6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

Tempering(metallurgy)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Temperingisaprocessofheattreating,whichisusedtoincreasethe
toughnessofironbasedalloys.Temperingisusuallyperformedafter
hardening,toreducesomeoftheexcesshardness,andisdonebyheating
themetaltosometemperaturebelowthecriticalpointforacertainperiod
oftime,thenallowingittocoolinstillair.Theexacttemperature
determinestheamountofhardnessremoved,anddependsonboththe Differentiallytemperedsteel.The
specificcompositionofthealloyandonthedesiredpropertiesinthe variouscolorsproducedindicatethe
finishedproduct.Forinstance,veryhardtoolsareoftentemperedatlow temperaturetowhichthesteelwas
temperatures,whilespringsaretemperedtomuchhighertemperatures. heated.Lightstrawindicates204C
(399F)andlightblueindicates
337C(639F). [1][2]
Contents
1 Introduction
2 History
3 Terminology
4 Carbonsteel
4.1 Quenchedsteel
4.2 Normalizedsteel
4.3 Weldedsteel
4.4 Quenchandselftemper
4.5 Blacksmithing
4.5.1 Temperingcolors
4.5.2 Differentialtempering
4.6 Interruptedquenching
4.6.1 Austempering
4.6.2 Martempering
4.7 Physicalprocesses
4.7.1 Embrittlement
5 Alloysteels
6 Castiron
6.1 Whitetempering
6.2 Blacktempering
7 Precipitationhardeningalloys
8 Seealso
9 References
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks

Introduction
Temperingisaheattreatmenttechniqueappliedtoferrousalloys,suchassteelorcastiron,toachievegreater
toughnessbydecreasingthehardnessofthealloy.Thereductioninhardnessisusuallyaccompaniedbyanincrease
inductility,therebydecreasingthebrittlenessofthemetal.Temperingisusuallyperformedafterquenching,which
israpidcoolingofthemetaltoputitinitshardeststate.Temperingisaccomplishedbycontrolledheatingofthe
quenchedworkpiecetoatemperaturebelowits"lowercriticaltemperature".Thisisalsocalledthelower
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 1/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

transformationtemperatureorlowerarrest(A1)temperaturethe
temperatureatwhichthecrystallinephasesofthealloy,calledferriteand
cementite,begincombiningtoformasinglephasesolidsolutionreferredto
asaustenite.Heatingabovethistemperatureisavoided,soasnottodestroy
theveryhard,quenchedmicrostructure,calledmartensite.[3]

Precisecontroloftimeandtemperatureduringthetemperingprocessis
crucialtoachievethedesiredbalanceofphysicalproperties.Low
temperingtemperaturesmayonlyrelievetheinternalstresses,decreasing Photomicrographofmartensite,a
brittlenesswhilemaintainingamajorityofthehardness.Highertempering veryhardmicrostructureformed
temperaturestendtoproduceagreaterreductioninthehardness,sacrificing whensteelisquenched.Tempering
someyieldstrengthandtensilestrengthforanincreaseinelasticityand reducesthehardnessinthemartensite
plasticity.However,insomelowalloysteels,containingotherelements bytransformingitintovariousforms
likechromiumandmolybdenum,temperingatlowtemperaturesmay oftemperedmartensite.
produceanincreaseinhardness,whileathighertemperaturesthehardness
willdecrease.Manysteelswithhighconcentrationsofthesealloyingelementsbehavelikeprecipitationhardening
alloys,whichproducestheoppositeeffectsundertheconditionsfoundinquenchingandtempering,andare
referredtoasmaragingsteels.[3]

Incarbonsteels,temperingaltersthesizeanddistributionofcarbidesinthemartensite,formingamicrostructure
called"temperedmartensite".Temperingisalsoperformedonnormalizedsteelsandcastirons,toincrease
ductility,machinability,andimpactstrength.[3]Steelisusuallytemperedevenly,called"throughtempering,"
producinganearlyuniformhardness,butitissometimesheatedunevenly,referredtoas"differentialtempering,"
producingavariationinhardness.[4]

History
Temperingisanancientheattreatingtechnique.Theoldestknownexampleoftemperedmartensiteisapickaxe
whichwasfoundinGalilee,datingfromaround1200to1100BC.[5]Theprocesswasusedthroughouttheancient
world,fromAsiatoEuropeandAfrica.Manydifferentmethodsandcoolingbathsforquenchinghavebeen
attemptedduringancienttimes,fromquenchinginurine,blood,ormetalslikemercuryorlead,buttheprocessof
temperinghasremainedrelativelyunchangedovertheages.Temperingwasoftenconfusedwithquenchingand,
often,thetermwasusedtodescribebothtechniques.In1889,SirWilliamChandlerRobertsAustenwrote,"There
isstillsomuchconfusionbetweenthewords"temper,""tempering,"and"hardening,"inthewritingsofeven
eminentauthorities,thatitiswelltokeeptheseolddefinitionscarefullyinmind.Ishallemploytheword
temperinginthesamesenseassoftening."[6]

