Wildlife, Perception, Threat and Conservation

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WILDLIFE PROTECTION, DESTRUCTION AND EXTINCTION
WILDLIFE
PERCEPTIONS,
THREATS AND CONSERVATION
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WILDLIFE PROTECTION,
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WILDLIFE PROTECTION, DESTRUCTION AND EXTINCTION
WILDLIFE
PERCEPTIONS,
THREATS AND CONSERVATION
CHERYL WARD
EDITOR

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CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 Resource Availability Predicts the Distribution
of Arabian Gazelles (Gazella arabica) on Farasan
Islands 1
Torsten Wronski, Ping Sun and Martin Plath
Chapter 2 Forest Native and Non-Native Plant Species
along an Elevational Gradient in a Western
Himalayan Reserve 17
Balwant Rawat
Chapter 3 The Human Place in Nature:
The Wild Horse Tells All 49
Claudia Notzke
Chapter 4 Climbers for Bat Conservation:
Methods in Forming a Novel Partnership 81
Shawn K. Davis, Robert Schorr
and Bernadette Kuhn
Index 95

PREFACE
This book provides new research on the perceptions, threats and

conservation of wildlife. Chapter One reviews the distribution of Arabian
gazelles on Farasan Islands. Chapter Two studies forest native and non-native
plant species along an elevational gradient in a western Himalayan reserve.
Chapter Three intertwines the socially constructed meaning of the wild horse
with that of protected areas. Chapter Four focuses on bat conservation.
Chapter 1 Understanding how habitat parameters affect distribution
patterns of threatened mammalian species is imperative for their conservation.
Arabian gazelles (Gazella arabica) are on stark decline, while the population
on Farasan Islands seems to be largely unaffected by human pursuit. Here, the
authors asked whether vegetation-related parameters predict their local
abundance. They conducted home range analyses, using cumulative kernel
density estimates per study quadrant as an estimate of local abundance. They
also established several vegetation-related parameters and subjected them to
principal component (PC) analysis. Multiple regressions uncovered a
statistically significant effect of PC 1 (with high axis loading from several
food-related plants like Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne), while PC 2 (Capparis
sinaica Veill., a presumed source of hygroscopic water) had no effect on
abundance estimates, probably because gazelles visit hygroscopic plants only
sporadically. Our study is the first to provide empirical evidence that the
occurrence of Arabian gazelles is tightly linked to that of Acacia spp.
Chapter 2 Forest vegetation of a protected area (Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve) in west Himalaya (India) was studied for representativeness and
species distribution along an elevational gradient with a special focus on
native, non-native and endemic species. Results based on community
composition suggest that three forest communities, i.e., Mixed Betula-Abies,

viii Cheryl Ward
Betula utilis and Mixed deciduous showed their importance with maximum
species diversity and density of native, non-native and endemic species. The
maximum density of non-native species in higher elevational forest
communities indicates towards future compositional changes in these
communities. Further, field data was analysed to predict the rate of change of
species richness and density using Generalized Additive Model (GAM).
Generalized Additive Model indicated a significant response of the species
richness and density data (P < 0.01 to 0.001). At the target site, the total
species richness was observed decreasing at a rate of approximately 0-7
species per 1000 m elevation and the total species density was observed
increasing at a rate of approximately 174-196individuals per 1000 m elevation
(P < 0.01). The overall vegetation response may perhaps be considered as an
influence of different environmental factors, considering altitude as the major
influencing factor, however, more data sets of vegetation dynamics and
responses are required to further strengthen this premise. Both native and non-
native species showed differences in their distribution along the elevational
gradient according to their biogeographical affinities, climatic tolerance and
response to human activities. As most of the non-native species have already
established viable populations within protected areas, further spread of similar
species is likely if conservation planning is not changed to include the
management of non-native species in such areas.
Chapter 3 Free-ranging horse populations are encountered worldwide in
widely differing habitats. Their presence often engenders controversy which is
further intensified in protected areas. This chapter intertwines the socially
constructed meaning of the wild horse with that of protected areas. Using
qualitative methods, it showcases the situation of wild horses in protected
areas within diverse political and cultural contexts in Canada and Namibia and
introduces the wild horse as a fitting crucible to document different
conceptualizations of protected areas, the nature/culture interface and the
native/alien paradigm. Wild horses reveal themselves as powerful agents in
their own right, developing complex relationships with other agents in their
environment including humans, and with surprising outcomes. The three cases
documented here lend credence to a revised approach to determining a
species nativity in an area which takes into account ecological naturalization
and cultural association rather than just drawing lines in space and time.
Chapter 4 In recent years, North American bat populations have been
presented with new conservation threats including population declines due to
wind energy developments, habitat loss, and white-nose syndrome (WNS).
Much of this mortality has been documented in the eastern half of North

