54
Biofiltration Basics:
Biofilter Design,
Operational Overview
William E. Toffey
W
HEN I first joined the Philadelphia Wa-
ter Departments biosolids management
unit, I reviewed the composting proce-
dures and practices being used. The biofilters were
among the more curious components of our pro-
cessing system. At the time, nothing I read could
persuade me that biofilters were not akin to a hoax,
which worked through dispersion and dilution,
rather than through genuine treatment processes.
I can now say that I am 99 percent sure that biofil-
tration is a legitimate treatment technology. The
remaining one percent is a residue of doubt, which
I find difficult to shake.
But I am mostly convinced that biofiltration is
an effective technology for destroying contami-
nants in composting process air. Scientists have
demonstrated unequivocally that biofiltration
works. Furthermore, they have demonstrated that
the process is largely biological action upon the
contaminant by microorganisms residing in
biofilms.
Biofilms are a recently introduced area of scien-
tific inquiry. It is one which spans several different
fields, involving biology, chemistry, engineering
and medicine. A biofilm is the thin layer of mois-
ture, mixed with organic substrate such as polysac-
charides, and inhabited by a diverse ecosystem of
bacteria and related microorganisms. This layer
acts upon gases absorbed from the passing air
stream. Scientists have shown, with radioactively-
marked organic compounds, that the biofilm con-
verts organic compounds to CO2 and water and to
additional biofilm biomass. Biofilms are at work in
such diverse locations as the water mains under the
street and in the human gut.
Biofilms are new to science. But if you perform
a search on your favorite Web browser, literally
hundreds of sites await your visit, and from them
you can learn of the recent work. Science is at work
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to transform the black box which was at one
time the biofilter, into a well understood and reli-
able technology. The research and science is still in
its infancy, and substantial areas of inquiry are
possible, particularly for the processing of emis-
sions from composting facilities.
Biofiltration, from a broad view, is a control
technology ideally suited for control of emissions
from composting facilities for these reasons: The
natural biofilm surfaces in the biofilter assimi-
late the contaminants; Energy or chemical needs
for processing are low, as a biofilter does not need
supplemental energy to burn or to neutralize air
streams; Biofilters decompose odorous, volatile
organic compounds and hazardous air pollutants,
whereas alternative technologies, such as scrub-
bers, do not; Biofilters are not as sensitive as the
more highly engineered solutions on the rate of air
flow and the concentration of contaminants in the
air stream; and Open biofilter systems can be made
with off-the-shelf equipment and are adaptable
for many different scales of air flow.
Design Components
The biofilter is a device with two principal ele-
ments the porous media through which con-
taminated air passes, and the air distribution sys-
tem. Biofilters are usually characterized as open or
closed. A closed biofilter is one in which the media
is contained in a structure, with an inlet for dirty
air and an outlet port for the cleansed air. The open
system is open to the atmosphere, usually on the
sides as well as the top, and emissions are from all
exposed surfaces.
Several factors may influence the choice of biofil-
ter type. First is cost, as open biofilters are consid-
erably less costly than closed systems. Choice of
biofilters will be influenced by the type of process
air being handled. For composting of biosolids and
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 BIOFILTRATION BASICS: BIOFILTER DESIGN, OPERATIONAL OVERVIEW
other organic residuals, where the process air is di-
lute, an open type system is usually employed; it is
also inexpensively constructed. For process air
from industrial activities with high concentrations
of organic compounds, enclosed systems are em-
ployed more often. Regulators may be more com-
fortable with enclosed systems, which can be mon-
itored easily, and may be necessary for air streams
with high strength contaminants. The reliability
and reuse capabilities of enclosed systems need to
be assessed for applicability to composting.
The other design component critical to effective
biofiltration is air distribution. As is true for the
composting process itself, even air distribution be-
neath the biofilter is a key to good processing.
Without it, channels can erupt through the media,
allowing air to bypass filtration. The challenge in
the design is to accomplish minimal pressure loss
to friction as the air is distributed below the biofil-
ter, and to properly design the ports through the
filter to achieve even flow in all areas. Many de-
signers fail to properly consider the size of pores or
slots in the plenum, as too large a slot may con-
tribute to uneven air distribution.
Design of an effective air distribution plenum
has been the source of fatal flaws for many biofil-
ters, including Philadelphias, as the distribution
equipment can become clogged and broken.
Choice of air pipes is particularly important be-
cause the diameter and texture of the pipe influ-
ences pressure loss. For instance, at Philadelphias
facility, the use of six inch corrugated pipe intro-
duced frictional pressure losses which were nearly
impossible to overcome. The early design concept
of a gravel enclosed aeration hose, covered by a fil-
ter fabric, is also not as widely recommended as
they once were, as fabric can become clogged, and
vents can appear where the fabric separates under
the force of air. New products on the market in-
clude prefabricated aeration plates, but these may
be costly.