Terminology
Inmetallurgy,onemayencountermanytermsthathaveveryspecificmeaningswithinthefield,butmayseem
rathervaguewhenviewedfromoutside.Termssuchas"hardness,""impactresistance,""toughness,"and
"strength"cancarrymanydifferentconnotations,makingitsometimesdifficulttodiscernthespecificmeaning.
Someofthetermsencountered,andtheirspecificdefinitionsare:

Strength:alsocalledrigidity,thisisresistancetopermanentdeformationandtearing.Strength,inmetallurgy,
isstillarathervagueterm,soisusuallydividedintoyieldstrength(strengthbeyondwhichdeformation
becomespermanent),tensilestrength(theultimatetearingstrength),shearstrength(resistancetotransverse,
orcuttingforces),andcompressivestrength(resistancetoelasticshorteningunderaload).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 2/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

Toughness:Resistancetofracture,asmeasuredbytheCharpytest.Toughnessoftenincreasesasstrength
decreases,becauseamaterialthatbendsislesslikelytobreak.
Hardness:Hardnessisoftenusedtodescribestrengthorrigiditybut,inmetallurgy,thetermisusuallyused
todescribeasurface'sresistancetoscratching,abrasion,orindentation.Inconventionalmetalalloys,thereis
alinearrelationbetweenindentationhardnessandtensilestrength,whicheasesthemeasurementofthe
latter.[7]
Brittleness:Brittlenessdescribesamaterial'stendencytobreakbeforebendingordeformingeither
elasticallyorplastically.Brittlenessincreaseswithdecreasedtoughness,butisgreatlyaffectedbyinternal
stressesaswell.
Plasticity:Theabilitytomold,bendordeforminamannerthatdoesnotspontaneouslyreturntoitsoriginal
shape.Thisisproportionaltotheductilityormalleabilityofthesubstance.
Elasticity:Alsocalledflexibility,thisistheabilitytodeform,bend,compress,orstretchandreturntothe
originalshapeoncetheexternalstressisremoved.ElasticityisinverselyrelatedtotheYoung'smodulusof
thematerial.
Impactresistance:Usuallysynonymouswithhighstrengthtoughness,itistheabilityresistshockloading
withminimaldeformation.
Wearresistance:Usuallysynonymouswithhardness,thisisresistancetoerosion,ablation,spalling,or
galling.
Structuralintegrity:Theabilitytowithstandamaximumratedloadwhileresistingfracture,resistingfatigue,
andproducingaminimalamountofflexingordeflection,toprovideamaximumservicelife.

Carbonsteel
Veryfewmetalsreacttoheattreatmentinthesamemanner,ortothesameextent,thatcarbonsteeldoes,and
carbonsteelheattreatingbehaviorcanvaryradicallydependingonalloyingelements.Steelcanbesoftenedtoa
verymalleablestatethroughannealing,oritcanbehardenedtoastatenearlyasrigidandbrittleasglassby
quenching.However,initshardenedstate,steelisusuallyfartoobrittle,lackingthestructuralintegritytobeuseful
formostapplications.Temperingisamethodusedtodecreasethehardness,therebyincreasingtheductilityofthe
quenchedsteel,toimpartsomespringinessandmalleabilitytothemetal.Thisallowsthemetaltobendbefore
breaking.Dependingonhowmuchtemperisimpartedtothesteel,itmaybendelastically(thesteelreturnstoits
originalshapeoncetheloadisremoved),oritmaybendplastically(thesteeldoesnotreturntoitsoriginalshape,
resultinginpermanentdeformation),beforefracturing.Temperingisusedtopreciselybalancethemechanical
propertiesofthemetal,suchasshearstrength,yieldstrength,hardness,ductilityandtensilestrength,toachieve
anynumberofacombinationofproperties,makingthesteelusefulforawidevarietyofapplications.Toolssuch
ashammersandwrenchesrequiregoodresistancetoabrasion,impactresistance,andresistancetodeformation.
Springsdonotrequireasmuchrigidity,butmustdeformelasticallybeforebreaking.Automotivepartstendtobea
littlelessrigid,butneedtodeformplasticallybeforebreaking.