Preface ix
America, however, the impact on bat populations in the western United States
is relatively unknown. It is likely that western bats utilize cracks and crevices,
an abundant resource in the western United States, to a greater degree for
roosting than their eastern counterparts. Unfortunately, the inconspicuousness
of crevices and the difficulty of observing small, nocturnal, volant animals
make finding bat roosts in cracks and crevices problematic. A possible
solution to this problem may exist within a particular sub-set of outdoor
recreationists. Rock climbers have visited many rock features that are
inaccessible or unknown to bat biologists and could be a valuable source of
knowledge regarding potential bat roost locations; however, many rock
climbers may be apprehensive to share information that could result in the loss
of access to a valued recreational resource. As outdoor recreational pursuits
continue to overlap with limited and oftentimes sensitive wildlife habitat the
author are often prompted to look at these interactions as forms of conflict;
however, if the right inclusive processes are used, conflict can not only be
avoided, but areas of mutual stakeholder benefit can be identified. Therefore,
the main goals of this project were to: 1) improve knowledge of bat roost
locations; 2) develop relationships among climbing enthusiasts and bat
biologists throughout Colorado; and 3) empower climbers as ambassadors for
bat conservation. Through the use of World Caf facilitated dialogues, social
media, and mobile observation recording software (iNaturalist) the researchers
were able to build a collaborative network of over 140 rock climbers, land
managers, and bat biologists. This collaboration has resulted in the
identification of a number of bat roost locations deemed valuable for future
study by bat biologists. Through the use of the aforementioned methods, the
researchers have developed a potential model for collaboration that can be
used throughout the western United States for improving bat conservation.

In: Wildlife ISBN: 978-1-53611-042-5
Editor: Cheryl Ward 2017 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
RESOURCE AVAILABILITY PREDICTS

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARABIAN GAZELLES
(GAZELLA ARABICA) ON FARASAN ISLANDS
Torsten Wronski1,2,*, Ping Sun3,4 and Martin Plath4

1
King Khalid Wildlife Research Center,
Saudi Wildlife Authority, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
2
Conservation Programs, Zoological Society of London, London, UK
3
Department of Biology, University of Rwanda, Huye, Rwanda
4
College of Animal Science and Technology,
Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
ABSTRACT
Understanding how habitat parameters affect distribution patterns of
threatened mammalian species is imperative for their conservation.
Arabian gazelles (Gazella arabica) are on stark decline, while the
population on Farasan Islands seems to be largely unaffected by human
pursuit. Here, we asked whether vegetation-related parameters predict
their local abundance. We conducted home range analyses, using
cumulative kernel density estimates per study quadrant as an estimate of
local abundance. We also established several vegetation-related
parameters and subjected them to principal component (PC) analysis.
Multiple regressions uncovered a statistically significant effect of PC 1
(with high axis loading from several food-related plants like Acacia
ehrenbergiana Hayne), while PC 2 (Capparis sinaica Veill., a presumed

2 Torsten Wronski, Ping Sun and Martin Plath
source of hygroscopic water) had no effect on abundance estimates,

probably because gazelles visit hygroscopic plants only sporadically. Our
study is the first to provide empirical evidence that the occurrence of
Arabian gazelles is tightly linked to that of Acacia spp.
Keywords: Acacia, Capparis sinaica, desert ungulate, home range, Saudi

