Ernst, Kervyn y Teeuw. 2016. Advances in The Remote Sensing of Volcanic Activity and Hazards With Special Consideration To Applications in Developing Countries

International Journal of Remote Sensing
ISSN: 0143-1161 (Print) 1366-5901 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tres20
Advances in the remote sensing of volcanic

activity and hazards, with special consideration to
applications in developing countries
G. G. J. Ernst , M. Kervyn & R. M. Teeuw
To cite this article: G. G. J. Ernst , M. Kervyn & R. M. Teeuw (2008) Advances in the remote
sensing of volcanic activity and hazards, with special consideration to applications in
developing countries, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 29:22, 6687-6723
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01431160802168459
Published online: 28 Oct 2008.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 298
View related articles
Citing articles: 11 View citing articles
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tres20
Download by: [CONRICyT] Date: 17 October 2016, At: 16:46

Vol. 29, No. 22, 20 November 2008, 66876723
Advances in the remote sensing of volcanic activity and hazards, with

special consideration to applications in developing countries
G. G. J. ERNST*{, M. KERVYN{ and R. M. TEEUW{

{Mercator and Ortelius Research Centre for Eruption Dynamics, Geology Department,
Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281/S8, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
{Geohazard Research Centre, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University
of Portsmouth, Burnaby Building, Portsmouth PO1 3QL, UK
Applications of remote sensing for studies of volcanic activity and hazards have
developed rapidly in the past 40 years. This has facilitated the observation of
volcanic processes, such as ground deformation and thermal emission changes,
lava flows, eruption clouds, ash and gas emissions, as well as mapping of volcanic
structures and hazardous terrain, even for volcanoes in remote regions. Advances
in the remote sensing of volcanoes, from ground-based sensors to sensors
onboard airborne and spaceborne platforms, are reviewed. A key point made in
this review is that volcanic remote sensing could have a much broader impact if
the techniques and data were readily available to scientists studying/monitoring
potentially hazardous volcanoes in developing countries. Perspectives on
particular needs, with regard to sensor types, data availability and training,
required to take volcanic remote sensing further in coming years are highlighted.
1. Introduction
Developments in remote sensing over the past 40 years have greatly improved our
ability to map volcanic morphologies, structures and hazardous terrain. Through
remote sensing, volcanologists can now derive digital elevation models (DEMs),
monitor volcano deformation, document thermal emission changes, track eruptions
and emissions using ground-based instruments, as well as sensors onboard airborne
and spaceborne platforms (see table 1 for a sensor/platform summary; for previous
reviews on advances, see Francis and Rothery 2000, Mouginis-Mark et al. 2000a).
Remote sensing has become an essential component in volcano surveillance (e.g.
Francis et al. 1996). For instance, thermal observations at 14 km resolution are
now acquired daily on a near-global basis and are freely and routinely available via
the internet within days of data acquisition (e.g. Rothery et al. 2001, Wright et al.
2002a). Volcanic clouds can be imaged and tracked for days on an hourly basis, at
1 km spatial resolution in visible and near-infrared wavelengths (e.g. Rose et al.
2000).
Eruptions and long-term volcano emissions have created opportunities to observe
and better understand hazardous volcanic systems, and their impact on other Earth
systems. This has been achieved through increasingly integrated studies, involving
multiple sensors and complementary datasets, including information from weather
data monitoring, numerical models and laboratory experiments simulating
processes. There have been general trends towards usage of (1) greater temporal
resolution, such as the Meteosat and the Geostationary Operational Environmental
*Corresponding author. Email: Gerald.Ernst@UGent.be

ISSN 0143-1161 print/ISSN 1366-5901 online # 2008 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/01431160802168459
6688
Table 1. Satellite sensor characteristics and their volcanic remote sensing applications.
Sensor Bands/spatial resolution Scene size Operational Applications

Low-resolution optical sensors (geosynchronous)
GMS VIS-TIR 4 bands 1.255 km Earth disc 1977present Volcanic cloud tracking;
GOES VIS-TIR 5 bands 18 km Earth disc 1975present thermal hotspot detection
Meteosat VIS-TIR 3 bands 2.55 km Earth disc 1977present
Meteosat MSG VIS-TIR 11 bands 2.5 km Earth disc 2002present
VNIR 1 band 1 km
Low-resolution optical sensors (near-polar orbit)
AVHRR (NOAA) VIS-NIR-TIR 6 bands 1.1 km Swath width 2399 km 1978present Volcanic cloud tracking,
ATSR (ERS-1 and -2) NIR-TIR 4 bands 0.22 km Swath width 500 km 1991present including SO2 mapping;
AATSR VIS-NIR-SWIR-TIR 7 bands 1 km Swath width 500 km 2002present thermal hotspot detection
G. G. J. Ernst et al.
MODIS (Terra and Aqua) VNIR 2 bands 250 m Swath width 2330 km 1999 and 2002present
VNIR 5 bands 500 m
VIS-NIR-TIR 29 bands 1 km
TOMS UV 6 bands 39 km Swath width 2795 km 1978present Gas emission monitoring
OMI (Aura) UV 2 bands 13624 km Swath width 2600 km 2004present and tracking
VIS 1 band 13612 km
GOME (ERS-2) UV-VNIR 48 bands 40620 km Swath width 960 km 1995present
SCHIAMACHY (Envisat) at best 2002present
GOME-2 (MetOp)
2006present
AIRS (Aqua) IR 2378 bands 13.5 km Swath width 1800 km 2002present Atmosphere temperature
gradient; SO2 monitoring
MISR VNIR 4 bands, 275 m 9 different view-angles 1999present Cloud-top topography and
optical depth studies
Medium- to high-resolution optical sensors (near-polar orbit)
Landsat ETM + PAN 1 band 15 m 1806180 km2 1999present Mapping of volcanic
VNIR + SWIR 6 bands 30 m products and thermal
TIR 1 band 60 m volcanic features
Landsat TM VNIR + SWIR 6 bands 30 m 1806180 km2 1972present
TIR 1 band 120 m
Table 1. (Continued.)
Sensor Bands/spatial resolution Scene size Operational Applications

2
ASTER (Terra) VNIR 3 band 15 m 61.5663 km 1999present Mapping of volcanic
SWIR 6 bands 30 m products, SO2 mapping;
TIR 5 bands 90 m characterization of thermal
volcanic features and zones
of hydrothermal alteration
Advances in remote sensing of volcanic activity

HRG-HRVIR (SPOT 4-5) PAN 1 band 5 m (SPOT 5) 60660 km2 1998present (SPOT 4) Mapping of volcanic
VNIR 3 bands 10 m 2002present (SPOT 5) products and terrain
SWIR 1 band 20 m
EO-1 Hyperion 220 bands (from 0.4 to 2.5 um) 30 m 10067.5 km2 2002present Lava temperature
ALI PAN 1 band 10 m 1.62563u or 15u 2002present Mapping of volcanic
VNIR 6 bands 30 m products and thermal
SWIR 3 bands 30 m volcanic features
Very high resolution optical sensors (near-polar orbit)
Ikonos PAN 1 band 1 m .49 km2 1999present Limited usage due to high
VNIR 4 bands 4 m Swath width 11 km cost: detailed terrain
Quickbird PAN 1 band 0.6 m .25 km2 2001present mapping
VNIR 4 bands 2.4 m Swath width 16.5 km
Synthetic aperture radar (near-polar orbit)
SAR (ERS-1 and -2) C-band 25 m 1006110 km2 19912000; 1995present Ground deformation
RADARSAT C-band 30 m 1006100 km2 1995present monitoring; InSAR
JERS SAR L-band 18 m 75675 km2 19921998 DEMs, surface
ASAR (ENVISAT) C band 30 m Swath width 56105 km 2003present roughness mapping
ALOS (PALSAR) L-band 10 m Swath width 70 km 2006present
Digital elevation models
SRTM C-band C-band 30 or 90 m 1u latlong 2000 Topographic mapping;
SRTM X-band X-band 25 m 0.25u latlong 2000 hazard modelling; volcano
SPOT HRS PAN 10 m .3000 km2 2002present morphology study
ASTER Bands 3 and 3B 60 km660 km 1999present
PAN, panchromatic; VNIR, visible and near infrared (0.51.0 mm); SWIR, shortwave infrared (1.02.5 mm); TIR, thermal infrared (812 mm). Scene size
displays the minimum order size. Other very high resolution sensors exist but are not cited as they have rarely or never been used in satellite studies (SPOT5/
6689
HRG; IRS/Cartosat 1 (PAN sensor), Orbview 3/Geoeye 1 (OHIRIS, GHIRIS sensors)).
6690 G. G. J. Ernst et al.
Satellite (GOES); (2) global, free access to archived data of moderate to high spatial
resolution, such as Landsat, which are crucial for volcanic studies in developing
countries (Carn and Oppenheimer 2000, Kervyn et al. 2007); (3) more multispectral
data, such as the Advanced Spectral and Thermal Emission Radiometer (ASTER);
and (4) very high spatial resolutions, of 0.55 m, such as IKONOS and Quickbird.
In the past 15 years, electric field, acoustic and Doppler radar remote sensing have
also been used to examine volcanoes; the latter can be used under any weather
conditions and offers good prospects for monitoring at explosive eruptions.
Most of the remote sensing instruments used by volcanologists were designed for
other applications, such as weather forecasting (e.g. GOES and the Advanced Very
High Resolution Radiometer, AVHRR), monitoring of air pollution levels, such as
sulfur dioxide (SO2) measurements by Correlation Spectrometry (COSPEC), or
atmospheric chemistry (e.g. the Total Ozone Mapper System, TOMS) and it has
often been accidental that such instruments could also be used to document
hazardous volcanic phenomena. It has been a source of frustration for
volcanologists using remote sensing that so few instruments have been designed
to fit their research or monitoring needs.
Volcanic remote sensing is also at a point where its potential could be harnessed
much more systematically for applications in the developing world; recent advances
are reviewed here with that in mind. Moving from subsurface to subaerial and
atmospheric volcanic processes, the following sections consider: (1) the remote
measurement of ground movements associated with volcanic activity; (2) ground-
based techniques determining volcanic crater emissions; (3) thermal monitoring of
volcanic craters, domes, flows and crater lakes; (4) remote sensing of volcanic
degassing and volcanic clouds; and (5) identifying and mapping hazardous volcanic
terrain for modelling and disaster risk reduction. Finally, some perspectives on
requirements to take volcanic remote sensing further are considered.
2. Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR)

The main volcanic applications of satellite InSAR have been to monitor ground
deformation and land surface changes, including crater ice caps where ice
deformation may relate to subglacial eruption progression (e.g. Gudmundsson
et al. 2002) or the generation of jokulhlaup floods (Magnusson et al. 2007). In its
repeat-pass mode, the technique involves calculating the interference pattern caused
by the phase difference between two images acquired by a spaceborne SAR at two
distinct times. The resulting interferogram is a contour map of the range change
between the ground and radar instrument. These maps provide a sampling density
of 1001000 pixels per km2, and an observation cadence of about one pass per
month (or better if combining compatible sensors, such as the European Remote
Sensing satellites ERS-1 and ERS-2). InSAR records crustal movements in the
ground-to-satellite direction but is sensitive to many factors, notably instrument and
orbit accuracy, ionospheric (electron density) variations and atmospheric perturba-
tions causing spatial/temporal variability in water vapour content, changes in phase
caused by non-permanence of some scatterers (e.g. leaves or melting snow), soil
dielectric variations, and also topographic features and relief.
An interferogram is obtained from the SAR signals of two spatially or temporally
separated antennas. The two antennas can be mounted on a single platform for
single-pass interferometry, for example aircraft systems such as the Topographic
Advances in remote sensing of volcanic activity 6691
Synthetic Aperture Radar system (TOPSAR) and the spaceborne Shuttle Radar
Topography Mission (SRTM). Alternatively, InSAR data can be acquired by using
a single antenna on a platform (typically spaceborne) in nearly identical repeating
orbits for repeat-pass interferometry. In the latter case, the antennas do not
illuminate the same area at the same time but the two sets of signals recorded during
the two passes will be highly correlated if the scattering properties of the ground
surface are unchanged between viewings. This is the typical implementation for
radar sensors on the ERS (ERS-1 operating from 1991 to 2000; ERS-2 operating
from 1995 to present), Canadian Radarsat (1995present), the Japanese Earth
Resource Satellite (JERS-1, 19921998) and European Environmental satellites
(Envisat 2003present). These operate at wavelengths from a few centimetres
(C-band) to tens of centimetres (L-band).
InSAR volcanic applications include: (i) documenting ground deformation
before/during/after eruptions, with 1 cm vertical accuracy or better (Massonnet
and Feigl 1998); (ii) producing precise DEMs with metric vertical accuracy and tens
of metres spatial resolution (e.g. Stevens et al. 2002); (iii) quantifying crustal
spreading rates from rifting (Henriot and Villemin 2005); (iv) better constraining the
nature of magma-induced gravitational spreading (e.g. at Etna: Lundgren et al.
2004) or volcano flank instability (e.g. at Etna: Neri et al. 2007), deformation
associated with lava dome inflation/deflation caused by eruption/recharge (e.g.
Wadge et al. 2006), magma transfers in and out of large subcaldera reservoirs (e.g.
Yellowstone: Wicks et al. 2006), or sustained caldera subsidence (e.g. at Askja,
Iceland, or Aniakchak, Alaska: Pagli et al. 2006, Kwoun et al. 2006); and (v)
determining erupted volumes (Lu et al. 2003a). Conditions are not yet met for
operational InSAR use in monitoring but insights into volcano baseline changes can
be derived, or specific deformation events can be analysed, a posteriori (Stevens and
Wadge 2004).
InSARs potential is well illustrated by the 1997 eruption of Okmok, Alaska (Lu
et al. 2003a). Using TOPSAR and ERS tandem data, interferograms and InSAR-
derived DEMs were constructed; these revealed inflationdeflation phases, with up
to 20 cm of uplift and 140 cm of subsidence over periods of 13 years. More than 10
years of InSAR data have now been collected, revealing various sources of
deformation. For instance, Lu et al. (2005) detected a shallow magma reservoir, its
recharge, surface loading by lavas and lava flow thermal contraction. Lu et al.
(2003a, 2004) also illustrated how InSAR-derived pre- and post-eruptive DEMs can
be used to derive estimates of erupted areas, lava thickness and lava volumes, with
unprecedented accuracy (15% error).
Differential InSAR has also been used to map ground deformation related to
seismic unrest at Long Valley caldera, USA (e.g. Tizzani et al. 2007) and at Nysiros
caldera, Greece (Sachpazi et al. 2002). In combination with Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) and levelling, differential InSAR (DInSAR) was used to constrain
the source of long-term subsidence at Medicine Lake volcano, California (Poland
et al. 2006), indicating that InSAR data alone are only a proxy for near-vertical
deformation and cannot adequately indicate three-dimensional (3D) deformation.
Loss of coherence between successive SAR acquisitions was used to map lava flow
advance at Kilauea, Hawaii (Zebker et al. 1996) and pyroclastic flows at Soufriere
Hills, Montserrat (Wadge et al. 2002). In Central Africa, DInSAR proved effective
in recording the deformation associated with the 17 January 2002 eruption from
Nyiragongo and with recent eruptions at Nyamulagira (dOreye et al. 2007;
figure 1). Such data can be related to theoretical models of ground deformation,
such as dyke emplacement, and can be compared with theoretically derived
interferograms (e.g. Froger et al. 2004, Fukushima et al. 2005).
In Ethiopia, the largest rifting event ever documented started in 2005, and by
analogy with the 197584 Krafla rifting event in Iceland, is expected to continue for
about a decade (see Henriot and Villemin 2005, for discussion of DInSAR-measured
post-rifting deformation). The recent eruptions and rifting in Ethiopia is the focus of
the most intense volcanological multidisciplinary research ever carried out on
African active volcanism. In the absence of a permanent monitoring network,
Figure 1. DInSAR interferogram associated with the January 2002 Nyiragongo eruption
(DR Congo), showing deformation associated with emplacement of a near-vertical dyke,
along a northsouth eruptive fissure on the south flank of Nyiragongo, as well as subsidence
around Goma. To the west and north of Nyamulagira, other fringes suggest deflation and
compaction of previously emplaced lavas. 2002 fractures are marked in blue; boundaries of
Goma and Gisenyi, the two major towns, are in white. The interferogram is from ERS data of
September 2000 and July 2002, with incoherent areas masked. One colour cycle corresponds
to a 2.8 cm ground displacement in the sensor line-of-sight. Modified after dOreye et al.
(2007). Courtesy of Nicolas dOreye and Francois Kervyn.
DInSAR data analyses have thrown light upon the complex spatio-temporal
relationships between early volcano inflations and late-stage deflations, lateral
magma transfer along a 60 km rift zone, and also eruptions and surface
deformations associated with dyke emplacement (Wright et al. 2006). This ongoing
work is also likely to place new constraints on the nature of rifting, especially on the
contributions from tectonic stretching versus those from magmatic injections
(Rowland et al. 2007).
Although DInSAR is not yet an operational monitoring tool, it is already used by
several volcano observatories to provide insights into medium-term magma supply
changes beneath volcanoes (e.g. in Alaska/Kamchatka: Lu et al. 2003b, Masterlark
and Lu 2004, Lundgren and Lu 2006; in Oregon: Dzurisin et al. 2006; in Iceland:
Pedersen and Sigmundsson 2004; at Reunion: Froger et al. 2004; at Etna:
Bonaccorso et al. 2004; in Chile: Froger et al. 2007). DInSAR offers the prospect
of operational monitoring of surface deformation to centimetre-scale accuracy, at a
spatial resolution of tens of metres, over swaths of tens of kilometres (Stevens and
Wadge 2004). However, applying DInSAR to volcanic monitoring poses many
problems: it requires identical sensors and suitably compatible orbits, operational
collection and fast internet delivery of data to volcano observatories, low-cost image
acquisition (,100 J for a 1006100 km scene at 2530 m resolution) and availability
of expertise to process and analyse data. Also needed are improved interpretation
models, well beyond the Mogi point source in elastic half space model (Masterlark
2007), to account for the finite size and shape of magmatic sources, and for the
anisotropic nature of the crust and volcano topography (Manconi et al. 2007). It
should be emphasized that some eruptions, such as Shishaldin in the 1990s, are not
preceded by measurable ground deformation (e.g. Moran et al. 2006), so InSAR
monitoring always needs to be supplemented by other monitoring methods. Other
eruptions may not be immediately preceded by changes in activity, seismicity or
ground deformation, such as the 20042005 Etna eruption, with further analyses of
ground deformation revealing that the eruptive preconditions developed over a
timeline of about 1 year (Bonaccorso et al. 2006).
Many volcanoes have little or no coherence at C-band. Fortunately, L-band SAR
data, with its lower sensitivity to vegetation, offers better prospects for operational
use despite its lower sensitivity to ground deformation. Methods using coherent
persistent scatterers (PS-methods) have occasionally been used (Ferretti et al. 2001,
Hooper et al. 2004). When PS targets can be found in C-band SAR scenes, PS-
InSAR offers good prospects but is logistically impractical where artificial reflectors
have to be deployed (Stevens and Wadge 2004, Kervyn et al. 2007). Another
limitation of deformation measurements using InSAR is that an interferogram only
measures one component of the surface deformation, in the sensors line of sight. An
exciting prospect for the future is to map surface deformation in 3D, using multiple
InSAR interferograms with different imaging geometries. Wright et al. (2004)
discuss 3D displacements from a 2002 earthquake in Alaska for which
interferograms with four different viewing geometries were acquired. InSAR has
recently been used to determine the 3D deformation at Piton de la Fournaise,
Reunion (Tinard et al. 2006). A further limitation of satellite InSAR studies is that
the data archives only cover the past decade or so. One way around this problem is
subpixel image-correlation of panchromatic airborne images. This was recently
applied to constrain ground deformation associated with three eruptions and
opening eruptive fissures at Piton de la Fournaise (de Michele and Briole 2007).
3. Ground-based remote sensing observations at volcanoes