Exceptinrarecaseswheremaximumrigidityandhardnessareneeded,suchastheuntemperedsteelusedforfiles,
quenchedsteelisalmostalwaystemperedtosomedegree.However,steelissometimesannealedthroughaprocess
callednormalizing,leavingthesteelonlypartiallysoftened.Temperingissometimesusedonnormalizedsteelsto
furthersoftenit,increasingthemalleabilityandmachinabilityforeasiermetalworking.Temperingmayalsobe
usedonweldedsteel,torelievesomeofthestressesandexcesshardnesscreatedintheheataffectedzonearound
theweld.[3]

Quenchedsteel

Temperingismostoftenperformedonsteelthathasbeenheatedaboveitsuppercritical(A3)temperatureandthen
quicklycooled,inaprocesscalledquenching,usingmethodssuchasimmersingtheredhotsteelinwater,oil,or
forcedair.Thequenchedsteel,beingplacedin,orverynear,itshardestpossiblestate,isthentemperedto
incrementallydecreasethehardnesstoapointmoresuitableforthedesiredapplication.Thehardnessofthe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 3/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

quenchedsteeldependsonbothcoolingspeedandonthecompositionofthealloy.Steelwithahighcarbon
contentwillreachamuchharderstatethansteelwithalowcarboncontent.Likewise,temperinghighcarbonsteel
toacertaintemperaturewillproducesteelthatisconsiderablyharderthanlowcarbonsteelthatistemperedatthe
sametemperature.Theamountoftimeheldatthetemperingtemperaturealsohasaneffect.Temperingataslightly
elevatedtemperatureforashortertimemayproducethesameeffectastemperingatalowertemperaturefora
longertime.Temperingtimesvary,dependingonthecarboncontent,size,anddesiredapplicationofthesteel,but
typicallyrangefromafewminutestoafewhours.

Temperingquenchedsteelatverylowtemperatures,between66and148C(151and298F),willusuallynot
havemucheffectotherthanaslightreliefofsomeoftheinternalstresses.Temperingathighertemperatures,from
148to205C(298to401F),willproduceaslightreductioninhardness,butwillprimarilyrelievemuchofthe
internalstresses.Temperingintherangeof260and340C(500and644F)causesadecreaseinductilityandan
increaseinbrittleness,andisreferredtoasthe"temperedmartensiteembrittlement"(TME)range.Exceptinthe
caseofblacksmithing,thisrangeisusuallyavoided.Steelrequiringmorestrengththantoughness,suchastools,
areusuallynottemperedabove205C(401F).Instead,avariationinhardnessisusuallyproducedbyvarying
onlythetemperingtime.Whenincreasedtoughnessisdesiredattheexpenseofstrength,highertempering
temperatures,from370to540C(698to1,004F),areused.Temperingatevenhighertemperatures,between540
and600C(1,004and1,112F),willproduceexcellenttoughness,butataseriousreductioninthestrengthand
hardness.At600C(1,112F),thesteelmayexperienceanotherstageofembrittlement,called"temper
embrittlement"(TE),whichoccursifthesteelisheldwithintheTEtemperaturerangefortoolong.Whenheating
abovethistemperature,thesteelwillusuallynotbeheldforanyamountoftime,andquicklycooledtoavoid
temperembrittlement.[3]

Normalizedsteel

Steelthathasbeenheatedaboveitsuppercriticaltemperatureandthencooledinstandingairiscallednormalized
steel.Normalizedsteelconsistsofpearlite,martensiteandsometimesbainitegrains,mixedtogetherwithinthe
microstructure.Thisproducessteelthatismuchstrongerthanfullannealedsteel,andmuchtougherthantempered
quenchedsteel.However,addedtoughnessissometimesneededatareductioninstrength.Temperingprovidesa
waytocarefullydecreasethehardnessofthesteel,therebyincreasingthetoughnesstoamoredesirablepoint.
Caststeelisoftennormalizedratherthanannealed,todecreasetheamountofdistortionthatcanoccur.Tempering
canfurtherdecreasethehardness,increasingtheductilitytoapointmorelikeannealedsteel.[8]Temperingisoften
usedoncarbonsteels,producingmuchthesameresults.Theprocess,called"normalizeandtemper",isused
frequentlyonsteelssuchas1045carbonsteel,ormostothersteelscontaining0.35to0.55%carbon.Thesesteels
areusuallytemperedafternormalizing,toincreasethetoughnessandrelieveinternalstresses.Thiscanmakethe
metalmoresuitableforitsintendeduseandeasiertomachine.[9]

Weldedsteel

Steelthathasbeenarcwelded,gaswelded,orweldedinanyothermannerbesidesforgewelded,isaffectedina
localizedareabytheheatfromtheweldingprocess.Thislocalizedarea,calledtheheataffectedzone(HAZ),
consistsofsteelthatvariesconsiderablyinhardness,fromnormalizedsteeltosteelnearlyashardasquenched
steelneartheedgeofthisheataffectedzone.Thermalcontractionfromtheunevenheating,solidificationand
coolingcreatesinternalstressesinthemetal,bothwithinandsurroundingtheweld.Temperingissometimesused
inplaceofstressrelieving(evenheatingandcoolingoftheentireobjecttojustbelowtheA1temperature)toboth
reducetheinternalstressesandtodecreasethebrittlenessaroundtheweld.Localizedtemperingisoftenusedon
weldswhentheconstructionistoolarge,intricate,orotherwisetooinconvenienttoheattheentireobjectevenly.
Temperingtemperaturesforthispurposearegenerallyaround205C(401F)and343C(649F).[10]