Arabia
INTRODUCTION
Understanding the distribution and local abundance of endangered species
is imperative for the development of effective conservation measures
(Caughley & Sinclair, 1994). Environmental factors restricting the population
growth and/or density of a given taxon are resources like food (Hubbs &
Boonstra, 1998), water (Dunham, 1994), cover and shade (Fabricius & Mentis,
1992), breeding sites like nest holes and dens (Powell & Fried, 1992), and
other indicators of habitat quality, like presence or density of predators (Hubbs
& Boonstra, 1998), parasites (Hudson et al., 2002) and competing species
(Eccard & Ylnen, 2003). Mammals inhabiting desert regions must contend
with high solar radiation and ambient temperatures, lack of freely available
water, strong winds enhancing evaporative water loss, scarce vegetation cover,
unpredictable food resources, and the challenges these factors impose on
thermoregulation and water balance (Feldhamer et al., 1999). Desert-dwellers
face a constant risk of evaporative and excretory water loss, and strong
selection acts on mechanisms to maintain a positive water balance
(Macfarlane, 1968; Schmidt-Nielsen, 1979). Still, a surprising number of
ruminants live in arid and hyper-arid ecosystems, even though their large body
size prevents them from seeking subterranean shelter, and herbivory is
typically associated with high rates of water turnover (Nagy & Peterson,
1988). Key requirements of desert-dwelling ruminants are, therefore, shade to
escape solar radiation and availability of water, or water-containing
(hygroscopic) plants (Williams et al., 2001; Ostrowski et al., 2002).
The presence of Arabian gazelles (Gazella arabica) in the Farasan Islands
Protected Areaan assemblage of islands located in the Red Sea (N 1620 to
1720, E 4130 to 4230)has been known since at least 1825 (Groves,
1983), but information about their ecology and conservation status became
available only one-and-a-half centuries later (see unpublished reports cited in
Wronski, 2013). Today Farasan gazelles represent the largest remaining G.

Resource Availability Predicts the Distribution of Arabian Gazelles 3
arabica population in Saudi Arabia (Cunningham & Wronski, 2011b) and

probably the second largest in the world (Wronski, 2013). In recent decades G.
arabica has been drastically decimated by hunting, habitat degradation and
competition for food with domestic livestock (Mallon & Kingswood, 2001).
The Farasan population, with no opportunity to migrate, is expected to
range close to their dietary limits (Cunningham & Wronski, 2011a). Large
parts of the islands are weathered flat gravel plains, bare coral rock, and salt
marshes with only a few Acacia-thickets or well-vegetated wadis (Flamand et
al., 1988). It is, therefore, straightforward to predict that the distribution of
Farasan gazelles is tightly linked to the availability of shelter (shade),
especially in the form of Acacia-thickets (Vesey-Fitzgerald, 1952). Moreover,
due to the lack of surface water, we expected access to succulent
(hygroscopic) woody plants to represent another major limiting resource
(Wronski & Schulz-Kornas, 2015). In our present study, we tested whether
more individual home ranges are found (i.e., if more home ranges overlap) in
regions with favorable ecological conditions. We focused on females to
exclude any confounding effects of male territoriality (Wronski & Plath,
2010).
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Our study area (3 5 km) was situated on the main island, Farasan Kebir
west of Al Qisar and Miharraq Village, and comprised abandoned gardens
(wall-fenced patches of soft soil formerly used to grow crops, but nowadays
often covered by ruderal plants like Indigofera spinosa Forsk. or invasive
mesquite, Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (Wronski et al., 2012), open gravel
plains, bare coral rock and an extensive Acacia-thicket (Wadi Matr; Figure 1).
We divided the study area into 60 quadrants (each 500 500 m; Figure 1) and
established the abundance of five major resources. Within each quadrant we
assessed those parameters in five equidistant plots (each measuring 10 10 m)
along a transect line from East to West and used mean values per quadrant for
the statistical analyses. We collected data from 07 to 18 October 2008 (dry
season, when availability of green plants was lowest; Figure 2) and from 26
January to 07 February 2013 (wet season, after Farasan Islands had received
above-average rains in early 2013; Figure 3).