Capacity, Media And Bed Moisture
The design of a biofilter is usually guided by the
parameters of loading rates and residence time.
These are usually fairly simple calculations, made
with the simplifying assumptions that the filter
bed is empty (porosity is 100 percent). The most
common factor is the rate of air flow per surface
unit of biofilter, expressed either as cubic meters of
air per second for each square meter of biofilter
surface (in the literature reportedly ranging from
0.3 to 9.5) or, in English units, cubic feet per
minute of air flow per square foot of biofilter sur-
face (in an equivalent range of one to 30). This de-
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55
sign parameter can also be expressed, when multi-
plied by the volume of the biofilter, into a unit of
residence time. A typical recommendation for res-
idence time is 30 to 60 seconds. These times are
based on air from composting, and longer resi-
dence times may be necessary for air containing
higher contamination or if the media is so porous
it reduces the exposure of the air to active surfaces.
Because biodegradability of compounds differ, the
detention time ought to be established for removal
of the compounds of most concern. For instance,
terpene compounds may need several minutes of
treatment for effective removal.
Another means of expressing loading rate is in
the mass of air pollutants loaded to the biofilter
daily, per unit mass or unit volume of biofilter. The
metric terms are grams of pollutant (as carbon)
per kilogram of dry media per day, or grams per
cubic meter of media per day. This calculation is
more typically made for industrial air processing,
rather than compost process air, because of higher
concentrations in the air flow.
The filtration media is usually comprised of or-
ganic materials, such as wood chips and compost,
but also possibly soil and peat moss. A substantial
rethinking of the nature of the media is reported in
the literature. Early recommendations emphasized
the importance of media surface area for pro-
viding activity sites for biofiltration, and, to
achieve this goal, a filter media with fine particles,
such as leaf mold and soil, was prepared. This me-
dia proved to be too dense, became too soggy and
tended to lose its porosity quickly.
Revised formulations focused on choice of me-
dia which would retain its structure over a several
year period, such as hardwood chips. Recent stud-
ies have examined the use of inert structural ele-
ments made, for instance, of plastic, to provide
porosity and support. A lower proportion of fine
organic material than earlier prescribed seems to
be effective in emissions removal when treating air
streams with low concentrations of contaminants.
Additional research is needed to correlate biofilter
effectiveness and media effective surface area.
A key parameter influencing the effectiveness of
biofilters is moisture content. The biofilter oper-
ates at moisture contents consonant with the re-
quirements of microbial life, typically in the 40 to
60 percent range. An early finding into research of
biofilters showed that heated air put into biofilters
tended to dry them out, and that the moisture in
the biofilter media had to be replaced continually.
A common recommendation today in biofilter op-
eration is for a mechanism of adding moisture to
the biofilter, both internally and from the surface.
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Recommendations are also common for the in-
stallation of control equipment to sense the mois-
ture content of the biofilter, and to add moisture
when the media falls below a minimum moisture
content, e.g. 40 percent.
There is the danger, when a biofilter is irrigated,
that excess moisture may cause a drop in biofilter
porosity. This would, in turn, cause a backflow
pressure buildup, a risk of venting of air through
bypass channels, and a build up of slime which
would contribute to, rather than remove, odors.
This problem can be addressed largely through
changing the formulation of the biofilter media,
making it coarser and more porous. A means of
draining excess water from the biofilter is often
recommended today. Drainage water may be re-
circulated back to the biofilter, but this is not stan-
dard practice.
Pressure Drop, pH And Nutrients
Biofilters fail when they become so compacted
and low in porosity that the process air breaks
through in vents which allow air to bypass the fil-
tering media. Actions need to be taken when pres-
sure losses are seen to increase over time. Com-
pacting media may require mechanical turning or
replacement, even if its only been in operation for
less than one year. Some facilities are experiment-
ing with new types of media which provide de-
pendable porosity and stable pressures. Compost-
ed organic matter may be supported by a larger
volume of inerts such as ceramics, plastics, granu-
lar activated carbon or large hardwood chips. Rec-
ommended design criterion is less than one inch as
water column loss per foot of biofilter depth.
A common biofilter recommendation is that
the biofilter have a pH between 6.5 to 7.5 for prop-
er microbial activity. The biofilter may need to be
maintained to correct for acidic by-products re-
sulting from the treatment of hydrogen sulfide,
and perhaps ammonia. Periodic monitoring for
acidity in the biofilter should be undertaken;
those biofilters being used to treat air streams high
in these compounds may have a buildup of acids
in the biofilter, and the acids have to be periodi-
cally washed out. Adjustment for pH can be done
by adding alkaline buffers to the media, or intro-
ducing lime with the supplemental water. Operat-
ing experience is necessary to determine whether
acid by-products are a concern, and thus pH
monitoring of the biofilter should be undertaken
periodically.