Quenchandselftemper
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 4/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

Modernreinforcingbarof500MPastrengthcanbemadefromexpensivemicroalloyedsteelorbyaquenchand
selftemper(QST)process.Afterthebarexitsthefinalrollingpass,wherethefinalshapeofthebarisapplied,the
baristhensprayedwithwaterwhichquenchestheoutersurfaceofthebar.Thebarspeedandtheamountofwater
arecarefullycontrolledinordertoleavethecoreofthebarunquenched.Thehotcorethentempersthealready
quenchedouterpart,leavingabarwithhighstrengthbutwithacertaindegreeofductilitytoo.

Blacksmithing

Temperingwasoriginallyaprocessusedanddevelopedbyblacksmiths(forgersofiron).Theprocesswasmost
likelydevelopedbytheHittitesofAnatolia(moderndayTurkey),inthetwelfthoreleventhcenturyBC.Without
knowledgeofmetallurgy,temperingwasoriginallydevisedthroughatrialanderrormethod.

Becausefewmethodsofpreciselymeasuringtemperatureexisteduntilmoderntimes,temperaturewasusually
judgedbywatchingthetemperingcolorsofthemetal.Temperingoftenconsistedofheatingaboveacharcoalor
coalforge,orbyfire,soholdingtheworkatexactlytherighttemperatureforthecorrectamountoftimewas
usuallynotpossible.Temperingwasusuallyperformedbyslowly,evenlyoverheatingthemetal,asjudgedbythe
color,andthenimmediatelycooling,eitherinopenairorbyimmersinginwater.Thisproducedmuchthesame
effectasheatingatthepropertemperaturefortherightamountoftime,andavoidedembrittlementbytempering
withinashorttimeperiod.However,althoughtemperingcolorguidesexist,thismethodoftemperingusually
requiresagoodamountofpracticetoperfect,becausethefinaloutcomedependsonmanyfactors,includingthe
compositionofthesteel,thespeedatwhichitwasheated,thetypeofheatsource(oxidizingorcarburizing),the
coolingrate,oilfilmsorimpuritiesonthesurface,andmanyothercircumstanceswhichvaryfromsmithtosmith
orevenfromjobtojob.Thethicknessofthesteelalsoplaysarole.Withthickeritems,itbecomeseasiertoheat
onlythesurfacetotherighttemperature,beforetheheatcanpenetratethrough.However,verythickitemsmaynot
beabletohardenallthewaythroughduringquenching.[11]

Temperingcolors

Ifsteelhasbeenfreshlyground,sanded,orpolished,itwill
formanoxidelayeronitssurfacewhenheated.Asthe
temperatureofthesteelisincreased,thethicknessoftheiron
oxidewillalsoincrease.Althoughironoxideisnotnormally
transparent,suchthinlayersdoallowlighttopassthrough,
reflectingoffboththeupperandlowersurfacesofthelayer.
Thiscausesaphenomenoncalledthinfilminterference,which
producescolorsonthesurface.Asthethicknessofthislayer
increaseswithtemperature,itcausesthecolorstochangefrom
averylightyellow,tobrown,thenpurple,thenblue.These Piecesofthroughtemperedsteelflatbar.Thefirst
colorsappearatveryprecisetemperatures,andprovidethe one,ontheleft,isnormalizedsteel.Thesecondis
blacksmithwithaveryaccurategaugeformeasuringthe quenched,untemperedmartensite.Theremaining
temperature.Thevariouscolors,theircorresponding pieceshavebeentemperedinanoventotheir
temperatures,andsomeoftheirusesare: correspondingtemperature,foranhoureach.
"Temperingstandards"likethesearesometimes
Faintyellow176C(349F)engravers,razors,
usedbyblacksmithsforcomparison,ensuringthat
scrapers
Lightstraw205C(401F)rockdrills,reamers, theworkistemperedtothepropercolor.
metalcuttingsaws
Darkstraw226C(439F)scribers,planerblades
Brown260C(500F)taps,dies,drillbits,hammers,coldchisels
Purple282C(540F)surgicaltools,punches,stonecarvingtools
Darkblue310C(590F)screwdrivers,wrenches

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 5/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

Lightblue337C(639F)springs,woodcuttingsaws
Greyblue371C(700F)andhigherstructuralsteel

Beyondthegreybluecolor,theironoxidelosesitstransparency,andthetemperaturecannolongerbejudgedin
thisway.Thelayerwillalsoincreaseinthicknessastimepasses,whichisanotherreasonoverheatingand
immediatecoolingisused.Steelinatemperingoven,heldat205C(401F)foralongtime,willbegintoturn
brown,purpleorblue,eventhoughthetemperaturedidnotexceedthatneededtoproducealightstrawcolor.
Oxidizingorcarburizingheatsourcesmayalsoaffectthefinalresult.Theironoxidelayer,unlikerust,also
protectsthesteelfromcorrosionthroughpassivation.[12]

