the eight-fold path to wisdom of raja
yoga through direct experience of self. In
managerial terms it would come out as the
Gita says (chapter 5, verse 5); "The wise
see knowledge and action as one."
The Creation, Recursion and Closure
of System
All great cultures have supported cre-
ation myths. Our own is sponsored by
modern physics: the big bang theory. This,
of course, is no more a statement of objec-
tive truth than any others. Its most well-
known exponent, Stephen Hawking
[1988], himself says: "We see the universe
the way it is because we exist" (p. 124).
And this is a view some physicists take
even further with the anthropic cosmologi-
cal principle [Barrow and Tippler 1986],
which sees humankind as the center of or
indeed the reason for the universe. Others
have gone on to "the theory of every-
thing" that emerged from the 10-dimen-
sional constructs of Superstrings [Peat
1991].
All the myths, including that of the big
bang, fundamentally concern the origin
and nature of time itself. While our own
culture uses concepts and measures such
as Hawking's, we still have fundamental-
ists among us who accept the seven days
86
LOKA SAMASTAT SUKHINO BHAVANTU
and seven nights of Genesis, although
some of those concede that an Old Testa-
ment day might be longer than the terres-
trial day. Otherwise, the two myths have
much in commonexcept for the order in
which the earth and moon appeared. Both
of these contemporary myths involve not
only a primary big bang, but an eventual
big crunch.
So does the oldest creation myth in the
book. It is the Vedantic theory of yugas,
the world ages. There are four world ages,
and together they last for 4,320,000 years.
Only the petty-minded work
for reward.
It takes a thousand such cycles to account
for a day in the life of God (Genesis en-
thusiasts please note). At the end of the
day (thus defined) "all matter in the uni-
verse is reabsorbed into the universal
spirit" [Hope 1991, p. 91]. During the
night, which is also some four trillion years
long, "matter persists only as potential for
reappearance" [Hope 1991, p. 91]. All this
refers to one day in a year of 360 days in
the life of Brahma; and he lives for a
hundred years before the big crunch. The
whole of this immense cycle then renews.
So time is not itself an episode suspended
in nothing.
In short, the Vedantic philosophy of the
yugas is structurally recursive in its treat-
ment of time, matter, and energy. It exhib-
its closure, both within its recursivity and
also metasystemically beyond it. Modern
systems theory is better equipped to reflect
and foment such Vedantic notions in our
times than is contemporary physicsand
July-August 1994
to more satisfying philosophic outcomes. A
full treatment of this cybernetic contention
would consider especially the constructivist
theory of Heinz von Foerster and his asso-
ciates [Siegel 1986] and the theory of auto-
poiesis advanced by Maturana and
Varela [1980]. In this short paper, I shall
use illustrations from my own work.
The logician Goedel demonstrated that
language is based on a structure that can
never be completely closedthat is, it will
always be possible to make some state-
ments that are in effect meaningless be-
cause they can be neither proved nor re-
futed. 1 consider that the problems en-
countered in discussing creation, and
thereafter of its contained created systems,
begin with the logical incompleteness of
the language in which they are cast. This is
exemplified in physics by asking questions
about chance and necessity in the universe
and is epitomized in Einstein's agonizing
over his belief that "God does not play
dice"held in the face of new discoveries
in quantum theory that required a random
basis and seemed to imply that He did. It
was exemplified in the context of manage-
ment by a discussion of production plan-
ning in my first book [Beer 1959, p. 76]. To
deal with this, I offered the principle of
"completion from without," which pro-
posed to give closure to a Goedelian sen-
tence by a device that could not be under-
stoodexcept insofar as it did indeed
make the closure. The managerial cyber-
netics I later propounded [Beer 1966] was
based upon this principle. But instead of
using my inelegant words, Einstein's spirit
might be quieted by ostensive definition:
God IS the dice. The biack box is what it
does.
87
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Sristi: The Vedantic VSM: The Cybernetic

Creation Model Description Viable System Model

Maha Shakti Is the power behind creation and the establishment System Five
of identity
Maheswari Lays down the large lines of development for the System Four
whole
Mahakali Drives the energies of the autonomous components System Three
and guards them with a powerful vigilance Sytem Three Star
Mahalaksmi Highlights and guides the rhythms of autonomous System Two
components with grace and harmony
Mahasaraswati Presides over the detailed organization and execution System One
of autonomous components

Table 1: A comparison of the ancient creation model, called Sristi. with the modern cybernetic
model known as the VSM. Each model has five component parts, as named. The descriptions
are taken from the ancient text, but are excellent expressions of the modern roles too.