Nutrients are necessary to support the growth of
microbes responsible for biofiltration. A compost-
based media generally supplies adequate nutrients
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for biofilm growth, and the process air from
biosolids composting would itself carry nutrients
to the biofilter. If an inert fraction is used as a fil-
tration media, it is possible that nutrient additions
may be necessary, particularly nitrogen. But too
much nitrogen could be a problem in itself, as it
might cause excessive biofilm growth and slime
build up, which could impede air flow.
Humidification And Temperature Of Air Flow
Humidification of air flow into the biofilter is
now nearly universally recommended for biofilter
operations. The principles of thermodynamics
predict that a nonsaturated air flow, when heated
within the biofilter and when added at a high ve-
locity, will thoroughly desiccate a biofilter. Desic-
cation kills the microbes responsible for removal
of air contaminants. A fine mist of water, sprayed
in the process air just before it enters the biofilter,
has been used to create a saturated air stream to the
biofilter. Whereas the biofilter often gives off heat
and can raise the temperature of the air flowing
through it, some biofilter experts may recommend
internal irrigation of the biofilter as well, so that
the air flow can be supplied with additional mois-
ture. Surface irrigation can be done on an as need-
ed basis, determined by monitoring. In the future,
process control techniques should be developed
for automatic adjustments to rates of humidifica-
tion and irrigation.
The temperature of the air flow has been gener-
ally shown to influence the effectiveness of biofil-
tration. Organisms shown to be responsible for
biofiltration are mesophyllic bacteria, and biofilter
performance seems to drop when temperatures
exceed 40C. Some biofiltration experts hold a
contrary viewpoint, and assert that thermophyllic
bacteria are capable of biofiltration, and that the
apparent drop in effectiveness is induced by desic-
cation, which can be overcome with humidifica-
tion. The answer to the possible operation of
biofilters in the thermophyllic range must await
new word from the scientists.
What is clear is that different composting pro-
cesses present very different kinds of air flow to the
biofilters. In-vessel composters have dilute, cool
air streams, as their flow includes the air of the en-
closure surrounding the compost vessel. Static pile
composting, which draws air down through the
compost mix, will be stronger in concentration of
air contaminants and comparatively hot, and can
benefit from drawing in atmospheric air. Refer-
ence to a textbook on thermodynamics will reveal
that major modification of process air tempera-
ture can be extraordinarily difficult. Introducing
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 BIOFILTRATION BASICS: BIOFILTER DESIGN, OPERATIONAL OVERVIEW
atmospheric air to the compost exhaust for the
purpose of cooling it complicates the challenge of
humidification of the air flow and increases the re-
quired biofilter size. Heat exchangers for prepro-
cessing the process air to reduce moisture requires
expensive equipment and produces significant
wastewater effluent.
A few biofilter experts have actually recom-
mended preheating, in addition to humidification,
of process air prior to introduction into the biofil-
ter. The concern is that biofilters generate heat,
thereby raising air temperature, and drying out the
air stream once it enters the biofilter. The thermo-
dynamic and moisture balances in biofilters need
to be more thoroughly researched to address these
kinds of concerns.
Ammonia And Hydrogen Sulfide Removal
Two traditional compounds of concern for
odors, and present in significant concentrations in
compost process air, are ammonia and hydrogen
sulfide. When filtered, both may create acidic com-
pounds, essentially nitric and sulfuric acids. There
is concern that these compounds will acidify the
biofilter, interfering with microbial action and fil-
tration effectiveness. One of the lively debates in
biofiltration is whether a practicable means can be
demonstrated for preprocessing the compost air,
e.g. through a wet scrubber, to remove excess am-
monia and hydrogen sulfide prior to biofiltration.
It should be noted that composts with different
raw materials give off strikingly different levels of
ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, so part of the
equation in control of these compounds is in the
selection of composting inputs. For example, hy-
drogen sulfide emissions may not be excessive if
stabilized biosolids are composted. Another point
is the very small contribution of either ammonia
or hydrogen sulfide to off-site odor nuisances. In
addition, the metabolic processes at work within
the biofilter to treat these compounds have not
been well explained, so extraordinary actions to
pretreat the air stream may not yet be warranted.
Again, we are waiting for the results of scientific
and engineering study of this issue. Study also is
required of the relationship between ammonia
and hydrogen sulfide loading rates and changes in
biofilter pH.