3.1 Radar, acoustic and electric field observations during eruptions
Explosive eruptions emit acoustic waves that can be recorded from a few hundred
metres or less from erupting volcanoes. Acoustic waves can be related to parameters
of eruption dynamics, such as bubble sizes, gas overpressure, gas content and
eruption velocities, all of which help to determine eruptive activity patterns. Studies
of acoustic emissions at volcanoes have been particularly useful when combined
with other geophysical and observation methods, such as recordings of broadband
seismicity and gas emissions (Weill et al. 1992, Vergniolle et al. 1996, Sparks et al.
1997a). Even in the absence of other observations, acoustic studies are valuable in
deriving eruption parameters and insights into the transition between strombolian
and more intense subplinian or vulcanian activity (Vergniolle et al. 2004, Vergniolle
and Caplan-Auerbach 2004, 2006).
Several groups have documented the structure and time evolution of explosive jets
at Arenal (Costa Rica), Stromboli and Etna (Italy), using ground-based radar
systems (e.g. Hort et al. 2003, Dubosclard et al. 2004). Although geometric
corrections are needed for the backscattered signals, this work is providing
important records of activity patterns and estimates of eruption velocities. Doppler
radar data acquisition and automatic classification techniques have been used at
Merapi to monitor lava dome instabilities and investigate relationships between
dome activity and rainfall; this all weather system offers good early warning
prospects (Hort et al. 2006, Voge and Hort 2008, Voge et al. 2008).
Ground-based C-band radar, located at international airports or deployed in the
field, are also invaluable for measuring eruption columns and the wind-advected
clouds formed from them. This method was used during explosions at Mount St
Helens (Harris et al. 1981) and Mount Spurr, Alaska (Rose et al. 1995a). Weather
radar enables estimation of eruption column elevation, a crucial factor in forecasting
of ash dispersal, and has proved insightful in studies of time-dependent processes
related to ash transport, aggregation and fallout, such as for the eruption cloud of
Mount St Helens on 18 May 1980 (Harris and Rose 1983).
Most particles in an eruption cloud are fine (,1 mm), whereas the radar return
depends on the sixth power of the particle size, so that an ash-rich eruption cloud
can only be tracked for 1030 km using conventional weather radar. The rapid
settling of coarse Etna ash is probably the main reason why ash emissions
responsible for closure of Catania airport (30 km away) could not be reliably
detected by the airport radar (Marzano et al. 2006). There are exceptions, however,
and these include explosive eruptions in Iceland, where most volcanoes are covered
by snow or ice and have extensive aquifers. These eruptions often generate water-
rich eruption columns that can rise 818 km, to the tropopause, where temperature
varies between 255uC and 285uC, with much ice or snow forming on the ash
particles (e.g. Durant et al. 2008). This increases ash particle size and scattering
ability while not increasing their removal velocity proportionally. During the 26
February 2000 eruption of Hekla, the weather radar located near Reykjavik,
,120 km to the west, detected the eruption onset within 2 min, imaged and tracked
the eruption cloud for about 400 km across Iceland and determined its end with
precision (Lacasse et al. 2004). It is also the first time that remotely sensed changes
in eruption intensity could be followed so closely for the duration of an explosive
eruption. Such information is crucial to the worldwide Volcanic Ash Advisory
Centres, responsible for rapidly issuing forecasts of ash dispersal to Civil Aviation
Authorities.
Magma fragmentation generates electric charges on volcanic ash, in a process
called fractoemission (Gilbert et al. 1991), leading to charge separation in rising ash
clouds, analogous to that developing in thunderstorms and leading to lightning.
Despite the potential to use electric field data to track hazardous ash clouds (Gilbert
and Lane 1994, Sparks et al. 1997b), few measurements have been made at
volcanoes (Surtsey in 196365: Anderson et al. 1965; Sakurajima in the 1990s: Lane
and Gilbert 1992; Unzen in 1993: Miura et al. 1996). Remote detection of volcanic
lightning can be also used in monitoring, but has been used in few cases so far, all
involving explosive eruptions in Alaska (Hoblitt 1994, McNutt and Davis 2000).
3.2 Volcanic gas emissions

Seismic and ground-deformation monitoring networks have been the main
monitoring networks at volcano observatories for many decades. Besides providing
key information about locations of subsurface fracturing and possible magma
ascent, in anticipation of eruptions, and valuable information on eruption-in-
progress status, their main strength has come from the possibility of procuring
continuous data at volcanoes in real time. Volcano degassing measurements,
quantifying ultraviolet (UV) absorption by SO2 with COSPEC, have only been
made occasionally and the data were typically not available in real time or for the
majority of volcanoes. This is now changing, with the deployment of a new
generation of miniaturized, lightweight, low-cost UV spectrometers and new
deployment strategies designed to more closely constrain the gas plume velocity,
instead of using windspeed and direction at the ground as proxies. The new
instruments include the FLYSPEC UV-correlation spectrometer (Hort et al. 2006),
the scanning dual-beam miniature Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer
(Mini-DOAS) and Open Path Fourier Transform Infrared (OP-FTIR) sensors
(Edmonds et al. 2003a,b, Galle et al. 2003, McGonigle et al. 2003, Oppenheimer and
McGonigle 2004, McGonigle 2005, Oppenheimer et al. 2006a). The Mini-DOAS is
small and cheap and can be deployed to provide data during daylight in near real
time (better than 5 minutes time resolution) on SO2 emissions from volcanoes
(McGonigle 2007). Measurements simultaneously made by COSPEC and Mini-
DOAS at Kilauea and at six South American volcanoes derived similar fluxes to
within 10% (Elias et al. 2006, Barrancos et al. 2008). One advantage of the Mini-
DOAS is that it can cope with measurements of weak SO2 fluxes (e.g. Mori et al.
2006). A new sampling strategy allows estimation of gas plume velocities to derive
SO2 fluxes to within 10% error: the multiple spectrometer method uses at least two
or three time-synchronized UV spectrometers, separated by a known distance
(McGonigle et al. 2005a,b, Williams-Jones et al. 2006).
Recently developed OP-FTIR instruments can measure gas ratios in real time (e.g.
Oppenheimer et al. 2006a), and thereby the fluxes of all major gases such as H2O,
SO2, HF, HCl, CO2 and of some trace gases. Successful time-series measurements
have already been acquired for several years, notably at Etna (Burton et al. 2004).
The gas data enable an independent evaluation of seismic and ground deformation
data interpretations, as well as a better discrimination between eruptive and non-
eruptive scenarios (e.g. Oppenheimer et al. 2006a). Duffell et al. (2003) monitored
degassing of Masaya volcano, Nicaragua, and found a correlation with eruptive
activity. Volcanic degassing is also hazardous per se, so that for volcanoes upwind of
populated areas, gas monitoring is justified by health concerns (see figure 3, and
Mart and Ernst 2005).
Other discoveries that arose recently from intensified gas measurements using
ground-based spectroscopic remote sensing at volcanoes, such as Montserrat and
Etna, often coupled with direct sampling of aerosols in the field, are of iodine and
bromine in volcanic plumes (e.g. Aiuppa et al. 2005, Oppenheimer et al. 2006b).
Some volcanoes may also be direct emitters not just of gases but also of sulfate
aerosols (e.g. Allen et al. 2002, 2006). These findings are of interest to atmospheric
chemists, especially those interested in ozone depletion, as well as to volcano health
scientists (e.g. see Baxter, in Mart and Ernst 2005). In a study of remotely sensed
bromine emissions, data modelling not only documented the presence of BrO but
also led to a model for BrO formation involving magmatic HBr emissions, followed
by rapid oxidation of halogen gases on the surface of sulfate aerosols in the plume
(Oppenheimer et al. 2006b). It has also been found that volcanoes emit nitric acid,
although the volcanic contribution appears to be of regional rather than global
significance (Mather et al. 2004a). Erebus is the largest point source of NO2 in
Antarctica, an importance source of nitrogen for the Antarctic ice surface; its NO2
emissions are likely to play a long-term role in Antarctic tropospheric chemistry
(Oppenheimer et al. 2005).
Our ability to document the chemistry of key gases and aerosols in volcanic
plumes enables field laboratories at volcanoes to evaluate many complex chemical
processes occurring in the troposphere, especially oxidative processes aided by the
presence of aerosol particles (Mather et al. 2004b,c). At the Erta Ale lava lake
(Ethiopia), combining IR thermography and SO2 flux measurements enabled
evaluations of the sulfur, heat and magma budgets, but also provided constraints on
the convection dynamics thought to affect the plumbing of such open basaltic
systems (Oppenheimer et al. 2004). Finally, another expected contribution from
continuous gas monitoring networks in the coming decade or so will be to assess the
volatile budget for entire volcanic arcs (e.g. McGonigle et al. 2004, Mather et al.
2006) and to gain insights into plate tectonic processes.
3.3 Other ground-based remote sensing techniques

Several new techniques are currently being explored to constrain parameters of
active lava domes and lava flows. In one such technique, a combination of thermal
imaging and oblique photogrammetry is being developed to map the progress and
dynamic cooling of lava flows (James et al. 2006). With the All-weather Volcano
Imaging Spectrometer (AVTIS), millimetre-wave radar sensing combined with
thermal imaging is used to monitor and quantify evolving lava domes (Wadge et al.
2005). Webcams are also increasingly being used at volcano observatories to rapidly
check the status of an active volcano as part of a broader monitoring programme
(e.g. www.guide-etna.com/webcam/).
More sophisticated thermal monitoring systems and UV digital cameras are being
used to record heat or gas emissions, notably SO2, at volcanoes (e.g. Bluth et al.
2007). Compared to satellite or airborne sensors, low-cost UV digital cameras for
SO2 imaging can be deployed flexibly, rapidly, under variable meteoreological
conditions, and at a range of distances, including close to source (Bluth et al. 2007).
Low-cost (,1500 USD) thermal monitoring units for near-vent deployment have
been successfully tested at Stromboli, enabling detection of thermal signals
associated with gas emission, gas jetting, crater floor collapse, lava effusion, lava
lake and lava dome activities (Harris et al. 2005). Thermal experiments developed
along similar principles determined the dynamics of so-called gas puffing at
Stromboli (Harris and Ripepe 2007) and Masaya (Branan et al. 2008). Hand-held
IR camera imagery proved essential for examining lava flow emplacement on a steep
slope at Stromboli (Lodato et al. 2007). Thermal image chronometry has recently
been developed to derive areal coverage rates, discharge rates, and flow advance
over several days, using a single thermal snapshot (Harris et al. 2007). Similarly, the
analysis of continuous IR data recordings, using a forward-looking IR radiometer,
was used not only to image different activity styles but also to derive eruption
parameters, such as regime durations and eruption velocities (Patrick et al. 2007).
4. Spaceborne thermal surveillance