Returning to the most revered of the
Vedantic scriptures, we find the device in
frequent use in the Gita. Among the exam-
ples comes a dictum of the Lord Krishna
(chapter 10, verse 32): "I am the discussion
among disputants," or in the poetic trans-
lation quoted throughout this paper [Prab-
havananda and Isherwood 1944]:
"I am the logic of those who debate." The
principle has been available for thousands
of years, had we or Einstein but
recognized it.
Vedanta and the Viable System
During the '50s and '60s 1 was preoccu-
pied with developing [Beer 1962b] a cyber-
netic model of any viable system (the
VSM): the created component of a more
inclusive viable systemidentically, and
therefore recursively, defined. This is a ho-
listic model involving the intricate interac-
tion of five identifiable but not separable
subsystems. Only recently have I made
comparisons between the viable systems
model (VSM) and the Vedantic creation
model (Sristi). Table 1 shows the results of
this comparison.
My account of the five subsystems that
holistically elucidate the VSM is spread
over three books [Beer 1972, 1979, 1985],
two of them very thick, and it is difficult to
describe them briefly. There are profound
reasons for this. In the first place, a viable
system is not a hierarchical structure; all
components are mutually interdependent
and reflect each other (as it were) holo-
graphically. Any diagrammatic layout, any
listing of components, has the appearance
of hierarchy: something must be men-
tioned first or be drawn above something
else. Second, the characteristics that under-
write viability are the managerial phenom-
ena connoted by such words as regulation,
control, communication, coordinationnot
to mention the word management itself. But
the essence of the cybernetic discoveries
embodied in the VSM is that these phe-
nomena are generated by the holistic per-
formance of the entire system. They do not
reside anywhere at all; least of all can any
one of them be identified with any one
subsystem. The nearest that I have come to
such specificity is to identify various regu-

INTERFACES 24:4
LOKA SAMASTAT SUKHINO BHAVANTU
latory loops.
The force of such a view derives from
the neurocybernetic studies [Beer 1962b] in
which the VSM has its origins: the local-
ization of function in the brain is an intrac-
table topic because of the redundancy of
potential commandand the impediment
applies to all viable systems. Thus I have
consistently evaded demands to explain
the five VSM roles, to make them more
understandable, because the cybernetic in-
sight is denatured in the process. This is
also the reason why I gave the subsystems
numbers (and paid the price among those
who insist this implies hierarchy), instead
of simple but misleading names. It would
be equally misleading to nominate the
loudspeaker as the voice in a radio or to la-
bel the moving piston of the engine as a
vehicle's speed.
Users of the VSM may wish to consider
the descriptions given in Table 1 given this
background. They are satisfactory in that
they are highly informative for their
length, do not fall into the localization
trap, and are recursively effective via the
component systems. Yet, I did not write
these descriptions. They are Vedantic
statements, drawn from the ancient cre-
ation model called Sristi. According to
Sristi, the Great Power, Maha Shakti, is at-
tended by other magnificent powers, all
having the prefix meaning great. Each has
a responsibility, rather than a technique or
an office, which obviously interacts with
the other responsibilities. I particularly like
Mahalaksmi's wording, which in the inele-
gant parlance of VSM System Two, is
"anti-oscillatory." I have taken only one
liberty with the Vedantic descriptions
[Murthy 1989] in using the term autono-
July-August 1994
mous components where my original says
"created forms"; but I should be surprised
if the (not available) Sanskrit does not
equally support that reading.
According to the VSM, every viable sys-
tem contains and is contained in other via-
ble systems; this is why the model is called
recursive. Exactly the same is true of the
Sristi model. Mahashakti is conceptualized
as a goddess, the divine mother; and she is
in herself recursive. The great sage Sri
Aurobindo [1970] writes of three modes of
her being: "the transcendent supreme,
original Shakti, who is above the worlds
and serves as a link between creation and
the still unmanifested mystery of the su-
preme; the universal, cosmic Mahashakti,
who creates all beings and contains, pene-
trates, supports and directs the millions of
processes and forces; and, lastly, the indi-
vidual, who personifies the power of the
two most vast aspects of her existence,
makes them alive and close to us, and in-
terposes herself between human personal-
ity and divine nature." As Larousse
[Herbert 1965, p. 223] comments, she is
"at the same time, the whole of divine
power, yet this does not prevent her from
being entirely incarnate in the mother of
the family of each household, and in the
Kundalini at the base of the vertebral col-
umn in the case of each human being."
Similarly, the VSM has been mapped onto
body cells, the central nervous system, the
family, townships, and the country, as well
as to all kinds of industrial and service en-
terprises worldwide.
Of Form and Measure
Results of the foregoing analysis were
deeply surprising to me, despite a lifetime's
conviction that knowledge is perennial.
89
BEER