Process Monitoring And Media Replacement
The effectiveness of biofiltration has been well
demonstrated under laboratory conditions, but
effectiveness in field applications is seldom stud-
ied. A common recommendation given today for
biofiltration operation is the use of process moni-
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57
toring equipment to give operators information
on the performance of the biofilters. Process pa-
rameters which are usually recorded are: Offgas
temperature to determine whether operation is
within effective range of biofilter organisms; Rela-
tive humidity of gases in the biofilter to judge
the adequacy of irrigation quantities; Pressure
drop within the biofilter to detect loss of media
porosity, moisture content of the filter so that
additional moisture may be added; pH of drainage
to assess need for liming to counteract acidity
induced by ammonia and hydrogen sulfide; Am-
monia, hydrogen sulfide, odor units (dilutions to
threshold) and Total Organic Compound concen-
trations measured on inlet and outlet to deter-
mine effective removal rates.
The emphasis of monitoring should be two fold
measurements which demonstrate the healthy
and steady performance of the biofilter and mea-
surements which document compliance with reg-
ulations or guidelines. But another emphasis may
be justified, namely the collection of data which
can contribute to the scientific understanding of
biofilter performance. It would be helpful to look
at pile performance across a variety of facilities.
Comparison of odor panel evaluation of D/T to
the measurement of indicator compounds
(dimethyl disulfide) would be useful, as would the
study of the relationship between media texture,
moisture, and pressure loss.
A major source of controversy with biofilters is
their anticipated useful life. Typical recommenda-
tions for replacement of open biofilters at com-
posting facilities have embraced a range of two to
seven years. Many operators have concluded that
biofilter replacement should be planned for every
two to three years. Innovative approaches to biofil-
ter design have focused on methods of convenient
media replacement, allowing the air distribution
system to be unaffected.
In open systems, cast concrete air distribution
elements can remain in place as equipment works
over it to fluff up old media or to remove spent
filter media and replace it with new. The experi-
mentation with nondegradable plastic units as a
component of biofilter media, could provide the
permanent, nonsettling structure of the biofilter,
obviating the need for frequent replacement of the
media.
Siting Considerations And
Regulatory Performance
Biofiltration should be one of several odor min-
imizing practices at a composting facility. Others
might include control of the mixing area and
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choice of days and hours of operation. If compost-
ing operations are successful at stabilizing organic
residuals during the aeration stage, then biofilters
will be the principal source of odor emissions. It is
prudent planning to consider the location of this
odor source as far away as practicable from homes,
public roads and other sensitive receptors.
Biofilters designed to the capacities given above
typically become major features of a composting
facility, taking substantial space otherwise devot-
ed to processing and product storage. Redundant
biofilter units may need to be installed to allow
for air treatment during periods of biofilter re-
placement or repair, further consuming process-
ing space.
If it is necessary to use an enclosed biofilter, steel
or plastic containers for biofilters may be selected
in lieu of the more common concrete boxes when
the filter is planned to be situated above the pro-
cess. This approach has been used in Europe.
Biofilter boxes usually have a port through which
the treated air is exhausted; dispersion fans may
be used to minimize the off-site impact. Such en-
gineered approaches to biofilters may be war-
ranted for sites where neighborhood odor nui-
sances are predicted.
Regulation of biofilters raises the prospect of
standards which are not practical. This includes
specific removal percentages or attaining specific
low odor levels (as D/T measurements off the
biofilter). The variation in regulatory approaches
is great, which might suggest that regulators use
caution in adopting hard and fast regulations.
A balanced set of metric standards may be de-
vised for biofilter performance. Generally speak-
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ing, well designed and operated biofilters should
be capable of achieving a D/T of 50 for emissions
at the surface of the biofilter. A growing number of
reports confirm that modeling of odor nuisances
can be employed by the operator or regulator to
demonstrate the potential effect of odor emissions
at this level on sensitive receptors, or at the prop-
erty line.
There is no commonly agreed to regulatory ap-
proach. And that fact is understandable, and ar-
guably preferable. Regulatory approaches may rea-
sonably differ. A facility located in an industrial
setting may not need to meet the same kinds of
standards as a facility in a residential zone. Offgas-
es from a functioning biofilter, in 50 to 100 odor
units, are rarely noticed if the site has a large buffer
zone and is located in a rural or industrial sector.
If the biofilter is being used for VOC control,
then compliance with quantitative regulatory
standards may need to be verified by emission test-
ing in raw and treated offgases. In this case, the
choice of biofilter design influences control effec-
tiveness. For instance, open biofilter systems will
impose challenges to verification compared to
closed biofilters, which can be more effectively
controlled and monitored.
Regulatory concern legitimately embraces
biofilter operation and maintenance. Ultimately,
regulators may want to use evidence of biofilter
maintenance in lieu of specific performance mea-
surements to ensure compliance. 
Until recently, Bill Toffey was manager of the
Biosolids Utilization section at the Philadelphia Wa-
ter Department.
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