Lava lakes in craters, lava domes and lava flows produce strong thermal signals.
Thermal (TIR) and shortwave infrared (SWIR) satellite data have now been used
for 20 years to document the eruptive state of active volcanoes (e.g. Wright et al.
2002a). Initially, high-spatial, low-temporal-resolution data from Landsat Thematic
Mapper (TM) were used to detect SWIR radiance from a growing lava dome at
Lascar, Chile (Francis and McAllister 1986). Subsequently Landsat TM and
Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM + ) data were used to analyse thermal
characteristics of active lava flows (e.g. Flynn et al. 2001, Wright et al. 2001), lava
domes (e.g. Wooster et al. 2000), lava lakes (Harris et al. 1999) and fumarole fields
(Harris and Stevenson 1997). Landsat TM, ETM + or ASTER data are useful for
spatial thermal analyses, but inadequate for routine thermal monitoring because of
their 16-day return periods (e.g. Ramsey and Dean 2004).
Two specific contributions of thermal remote sensing have been to monitor lava
flow cooling (Oppenheimer 1991, Wright et al. 2000) and cyclic behaviour at
andesitic volcanoes that develop lava domes (e.g. Oppenheimer et al. 1993).
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, it was thought that andesite lava dome behaviour
was dominantly controlled by cooling. The discovery of cyclic behaviour at Lascar
(Oppenheimer et al. 1993, Mathews et al. 1997, Wooster and Rothery 1997), was
one of the key observations that led to the current understanding of andesitic lava
domes (Sparks 1997).
Another important contribution of thermal remote sensing has been to produce
estimates of eruption rates during lava flow eruptions (e.g. Wright et al. 2001), and
to use these in lava flow risk models, such as FLOWGO (Rowland et al. 2005). The
magma supply rates to a volcano and the emission rate of lava from it, over the life
history of a volcano, have yet to be accurately constrained and would enable a better
understanding of volcanism.
In the 1990s, low-spatial, high-temporal resolution data from sensors such as the
AVHRR (1 km pixel), GOES (4 km pixel) and Along Track Scanning Radiometer
(ATSR; 1 km pixel) were explored to satisfy the need for operational volcano
monitoring capability. By using night-time and daytime passes, AVHRR data can
be acquired two times per day, for any given ground target. The high sampling
frequency reduces the chance that a target will be obscured by clouds and is better
for observing dynamic volcanic phenomena. AVHRR has been used to provide
detailed chronologies of lava eruptions at Etna (Harris et al. 1997a, Harris and Neri
2002) and used for surveillance of active volcanoes in Alaska (Dehn et al. 2000,
Schneider et al. 2000).
Since 1998, a hotspot detection system using direct-broadcast GOES data from
the Naval Research Laboratory has been used for automated volcano monitoring
(Harris et al. 2000, 2001). This has enabled hotspot detections over the Lesser
Antilles, Hawaii, Central America, New Zealand and the continental USA, with
results internet-posted within 15 minutes of image acquisition. Insights have been
gained into lava field development and eruption timings at Kilauea, Hawaii (Harris
et al. 1997b, Harris and Thornber 1999) and Fernandina, Galapagos (Mouginis-
Mark et al. 2000b). Furthermore, changes in behaviour at recurrently explosive
silicic lava domes at Popopatepetl, Mexico (Wright et al. 2002b) and Lascar, Chile
(Harris et al. 2002) were tracked. Changes in volcanic activity were also recorded
with ATSR data at several volcanoes: Unzen, Japan (Wooster and Kaneko 1998),
Lascar (Wooster 2001) and Etna (Rothery et al. 2001). ATSR acquires data in four
IR bands at a spatial resolution of ,1 km at nadir, with a night-time image and a
daytime image acquired for a given location of the Earths surface, once every 3
days.
AVHRR continues to be used routinely in the north Pacific (Dehn et al. 2000) and
is now used over Central America (e.g. Webley et al. 2008). GOES has been used
over the Americas and the Pacific. Iceland, the Mediterranean and the African Rift
are now covered by similar systems using Meteosat data. Since 1999 and 2002, the
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) has also provided low spatial
resolution, high temporal resolution visible and infrared data: its application to
eruption detection is reviewed below.
4.1 Automated MODIS hot spot detection: MODVOLC and MODLEN

MODIS offers complete global coverage every 12 days at spatial resolutions of 250,
500 and 1000 m. Its ability to detect SWIR and TIR, combined with ,200 m
geolocation of image pixels, makes it ideal for automatically detecting and
monitoring high-temperature thermal anomalies, using the MODVOLC algorithm
(Flynn et al. 2002, Wright et al. 2002a). Automated hotspot detection is currently
limited by 12 days delay related to data acquisition and transfer. The global
hotspot data can then be accessed freely across the internet (http://modis.higp.
hawaii.edu) and often proves timely enough for early eruption detection and for
anticipating hazards. The system has now allowed the onset, development and
cessation of many eruptive events to be monitored, even at remote volcanoes, for
instance at Nyiragongo, Congo (Wright and Flynn 2003), Mt Belinda, South
Sandwich Islands (Patrick et al. 2005) or in Melanesia (Rothery et al. 2005).
A limitation of MODVOLC is that data are not provided to users if no hotspot is
detected: this limits studies of cloud coverage or non-eruptive thermal emissions.
The detection threshold used in the automated system is also fixed, preventing
customizing for enhanced detection at particular volcanoes, where thermal activity
may be more moderate and near the one-fits-all detection limit. This is illustrated by
Oldoinyo Lengai, Tanzania, one of the most active volcanoes in Africa (Kervyn et al.
2008a; figure 2). Because of the low temperature of the carbonatite lavas (500
600uC), much relatively intense activity is missed by MODVOLC. An automated
hotspot detection algorithm has been developed (MODLEN) that was inspired by
MODVOLC and customized to Oldoinyo Lengai. This enabled the detection of
about 10 times more thermal anomalies and the derivation of a 7-year time-series
record of thermal activity in the Lengai crater. MODLEN correctly detected periods
Figure 2. Oldoinyo Lengai, Tanzania: the volcano has white lava at its summit and rises
2000 m above the rift valley. (a) 3D view, SRTM DEM with Landsat true colour drape. (b)
Night-time MODIS band 22 (3.933.99 mm) image (white pixels): thermal emission from a
volcano flank lava flow. (c) ASTER band 9 (2.362.43 mm) scene: thermal anomalies from a
summit crater lava flow. (d) Airphoto of debris avalanche deposits (hummocky relief). (e)
ASTER visible and near-infrared image, acquired a few days after an eruption, which enabled
lava flow mapping.
of low, moderate and intense activity before, during and after the MarchApril 2006
eruption (Kervyn et al. 2008d).
4.2 Thermal and colour change surveillance for volcanic crater lakes
Many active volcanoes host hot lakes of hydrochloric/sulfuric acid in their craters
(e.g. Oppenheimer 1997). Often perched on elevated ground, they pose a
considerable hazard, with eruptions expelling toxic lake water and generating long
run-out mudflows, as at Kelut, Indonesia. In addition, many other lakes associated
with flooded craters, rift lakes or calderas accumulate CO2 and toxic volcanic gases.
These lakes also need to be monitored for any changes that could lead to sudden gas
release and hazards, as typified by Lake Nyos, Cameroon, with over 1700 fatalities
after catastrophic CO2 outgassing (Freeth and Kay 1987). Volcanic crater lakes have
steep and unstable inner craters, which can collapse and trigger lake outgassing (e.g.
Sigurdsson et al. 1987), as well as hazardous floods (Manville et al. 2007). Such lakes
are probably common, but few are monitored with these hazards in mind. To our
knowledge, crater lakes have not been monitored with remote sensing, although
methods developed to monitor lake colour and temperature changes should be
applicable.
Eruptions at crater lakes are typically preceded by days, weeks or months of
temperature increases and by dramatic colour changes (Oppenheimer 1997).
Satellite remote sensing of crater lakes offers advantages over conventional field
monitoring, notably low-cost, zero risk to the surveyors, no damage to sampling
equipment and the ability to monitor several lakes in each scene.
The comparative study of crater lakes by Oppenheimer (1997) is a good
illustration of the potential to monitor lake temperature and colour using widely
accessible, free or low-cost imagery. Landsat bands 45 were used to define lake area
and monitor lake colour changes; band 6 data monitored temperature changes. The
Landsat-derived surface temperature data can be converted to bulk lake
temperature measured in the field, provided data for air temperature, humidity,
wind speed, rainfall (i.e. data provided by a local meteorological station) and fresh
inflows are available for calibration and atmospheric corrections. Volcanic crater
lakes (.200400 m across) can potentially be monitored for temperature and colour
changes using the thermal bands of Landsat TM (120 m spatial resolution), Landsat
ETM + (60 m resolution) or ASTER (90 m resolution). Considering the potential of
satellite remote sensing for monitoring crater lakes in developing countries, it is
surprising that so few studies have been carried out.
5. Measuring and tracking volcanic degassing and volcanic clouds from space
There has been extensive research into the remote sensing of volcanic clouds (e.g.
Kienle and Shaw 1979, Krueger 1982, 1983, Matson 1984, Malingreau and
Kaswanda 1986, Sparks et al. 1986, Glaze et al. 1989, Prata 1989, Holasek and Rose
1991, Prata and Barton 1994, Wen and Rose 1994, Holasek and Self 1995, Holasek
et al. 1996a, Rose et al. 2000). This research has evolved towards an ever-increasing
integration of sensors and datasets, starting with analysis of ash clouds using
geosynchronous and near-polar-orbiting weather satellites. Other remote sensing
datasets used to study volcanic clouds include: (i) ozone monitoring missions
(UV-TOMS: ,39639 km pixels; the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI):
13624 km pixels (see figure 3); the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment
(GOME): ,40620 km pixels); (ii) the Atmospheric Infra-red Sounder (AIRS)

infrared retrievals of volcanic cloud SO2, accounting for interference with water
vapour (Prata and Bernardo 2007); (iii) experiments such as the Polar Ozone and
Aerosol Measurement (POAM) mission, measuring ozone levels around the polar
stratosphere, also enabling measurement of SO2 and cloud height; (iv) weather
balloon meteorological data (temperature, moisture, wind direction and speed), (v)
C-band weather radars; and (vi) atmospheric dispersal models for ash and ash field
maps (e.g. Rose et al. 2001, 2003, Dean et al. 2004, Lacasse et al. 2004). These
datasets are now augmented by half-hourly Meteosat data (e.g. Bertrand et al. 2003,
Prata and Kerkmann 2007) and sub-daily MODIS data (e.g. Rose et al. 2003,
Watson et al. 2004). ASTER could also be used to study volcanic cloud structures in
more detail, including the use of its band 3 stereo-capability for 3-D views.
A major contribution of UV-TOMS data (1979present) has been to quantify the
flux of SO2 emitted in the stratosphere by explosive eruptions, such as El Chichon or
Pinatubo (e.g. Bluth et al. 1995) or the tropospheric flux by the largest SO2
contributors, such as Nyamulagira (Carn and Bluth 2003). It also enabled
assessments of the contribution of explosive eruptions to the global flux of SO2
and to stratospheric loading (Bluth et al. 1993, 1997, Pyle et al. 1996). Attempts have
been made to estimate the atmospheric impact from tropospheric emissions of SO2
by volcanoes (e.g. Graf et al. 1997). However, uncertainties proved to be large
because of many gaps in the COSPEC record and problems with satellite
estimations of tropospheric volcanic SO2, caused by interference with atmospheric
Figure 3. OMI satellite image showing the movement of the SO2 cloud from Nyamulagira,
DR Congo, produced by the 2006 eruption between 28 November and 4 December (see http://
earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id517483). The OMI
SO2 retrieval algorithm used to generate the image is described in Yang et al. (2007).
Nyamulagira is one of the biggest contributors to the global flux of volcanic SO2 (e.g. Carn
and Bluth 2003), yet the volcano has no ground-based monitoring network. Average SO2
column amounts for the time interval (Dobson units) are shown on a log scale. SO2 emissions
from Nyamulagira and Nyiragongo are almost continuous and chronically affect peoples
health in nearby downwind areas. Image courtesy of Simon Carn and the OMI Volcanic
Emissions Group (see http://so2.umbc.edu).
water vapour. Uncertainties on the atmospheric impact from tropospheric volcanic

SO2 could be much reduced in future if there was real-time, continuous ground-
based monitoring (e.g. mini-DOAS) for all active volcanoes. This is important as
volcanoes are typically elevated high in the boundary layer for atmospheric water:
the summits of Mauna Loa, Nyamuragira and Etna are at 30004000 m asl. This
greatly increases the residence time of volcanic SO2 and derived sulfate aerosols.
These have thus an increased impact upon the atmosphere even though the
anthropogenic flux of SO2 and sulfate aerosols is larger (Graf et al. 1997).
Satellite images of volcanic clouds in a time sequence, acquired every hour or half-
hour, enable mapping of cloud-top morphology (Glaze et al. 1999) or temperature
(Sawada 2003), cloud height estimation and ash dispersal tracking (Casadevall
1994), and also the study of processes controlling cloud-top undercooling (Woods
and Self 1992) or ash cloud spreading dynamics. Such studies demonstrate that most
volcanic clouds reaching the tropopause are cases of strong plumes in comparatively
weaker crosswinds (Bursik et al. 1992, Rose et al. 2001), which can generate
powerful gravity waves (Sparks et al. 1997b), spread under gravity laterally and
against crosswinds (Sparks et al. 1986, Koyaguchi and Tokuno 1993, Rose et al.
2001), before being wind-advected downwind (Holasek and Self 1995, Holasek et al.
1996a) or bifurcating (e.g. Ernst et al. 1994, Rose et al. 1995b). To this day,
fundamental processes such as gravity flow (Bonadonna and Phillips 2003) or
bifurcation are not accounted for by models (typically advectiondiffusion models)
used to anticipate ash dispersal for air traffic safety. For longer-range dispersal,
studies of the 1992 Spurr volcanic clouds demonstrated the role of mesoscale eddies
in dispersal (e.g. Bursik 1998); the study of a 2006 Montserrat ash cloud, tracked for
23 days and 18 000 km of its dispersal, indicated the persistence of ice in the cloud,
depleted of its ash at an early stage (Prata et al. 2007).
Integrated studies of volcanic clouds in their first days of atmospheric residence
have produced several other discoveries. GOES, AVHRR and TOMS imagery,
analysed for the 19 September 1994 Rabaul, Papua New Guinea, 26 December
1997 Montserrat and 15 June 1991 Pinatubo eruptions, showed that volcanic
clouds often have condensing water and ice forming on ash particles (Rose et al.
1995b, Mayberry et al. 2002, Guo et al. 2004a, Durant et al. 2008). This leads to
scrubbing of climate-modifier volcanic gases and premature removal of much of
the fine ash by complex ashice aggregation processes (Textor et al. 2006a,b), as
well as hiding of ash hazardous to air traffic from sensors designed to detect ash
(Rose et al. 1995b). In general, some estimates can be retrieved for fine ash, small
ice, sulfate aerosols and SO2 gas using remote sensing, sometimes tracked over
much longer times even than a week (e.g. Prata et al. 2007). It was also discovered
that volcanic clouds are gravitationally unstable and that the ash- and gas-rich
parts can separate vertically (Holasek et al. 1996b), with wind-shear taking ash
and gas in different directions (e.g. Schneider et al. 1999, Prata and Kerkmann
2007). In addition, inversion methods developed by Rose and co-workers (e.g.
Wen and Rose 1994, Watson et al. 2004, Prata and Kerkmann 2007) enabled the
estimation of mass loading of the ash particles smaller than about 25 mm across
(using the split window method: Wen and Rose 1994), estimates of SO2 or ice
burdens (using TOMS and GOES infrared or MODIS bands 2832: Rose et al.
1995b, 2003, Mayberry et al. 2002, Guo et al. 2004a) and of sulfate aerosols (e.g.
using the TOMS Aerosol Index: Realmuto 2000, Guo et al. 2004b). Ash, SO2,
aerosol, ice burdens and their variation in time in the first days of atmospheric
residence have now been documented and compared for several types of explosive
eruptions, for over 50 cases (e.g. Rose et al. 2003).
Despite these advances, there are limitations and uncertainties affecting retrievals
(see Prata et al. 2001). Retrievals based on the split window method assume that the
ground is flat and thermally uniform, that the volcanic cloud is parallel to the
ground surface and semi-transparent so that TIR emission from the Earth can
traverse through the volcanic layer to reach the satellite sensor (Prata 1989, Prata
and Barton 1994, Wen and Rose 1994). It is further assumed that ash particles are
spherical and that the volcanic cloud is diluted with a uniform ash distribution, so
that ash particles act as isolated Mie scatterers. It is also assumed that ash and SO2
retrievals can be made independently, that is there is no interference from SO2 for
ash or from ash for SO2 retrievals.
To a remote sensing scientist, all these assumptions are reasonable and provide a
helpful knowledge base for study. However, to a volcanologist, it is clear that none
of the assumptions are robust under scrutiny. It has been demonstrated that ash and
gas can separate, leading to multiple ash-rich and ash-poor layers stacked over each
other (Schneider et al. 1999). It is also probable that ash can interfere with SO2
measurements and vice versa (Prata and Kerkmann 2007). Fine ash particles form
loose clusters or denser aggregates (e.g. Sparks et al. 1997a) and many particles are
hidden by ice (e.g. Rose et al. 1995b, Lacasse et al. 2004). It is thus not at all clear
what proportion of the fine ash particles may be present as isolated scatterers (see
Munoz et al. 2004, for a discussion of scattering by ash). It is likely that most of
them are present as large aggregates, and particles on the outer edges of such
aggregates may be scattering IR towards the sensor. It is thus unclear what it is that
the sensors in fact see. Ash particles are also highly angular, so that a spherical
approximation is not obvious (Riley et al. 2003). For small degrees of non-
sphericities, corrections can be modelled and included in retrieval models (Krotkov
et al. 1999).
When trying to document a high-latitude eruption using a geosynchronous
satellite, retrievals may also be enhanced by distortion in the satellite view of the
volcanic cloud lateral extent because the satellite zenith angles result in a side-
looking aspect and longer path lengths through the cloud; so the cloud shape with
respect to the look-angle also influences retrievals (Gu et al. 2005). How retrievals
are affected by variations in atmospheric water content have also been documented,
with large differences between tropical versus high-latitude eruptions (e.g. Yu et al.
2002, Watson et al. 2004). Atmospheric scientists have shown that turbulence in
atmospheric clouds leads to highly non-uniform distributions of cloud particles
(Cantrell et al. 1999). In the volcanic case, the expectation is that this may lead to
sub-pixel opacity on a scale of tens to hundreds of metres, even though a 1 km pixel
may appear semi-transparent to the satellite sensors.
In summary, although the retrievals based on algorithms developed in the past 15
years have been immensely helpful in providing insights into the spatially and
temporally complex processes in volcanic clouds, the physical meaning of the
retrievals per se is ambiguous. Ultimately, this meaning can only be clarified by both
simulating and modelling the remote sensing retrievals in a laboratory context,
where in situ stratospheric ash cloud conditions can be reproduced, by sending in
situ cameras and probes into ash clouds to document processes more directly,
and by improving retrieval algorithms. Although important questions remain
unresolved, it is clear that remote sensing has not only advanced fundamental
understanding of volcanic cloud processes but also helped, through systematic and
automated detection and tracking, to substantially reduce the hazard from volcanic
clouds to international air traffic (e.g. OFCM 2004, Bonfiglio et al. 2005, Prata
2008). In this regard, the highly successful record of Alaska Volcano Observatory
scientists in volcanic cloud tracking across the extremely busy air corridor
connecting North America with Asia is exemplary.
6. Terrain analysis, hazard assessment and disaster risk reduction