Differentialtempering

Differentialtemperingisamethodofprovidingdifferent
amountsoftempertodifferentpartsofthesteel.Themethodis
oftenusedinbladesmithing,formakingknivesandswords,to
provideaveryhardedgewhilesofteningthespineorcenterof
theblade.Thisincreasedthetoughnesswhilemaintaininga
veryhard,sharp,impactresistantedge,helpingtoprevent Adifferentiallytemperedsword.Thecenteris
breakage.ThistechniquewasmoreoftenfoundinEurope,as temperedtoaspringyhardnesswhiletheedgesare
opposedtothedifferentialhardeningtechniquesmorecommon temperedtoaveryhighhardness.
inAsia,suchasinJapaneseswordsmithing.

Differentialtemperingconsistsofapplyingheattoonlyaportionoftheblade,usuallythespine,orthecenterof
doubleedgedblades.Forsingleedgedblades,theheat,oftenintheformofaflameoraredhotbar,isappliedto
thespineofthebladeonly.Thebladeisthencarefullywatchedasthetemperingcolorsformandslowlycreep
towardtheedge.Theheatisthenremovedbeforethelightstrawcolorreachestheedge.Thecolorswillcontinue
tomovetowardtheedgeforashorttimeaftertheheatisremoved,sothesmithtypicallyremovestheheatalittle
early,sothatthepaleyellowjustreachestheedge,andtravelsnofarther.Asimilarmethodisusedfordouble
edgedblades,buttheheatsourceisappliedtothecenteroftheblade,allowingthecolorstocreepouttowardeach
edge.[13]

Interruptedquenching

Interruptedquenchingmethodsareoftenreferredtoastempering,althoughtheprocessesareverydifferentfrom
traditionaltempering.Thesemethodsconsistofquenchingtoaspecifictemperaturethatisabovethemartensite
start(Ms)temperature,andthenholdingatthattemperatureforextendedamountsoftime.Dependingonthe
temperatureandtheamountoftime,thisallowseitherpurebainitetoform,orholdsoffformingthemartensite
untilmuchoftheinternalstressesrelax.Thesemethodsareknownasaustemperingandmartempering.[14]

Austempering

Austemperingisatechniqueusedtoformpurebainite,atransitionalmicrostructurefoundbetweenpearliteand
martensite.Innormalizing,bothupperandlowerbainiteareusuallyfoundmixedwithpearlite.Toavoidthe
formationofpearliteormartensite,thesteelisquenchedinabathofmoltenmetalsorsalts.Thisquicklycoolsthe
steelpastthepointwherepearlitecanform,andintothebainiteformingrange.Thesteelisthenheldatthe
bainiteformingtemperature,beyondthepointwherethetemperaturereachesanequilibrium,untilthebainitefully
forms.Thesteelisthenremovedfromthebathandallowedtoaircool,withouttheformationofeitherpearliteor
martensite.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 6/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

Dependingontheholdingtemperature,austemperingcanproduceeither
upperorlowerbainite.Upperbainiteisalaminatestructureformedat
temperaturestypicallyabove350C(662F)andisamuchtougher
microstructure.Lowerbainiteisaneedlelikestructure,producedat
temperaturesbelow350C,andisstrongerbutmuchmorebrittle.[15]In
eithercase,austemperingproducesgreaterstrengthandtoughnessfora
givenhardness,whichisdeterminedmostlybycompositionratherthan
coolingspeed,andreducedinternalstresseswhichcouldleadtobreakage.
Thisproducessteelwithsuperiorimpactresistance.Modernpunchesand
chiselsareoftenaustempered.Becauseaustemperingdoesnotproduce Timetemperaturetransformation
martensite,thesteeldoesnotrequirefurthertempering.[14] (TTT)diagram.Theredlineshows
thecoolingcurveforaustempering.
Martempering

Martemperingissimilartoaustempering,inthatthesteelisquenchedinabathofmoltenmetalorsaltstoquickly
coolitpastthepearliteformingrange.However,inmartempering,thegoalistocreatemartensiteratherthan
bainite.Thesteelisquenchedtoamuchlowertemperaturethanisusedforaustemperingtojustabovethe
martensitestarttemperature.Themetalisthenheldatthistemperatureuntilthetemperatureofthesteelreachesan
equilibrium.Thesteelisthenremovedfromthebathbeforeanybainitecanform,andthenisallowedtoaircool,
turningitintomartensite.Theinterruptionincoolingallowsmuchoftheinternalstressestorelaxbeforethe
martensiteforms,decreasingthebrittlenessofthesteel.However,themartemperedsteelwillusuallyneedto
undergofurthertemperingtoadjustthehardnessandtoughness,exceptinrarecaseswheremaximumhardnessis
neededbuttheaccompanyingbrittlenessisnot.Modernfilesareoftenmartempered.[14]