Often its expression is contingent on cur- proach to mathematics is frequently coun-

rent technologyand this provokes confu- terproductive, and if many children shy
sion between the two. Worse still, it may away, it could have to do with the denial
brand the notion of transcendental wis- of intuitive (let's say right brain) entry.
dom, which is called prajna in Vedanta, as Perhaps the sudden emergence and subse-
superstition rather than knowledge at all. quent success of set-theoretic pedagogy
Perhaps this applies to ideas about under- owed much to an intuitive component, as
lying forms and energies that are not di- well as to its open university pioneers in
rectly susceptible to empirical investiga- person. A story is told of the great mathe-
tion. Has our own culture lost sight of matician Gauss at the age of about six. The
Empedocles "mixture," and of Aristotle's teacher, seeking respite from a rowdy
"pneuma"; and was the "ether" of a quon-
dam physics so readily to be dismissed? At
any rate, the Chinese "chi" has recently Only direct experience counts.
been admitted to Western society via acu-
puncture and the moving meditation of tai classroom, told the children to sit down
chi chuan. It is hardly surprising that there and add up the numbers from 1 to 100,
is a Vedantic version of all of these in the thinking "that will keep them quiet for a
form of prana, a word used for breath in bit." The juvenile Gauss raised his hand
breathing controlbut that has more pro- and said 5,050. It may not be immediately
found and immaterial connotations in on- obvious how he did it, but it was not by
tology too. the pedestrian route that most "properly
In bridging thought from East to West trained" people adopt.
we need to remember that the word science Earlier this century, Jagadguru
means knowledge, and that knowledge is Shankaracharya created quite a sensation
ageless, not an instant reification of the lat- by writing a book called Vedic Mathemat-
est technological gimmickry. For example, ics. There is of course a technology in-
our contemporary approach to quantifica- volved, and there is no room to explain it
tion is governed by "state-of-the-art" com- here, but essentially results were obtained
puters and the brands of mathematics that by meditation and visualization rather
are most useful in their service, beginning than by reckoning as we normally think of
with binary logic and passing on to the in- it. But remember the story about Gauss.
version of matrices and all kinds of itera- See also the extraordinary history [Kanigel
tive processes. It is algorithmic (dare we 1991] of Srinivasa Ramanujan. He was an
say left-brain?) at root. What of the origins unschooled boy from outside Madras, born
of number in Vedantic mathematics? It is in 1887 and dead at the age of 32. He was
seriously suggested in India that VM, as its installed in Cambridge by the preeminent
protagonists refer to it, might change ap- mathematician G.H. Hardy. Ramanujan
proaches to teaching mathematics to chil- used Vedic visualization and declared that
dren. "an equation has no meaning for me un-
No one can deny that the Western ap- less it expresses a thought of God": this.