Besides the use of remote sensing for eruption monitoring, moderate resolution low-
cost imagery, such as Landsat and ASTER, has also been used for geomorpho-
logical and geological mapping. The synoptic capabilities of moderate resolution
imagery enables rapid surveys of large volcanic areas to identify potentially
hazardous volcanoes (e.g. in the Andes: Francis and De Silva 1989, de Silva and
Francis 1990, Teeuw 2007), and large volcanic structures, such as calderas (e.g.
Cerro Galan caldera, Argentina: Francis et al. 1978). Remote sensing has been used
in combination with field and numerical assessments of volcanic hazards to prepare
hazard maps for active volcanoes (Sabancaya, Peru: Thouret et al. 1995) and
potentially active but poorly known volcanoes (e.g. Montserrat before the 1995
eruption: Wadge and Isaacs 1988). Satellite images and DEMs have also been used
to constrain risk models for pyroclastic flows (Merapi, Indonesia: Thouret et al.
2000), lahars (Ruapehu, NZ: Stevens et al. 2002) or lava flows (FLOWGO at
Mauna Loa: Rowland et al. 2005). The results of these models, processed along with
other topographic datasets by Geographical Information Systems, have allowed the
production of detailed hazard zonation maps.
Remote sensing data are an essential source of information for volcano-tectonic
studies, enabling the mapping of large-scale structural features (e.g. Lagmay and
Valdivia 2006) and the evaluation of volcano instability models, such as sector
collapse and gravitational spreading (e.g. Merle and Borgia 1996, van Wyk de Vries
and Francis 1997). Landsat imagery has enabled the identification and character-
ization of sector collapses and associated debris avalanche deposits in the Andes
(Francis and Wells 1988) and in Tanzania (Kervyn et al. 2008b). The mapped
features of the sector collapse and debris avalanche deposits at Socompa (Wadge
et al. 1995) provided key constraints for numerical models of debris avalanches
(Kelfoun and Druitt 2005). Remote sensing has been used for mapping the
distribution of eruption products (Patrick et al. 2003); the evolution of lahar risk in
the 10 years after the 1991 Pinatubo eruption (Torres et al. 2004); lava flow facies
(Galapagos: Rowland 1996; Kilauea, Hawaii: Byrnes et al. 2004); and lava flow
features linked to key eruption parameters (SiO2 content, viscosity, yield strength:
Ramsey and Fink 1999, Bastero and Lagmay 2006). Multispectral capabilities of
Landsat data have also been used to identify weathered and mechanically weakened
volcano flanks (Crowley and Zimbelman 1997) and to date lava flows (Kahle et al.
1988).
Volcanic remote sensing would benefit from using the field-based physical
volcanology approach pioneered by George Walker that involves systematic
measurements of features to provide data to evaluate theoretical models. For
example, the shape, size and spatial distribution of volcanoes has not been
quantified on a global basis and the analyses of such datasets would enhance our
understanding of volcanoes, particularly processes controlling their evolution and
stability. Even simple analyses of SRTM DEM topography of volcanoes and
comparisons between their morphometry can advance our knowledge of little-

studied volcanoes, such as Mount Cameroon and the Bioko Island volcanoes
(Nkono et al. 2008).
The value of combining field studies, remote sensing and analogue modelling
was illustrated by the 1998 flank collapse at La Casita Volcano, Nicaragua, which
resulted in a rockslide that transformed into a lahar, killing more than 2500
people (Lagmay et al. 2000, van Wyk de Vries et al. 2000, Kerle and van Wyk de
Vries 2001, Kerle et al. 2003). The event occurred just after the passage of
Hurricane Mitch over Central America. It initially appeared as if high rainfall
alone triggered the event; however, previous occurrences of extreme rainfall had
not led to flank collapse at Casita (Kerle et al. 2003). This led to a review of
factors thought to have played a key role in the disaster, notably previous
structural edifice weakening and antecedent rainfall. A SPOT image enabled
detailed mapping of the rockslide and lahar; structural analysis based on aerial
photography, a high-resolution DEM, ERS-1 SAR and SPOT images showed that
the slide sourcing the lahar was caused by edifice deformation and by
gravitational spreading, facilitated by long-term hydrothermal weakening (Kerle
and van Wyk de Vries 2001). In combination with minimal field reconnaissance
work, image interpretation showed that the gravity slide was still deforming and
could produce small but highly damaging landslides in future. Analogue
modelling of Casita also provided powerful visualization of key processes,
providing insights facilitating interpretations of the remote sensing and field data.
In turn, Earth observations at Casita and at other unstable volcanoes served to
document the actual occurrences of different outcomes expected from analogue
modelling (e.g. Lagmay et al. 2000).
Mapping of the distribution of volcano slopes provides insights into volcano
architecture (Rowland and Garbeil 2000) and evolution. Volcano morphometric
studies, based on airphotos and topographic maps in the past, can now be
conducted with satellite imagery and InSAR-derived DEMs. For example, much
can be learned about processes governing volcanic cone growth by combining
systematic geomorphological data collection on remotely sensed imagery (e.g.
Kervyn et al. 2007), with laboratory and numerical models (Riedel et al. 2003).
Laser altimetry (or Light Detection And Detection: LiDAR) enables derivation of
0.51 m DEMs; LiDAR intensity also has potential for lava flow mapping and
relative dating (e.g. Mazzarini et al. 2007). Collection of LiDAR morphological data
for lava shields, domes or flows, stratovolcanoes, or for accurately delineating the
drainage network will provide novel mapping or dating constraints, as well as
insights into lava flow or gravity flow rheology, growth of volcanic constructs, and
potential eruption or slope instability hazards (e.g. Garvin 1996, Haneberg et al.
2005, Cashman et al. 2006, Hofton et al. 2006, Pyle and Eliott 2006, Danil et al.
2007, Harris et al. 2007, Mazzarini et al. 2007, Ventura and Vilardo 2008).
Integration of Earth observation data with analogue or numerical modelling
approaches will contribute to the understanding of factors controlling volcano
spacing or the spatial distribution of vents (Bonne et al. 2008, Kervyn et al. 2008c).
There are also opportunities to access high spatial resolution declassified satellite
imagery, such as CORONA (Kervyn et al. 2007), and high-altitude defence aircraft
imagery, such as HAAS (see www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-
046-DFRC.html). Finally, SAR data have been used to discriminate between
different flow facies (Gaddis 1992, Byrnes et al. 2004, Weissel et al. 2004); when
combined with field data, these can provide insights into lava flow emplacement and
data for lava flow modelling.
6.1 Volcano mapping in humid tropical regions

Mapping volcanic terrains in the humid tropics is particularly problematic (Carn
1999). Volcano summits are often shrouded in clouds, limiting the visualization of
large-scale structures from the ground, as well as use of optical remote sensing.
Radar has been used on remote volcanoes to map new lava, debris or pyroclastic
flows, providing essential information on the activity of poorly known volcanoes
(e.g. Rowland et al. 1994). Polarimetric L-band and P-band SAR data from the 1996
AIRSAR airborne mission have been used to map volcanic flows from Manam
volcano, Papua New Guinea (Weissel et al. 2004). L-band satellite SAR imagery has
been particularly effective at distinguishing lava from vegetation and vents of about
100 m width, for instance at Nyiragongo volcano (McKay and Mouginis-Mark
1997). Carn (1999) also used L-band satellite SAR data to map and determine
volcanic structures, volcanological history and hazards, for poorly known volcanic
complexes in East Java.
6.2 Volcanic remote sensing and developing countries

Volcanic hazards directly concern about 6% of the worlds population. They can
also indirectly affect a larger proportion of the worlds population through
atmosphere-climate or socioeconomic effects, such as those that follow cataclysmic
eruptions (e.g. Tambora in 1815 and the ensuing year without a summer in 1816;
the 1883 Krakatoa or 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruptions: e.g. Pisek and Brazdil 2006), or
large eruptions for which we have no written records but which affected past
civilizations (e.g. Mart and Ernst 2005). Developing countries are on average 20
times more vulnerable to natural disasters than richer countries (measured as impact
on GDP per head; see the World Bank website at: www.worldbank.org). It is in this
context that remote sensing can make a major contribution to volcanic hazard
assessment, disaster preparedness and risk mitigation.
Substantial advances in mapping and monitoring of volcanoes have taken place in
developing countries, such as the Chilean Andes (Francis and De Silva 1989), the
North Pacific (Dehn et al. 2000) and Central America (e.g. Webley et al. 2008), using
local AVHRR data reception jointly with GOES and MODIS imagery. The
majority of advances have, however, involved research laboratories and national
agencies (e.g. NOAA, NASA, ESA, CNES) located in the richer industrialized
countries, with research focused dominantly on richer country volcanoes. It is
mostly richer country volcanoes that have been mapped for topography, geology,
volcanic hazards and risks, and that are continuously monitored with state-of-the-
art integrated techniques. However, over two-thirds of the ,1560 potentially active
volcanoes (Simkin and Siebert 1994) have not been studied systematically and are
not monitored with integrated modern methods.
A critical barrier to the use of volcano remote sensing in developing countries is
the lack of freely available computer resources or of trained personnel (Coppock
1995). A recent initiative, the United Nations International Charter on Space and
Major Disasters, which commenced in October 2000, provides a system of space
data acquisition and delivery to provide those managing disaster-hit areas.
Numerous spaceborne sensors are included in the Charter, notably those of
RADARSAT, ERS, ENVISAT, SPOT, LANDSAT, Ikonos, Quickbird, the Indian

Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites and the Disaster Monitoring Constellation (DMC).
Recent Charter activations for volcanic hazards include Nyiragongo (January 2002),
Montserrat (July 2003), Karthala, Comoros Islands (December 2005), Galeras,
Colombia (August 2004) and Nevado de Huila, Colombia (February and April
2007). Through the Charter, maps (but not, however, raw data or imagery that
researchers or disaster-response personnel also need) can be delivered within 2 days
of a disaster, showing the regions affected, centres of population and transport links;
such maps greatly assist disaster response efforts.
There is also a need for proactive, rather than reactive, mapping: along with
disaster response mapping, there is a need for disaster preparedness mapping.
Regional-scale disaster preparedness maps can greatly reduce the severity of a
disaster. At its simplest level: Disaster risk5Hazard severity6Vulnerability of the
affected population.
The definitions of hazard and vulnerability are many and varied (for a detailed
review, with regard to volcanic hazards, see Barclay et al., in press). The impact of a
disaster can be reduced if (i) high-risk areas can be targeted for remedial actions by
regional planners and emergency services in advance of a disaster event and (ii) local
communities are educated about the risks that they face and the actions that they
can take to reduce their vulnerability. Fortunately, free space imagery from archives
such as the Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF, http://glcfapp.umiacs.umd.
edu:8080/esdi/index.jsp) can be processed to produce regional (1 : 50 000 to
1 : 250 000 scale) maps of population distribution, land cover, terrain and regolith
key information for disaster risk reduction in remote, poorly mapped areas
(Kervyn et al. 2007, Bonne et al. 2008, Teeuw et al. 2008). Such images are often
Figure 4. Google Earth 3D view of landslides on the flank of Morne-aux-Diables volcano,

Dominica (Lesser Antilles). Failure of the larger landslide blocks in this scene could produce
tsunami waves up to 4 m high locally. Google Earth allows virtual fly overs, providing 3D
views from different perspectives and aiding hazard identification. As Google Earth access is
free and its Earth observation data coverage is global (at least with Landsat imagery), it is
particularly useful for rapid hazard assessments of volcanoes in developing countries.
more easily understood than conventional topographic maps. Andrews Deller