Figure 1. Location of the Farasan Archipelago in the Red Sea and location of our study
area within the southern part of Farasan Kebir. The study area mainly comprises gravel
plains, gardens and an extended Acacia-grove, and is overlaid with a 500 500 m grid,
resulting in eleven study quadrants measuring 0.25 km2 each. Vegetation-related
variables were collected in five sampling plots per quadrant along transect lines
extending from East to West (lower line of each section).
Figure 2. Exemplary group composition of female Farasan gazelles (a female with her
last and second last female offspringi.e., a matriline), resting inside the Acacia grove
during the dry season.

Figure 3. Typical group composition of female Farasan gazelles (a female with her last
and second last female offspring), browsing on various herbs during the wet season.
Figure 4. Capparis sinaica Veill. bush, a succulent species containing a high amount of
hygroscopic water. The level pole indicates the maximum feeding height of Farasan
gazelles (1.4 m).
Vegetation-related variables were: (i) the Acacia-index (Acacia

ehrenbergiana Hayne is the major woody food plant; Wronski & Schulz-
Kornas, 2015), and (ii) the Capparis-index (Capparis sinaica Veill.). The
maximum browsing height in our study area was estimated as 1.4 m (Figure
4). Therefore, we established both indices as the Green Leaf Frequency (GLF;

Kent & Cocker, 1992) up to a height of 1.4 m, multiplied by the number of

trees with available food within each plot. Available food was defined not only
as green leaves, but also included pods and flowers, while pods, flowers and
leaves fallen on the ground were not considered (Wronski & Schulz-Kornas,
2015). We leaned a 1 1.4 m sampling rectangle, divided into 140 sampling
grids (each 10 10 cm), onto the greenest bush or tree in each plot at the side
where maximum greenness was observed, and recorded presence or absence of
green leaves in all sampling grids to establish the fraction of measuring grids
containing green leafs. (iii) We established the frequency of seasonally
growing annual herbs (including only those species known to be consumed by
gazelles; see Tables 1, 2 in Wronski & Schulz-Kornas, 2015). The 1 1.4 m
sampling rectangle was laid arbitrarily on the ground, and we once recorded
the presence of herb species in each sampling grid to establish the fraction of
grids containing palatable herbs. (iv) The Indigofera-density was established
as the number of I. spinosa plants per quadrant, which is the major perennial
herb consumed by gazelles (Wronski & Schulz-Kornas, 2015). (v) We
established the Acacia-tree density as numbers of trees per quadrant.
Table 1. Correlation matrix (Spearman rank correlations) for all

vegetation-related ecological variables considered in our present study.
Significant effects are marked in bold
A. Wet Acacia- Capparis- Herb frequency Indigofera- Acacia-tree

season index index density density
Acacia-index r = 0.27 r = 0.63 r = 0.44 r = 0.99
P = 0.037 P = 0.000000027 P = 0.00048 P = 0.00000020
Capparis- r = 0.29 r = 0.22 r = 0.30
index P = 0.023 P = 0.099 P = 0.021
Herb r = 0.44 r = 0.63
frequency P = 0.00050 P = 0.00000051
Indigofera- r = 0.42
density P = 0.00084
B. Dry season
Acacia-index r = 0.37 r = 0.39 r = 0.49 r = 0.96
P = 0.0043 P = 0.0021 P = 0.000071 P = 0.00000020
Capparis- r = -0.055 r = 0.0088 r = 0.41
index P = 0.68 P = 0.95 P = 0.0012
Herb r = 0.39 r = 0.38
frequency P = 0.0025 P = 0.0033
Indigofera- r = 0.50
density P = 0.000062

Table 2. Axis loadings for principal component (PC) 1 and 2

of vegetation-related ecological variables, calculated for the wet and dry
seasons separately
Wet season Dry season