Physicalprocesses

Temperinginvolvesathreestepprocessinwhichunstablemartensitedecomposesintoferriteandunstable
carbides,andfinallyintostablecementite,formingvariousstagesofamicrostructurecalledtemperedmartensite.
Themartensitetypicallyconsistsoflaths(strips)orplates,sometimesappearingacicular(needlelike)orlenticular
(lensshaped).Dependingonthecarboncontent,italsocontainsacertainamountof"retainedaustenite."Retained
austenitearecrystalswhichareunabletotransformintomartensite,evenafterquenchingbelowthemartensite
finish(Mf)temperature.Anincreaseinalloyingagentsorcarboncontentcausesanincreaseinretainedaustenite.
Austenitehasmuchhigherstackingfaultenergythanmartensiteorpearlite,loweringthewearresistanceand
increasingthechancesofgalling,althoughsomeormostoftheretainedaustenitecanbetransformedinto
martensitebycoldandcryogenictreatmentspriortotempering.

Themartensiteformsduringadiffusionlesstransformation,inwhichthetransformationoccursduetoshear
stressescreatedinthecrystallatticesratherthanbychemicalchangesthatoccurduringprecipitation.Theshear
stressescreatemanydefects,or"dislocations,"betweenthecrystals,providinglessstressfulareasforthecarbon
atomstorelocate.Uponheating,thecarbonatomsfirstmigratetothesedefects,andthenbeginformingunstable
carbides.Thisreducestheamountoftotalmartensitebychangingsomeofittoferrite.Furtherheatingreducesthe
martensiteevenmore,transformingtheunstablecarbidesintostablecementite.

Thefirststageoftemperingoccursbetweenroomtemperatureand200C(392F).Inthefirststage,carbon
precipitatesintocarbon(Fe24C).Inthesecondstage,occurringbetween150C(302F)and300C(572F),
theretainedaustenitetransformsintoaformoflowerbainitecontainingcarbonratherthancementite
(archaicallyreferredtoas"troostite").[16][17]Thethirdstageoccursat200C(392F)andhigher.Inthethird
stage,carbonprecipitatesintocementite,andthecarboncontentinthemartensitedecreases.Iftemperedat
highertemperatures,between650C(1,202F)and700C(1,292F),orforlongeramountsoftime,the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 7/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

martensitemaybecomefullyferriticandthecementitemaybecomecoarserorspheroidize.Inspheroidizedsteel,
thecementitenetworkbreaksapartandrecedesintorodsorsphericalshapedglobules,andthesteelbecomessofter
thanannealedsteelnearlyassoftaspureiron,makingitveryeasytoformormachine.[18]

Embrittlement

Embrittlementoccursduringtemperingwhen,throughaspecifictemperaturerange,thesteelexperiencesan
increaseinhardnessandareductioninductility,asopposedtothenormaldecreaseinhardnessthatoccurstoeither
sideofthisrange.Thefirsttypeiscalledtemperedmartensiteembrittlement(TME)oronestepembrittlement.
Thesecondisreferredtoastemperembrittlement(TE)ortwostepembrittlement.

Onestepembrittlementusuallyoccursincarbonsteelattemperaturesbetween230C(446F)and290C
(554F),andwashistoricallyreferredtoas"500degree[Fahrenheit]embrittlement."Thisembrittlementoccurs
duetotheprecipitationofWidmanstattenneedlesorplates,madeofcementite,intheinterlathboundariesofthe
martensite.Impuritiessuchasphosphorus,oralloyingagentslikemanganese,mayincreasetheembrittlement,or
alterthetemperatureatwhichitoccurs.Thistypeofembrittlementispermanent,andcanonlyberelievedby
heatingabovetheuppercriticaltemperatureandthenquenchingagain.However,thesemicrostructuresusually
requireanhourormoretoform,soareusuallynotaproblemintheblacksmithmethodoftempering.

Twostepembrittlementtypicallyoccursbyagingthemetalwithinacriticaltemperaturerange,orbyslowly
coolingitthroughthatrange,Forcarbonsteel,thisistypicallybetween370C(698F)and560C(1,040F),
althoughimpuritieslikephosphorusandsulfurincreasetheeffectdramatically.Thisgenerallyoccursbecausethe
impuritiesareabletomigratetothegrainboundaries,creatingweakspotsinthestructure.Theembrittlementcan
oftenbeavoidedbyquicklycoolingthemetalaftertempering.Twostepembrittlement,however,isreversible.The
embrittlementcanbeeliminatedbyheatingthesteelabove600C(1,112F)andthenquicklycooling.[19]

Alloysteels
Manyelementsareoftenalloyedwithsteel.Themainpurposeforalloyingmostelementswithsteelistoincrease
itshardenabilityandtodecreasesofteningundertemperature.Toolsteels,forexample,mayhaveelementslike
chromiumorvanadiumaddedtoincreasebothtoughnessandstrength,whichisnecessaryforthingslikewrenches
andscrewdrivers.Ontheotherhand,drillbitsandrotaryfilesneedtoretaintheirhardnessathightemperatures.
Addingcobaltormolybdenumcancausethesteeltoretainitshardness,evenatredhottemperatures,forming
highspeedsteels.Often,smallamountsofmanydifferentelementsareaddedtothesteeltogivethedesired
properties,ratherthanjustaddingoneortwo.