(2007) produced 3D views of volcanic terrain in Ethiopia, using SRTM DEM data
overlain by ASTER imagery: the birds eye views were readily understood by local
people.
Disaster response has also been assisted by virtual globes, such as Google Earth
and Microsoft Virtual Earth, which allow user-community information, such as
photographs, GPS location coordinates and reports of road closures, to be viewed
over its image layers. This geo-wiki approach, where information about aspects of
a hazard or disaster can be viewed by the public via GoogleEarth, has great
potential for volcanic disaster risk reduction, as illustrated in figure 4. Internet-
deliverable tutorials (e.g. on how to download free image processing and
Geographic Information System (GIS) software, process GLCF imagery and create
regional maps of volcanic risk) provide a means of increasing the number of trained
personnel in developing countries. Unfortunately, a lack of networked computers,
plus slow baud rates or expensive connections, severely limits access to the Internet
in many developing countries; removing this bottleneck would be a huge boost to
capacity-building initiatives.
7. Conclusion
The applications and prospects of remote sensing to volcanology are numerous. We
can expect continued development of increasingly integrated studies, using a diverse
range of ground-based, airborne and spaceborne sensors. Promising techniques to
constrain the physics of source conditions during explosive eruptions, such as
acoustic and Doppler radar sensing, will be further explored. L-band radar data,
such as the Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS, launched 2006), will be
assessed to map volcanoes and study ground deformation in densely vegetated
terrain. Meteosat Second Generation (MSG), MODIS, AIRS, OMI and GOME
data will continue to provide invaluable datasets to track and study hazardous
volcanic clouds. Here the lack of in situ observations and measurements is a hurdle
to deepening of our understanding of volcanic cloud processes. Modelling of diverse
volcanic hazards also requires accurate DEMs. A clear trend in the past few years,
likely to continue, is the rapid increase in volcanic applications of LiDAR
measurements, where the 1 m spatial resolution as well as LiDAR intensity can be
exploited. A remaining problem, especially for applications at developing country
volcanoes, is the non-release of SRTM 30 m resolution data by the USA Defense
Mapping Agency. The greatest need of all, in our view, remains to explore how
advances in remote sensing can be shared with scientists in developing countries.
There is a need to develop strategies enabling remote sensing expertise, software,
hardware, and monitoring to be made available to the scientists and people living
near the .1000 volcanoes that have yet to be accurately mapped or hazard-assessed.
Acknowledgements
This work is dedicated to George Walker, Steve Sparks and followers who inspired
advances in modern volcanology; and to Peter Francis and Bill Rose, two great
pioneers of volcanic remote sensing. G.G.J.E. and M.K. thank the Fondation belge
de la Vocation and the Belgian NSF (FWO-Vlaanderen). Special thanks to Nicolas
dOreye, Francois Kervyn and Simon Carn for generously sharing illustrations from
their work. We also thank Geoff Wadge and Rob Wright for their helpful comments
on an earlier draft of this paper.
References
AIUPPA, A., FEDERICO, C., FRANCO, A., GIUDICE, G., GURRIERI, S., INGUGGIATO, S.,
LIUZZO, M., MCGONIGLE, A.J.S. and VALENZA, M., 2005, Emission of bromine and
iodine from Mount Etna volcano. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 6, Q08008,
doi:10.1029/2005GC000965.
ALLEN, A.G., MATHER, T.A., MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., AIUPPA, A., DELMELLE, P., DAVISON, B.,
BOBROWSKI, N., OPPENHEIMER, C., PYLE, D.M. and INGUAGGIATO, S., 2006, Sources,
size distribution, and downwind grounding of aerosols from Mount Etna. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 111, D10302, doi:10.1029/2005JD006015.
ALLEN, A.G., OPPENHEIMER, C., FERM, M., BAXTER, P.J., HORROCKS, L.A., GALLE, B.,
MCGONIGLE, A.J.S. and DUFFELL, H.J., 2002, Primary sulfate aerosol and associated
emissions from Masaya volcano, Nicaragua. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107,
4682, doi:10.1029/2002JD002120.
ANDERSON, R., BJORNSSON, S., BLANCHARD, D.C., GATHMAN, S., HUGHES, J., JONASSON, S.,
MOORE, C.B., SURVILAS, H.J. and VONNEGUT, B., 1965, Electricity in volcanic clouds.
Science, 148, pp. 11791189.
ANDREWS DELLER, M.E., 2007, Space technology for disaster management: data access and
its place in the community. In Mapping Hazardous Terrain using Remote
Sensing, R.M. Teeuw (Ed.), Geological Society Special Publication 283, pp.
149164 (London: The Geological Society).
BARCLAY, J., HAYNES, K., MITCHELL, T., SOLANA, C., TEEUW, R.M., DARNELL, A.,
CROSSWELLER, S., COLE, P., PYLE, D., LOWE, C., FEARNLEY, C. and KELMAN, I., in
press, Framing volcanic risk communication within disaster risk reduction: finding
ways for the social and physical sciences to work together. Geological Society Special
Publication (London: The Geological Society).
BARRANCOS, J., ROSELLO, J.I., CALVO, D., PADRON, E., MELIAN, G., HERNANDEZ, P.A.,
PEREZ, N.M., MILLAN, M.M. and GALLE, B., 2008, SO2 emission from active
volcanoes measured simultaneously by COSPEC and mini-DOAS. Pure and Applied
Geophysics, 165, pp. 115133.
BASTERO, C.F. and LAGMAY, A., 2006, Estimating SiO2 content of lava deposits in the humid
tropics using remotely sensed imagery. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research, 151, pp. 357364.
BERTRAND, C., CLERBAUX, N., IPE, A. and GONZALEZ, L., 2003, Estimation of the 2002
Mount Etna eruption cloud radiative forcing from Meteosat-7 data. Remote Sensing
of Environment, 87, pp. 257272.
BLUTH, G.J.S., ROSE, W.I., SPROD, I.E. and KRUEGER, A.J., 1997, Stratospheric loading of
sulfur from explosive volcanic eruptions. Journal of Geology, 105, pp. 671683.
BLUTH, G.J.S., SCHNETZLER, C.C., KRUEGER, A.J. and WALTER, L.S., 1993, The contribution
of explosive volcanism to global atmospheric sulfur-dioxide concentrations. Nature,
366, pp. 327329.
BLUTH, G.J.S., SCOTT, C.J., SPROD, I.E., SCHNETZLER, C.C., KRUEGER, A.J. and
WALTER, L.S., 1995, Explosive SO2 emissions from the 1992 eruptions of Mount
Spurr, Alaska. USGS Bulletin, 2139, pp. 3745.
BLUTH, G.J.S., SHANNON, J.M., WATSON, I.M., PRATA, A.J. and REALMUTO, V.J., 2007,
Development of an ultra-violet digital camera for volcanic SO2 imaging. Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 161, pp. 4756.
BONACCORSO, A., BONFORTE, A., GUGLIELMINO, F., PALANO, M. and PUGLISI, G., 2006,
Composite ground deformation pattern forerunning the 20042005 Mount Etna
eruption. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, B12207, doi:10.1029/2005JB004206.
BONACCORSO, A., SANSOSTI, E. and BERARDINO, P., 2004, Comparison of integrated geodetic
data models and satellite radar interferograms to infer magma storage during the
19911993 Mt. Etna eruption. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 161, pp. 13451357.
BONADONNA, C. and PHILLIPS, J.C., 2003, Sedimentation from strong volcanic plumes.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, doi:10.1029/2002JB002034.
BONFIGLIO, A., MACcHIATO, M., PERGOLA, N., PIETRAPERTOSA, C. and TRAMUTOLI, V., 2005,
AVHRR automated detection of volcanic clouds. International Journal of Remote
Sensing, 26, pp. 927.
BONNE, K., KERVYN, M., CASCONE, L., NJOME, S., VAN RANST, E., SUH, E., AYONGHE, S.,
JACOBS, P. and ERNST, G.G.J., 2008, A new approach to assess long-term lava flow
hazard and risk using GIS and low cost remote sensing: the case of Mount Cameroon,
West Africa. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 29, pp. 65396564.
BRANAN, Y., HARRIS, A., WATSON, I.M., PHILLIPS, J.C., HORTON, K., WILLIAMS-JONES, G.
and GARBEIL, H., 2008, Investigation of at-vent dynamics and dilution using thermal
infrared radiometers at Masaya volcano, Nicaragua. Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research, 169, pp. 3447.
BURSIK, M.I., 1998, Tephra dispersal. In The Physics of Explosive Volcanic Eruptions, J.S.
Gilbert and R.S.J. Sparks (Eds). Geological Society Special Publication 145, pp.
115144 (London: The Geological Society).
BURSIK, M.I., CAREY, S.N. and SPARKS, R.S.J., 1992, A gravity current model for the May
18, 1980 Mount-St-Helens plume. Geophysical Research Letters, 19, pp. 16631666.
BURTON, M., ALLARD, P. and MURE, F., 2004, FTIR measurements of magmatic degassing at
Mt. Etna: 20002004. Geophysical Research Abstracts, 6, 03802.
BYRNES, J.M., RAMSEY, M.S. and CROWN, D.A., 2004, Surface unit characterization of the
Mauna Ulu flow field, Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, using integrated field and remote
sensing analyses. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 135, pp. 169193.
CANTRELL, W., SHAW, G. and BENNER, R., 1999, Cloud properties inferred from bimodal
aerosol number distributions. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, pp. 2761527624.
CARN, S.A., 1999, Application of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery to volcano
mapping in the humid tropics: a case study in East Java, Indonesia. Bulletin of
Volcanology, 61, pp. 92105.
CARN, S.A. and BLUTH, G.J.S., 2003, Prodigious sulfur dioxide emissions from Nyamuragira
volcano, DR Congo. Geophysical Research Letters, 30, pp. SDE5.1SDE5.5.
CARN, S.A. and OPPENHEIMER, C., 2000, Remote monitoring of Indonesian volcanoes using
satellite data from the Internet. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21, pp.
873910.
CASADEVALL, T.J. (Eds), 1994, Volcanic ash and aviation safety: Proceedings of the First
International Symposium on Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety. USGS Bulletin, 2047,
pp. 1450.
CASHMAN, K.V., KERR, R.C. and GRIFFITHS, R.W., 2006, A laboratory model of surface
crust formation and disruption on lava flows through non-uniform channels. Bulletin
of Volcanology, 68, pp. 753770.
COPPOCK, J.T., 1995, GIS and natural hazards: an overview from a GIS perspective. In
Geographical Information Systems in Assessing Natural Hazards, A. Carrara and F.
Guzzetti (Eds), pp. 2134 (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic).
CROWLEY, J. and ZIMBELMAN, D., 1997, Mapping hydrothermally altered rocks on Mount
Rainier, Washington, with Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)
data. Geology, 25, pp. 559569.
DAVIL, N., CAPRA, L., GAVILANES-RUIZ, J.C., VARLEY, N., NORINI, G. and VAZQUEZ, A.G.,
2007, Recent lahars at Volcan de Colima (Mexico): drainage variation and spectral
classification. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 165, pp. 127141.
DE SILVA, S.L. and FRANCIS, P.W., 1990, Potentially active volcanoes of Peru: observations
using Landsat Thematic Mapper and Space Shuttle imagery. Bulletin of Volcanology,
52, pp. 286301.
DEAN, K.G., DEHN, J., PAPP, K.R., SMITH, S., IZBEKOV, P., PETERSON, R., KEARNEY, C. and
STEFFKE, A., 2004, Integrated satellite observations of the 2001 eruption of Mt.
Cleveland, Alaska. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 135, pp. 5173.
DEHN, J., DEAN, K. and ENGLE, K., 2000, Thermal monitoring of North Pacific volcanoes
from space. Geology, 28, pp. 755758.
DE MICHELE, M. and BRIOLE, P., 2007, Deformation between 1989 and 1997 at Piton de la
Fournaise volcano retrieved from correlation of panchromatic airborne images.
Geophysical Journal International, 169, pp. 357364.
DOREYE, N., KERVYN, F., CAYOL, V. and WAUTHIER, C., 2007, InSAR monitoring of the
NyiragongoNyamuragira volcanoes (DRC Congo). Study of the Nyiragongo
January 2002 and Nyamulagira November 2006 eruptions. In Proceedings of
Envisat Symposium 2007, Montreux, Switzerland, 2627 April 2007 (ESA SP-636,
July 2007), CD2, Session 4B4, abstr. 462685do, pp. 16.
DUBOSCLARD, G., DONNADIEU, F., ALLARD, P., CORDESSES, R., HERVIER, C., COLTELLI, M.,
PRIVITERA, E. and KORNPROBST, J., 2004, Doppler radar sounding of volcanic
eruption dynamics at Mount Etna. Bulletin of Volcanology, 66, pp. 443456.
DUFFELL, H.J., OPPENHEIMER, C., PYLE, D.M., GALLE, B., MCGONIGLE, A.J.S. and
BURTON, M.R., 2003, Changes in gas composition prior to a minor explosive eruption
at Masaya volcano, Nicaragua. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 126,
pp. 327339.
DURANT, A.J., SHAW, R.A., ROSE, W.I., MI, Y. and ERNST, G.G.J., 2008, Ice nucleation and
overseeding of ice in volcanic clouds. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113, D09206,
doi:10.1029/2007JD009064.
DZURISIN, D., LISOWSKI, M., WICKS, C.W., POLAND, M.P. and ENDO, E.T., 2006, Geodetic
observations and modelling of magmatic inflation at the Three Sisters volcanic center,
central Oregon, Cascade Range, USA. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research, 150, pp. 3554.
EDMONDS, M., HERD, R.A., GALLE, B. and OPPENHEIMER, C.M., 2003a, Automated, high
time-resolution measurements of SO2 flux at Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.
Bulletin of Volcanology, 65, pp. 578586.
EDMONDS, M., OPPENHEIMER, C., PYLE, D.M., HERD, R.A. and THOMPSON, G., 2003b, SO2
emissions from Soufriere Hills volcano and their relationship to conduit permeability,
hydrothermal interaction and degassing regime. Journal of Volcanology and
ELIAS, T., SUTTON, A.J., OPPENHEIMER, C., HORTON, K.A., GARBEIL, H., TSANEV, V.,
MCGONIGLE, A.J.S. and WILLIAMS-JONES, G., 2006, Comparison of COSPEC and
two miniature ultraviolet spectrometer systems for SO2 measurements using scattered
sunlight. Bulletin of Volcanology, 68, pp. 313322.
ERNST, G.G.J., DAVIS, J.P. and SPARKS, R.S.J., 1994, Bifurcation of volcanic plumes in a
crosswind. Bulletin of Volcanology, 56, pp. 159169.
FERRETTI, A., PRATI, C. and ROCCA, F., 2001, Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry.
IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 39, pp. 820.
FLYNN, L.P., HARRIS, A.J.L. and WRIGHT, R., 2001, Improved identification of
volcanic features using Landsat 7 ETM + . Remote Sensing of Environment, 78, pp.
180193.
FLYNN, L.P., WRIGHT, R., GARBEIL, H., HARRIS, A.J.L. and PILGER, E., 2002, A global
thermal alert system using MODIS: initial results from 20002001. Advances in
Environmental Monitoring and Modelling, 1, pp. 3769.
FRANCIS, P.W. and DE SILVA S.L., 1989, Application of the Landsat Thematic Mapper to the
identification of potentially active volcanoes in the Central Andes. Remote Sensing of
Environment, 28, pp. 245255.
FRANCIS, P.W., HAMMILL, M., KRETZSCHMAR, G.A. and THORPE, R.S., 1978, The Cerro
Galan caldera, Northwest Argentina. Nature, 274, pp. 749751.
FRANCIS, P.W. and MCaLLISTER, R., 1986, Volcanology from space, using Landsat Thematic
Mapper data in the Central Andes. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union,
67, pp. 170171.
FRANCIS, P.W. and ROTHERY, D., 2000, Remote sensing of active volcanoes. Annual Review
of Earth and Planetary Science, 28, pp. 81106.
FRANCIS, P.W., WADGE, G. and MOUGINIS-MARK,, 1996, Satellite monitoring of volcanoes.