Variable PC 1 PC 2 PC 1 PC 2
Acacia-index 0.89 0.22 0.95 0.14
Capparis-index 0.03 0.93 -0.01 0.98
Herb frequency 0.82 -0.26 0.69 -0.11
Indigofera-density 0.86 -0.24 0.58 -0.14
Acacia-tree density 0.91 0.21 0.95 0.15
The population density in the southern part of Farasan Kebir equals

approximately 3.2 gazelles per km2 (extrapolated from ground surveys
between June 2009 and May 2011; see unpublished reports cited in Wronski,
2013). Our study area harbored about 110 females, organized in two large
groups (see unpublished reports cited in Wronski, 2013). Fifty-one individuals
could be individually distinguished by external bodily characteristics such as
horn length and shape (Farasan gazelles have a high degree of horn
deformations in females; Thouless & Al Basri, 1991; Lerp et al., 2016), facial
marks, blood vessel patterns inside the ears or ear cuts, fur color, and scars,
compiled in a photographic file card system (see Walther et al., 1983).
Contrary to gazelles in areas with lower population densities due to human
pursuit (Wronski & Plath, 2010), female groups on Farasan Islands are much
larger and probably not entirely based on relatedness, but rather on the use of
communal resting sites such as Wadi Matr (Figure 1). Group membership and
sizes were largely consistent over time, but some females occasionally visited
other thickets and gardens.
A sufficientbut admittedly, relatively lownumber of location fixes to
calculate home range estimates could be collected for 17 females (i.e., 11
females in group one, 6 females in group two; 6 to 23 sample points per
individual). We conducted daily patrols between 5:00 and 11:00 a.m. and
occasionally between 5:00 and 7:00 p.m. from 26 March to 22 April, 03 June
to 02 July and 07 to 18 October 2009, and from 10 to 19 February, 07 to 16
May and 14 to 20 June 2010 (in total 93 days). Patrols were carried out along
existing tracks (app. 20 km) covering the entire study area. Individually
distinguishable gazelles were haphazardly encountered and positional data
recorded at the spots where the animal was first sighted (usually after it had
moved away) using a Garmin GPS 12.

We used individual location fixes to generate kernel density estimations in

ARCVIEW (version 3.0a) in combination with the Animal Movement
Analysis Arcview Extension (Hooge, 1998) for each female. We used a fixed
kernel density estimation (Worton, 1989), applying a grid of 300 300 m,
reference smoothing and isolines plotted to the location density distribution.
Since raw data on home-range overlap (see below) were not normally
distributed (KolmogorovSmirnov test, P < 0.05), a bandwidth was chosen
using least squares cross validation with a smoothing factor suggested by the
ad hoc default (Silverman, 1986; Horner & Powell, 1990; Seaman & Powell,
1996). Independence and site fidelity tests were applied as described by
Kenward (1987) and Spencer et al., (1990). We determined home range
contours of individual females for the 90%, 70% and 30% home-range
sections. We calculated an index of utilization frequency for each quadrant as
follows: for each individual whose home range overlapped at least partially
with the quadrant, the percentage of home range overlap with the respective
quadrants was calculated, and percentage values of all females encountered in
a given study quadrant were summed.
Table 3. Results from multiple regression analyses using an index

expressing the utilization frequency (cumulative home range overlap with
a given quadrant) for 30%, 70% and 90% home range cores as the
dependent variable and PC 1 and 2 (see Table 2) as predictor variables
A. wet season Factor B SE t P

30% PC 1 13.60 4.07 0.40 3.34 0.001
PC 2 -5.78 4.07 -0.17 -1.42 0.16
70% PC 1 16.23 6.58 0.31 2.47 0.017
PC 2 -6.93 6.58 -0.13 -1.05 0.30
90% PC 1 19.04 7.73 0.31 2.46 0.017
PC 2 -9.32 7.73 -0.15 -1.21 0.23
B. dry season
30% PC 1 14.45 4.00 0.42 3.61 0.001
PC 2 -6.65 4.00 -0.20 -1.66 0.10
70% PC 1 17.22 6.516 0.33 2.64 0.011
PC 2 -8.03 6.52 -0.15 -1.23 0.22
90% PC 1 19.56 7.69 0.32 2.54 0.014
PC 2 -10.02 7.69 -0.16 -1.30 0.20

Figure 5. The relationships between cumulative overlapping 90% kernel home range
(HR) proportions per quadrant (our measure of utilization frequency) and vegetation-
related ecological variables (PC 1, see main text) for wet (A) and dry seasons (B). Note
pronounced variation of gazelle abundances at low values of PC 1. Linear regression
lines are shown.
Vegetation-related variables showed a high degree of inter-correlation, as