INTERFACES 24:4 90
LOKA SAMASTAT SUKHINO BHAVANTU
then, had to do with the pranas. And al-
though his language was not (shall we call
it) academically correct, this man was
called "the one superlatively great mathe-
matician whom India has produced in the
last thousand years."
Although one usually hears it said that
the Arabs invented calculation modulo ten,
together with the absolute value of zero
per column, it seems [Pramahans 1991]
that they had learned the calculation sys-
tem from ancient India in the first place.
The Taittirya-Samita. dating from before
1000 BC, gives a Sanskrit name to each or-
der of magnitude up to 10''. Other Vedan-
tic sources provide names in groups of five
orders of magnitude up to 10*. Numbers
were classified [Shukla 1991] into even and
odd (yugma = pair, and ayugma = not-
pair), and the same classification appears
in distinguishing between even and odd
arithmetic series. We can hardly fail to
note that modern physics divides particles
according to discrete, quantized spin val-
ues, which arise because of their quantum-
mechanical nature. The bosons (such as
"The wise see knowledge and
action as one."
photons) have full spin, while the fermions
(such as electrons) have half spin. As I
have suggested before, coincidence is the
inability to see what really matters.
As to the possible relevance of all this to
perennial knowledge, I have already men-
tioned potential new teaching methods for
children. Sri Abhay Kashyap [1991] has
gone so far as to suggest a new type of
computer based on Vedic mathematical in-
July-August 1994
sights, which would go to very high speeds
of number processing and would thereby
improve on number-intensive research in
AI and pattern recognition. His proposal
appears on page sata of the cited work,
pleasingly enough; that is to say page 10^.
Has the computer industry made such a
huge investment in established equipment
and operating systems that it cannot
change? Has AI itself too great an invest-
ment in its own paradigms to countenance
it? Throughout its existence management
science has bemoaned the entrenched po-
sitions of management; today it is itself
vulnerable to its own favorite criticism.
Preparation for Action
We began by considering management
as right action, the importance of direct ex-
perience over unfounded belief, and the
focus in yoga on direct experience of the
self. People prepare themselves for most
forms of action, from playing squash to
climbing mountains, by toning up their
bodies, by getting into shape, and such
preparations may even extend to tutored
autosuggestion that prepares the mind to
succeed. We hear nothing, however, about
preparation for right action in manage-
ment.
I mentioned in passing the eightfold
path, which is founded on the Vedantic
aphorisms of Patanjali and should be
taught as a necessary aspect of any pro-
gram in Vedantic management. The Gita
(chapter 8, verse 12) describes "closing the
gates of the body, drawing the forces of
the mind into the heart, and by the power
of meditation concentrating vital energy in
the brain." This is evidently formidable
preparation for right action.
We should pay attention to what is pro-
91
BEER
found. Already medical people have
started to recommend meditation as a pal-
liative for executives who have survived
their first infarct. But doing that is not pro-
found. It is simple enough advice and
likely to help in controlling high blood
pressure. But it is not preparation for right
action. Raja yoga means the royal road to
unionwith the cosmos and with oneself.
Again, modern executives are admon-
ished to be abstinent: they fret about
weight and cholesterol, calories, and salt,
go jogging, and pump iron. Says the Gita
(chapter 2, verse 39): "the abstinent run
away from what they desire, but carry
their desires with them." Contemporary
attitudes are a royal road to frustration,
anxiety, and probable collapse.
There is no space here for me to describe
an integrated plan for teaching Vedantic
management as an intellectual discipline
and yogic practice as the discipline of self.
In all religions, prescriptions exist that
strive for that integral result; Tantric yoga
integrates sexuality too. So, a great deal
more could be said, if there is interest in
these preliminary thoughts. At least I have
evoked an image of a balanced manager.
Such a person is calm rather than fre-
netic, happy amid all the adversities of our
age. If meditation generates that state of
being, it is not on account of mystical clap-
trap, but for good scientific reasons that
were understood in the Vedas. Today they
can be expressed by saying that the eighth
step on the yogic path, called samadhi,
floods the brain with endorphins. You may
observe the same characteristic smile on
the painted and sculpted faces of sages
and saints in every culture in the world as
a result. Loka samastat sukhino hhavantu.
INTERFACES 24:4
May the whole earth be happy.
Note on Gauss
In case the form of the answer failed to
indicate the infant Gauss's visualization of
the problem, the pairs 1 and 100, 2 and
99, 3 and 98, and so on, of which there are
fifty, each equals 101. Thus the total is
5050.
Acknowledgments
I am much indebted to P.N. Murthy,
who heads the Systems Engineering and
Cybernetic Centre of Tata Consultancy
Services in Hydrabad, for rewarding con-
versations and the gift of lecture tran-
scripts; also to Ashok Jain, director of the
National Institute of Science, Technology
and Development Studies in Delhi for in-
viting me to discuss these topics at a staff
seminar in January 1993.
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