In Monitoring and Mitigation of Volcanic Hazards, R. Scarpa and R.I. Tilling (Eds),
pp. 257298 (New York: Springer Verlag).
FRANCIS, P.W. and WELLS, G.L., 1988, Landsat Thematic Mapper observations of debris
avalanche deposits in the central Andes. Bulletin of Volcanology, 50, pp. 258278.
FREETH, S.J. and KAY, R.L.F., 1987, The lake Nyos gas disaster. Nature, 325, pp. 104105.
FROGER, J.L., FUKUSHIMA, Y., BRIOLE, P., STAUDACHER, T., SOURIOT, T. and
VILLENEUVE, N., 2004, The deformation field of the August 2003 eruption at Piton
de la Fournaise, Reunion Island, mapped by ASAR interferometry. Geophysical
Research Letters, 31, L14601, doi:10.1029/2004GL020479.
FROGER, J.L., REMY, D., BONVALOT, S. and LEGRAND, D., 2007, Two scales of inflation at
Lastarria-Cordon del Azufre volcanic complex, central Andes, revealed from ASAR-
ENVISAT interferometric data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 255, pp.
148163.
FUKUSHIMA, Y., CAYOL, V. and DURAND, P., 2005, Finding realistic dike models from
interferometric synthetic aperture radar data: the February 2000 eruption at Piton de
la Fournaise. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, B03206, doi:10.1029/
2004JB003268.
GADDIS, L.R., 1992, Lava-flows characterization at Pisgah volcanic field, California, with
multiparameter imaging radar. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 104, pp.
695703.
GALLE, B., OPPENHEIMER, C., GEYER, A., MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., EDMONDS, M. and
HORROCKS, L., 2003, A miniaturised ultraviolet spectrometer for remote sensing of
SO2 fluxes: a new tool for volcano surveillance. Journal of Volcanology and
GARVIN, J.B., 1996, Topographic characterization and monitoring of volcanoes via airborne
laser altimetry. In Volcano Instability on the Earth and Other Planets, W.J.
McGuire, A.P. Jones and J. Neuberg (Eds). Geological Society Special Publication
110, pp. 137152 (London: The Geological Society).
GILBERT, J.S. and LANE, S.J., 1994, Electric phenomena in volcanic plumes. USGS Bulletin,
2047, pp. 3138.
GILBERT, J.S., LANE, S.J., SPARKS, R.S.J. and KOYAGUCHI, T., 1991, Charge measurements
on particle fallout from a volcanic plume. Nature, 349, pp. 598600.
GLAZE, L.S., FRANCIS, P.W., SELF, S. and ROTHERY, D.A., 1989, The 16 September 1986
eruption of Lascar volcano, north Chile: satellite investigations. Bulletin of
GLAZE, L.S., WILSON, L. and MOUGINIS-MARK, P.J., 1999, Volcanic eruption plume top
topography and heights as determined from photoclinometric analysis of satellite
data. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, pp. 29893001.
GRAF, H.F., FEICHTER, J. and LANGMANN, B., 1997, Volcanic sulfur emissions: estimates of
source strength and its contribution to the global sulfate distribution. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 102, pp. 1072710738.
GU, Y.X., ROSE, W.I., SCHNEIDER, D.J., BLUTH, G.J.S. and WATSON, I.M., 2005,
Advantageous GOES IR results for ash mapping at high latitudes: Cleveland
eruptions 2001. Geophysical Research Letters, 32, pp. L02305.1L02305.5.
GUDMUNDSSON, S., GUDMUNDSSON, H., BJORNSSON, H., SIGMUNDSSON, F., ROTT, H. and
CARTENSEN, J.M., 2002, Three-dimensional glacier surface motion maps at the Gjalp
eruption site, Iceland, inferred from combining InSAR and other ice displacement
data. Annals of Glaciology, 34, pp. 315322.
GUO, S., BLUTH, G.J.S., ROSE, W.I., WATSON, I.M. and PRATA, A.J., 2004b, Re-evaluation of
SO2 release of the 15 June 1991 Pinatubo eruption using ultraviolet and infrared
satellite sensors. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 5, Q04001, doi:10.1029/
2003GC000654.
GUO, S., ROSE, W.I., BLUTH, G.J.S. and WATSON, I.M., 2004a, Particles in the great Pinatubo
volcanic cloud of June 1991: the role of ice. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 5,
Q05003, doi:10.1029/2003GC000655.
HANEBERG, W.C., CREIGHTON, A.L., MEDLEY, E.W. and JONAS, D.A., 2005, Use of LiDAR
to assess slope hazards at Lihir gold mine, Papua New Guinea. In Landslide Risk
Management:, Proceedings of the International Conference on Landslide Risk
Assessment, Vancouver, Canada, 31 May3 June 2005 O. Hungre, R. Fell, R.
Couture, and E. Eberhardt (Eds). Available online at: http://www.aamhatch.com/au/
resources/pdf/publications/technical_papers/lihir_slope_hazards.pdf (accessed 8 July
2008).
HARRIS, A., FAVALLI, M., MAZZARINI, F. and PARESCHI, M.T., 2007, Best-fit results from
application of a thermo-rheological model for channelized lava flow to high spatial
resolution morphological data. Geophysical Research Letters, 34, L01301,
doi:10.1029/2006GL028126.
HARRIS, A., PIRIE, D., HORTON, K., GARBEIL, H., PILGER, E., RAMM, H., HOBLITT, R.,
THORNBER, C., RIPEPE, M., MARCHETTI, E. and POGGI, P., 2005, DUCKS: low cost
thermal monitoring units for near-vent deployment. Journal of Volcanology and
HARRIS, A. and RIPEPE, M., 2007, Temperature and dynamics of degassing at Stromboli.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, B03205, doi:10.1029/2006JB004393.
HARRIS, A.J.L., BUTTERWORTH, A.L., CARLTON, R.W., DOWNEY, I., MILLER, P.,
NAVARRO, P. and ROTHERY, D.A., 1997a, Low-cost volcano surveillance from space:
case studies from Etna, Krafla, Cerro Negro, Fogo, Lascar and Erebus. Bulletin of
HARRIS, A.J.L., DEHN, J., JAMES, M.R., HAMILTON, C., HERD, R., LODATO, L. and
STEFFKE, A., 2007, Pahoehoe flow cooling, discharge, and coverage rates from
thermal image chronometry. Geophysical Research Letters, 34, L19303, doi:10.1029/
2007GL030791.
HARRIS, A.J.L., FLYNN, L.P., DEAN, K., PILGER, E., WOOSTER, M.J., OKUBO, C., MOUGINIS-
MARK, P.J., GARBEIL, H., THORNBER, C., dE LA CRUZ-RENYA, S., ROTHERY, D.A. and
WRIGHT, R., 2000, Real-time satellite monitoring of volcanic hot spots. In Remote
Sensing of Active Volcanism, P.J. Mouginis-Mark, J. Crisp and J.F. Fink (Eds). AGU
Geophysical Monograph 116, pp. 139159.
HARRIS, A.J.L., FLYNN, L.P., ROTHERY, D.A., OPPENHEIMER, C. and SHERMAN, S.B., 1999,
Mass flux measurements at active lava lakes: implications for magma recycling.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, pp. 71177136.
HARRIS, A.J.L., KESZTHELYI, L., FLYNN, L.P., MOUGINIS-MARK, P.J., THORNBER, C.,
KAUAHIKAUA, J., SHERROD, D., TRUSDELL, F., SAWYER, M.W. and FLAMENT, P.,
1997b, Chronology of the episode 54 eruption of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, from
GOES-9 satellite data. Geophysical Research Letters, 24, pp. 32813284.
HARRIS, A.J.L. and NERI, M., 2002, Volumetric observations during paroxysmal eruptions at
Mount Etna: pressurized drainage of a shallow chamber or pulsed supply? Journal of
HARRIS, A.J.L., PILGER, E. and FLYNN, L.P., 2002, Web-based hot spot monitoring using
GOES: what it is and how it works. Advances in Environmental Monitoring and
Modeling, 1, pp. 536.
HARRIS, A.J.L., PILGER, E., FLYNN, L.P., GARBEIL, H., MOUGINIS-MARK, P.J.,
KAUAHIKAUA, J. and THORNBER, C., 2001, Automated, high temporal resolution,
thermal analysis of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, using GOES satellite data. International
Journal of Remote Sensing, 22, pp. 945967.
HARRIS, A.J.L. and STEVENSON, D.A., 1997, Thermal observations of degassing open
conduits and fumaroles at Stromboli and Vulcano using remotely sensed data. Journal
of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 76, pp. 175198.
HARRIS, A.J.L. and THORNBER, C., 1999, Complex effusive events at Kilauea as documented
by the GOES satellite and remote video cameras. Bulletin of Volcanology, 61, pp.
382395.
HARRIS, D.M. and ROSE, W.I., 1983, Estimating particle sizes, concentrations, and total mass
of ash in volcanic clouds using weather radar. Journal of Geophysical Research. C,
Oceans and Atmospheres, 88, pp. 969983.
HARRIS, D.M., ROSE, W.I., ROE, R. and THOMPSON, M.R., 1981, Radar observations of ash
eruptions. In The 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens, Washington, P.W. Lipman
and D.R. Mullineaux (Eds). U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1250, pp.
323333.
HENRIOT, O. and VILLEMIN, T., 2005, Deformation at the northern end of the Icelandic rift
mapped by InSAR (19922000), a decade after the Krafla rifting episode.
Geodinamica Acta, 18, pp. 4358.
HOBLITT, R.P., 1994, An experiment to detect and locate lightning associated with eruptions
of Redoubt volcano. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 62, pp.
499517.
HOFTON, M.A., MALAVASSI, E. and BLAIR, J.B., 2006, Quantifying recent pyroclastic and lava
flows at Arenal volcano, Costa Rica, using medium-footprint lidar. Geophysical
Research Letters, 33, L21306, doi:10.1029/2006GL027822.
HOLASEK, R.E. and ROSE, W.I., 1991, Anatomy of 1986 Augustine volcano eruptions as
recorded by multispectral image-processing of digital AVHRR weather-satellite data.
HOLASEK, R.E. and SELF, S., 1995, GOES weather-satellite observations and measurements
of the May 18, 1980, Mount-St-Helens eruption. Journal of Geophysical Research,
100, pp. 84698487.
HOLASEK, R.E., SELF, S. and WOODS, A.W., 1996a, Satellite observations and interpretation
of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption plumes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 101,
pp. 2763527656.
HOLASEK, R.E., WOODS, A.W. and SELF, S., 1996b, Experiments on gas-ash separation
processes in volcanic umbrella plumes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
HOOPER, A., ZEBKER, H., SEGALL, P. and KAMPES, B., 2004, A new method for measuring
deformation on volcanoes and other natural terrains using InSAR persistent
scatterers. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L23611, doi:10.1029/2004GL021737.
HORT, M., SEYFRIED, R. and VOGE, M., 2003, Radar Doppler velocimetry of volcanic
eruptions: theoretical considerations and quantitative documentation of changes in
eruptive behaviour at Stromboli volcano, Italy. Geophysical Journal International,
154, pp. 515532.
HORT, M., VOGE, M., SEYFRIED, R. and RATDOMOPURBO, A., 2006, In situ observation of
dome instabilities at Merapi volcano, Indonesia: a new tool for volcanic hazard
mitigation. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 153, pp. 301312.
JAMES, M.R., ROBSON, S., PINKERTON, H. and BALL, M., 2006, Oblique photogrammetry
with visible and thermal images of active lava flows. Bulletin of Volcanology, 69, pp.
105108.
KAHLE, A.B., GILLEPSIE, A.R., ABBOTT, E.A., ABRAMS, M.J., WALKER, R.E., HOOVER, G.
and LOCKWOOD, J.P., 1988, Relative dating of Hawaiian lava flows using
multispectral thermal infrared images: a new tool for geologic mapping of young
volcanic terranes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 93, pp. 1523915251.
KELFOUN, K. and DRUITT, T.H., 2005, Numerical modeling of the emplacement of Socompa
rock avalanche, Chile. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, B12202, doi:10.1029/
2005JB003758.
KERLE, N. and VAN WYK DE VRIES, B., 2001, The 1998 debris avalanche at Casita volcano,
Nicaragua: investigation of structural deformation as the cause of slope instability using
remote sensing. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 105, pp. 4963.
KERLE, N., VAN WYK DE VRIES, B. and OPPENHEIMER, C., 2003, New insight into the factors
leading to the 1998 flank collapse and lahar disaster at Casita volcano, Nicaragua.
KERVYN, M., ERNST, G.G.J., VAN WYK DE VRIES, B., MATHIEU, L. and JACOBS, P., 2008c,
Volcano load control on dyke propagation and vent spatial distribution: insights from
analogue modelling. Journal of Geophysical Research, in review.
KERVYN, M., HARRIS, A.J.L., BELTON, F., MBEDE, E., JACOBS, P. and ERNST, G.G.J., 2008a,
Thermal remote sensing of the low-intensity thermal anomalies of Oldoinyo Lengai,
Tanzania. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 29, pp. 64676499.
KERVYN, M., KERVYN, F., GOOSSENS, R., ROWLAND, S.K. and ERNST, G.G.J., 2007,
Mapping volcanic terrain using high-resolution and 3D remote sensing. In Mapping
Hazardous Terrain using Remote Sensing, R.M. Teeuw (Ed.), Geological Society
Special Publication 283, pp. 530 (London: The Geological Society).
KERVYN, M., KLAUDIUS, J., KELLER, J., KERVYN, F., MATTSSON, H.B., BELTON, F.,
MBEDE, E., JACOBS, P. and ERNST, G.G.J., 2008d, Voluminous lava flows at Oldoinyo
Lengai in 2006: chronology of events and insights into the shallow magmatic system.
Bulletin of Volcanology, doi:10.1007/s00445-007-0190-x.
KERVYN, M., KLAUDIUS, J., KELLER, J., MBEDE, E., JACOBS, P. and ERNST, G.G.J., 2008b,
Remote sensing evidence for sector collapses and debris avalanches at Oldoinyo
Lengai and Kerimasi volcanoes, Tanzania. International Journal of Remote Sensing,
29, pp. 65656595.
KIENLE, J. and SHAW, G.E., 1979, Plume dynamics, thermal-energy and long-distance
transport of vulcanian eruption clouds from Augustine volcano, Alaska. Journal of
KOYAGUCHI, T. and TOKUNO, M., 1993, Origin of the giant eruption cloud of Pinatubo, June
15, 1991. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 55, pp. 8596.
KROTKOV, N.A., FLITTNER, D.E., KRUEGER, A.J., KOSTINSKI, A., RILEY, C., ROSE, W. and
TORRES, O., 1999, Effect of particle non-sphericity on satellite monitoring of drifting
volcanic ash clouds. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, 63,
pp. 613630.
KRUEGER, A.J., 1982, Geostationary satellite-observations of the April 1979 Soufriere
eruptions. Science, 216, pp. 11081109.
KRUEGER, A.J., 1983, Sighting of El-Chichon sulfur-dioxide clouds with the Nimbus-7 Total
Ozone Mapping Spectrometer. Science, 220, pp. 13771379.
KWOUN, O.I., LU, Z., NEAL, C. and WICKX, C., 2006, Quiescent deformation of the
Aniakchak caldera, Alaska, mapped by InSAR. Geology, 34, pp. 58.
LACASSE, C., KARLSDOTTIR, S., LARSEN, G., SOOSALU, H., ROSE, W.I. and ERNST, G.G.J.,
2004, Weather radar observations of the Hekla 2000 eruption cloud, Iceland. Bulletin
LAGMAY, A.M.F. and VALDIVIA, W., 2006, Regional stress influence on the opening direction
of crater amphitheaters in Southeast Asian volcanoes. Journal of Volcanology and
LAGMAY, A.M.F., VAN WYK DE VRIES, B., KERLE, N. and PYLE, D.M., 2000, Volcano
instability induced by strike-slip faulting. Bulletin of Volcanology, 62, pp. 331346.
LANE, S.J. and GILBERT, J.S., 1992, Electric-potential gradient changes during explosive
activity at Sakurajima volcano, Japan. Bulletin of Volcanology, 54, pp. 590594.
LODATO, L., SPAMPINATO, L., HARRIS, A., CALVARI, S., DEHN, J. and PATRICK, M., 2007, The
morphology and evolution of the Stromboli 20022003 lava flow field: an example of
a basaltic flow field emplaced on a steep slope. Bulletin of Volcanology, 69, pp.
661679.
LU, Z., FIELDING, E., PATRICK, M. and TRAUTWEIN, C., 2003a, Estimating lava volume by
precision combination of multiple baseline spaceborne and airborne interferometric
synthetic aperture radar: the 1997 eruption of Okmok volcano. IEEE Transactions on
Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 41, pp. 14281436.
LU, Z., MASTERLARK, T. and DZURISIN, D., 2005, Interferometric synthetic aperture
radar study of Okmok volcano, Alaska, 19922003: magma supply dynamics and
post-emplacement lava deformation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, B02403,
doi:10.1029/2004JB003148.
LU, Z., MASTERLARK, T., DZURISIN, D., RYKHUS, R. and WICKS, C., 2003b, Magma supply
dynamics at Westdahl volcano, Alaska, modeled from satellite radar interferometry.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, 2354, doi:10.1029/2002JB002311.
LU, Z., RYKHUS, R., MASTERLARK, T. and DEAN, K.G., 2004, Mapping recent lava flows at
Westdahl volcano, Alaska, using radar and optical satellite imagery. Remote Sensing
of the Environment, 91, pp. 345353.
LUNDGREN, P., CASU, F., MANZO, M., PEPE, A., BERARDINO, P., SANSOSTI, E. and
LANARI, R., 2004, Gravity and magma induced spreading of Mount Etna volcano
revealed by satellite radar interferometry. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L04602,
doi:10.1029/2003GL018736.
LUNDGREN, P. and LU, Z., 2006, Inflation model of Uzon caldera, Kamchatka, constrained
by satellite radar interferometry observations. Geophysical Research Letters, 33,
L06301, doi:10.1029/2005GL025181.
MAGNUSSON, E., ROTT, H., BJORNSSON, H. and PALSSON,, 2007, The impact of jokulhlaups
on basal sliding observed by SAR interferometry on Vatnajokull, Iceland. Journal of
Glaciology, 53, pp. 232240.
MALINGREAU, J.P. and KASWANDA, J., 1986, Monitoring volcanic eruptions in Indonesia
using weather-satellite data: the Colo eruption of July 28, 1983. Journal of
MANCONI, A., WALTER, T.R. and AMELUNG, F., 2007, Effects of mechanical layering on
volcano deformation. Geophysical Journal International, 170, pp. 952958.
MANVILLE, V., HODGSON, K.A. and NAIRN, I.A., 2007, A review of break-out floods from
volcanogenic lakes in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics,
50, pp. 131150.
MARTI, J., and ERNST, G.G.J. (Eds), 2005, Volcanoes and the Environment (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press).
MARZANO, F.S., VULPIANI, G. and ROSE, W.I., 2006, Microphysical characterization of
microwave radar reflectivity due to volcanic ash clouds. IEEE Transaction on
Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 44, pp. 313327.
MASSONNET, D. and FEIGL, K.L., 1998, Radar interferometry and its application to changes
in the Earths surface. Reviews of Geophysics, 36, pp. 441500.
MASTERLARK, T., 2007, Magma intrusion and deformation predictions: sensitivities to the
Mogi assumptions. Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, B06419, doi:10.1029/
2006JB004860.
MASTERLARK, T. and LU, Z., 2004, Transient volcano deformation sources imaged with
interferometric synthetic aperture radar: application to Seguam Island, Alaska.
MATHER, T.A., ALLEN, A.G., DAVISON, B.M., PYLE, D.M., OPPENHEIMER, C. and
MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., 2004a, Nitric acid from volcanoes. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters, 218, pp. 1730.
MATHER, T.A., OPPENHEIMER, C., ALLEN, A.G. and MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., 2004b, Aerosol
chemistry of emissions from three contrasting volcanoes in Italy. Atmospheric
MATHER, T.A., PYLE, D.M., TSANEV, V.I., MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., OPPENHEIMER, C. and
ALLEN, A.G., 2006, A reassessment of current volcanic emissions from the Central
American arc with specific examples from Nicaragua. Journal of Volcanology and
MATHER, T.A., TSANEV, V.I., PYLE, D.M., MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., OPPENHEIMER, C. and
ALLEN, A.G., 2004c, Characterization and evolution of tropospheric plumes from
Lascar and Villarica volcanoes, Chile. Journal of Geophysical Research, 109, D21303,
doi:10.1029/2004JD004934.
MATHEWS, S.J., GARDEWEG, M.C. and SPARKS, R.S.J., 1997, The 1984 to 1996 cyclic activity
of Lascar volcano, northern Chile: cycles of dome growth, dome subsidence,
degassing and explosive eruptions. Bulletin of Volcanology, 59, pp. 7282.
MATSON, M., 1984, The 1982 El-Chichon volcano eruptions: a satellite perspective. Journal of
MAYBERRY, G.C., ROSE, W.I. and BLUTH, G.J.S., 2002, Dynamics of the volcanic and
meteorological clouds produced by the December 26, 1997 eruption of Soufriere Hills
volcano, Montserrat. Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 21, pp. 539555.
MAZZARINI, F., PARESCHI, M.T., FAVALLI, M., ISOLA, I., TARQUINI, S. and BOSCHI, E., 2007,
Lava flow identification and aging by means of lidar intensity: Mount Etna case.
MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., 2005, Volcano remote sensing with ground-based spectroscopy.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, A363, pp. 29152929.
MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., 2007, Measurement of volcanic SO2 fluxes with differential optical
absorption spectroscopy. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 162, pp.
111122.
MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., HILTON, D.R., FISCHER, T.P. and OPPENHEIMER, C., 2005a, Plume
velocity determination for volcanic SO2 flux measurements. Geophysical Research
Letters, 32, L11302, doi:10.1029/2005GL022470.
MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., INGUGGIATO, S., AIUPPA, A., HAYES, A.R. and OPPENHEIMER, C.,
2005b, Accurate measurement of volcanic SO2 flux: determination of plume transport
speed and integrated SO2 concentration with a single device. Geochemistry,
Geophysics, Geosystems, 6, Q02003, doi:10.1029/2004GC000845.
MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., OPPENHEIMER, C., HAYES, A.R., GALLE, B., EDMONDS, M.,
CALTABIANO, T., SALERNO, G., BURTON, M. and MATHER, T.A., 2003, Sulphur
dioxide fluxes from Mount Etna, Vulcano, and Stromboli measured with an
automated scanning ultraviolet spectrometer. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108,
2455, doi:10.1029/2002JB002261.
MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., OPPENHEIMER, C., TSANEV, V.I., SAUNDERS, S., MULINA, K., TOHUI, S.,
BOSCO, J., NAHOU, J., KUDUON, J. and TARANU, F., 2004, Sulphur dioxide fluxes
from Papua New Guineas volcanoes. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L08606,
doi:10.1029/2004GL019568.
MCKAY, M.E. and MOUGINIS-MARK, P.J., 1997, The effect of varying acquisition parameters
on the interpretation of SIR-C radar data: the Virunga volcanic chain. Remote
Sensing of Environment, 59, pp. 321336.
MCNUTT, S.R. and DAVIS, C.M., 2000, Lightning associated with the 1992 eruptions of
Crater Peak, Mount Spurr volcano, Alaska. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
MERLE, O. and BORGIA, A., 1996, Scaled experiments of volcanic spreading. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 101, pp. 1380513817.
MIURA, T., KOYAGUCHI, T. and TANAKA, Y., 1996, Atmospheric electric potential gradient
measurements of ash clouds generated by pyroclastic flows at Unzen volcano, Japan.
Geophysical Research Letters, 23, pp. 17891792.
MORAN, S.C., KWOUN, O., MASTERLARK, T. and LU, Z., 2006, On the absence of InSAR-
detected volcano deformation spanning the 19951996 and 1999 eruptions of
Shishaldin volcano, Alaska. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 150,
pp. 119131.
MORI, T., KAZAHAYA, K., OPPENHEIMER, C., MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., TSANEV, V., OLMOS, R.,
OHWADA, M. and SHUTO, T., 2006, Sulfur dioxide fluxes from the volcanoes of