Mostalloyingelements(solutes)havethebenefitofnotonlyincreasinghardness,butalsoloweringboththe
martensitestarttemperatureandthetemperatureatwhichaustenitetransformsintoferriteandcementite.During
quenching,thisallowsaslowercoolingrate,whichallowsitemswiththickercrosssectionstobehardenedto
greaterdepthsthanispossibleinplaincarbonsteel,producingmoreuniformityinstrength.

Temperingmethodsforalloysteelsmayvaryconsiderably,dependingonthetypeandamountofelementsadded.
Ingeneral,elementslikemanganese,nickel,silicon,andaluminumwillremaindissolvedintheferriteduring
temperingwhilethecarbonprecipitates.Whenquenched,thesesoluteswillusuallyproduceanincreasein
hardnessoverplaincarbonsteelofthesamecarboncontent.Whenhardenedalloysteels,containingmoderate
amountsoftheseelements,aretempered,thealloywillusuallysoftensomewhatproportionatelytocarbonsteel.

However,duringtempering,elementslikechromium,vanadium,andmolybdenumprecipitatewiththecarbon.If
thesteelcontainsfairlylowconcentrationsoftheseelements,thesofteningofthesteelcanberetardeduntilmuch
highertemperaturesarereached,whencomparedtothoseneededfortemperingcarbonsteel.Thisallowsthesteel
tomaintainitshardnessinhightemperatureorhighfrictionapplications.However,thisalsorequiresveryhigh
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 8/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

temperaturesduringtempering,toachieveareductioninhardness.Ifthesteelcontainslargeamountsofthese
elements,temperingmayproduceanincreaseinhardnessuntilaspecifictemperatureisreached,atwhichpointthe
hardnesswillbegintodecrease.[20][21]Forinstance,molybdenumsteelswilltypicallyreachtheirhighesthardness
around315C(599F)whereasvanadiumsteelswillhardenfullywhentemperedtoaround371C(700F).
Whenverylargeamountsofsolutesareadded,alloysteelsmaybehavelikeprecipitationhardeningalloys,which
donotsoftenatallduringtempering.[22]

Castiron
Castironcomesinmanytypes,dependingonthecarboncontent.However,theyareusuallydividedintogreyand
whitecastiron,dependingontheformthatthecarbidestake.Ingreycastiron,thecarbonismainlyintheformof
graphite,butinwhitecastiron,thecarbonisusuallyintheformofcementite.Greycastironconsistsmainlyof
themicrostructurecalledpearlite,mixedwithgraphiteandsometimesferrite.Greycastironisusuallyusedas
cast,withitspropertiesbeingdeterminedbyitscomposition.

Whitecastironiscomposedmostlyofamicrostructurecalledledeburitemixedwithpearlite.Ledeburiteisvery
hard,makingthecastironverybrittle.Ifthewhitecastironhasahypoeutecticcomposition,itisusuallytempered
toproducemalleableorductilecastiron.Twomethodsoftemperingareused,called"whitetempering"and"black
tempering."Thepurposesofbothtemperingmethodsistocausethecementitewithintheledeburitetodecompose,
increasingtheductility.[23]

Whitetempering

Malleable(porous)castironismanufacturedbywhitetempering.Whitetemperingisusedtoburnoffexcess
carbon,byheatingitforextendedamountsoftimeinanoxidizingenvironment.Thecastironwillusuallybeheld
attemperaturesashighas1,000C(1,830F)foraslongas60hours.Theheatingisfollowedbyaslowcooling
rateofaround10C(18F)perhour.Theentireprocessmaylast160hoursormore.Thiscausesthecementiteto
decomposefromtheledeburite,andthenthecarbonburnsoutthroughthesurfaceofthemetal,increasingthe
malleabilityofthecastiron.[23]

Blacktempering

Ductile(nonporous)castiron(oftencalled"blackiron")isproducedbyblacktempering.Unlikewhitetempering,
blacktemperingisdoneinaninertgasenvironment,sothatthedecomposingcarbondoesnotburnoff.Instead,the
decomposingcarbonturnsintoatypeofgraphitecalled"tempergraphite"or"flakygraphite,"increasingthe
malleabilityofthemetal.Temperingisusuallyperformedattemperaturesashighas950C(1,740F)forupto20
hours.Thetemperingisfollowedbyslowcoolingthroughthelowercriticaltemperature,overaperiodthatmay
lastfrom50toover100hours.[23]

Precipitationhardeningalloys
Precipitationhardeningalloysfirstcameintouseduringtheearly1900s.Mostheattreatablealloysfallintothe
categoryofprecipitationhardeningalloys,includingalloysofaluminum,magnesium,titaniumandnickel.Several
highalloysteelsarealsoprecipitationhardeningalloys.Thesealloysbecomesofterthannormalwhenquenched,
andthenhardenovertime.Forthisreason,precipitationhardeningisoftenreferredtoas"aging."