Hokkaido, Japan. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 158, pp.
2535243.
MOUGINIS-MARK, P.J.,CRISP, J.A., and FINK, J.H. (Eds), 2000a, Remote Sensing of Active
Volcanism, AGU Geophysical Monograph 116, pp. 1272.
MOUGINIS-MARK, P.J., SNELL, H. and ELLISOR, R., 2000b, GOES satellite and field
observations of the 1998 eruption of Volcan Cerro Azul, Galapagos Islands. Bulletin
MUNOZ, O., VOLTEN, H., HOVENIER, J.W., VEIHELMANN, B., VAN dER ZANDE, W.J.,
WATERS, L.B.F.M. and ROSE, W.I., 2004, Scattering matrices of volcanic ash particles
of Mount St. Helens, Redoubt, and Mount Spurr volcanoes. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 109, D16201, doi:10.1029/2004JD004684.
NERI, M., GUGLIELMINO, F. and RUST, D., 2007, Flank instability on Mount Etna: radon,
radar interferometry, and geodetic data from the southwestern boundary of the
unstable sector. Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, B04410, doi:10.1029/
2006JB004756.
NKONO, C., KERVYN, M., FEMENIAS, O., DEMAIFFE, D., SUH, E., VAN WYK DE VRIES, B. and
ERNST, G.G.J., 2008, Volcanic and tectonic structures of two steep shields:
comparison of Mt Cameroon and Bioko volcanoes. Bulletin of Volcanology, in review.
OFCM 2004, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Volcanic Ash and Aviation
Safety, 2124 June 2004, Alexandria, Virginia, USA. Office of the Federal
Coordinator for Meteorology, US Department of Commerce.
OPPENHEIMER, C., 1991, Lava flow cooling estimated from Landsat Thematic Mapper
infrared data: the Lonquimay eruption (Chile, 1989). Journal of Geophysical Research,
96, pp. 2186521878.
OPPENHEIMER, C., 1997, Remote sensing of the colour and temperature of volcanic lakes.
International Journal of Remote Sensing, 18, pp. 537.
OPPENHEIMER, C., BANI, P., CALKINS, J.A., BURTON, M.R. and SAWYER, G.M., 2006a, Rapid
FTIR sensing of volcanic gases released by strombolian explosions at Yasur volcano,
Vanuatu. Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics, 85, pp. 453460.
OPPENHEIMER, C., FRANCIS, P.W., ROTHERY, D.A., CARLTON, R.W.T. and GLAZE, L., 1993,
Infrared image analysis of volcanic thermal features: Lascar volcano, Chile, 1984
1992. Journal of Geophysical Research, 98, pp. 42694286.
OPPENHEIMER, C., KYLE, P.R., TSANEV, V.I., MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., MATHER, T.A. and
SWEENEY, D., 2005, Mt. Erebus, the largest point source of NO2 in Antarctica.
Atmospheric Environment, 39, pp. 60006006.
OPPENHEIMER, C. and MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., 2004, Exploiting ground-based optical sensing
technologies for volcanic gas surveillance. Annals of Geophysics, 47, pp. 14551470.
OPPENHEIMER, C., MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., ALLARD, P., WOOSTER, M.J. and TSANEV, V., 2004,
Sulfur, heat, and magma budget of Erta Ale lava lake, Ethiopia. Geology, 32, pp.
509512.
OPPENHEIMER, C., TSANEV, V.I., BRABAN, C.F., COX, R.A., ADAMS, J.W., AIUPPA, A.,
BOBROWSKI, N., DELMELLE, P., BARCLAY, J. and MCGONIGLE, A.J.S., 2006b, BrO
formation in volcanic plumes. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 70, pp. 29352941.
PAGLI, C., SIGMUNDSSON, F., ARNADOTTIR, T., EINARSSON, P. and STURKELL, E., 2006,
Deflation of the Askja volcanic system: constraints on the deformation source from
combined inversion of satellite radar interferograms and GPS measurements. Journal
PATRICK, M.R., DEHN, J., PAPP, K.R., LU, Z., DEAN, K., MOXEY, L., IZBEKOV, P. and GURITZ, R.,
2003, The 1997 eruption of Okmok Volcano, Alaska: a synthesis of remotely sensed
imagery. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 127, pp. 87105.
PATRICK, M.R., HARRIS, A.J.L., RIPEPE, M., DEHN, J., ROTHERY, D.A. and CALVARI, S.,
2007, Strombolian explosive styles and source conditions: insights from thermal
(FLIR) video. Bulletin of Volcanology, 69, pp. 769784.
PATRICK, M.R., SMELLIE, J.L., HARRIS, A.J.L., WRIGHT, R., DEAN, K., IZBEKOV, P.,
GARBEIL, H. and PILGER, E., 2005, First recorded eruption of Mount Belinda volcano
(Montagu Island), South Sandwich Islands. Bulletin of Volcanology, 67, pp. 415422.
PEDERSEN, R. and SIGMUNDSSON, F., 2004, InSAR based sill model links spatially offset areas
of deformation and seismicity for the 1994 unrest episode at Eyjafjallajokull volcano,
Iceland. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L14610, doi:10.1029/2004GL020368.
PISEK, J. and BRAZDIL, R., 2006, Responses of large volcanic eruptions in the instrumental
and documentary climatic data over Central Europe. International Journal of
Climatology, 26, pp. 439459.
POLAND, M., BURGMANN, R., DZURIZIN, D., LISOWSKI, M., MASTERLARK, T., OWEN, S. and
FINK, J., 2006, Constraints on the mechanism of long-term, steady subsidence at
Medicine Lake volcano, northern California from GPS, leveling, and InSAR. Journal
PRATA, A.J., 1989, Observations of volcanic ash clouds in the 1012-mm window using
AVHRR/2 data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 10, pp. 751761.
PRATA, A.J. (Eds), 2008, Aviation and volcanoes. Natural Hazards, (special issue), in press.
PRATA, A.J. and BARTON, I.J., 1994, Detection and discrimination of volcanic ash clouds by
infrared radiometry. I: Theory. USGS Bulletin, 2047, pp. 305312.
PRATA, A.J. and BERNARDO, C., 2007, Retrieval of volcanic SO2 column abundance from
atmospheric sounder data. Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, D20204,
doi:10.1029/2006JD007955.
PRATA, F., BLUTH, G., ROSE, B., SCHNEIDER, D. and TUPPER, A., 2001, Comments on
Failures in detecting volcanic ash from a satellite-based technique. Remote Sensing of
PRATA, A.J., CARN, S.A., STOHL, A. and KERKMANN, J., 2007, Long-range transport and fate
of a stratospheric volcanic cloud from Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat.
Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 7, pp. 50935103.
PRATA, A.J. and KERKMANN, J., 2007, Simultaneous retrieval of volcanic ash and SO2 using
MSG-SEVIRI measurements. Geophysical Research Letters, 34, L05813, doi:10.1029/
2006GL028691.
PYLE, D.M., BEATTIE, P.D. and BLUTH, G.J.S., 1996, Sulphur emissions to the stratosphere
from explosive volcanic eruptions. Bulletin of Volcanology, 57, pp. 663671.
PYLE, D.M. and ELLIOTT, J.R., 2006, Quantitative morphology, recent evolution, and future
activity of the Kameni Islands volcano, Santorini, Greece. Geosphere, 2, pp. 253268.
RAMSEY, M. and DEAN, J., 2004, Spaceborne observations of the 2000 Bezymianny,
Kamchatka eruption: the integration of high-resolution ASTER data into near real-
time monitoring using AVHRR. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research,
135, pp. 127146.
RAMSEY, M. and FINK, J.H., 1999, Estimating silicic lava vesicularity with thermal remote
sensing: a new technique for volcanic mapping and monitoring. Bulletin of
REALMUTO, V.J., 2000, The potential use of earth observing system data to monitor the
passive emission of sulfur dioxide from volcanoes. In Remote Sensing of Active
Volcanism, P.J. Mouginis-Mark, J. Crisp and J.F. Fink (Eds). AGU Geophysical
Monograph 116, pp. 101115.
RIEDEL, C., ERNST, G.G.J. and RILEY, M., 2003, Controls on the growth and geometry of
pyroclastic constructs. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 127, pp.
121152.
RILEY, C.M., ROSE, W.I. and BLUTH, G.J.S., 2003, Quantitative shape measurements of distal
volcanic ash. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, 2504, doi:10.129/2001JB00818.
ROSE, W.I., BLUTH, G.J.S. and ERNST, G.G.J., 2000, Integrating retrievals of volcanic cloud
characteristics from satellite remote sensors: a summary. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London, A358, pp. 15851606.
ROSE, W.I., BLUTH, G.J.S., SCHNEIDER, D.J., ERNST, G.G.J., RILEY, C.M., HENDERSON, L.J.
and MCGIMSEY, R.G., 2001, Observations of volcanic clouds in their first days of
atmospheric residence: the 1992 eruptions of Crater Peak, Mount Spurr volcano,
Alaska. Journal of Geology, 109, pp. 677694.
ROSE, W.I., DELENE, D.J., SCHNEIDER, D.J., BLUTH, G.J.S., KRUEGER, A.J., SPROD, I.,
MCKEE, C., DAVIES, H.L. and ERNST, G.G.J., 1995b, Ice in the 1994 Rabaul eruption
cloud: implications for volcano hazard and atmospheric effects. Nature, 375, pp.
477479.
ROSE, W.I., GU, I., WATSON, I.M., YU, T., BLUTH, G.J.S., PRATA, A.J., KRUEGER, A.J.,
KROTKOV, N., CARN, S.A., FROMM, M.D., HUNTON, D.E., ERNST, G.G.J.,
VIGGIANO, A.A., MILLER, T.M., BALLENTIN, J.O., REEVES, J.M., WILSON, J.C.,
ANDERSON, B.E. and FLITTNER, D., 2003, The FebruaryMarch 2000 eruption of
Hekla, Iceland from a satellite perspective. In Volcanism and the Earths
Atmosphere, A. Robock and C. Oppenheimer (Eds). AGU Geophysical Monograph
139, pp. 107132.
ROSE, W.I., KOSTINSKI, A.B. and KELLEY, L., 1995a, Real-time C-band radar observations of
1992 eruption clouds from Crater Peak, Mount Spurr volcano, Alaska. USGS
Bulletin, 2139, pp. 1926.
ROTHERY, D.A., COLTELLI, M., PIRIE, D., WOOSTER, M.J. and WRIGHT, R., 2001,
Documenting surface magmatic activity at Mount Etna using ATSR remote sensing.
ROTHERY, D.A., COPPOLA, D. and SAUNDERS, C., 2005, Analysis of volcanic activity patterns
using MODIS thermal alerts. Bulletin of Volcanology, 67, pp. 539556.
ROWLAND, S.K., 1996, Slope, lava flow volumes, and vent distribution on Volcano
Fernandina, Galapagos Islands. Journal of Geophysical Research, 101, pp.
2765727672.
ROWLAND, J.V., BAKER, E., EBINGER, C.J., KEIR, D., KIDANE, T., BIGGS, J., HAYWARD, N.
and WRIGHT, T.J., 2007, Fault growth at a nascent slow-spreading ridge: 2005
Dabbahu rifting episode, Afar. Geophysical Journal International, 171, pp. 12261246.
ROWLAND, S.K. and GARBEIL, H., 2000, The slopes of oceanic basalt volcanoes. In Remote
Sensing of Active Volcanism, P.J. Mouginis-Mark, J. Crisp and J.F. Fink (Eds). AGU
Geophysical Monograph 116, pp. 223247.
ROWLAND, S.K., GARBEIL, H. and HARRIS, A.J.L., 2005, Lengths and hazards from channel-
fed lava flows on Mauna Loa, Hawaii, determined from thermal and downslope
modeling with FLOWGO. Bulletin of Volcanology, 67, pp. 634647.
ROWLAND, S.K., MUNRO, D.C. and PEREZ-OVIEDO, V., 1994, Volcan Ecuador, Galapagos
Islands: erosion as a possible mechanism for the generation of steep-sided basaltic
volcanoes. Bulletin of Volcanology, 56, pp. 271283.
SACHPAZI, M., KONTOES, C., VOULGARIS, N., LAIGLE, M., VOUGIOUKALAKIS, G., SIKIOTI, O.,
STAVRAKAKIS, G., BASKOUTAS, J., KALOGERAS, J. and LEPINE, J.-C., 2002,
Seismological and SAR signature of unrest at Nisyros caldera, Greece. Journal of
SAWADA, Y., 2003, Study on observation and analysis of eruption cloud with imagery of
Geostationary Meteorological Satellite, HIMAWARI. Journal of Meteorological
SCHNEIDER, D.J., DEAN, K.G., DEHN, J., MILLER, T.P. and KIRIANOV, V.Y., 2000,
Monitoring and analysis of the volcanic activity using remote sensing data at the
Alaska Volcano Observatory: case study for Kamchatka, Russia, December 1997. In
Remote Sensing of Active Volcanism, P.J. Mouginis-Mark, J. Crisp and J.F. Fink
(Eds). AGU Geophysical Monograph 116, pp. 6586.
SCHNEIDER, D.J., ROSE, W.I., COKE, L.R., BLUTH, G.J.S., SPROD, I.E. and KRUEGER, A.J.,
1999, Early evolution of a stratospheric volcanic eruption cloud as observed with
TOMS and AVHRR. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, pp. 40374050.
SIGURDSSON, H., DEVINE, J.D., TCHOUA, F.M., PRESSER, T.S., PRINGLE, M.K.W. and
EVANS, W.C., 1987, Origin of the lethal gas burst from Lake Monoun, Cameroon.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 31, pp. 116.
SIMKIN, T. and SIEBERT, L., 1994, Volcanoes of the World, 2nd edn (Tucson, AZ: Geosciences
Press), pp. 1349.
SPARKS, R.S.J., 1997, Causes and consequences of pressurization in lava dome eruptions.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 150, pp. 177189.
SPARKS, R.S.J., BURSIK, M.I., CAREY, S.N., GILBERT, J.S., GLAZE, L.S., SIGURDSSON, H. and
WOODS, A.W., 1997a, Remote sensing of volcanic plumes. In Volcanic Plumes, Ch. 12,
pp. 307345 (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons).
SPARKS, R.S.J., BURSIK, M.I., CAREY, S.N., GILBERT, J.S., GLAZE, L.S., SIGURDSSON, H. and
WOODS, A.W., 1997b, Volcanic Plumes (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons).
SPARKS, R.S.J., MOORE, J.G., RICE, and , C.J., 1986, The initial giant umbrella cloud of the
May 18th, 1980, explosive eruption of Mount St-Helens. Journal of Volcanology and
STEVENS, N.F., MANVILLE, V. and HERON, D.W., 2002, The sensitivity of a volcanic flow
model to digital elevation model accuracy: experiments with digitised map contours
and interferometric SAR at Ruapehu and Taranaki volcanoes, New Zealand. Journal
STEVENS, N.F. and WADGE, G., 2004, Towards operational repeat-pass SAR interferometry
at active volcanoes. Natural Hazards, 33, pp. 4776.
TEEUW, R.M. (Ed.), 2007, Mapping Hazardous Terrain Using Remote Sensing, Geological
Society Special Publication 283 (London: The Geological Society).
TEEUW, R.M., APLIN, P., KERVYN, M., ERNST, G., MCWILLIAM, N. and WICKS, T., 2008,
Hazards and disaster management. In Handbook of Remote Sensing, Ch. 31 (New
York: Sage Publishers), in press.
TEXTOR, C., GRAF, H.F., HERZOG, M., OBERHUBER, J.M., ROSE, W.I. and ERNST, G.G.J.,
2006a, Volcanic particle aggregation in explosive eruption columns. Part I:
Parameterization of the microphysics of hydrometeors and ash. Journal of
TEXTOR, C., GRAF, H.F., HERZOG, M., OBERHUBER, J.M., ROSE, W.I. and ERNST, G.G.J.,
2006b, Volcanic particle aggregation in explosive eruption columns. Part II:
Numerical experiments. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 150, pp.
378394.
THOURET, J.C., GOURGAUD, A., URIBE, M., RODRIGUEZ, A., GUILLANDE, R. and SALAS, G.,
1995, Geomorphological and geological survey, and SPOT remote sensing of the
current activity of Nevado Sabancaya stratovolcano (south Peru): assessment for
hazard-zone mapping. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, 39, pp. 515535.
THOURET, J.C., LAVIGNE, F., KELFOUN, K. and BRONTO, S., 2000, Toward a revised hazard
assessment at Merapi volcano, Central Java. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research, 100, pp. 479502.
TINARD, P., FROGER, J.-L., BRIOLE, P., STAUDACHER, T., CAYOL, V., FUKUSHIMA, Y. and
SOURIOT, T., 2006, New insights in the dynamic of the volcanic processes at Piton de
la Fournaise Volcano (Reunion Island) using ENVISAT-ASAR data. Eos,
Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 87(52), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract
G43C-02.
TIZZANI, P., BERARDINO, P., CASU, F., EUILLADES, P., MANZO, M., RICCIARDI, G.P., ZENI, G.
and LANARI, R., 2007, Surface deformation of Long Valley Caldera and Mono Basin,
California, investigated with the SBAS-InSAR approach. Remote Sensing of
TORRES, R., MOUGINIS-MARK, P., SELF, S., GARBEIL, H., KALLIANPUR, K. and
QUIAMBAO, R., 2004, Monitoring the evolution of the Pasig-Potrero alluvial fan,
Pinatubo volcano, using a decade of remote sensing data. Journal of Volcanology and
VAN WYK DE VRIES, B. and FRANCIS, P.W., 1997, Catastrophic collapse at stratovolcanoes
induced by gradual volcano spreading. Nature, 387, pp. 387390.
VAN WYK DE VRIES, B., KERLE, N. and PETLEY, D.N., 2000, Sector collapse forming at Casita
volcano, Nicaragua. Geology, 28, pp. 167170.
VENTURA, G. and VILARDO, G., 2008, Emplacement mechanism of gravity flows inferred
from high resolution Lidar data: the 1944 Somma-Vesuvius lava flow (Italy).
Geomorphology, 95, pp. 223235.
VERGNIOLLE, S., BRANDEIS, G. and MARESCHAL, J.-C., 1996, Strombolian explosions. 2.
Eruption dynamics determined from acoustic measurements. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 101, pp. 2044920466.
VERGNIOLLE, S., BOICHU, M. and CAPLAN-AUCHERBACH, J., 2004, Acoustic measurements of
the 1999 basaltic eruption of Shishaldin volcano, Alaska. 1. Origin of strombolian
activity. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 137, pp. 109134.
VERGNIOLLE, S. and CAPLAN-AUERBACH, J., 2004, Acoustic measurements of the 1999
basaltic eruption of Shishaldin volcano, Alaska. 2. Precursor to the subplinian phase.
VERGNIOLLE, S. and CAPLAN-AUERBACH, J., 2006, Basaltic thermals and subplinian plumes:
constraints from acoustic measurements at Shishaldin volcano, Alaska. Bulletin of
VOGE, M. and HORT, M., 2008, Automatic classification of dome instabilities based on
Doppler radar measurements at Merapi volcano, Indonesia: Part 1. Geophysical
Journal International, 172, pp. 11881206.
VOGE, M., HORT, M., SEYFRIED, R. and RATDOMOPURBO, A., 2008, Automatic classification
of dome instabilities based on Doppler radar measurements at Merapi volcano,
Indonesia: Part 2. Geophysical Journal International, 172, pp. 12071218.
WADGE, G., FRANCIS, P.W. and RAMIREZ, C.F., 1995, The Socompa collapse and avalanche
event. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 66, pp. 309336.
WADGE, G. and ISAACS, M.C., 1988, Mapping the volcanic hazards from Soufriere Hills
volcano, Montserrat, West Indies using an image processor. Journal of the Geological
Society, 145, pp. 541552.
WADGE, G., MACFARLANE D.G., ROBERTSON, D.A., HALE, A.J., PINKERTON, H.,
BURRELL, R.V., NORTON, G.E. and JAMES, M.R., 2005, AVTIS: a novel millimetre-
wave ground-based instrument for volcano remote sensing. Journal of Volcanology
and Geothermal Research, 146, pp. 307318.
WADGE, G., MATTIOLI, G.S. and HERD, R.A., 2006, Ground deformation at Soufriere Hills
volcano, Montserrat during 19982000 measured by radar interferometry and GPS.
WADGE, G., SCHEUCHL, B. and STEVENS, N.F., 2002, Spaceborne radar measurements of the
eruption of Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat. Geological Society, London,
Memoirs, 21, pp. 583594.
WATSON, I.M., REALMUTO, V.J., ROSE, W.I., PRATA, A.J., BLUTH, G.J.S., GU, Y.,
BADER, C.E. and YU, T., 2004, Thermal infrared remote sensing of volcanic
emissions using the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer. Journal of
WEBLEY, P.W., WOOSTER, M.J., STRAUCH, W., SABALLOS, J.A., DILL, K., STEPHENSON, P.,
ESCOBAR WOLF, R. and MATIAS, O., 2008, Experiences from real-time satellite-based
volcano monitoring in Central America: case studies at Fuego, Guatemala.
International Journal of Remote Sensing, this volume.
WEILL, A., BRANDEIS, G., VERGNIOLLE, S., BAUDIN, F., BILBILLE, J., FEVRE, J.F., PIRON, B.
and HILL, X., 1992, Acoustic sounder measurements of the vertical velocity of
volcanic jets at Stromboli volcano. Geophysical Research Letters, 19, pp. 23572360.
WEISSEL, J.K., CZUCHLEWSKI, K.R. and KIM, Y., 2004, Synthetic aperture radar (SAR)-based
mapping of volcanic flows: Manam Island, Papua New Guinea. Natural Hazards and
Earth Systems Sciences, 4, pp. 339346.
WEN, S. and ROSE, W.I., 1994, Retrieval of sizes and total masses of particles in volcanic
clouds using AVHRR bands 4 and 5. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99, pp.
54215431.
WICKS, C.W., THATCHER, W., DZURISIN, D. and SVARC, J., 2006, Uplift, thermal unrest and
magma intrusion at Yellowstone caldera. Nature, 440, pp. 7275.
WILLIAM-JONES, G., HORTON, K.A., ELIAS, T., GARBEIL, H., MOUGINIS-MARK, P.J.,
SUTTON, A.J. and HARRIS, A.J.L., 2006, Accurately measuring volcanic plume
velocity with multiple UV spectrometers. Bulletin of Volcanology, 68, pp. 328332.
WOODS, A.W. and SELF, S., 1992, Thermal disequilibrium at the top of volcanic clouds and its
effect on estimates of the column height. Nature, 355, pp. 628630.
WOOSTER, M.J., 2001, Long-term infrared surveillance of Lascar volcano: contrasting activity
cycles and cooling pyroclastics. Geophysical Research Letters, 28, pp. 847850.
WOOSTER, M.J. and KANEKO, T., 1998, Satellite thermal analyses of lava dome effusion rates
at Unzen volcano, Japan. Journal of Geophysical Research, 103, pp. 2093520947.
WOOSTER, M.J., KANEKO, T., NAKADA, S. and SHIMIZU, H., 2000, Discrimination of lava
dome activity styles using satellite-derived thermal structures. Journal of Volcanology
and Geothermal Research, 102, pp. 97118.
WOOSTER, M.J. and ROTHERY, D.A., 1997, Thermal monitoring of Lascar volcano, Chile,
using infrared data from the along-track scanning radiometer: a 19921995 time
series. Bulletin of Volcanology, 58, pp. 566579.
WRIGHT, R., BLAKE, S., HARRIS, A.J.L. and ROTHERY, D.A., 2001, A simple explanation for
the space-based calculation of lava eruption rates. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 192, pp. 223233.
WRIGHT, R., DE lA CRUZ-REYNA, S., HARRIS, A., FLYNN, L. and GOMEZ-PALACIOS, J.J.,
2002b, Infrared satellite monitoring at Popocatepetl: explosions, exhalations, and
cycles of dome growth. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107, 2153, doi:10.1029/
2000JB000125.
WRIGHT, R. and FLYNN, L.P., 2003, Satellite observations of thermal emission before, during,
and after the January 2002 eruption of Nyiragongo. Acta Vulcanologica, 15, pp.
6774.
WRIGHT, R., FLYNN, L.P., GARBEIL, H., HARRIS, A.J.L. and PILGER, E., 2002a, Automated
volcanic eruption detection using MODIS. Remote Sensing of Environment, 82, pp.
135155.
WRIGHT, R., ROTHERY, D.A., BLAKE, S. and PIERI, D.C., 2000, Improved remote sensing
estimates of lava flow cooling: a case study of the 19911993 Mount Etna eruption.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 105, pp. 2368123694.
WRIGHT, T.J., EBINGER, C., BIGGS, J., AYELE, A., YIRGU, G., KEIR, D. and STORK, A., 2006,
Magma-maintained rift segmentation at continental rupture in the 2005 Afar dyking
episode. Nature, 442, pp. 291294.
WRIGHT, T.J., PARSONS, B.E. and LU, Z., 2004, Toward mapping surface deformation in
three dimensions using InSAR. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, LO1607,
doi:10.1029/2003GL018827.
YANG, K., KROTKOV, N.A., KRUEGER, A.J., CARN, S.A., BHARTIA, P.K. and LEVELT, P.F.,
2007, Retrieval of large volcanic SO2 columns from the Aura Ozone Monitoring
Instrument: comparison and limitations. Journal of Geophysical Research, 112,
D24S43, doi:10.129/2007JD008825.
YU, T.X., ROSE, W.I. and PRATA, A.J., 2002, Atmospheric correction for satellite-based
volcanic ash mapping and retrievals using split window IR data from GOES and
AVHRR. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107, 4311, doi:10.1029/2001JD000706.
ZEBKER, H.A., ROSEN, P., HENSLEY, S. and MOUGINIS-MARK, P.J., 1996, Analysis of active
lava flows on Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, using SIR-C radar correlation measurements.
Geology, 24, pp. 495498.