Althoughmostprecipitationhardeningalloyswillhardenatroomtemperature,somewillonlyhardenatelevated
temperaturesand,inothers,theprocesscanbespedupbyagingatelevatedtemperatures.Agingattemperatures
higherthanroomtemperatureiscalled"artificialaging".Althoughthemethodissimilartotempering,theterm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 9/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

"tempering"isusuallynotusedtodescribeartificialaging,becausethephysicalprocesses,(i.e.:precipitationof
intermetallicphasesfromasupersaturatedalloy)thedesiredresults,(i.e.:strengtheningratherthansoftening),and
theamountoftimeheldatacertaintemperatureareverydifferentfromtemperingasusedincarbonsteel.

Seealso
Annealing(metallurgy)
Austempering
Precipitationstrengthening

References
1.Light,itsinteractionwithartandantiquitiesByThomasB.BrillPlenumPublishing1980Page55
2.Andrews,Jack(1994).NewEdgeoftheAnvil:aresourcebookfortheblacksmith.pp.9899
3.SteelmetallurgyforthenonmetallurgistByJohnD.VerhoevenASMInternational2007Page99105
4.TheMedievalSwordintheModernWorldByMichael'Tinker'Pearce2007Page39
5.ToolsteelsByGeorgeAdamRoberts,GeorgeKrauss,RichardKennedy,RichardL.KennedyASMInternational1998
Page2
6.RobertsAustenBySirWilliamChandlerRobertsAusten,SydneyW.SmithCharlesGriffin&Co.1914Page155156
7.CorrelationofYieldStrengthandTensileStrengthwithHardnessforSteels,E.J.PavlinaandC.J.VanTyne,Journalof
MaterialsEngineeringandPerformance,Volume17,Number6/December,2008(http://www.springerlink.com/content/q
86642448t84g267/)
8.SteelcastingshandbookByMalcolmBlair,ThomasL.StevensSteelFounders'SocietyofAmericaandASM
InternationalPage249
9.PracticalheattreatingByJonL.Dossett,HowardE.BoyerASMInternational2006Page112
10.HowToWeldByToddBridigumMotorbook2008Page37
11.PracticalBlacksmithingandMetalworkingByPercyW.BlandfordTABBooks1988Page3,7475
12.PracticalBlacksmithingandMetalworkingByPercyW.BlandfordTABBooks1988Page7475
13.KnifeTalkII:TheHighPerformanceBladeByEdFowlerKrausePublications2003Page114
14.ElementsofmetallurgyandengineeringalloysByFlakeC.CampbellASMInternational2008Page195196
15.SteelHeatTreatmentHandbookByGeorgeE.TottenMarcelDekker1997Page659
16.PhaseTransformationsinSteels,Volume1:FundamentalsandDiffusionControlledTransformationsbyElena
Pereloma,DavidVEdmondsWoodheadPublishing2012Page2039
17.LightMicroscopyofCarbonSteelsbyLeonardErnestSamuelsASMInternational1999Page2025
18.PrinciplesofHeatTreatmentofSteelByRomeshC.SharmaNewAgeInternational(P)Limited2003Page101110
19.ElementsofmetallurgyandengineeringalloysByFlakeC.CampbellASMInternational2008Page197
20.http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=91
21.SteelHeatTreatment:MetallurgyandTechnologiesByGeorgeE.TottenCRCPress2007Page6,200203
22.Steels:MicrostructureandProperties:MicrostructureandPropertiesByHarryBhadeshia,RobertHoneycombe
Elsevier2006Page191207
23.PhysicalmetallurgyforengineersByMiklsTiszaASMInternational2002Page348350

Furtherreading
ManufacturingProcessesReferenceGuidebyRobertH.Todd,DellK.Allen,andLeoAltingpg.410

Externallinks
Athoroughdiscussionoftemperingprocesses(http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phasetrans/2004/Tempered.Mart
ensite/tempered.martensite.html)
Webpageshowingheatingglowandtemperingcolors(http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/300
3/3003am.html)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 10/11
6/25/2017 Tempering(metallurgy)Wikipedia

Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tempering_(metallurgy)&oldid=778085646"

Categories: Metalheattreatments

Thispagewaslasteditedon1May2017,at01:26.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.
Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregisteredtrademark
oftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy) 11/11