Ernst, Kervyn y Teeuw. 2016. Advances in The Remote Sensing of Volcanic Activity and Hazards With Special Consideration To Applications in Developing Countries

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ernst, Kervyn y Teeuw. 2016. Advances in The Remote Sensing of Volcanic Activity and Hazards With Special Consideration To Applications in Developing Countries

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of Remote Sensing

ISSN: 0143-1161 (Print) 1366-5901 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tres20

Advances in the remote sensing of volcanic

G. G. J. Ernst , M. Kervyn & R. M. Teeuw

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01431160802168459

Published online: 28 Oct 2008.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 298

View related articles

Citing articles: 11 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

Download by: [CONRICyT] Date: 17 October 2016, At: 16:46

Advances in the remote sensing of volcanic activity and hazards, with

G. G. J. ERNST*{, M. KERVYN{ and R. M. TEEUW{

*Corresponding author. Email: Gerald.Ernst@UGent.be

Sensor Bands/spatial resolution Scene size Operational Applications

Sensor Bands/spatial resolution Scene size Operational Applications

Advances in remote sensing of volcanic activity

2. Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR)

3. Ground-based remote sensing observations at volcanoes

3.2 Volcanic gas emissions

3.3 Other ground-based remote sensing techniques

4. Spaceborne thermal surveillance

4.1 Automated MODIS hot spot detection: MODVOLC and MODLEN

(GOME): ,40620 km pixels); (ii) the Atmospheric Infra-red Sounder (AIRS)

water vapour. Uncertainties on the atmospheric impact from tropospheric volcanic

6. Terrain analysis, hazard assessment and disaster risk reduction

comparisons between their morphometry can advance our knowledge of little-

6.1 Volcano mapping in humid tropical regions

6.2 Volcanic remote sensing and developing countries

RADARSAT, ERS, ENVISAT, SPOT, LANDSAT, Ikonos, Quickbird, the Indian

Figure 4. Google Earth 3D view of landslides on the flank of Morne-aux-Diables volcano,

more easily understood than conventional topographic maps. Andrews Deller

FRANCIS, P.W., WADGE, G. and MOUGINIS-MARK,, 1996, Satellite monitoring of volcanoes.

You might also like