Spearman rank correlations found nine out of ten pair-wise correlations in the
wet season and eight out of ten in the dry season to be significant (Table 1).
Therefore, we subjected the five variables to a factor reduction (correlation
matrix-based Principal Component Analysis, PCA) using varimax rotation and
for both analyses retrieved two PC axes with Eigenvalues >1 (for axis-
loadings see Table 2), cumulatively explaining 82.3% (wet season) and 73.4%
(dry season) of the total variance, respectively. To test for effects of the
vegetation-related ecological variables on home range distributions we used
multiple regression analyses using the index expressing utilization frequencies
for 30%, 70% and 90% home range cores as the dependent variables and PC 1
and 2 (see Table 2) as predictor variables. Wet and dry seasons were analyzed
separately.
RESULTS
Multiple regression analysis uncovered statistically significant effects of
PC 1 on utilization frequencies. This pattern was apparent for both dry and wet
seasons, and for 30%, 70% and 90% kernel home range cores (Table 3). PC 1
received strong positive axis loadings (i.e., 0.58) from the Acacia-index, herb
frequency, Indigofera-density, and Acacia-tree density. PC 2, which received

strong (0.93) loadings from the Capparis-index (Table 2), had no significant
effect (Table 3). However, PC 1 explained only a weak (albeit significant),
portion of the total variance, namely 11.2% to 18.8% in the wet season and
11.2% to 21.7% in the dry season (wet season: R2 = 0.11 to 0.19; regression
ANOVA: F2,59 = 3.59 to 6.58, P = 0.003 to 0.034; dry season: R2 = 0.11 to
0.22; F2,59 = 3.59 to 7.91, P = 0.001 to 0.034). Exemplary scatter plots
showing the relationship between utilization frequencies (cumulative 90%
kernel home range cores) and PC 1 during the wet and dry seasons are
presented in Figure 5. Notably, considerable variation in utilization frequency
could be seen at sites with low vegetation cover (i.e., small values for PC 1 in
Figure 5).
DISCUSSION
As a crepuscular species seeking shelter from predation in impenetrable
terrain such as rocky slopes or dense vegetation, the local abundance of
Arabian gazelles was predicted to be linked to the occurrence of Acacia-
thickets (Vesey-Fitzgerald, 1952), which was confirmed in our present study
on Arabian gazelles living on the Farasan Islands. Similarly, a recent
investigation using observational data on the feeding behavior as well as
mesowear analysis highlighted the importance of Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne
as the primary food source for this gazelle population (Wronski & Schulz-
Kornas, 2015).
Preformed water provides a significant portion of the total water intake in
arid-adapted ungulates and is related to the ability of some species to survive
extended periods of time without access to surface water (Taylor, 1968, 1972;
Schmidt-Nielsen, 1979; Cain III et al., 2006). Given the absence of surface
water, we predicted Farasan gazelles to be reliant on hygroscopic water
contained in Capparis sinaica Veill. leaves and buds, and so the distribution of
gazelles should coincide with the occurrence of Capparis-stands, which was
not confirmed in our present study. We argue that other ecological factors
(e.g., occurrence of Acacia-trees) are more important in determining home
range locations and -overlap and that sporadic visits of Capparis-bushes (and
possibly uptake of morning dew; Habibi, 1992) may suffice to secure proper
water balance.
Generally, the effects detected in this study were weak, i.e., vegetation-
related parameters explained only a small amount of the total variance when
considering numbers of individuals whose home ranges overlapped in a given

area. More specifically, pronounced variation in numbers of gazelles per study

quadrant was observed at sites with low vegetation cover. A part of this
variance may be explained by rather low numbers of individual positional data
(see above) and thus, errors in the calculation of home range contours.
However, this finding could also suggest that cover and structural
heterogeneity may be more important determinants of gazelle home ranges
than food availability per se, and it is well conceivable that gazelles seek
shelter in rugged terrain and Acacia-thickets in the daytime but visit open
plains and gardens for foraging at sunset and dawn. An alternative, not
mutually exclusive explanation is that high population densities of the Farasan
population lead to an increased resource competition, and so some individuals
may be forced to occupy sub-optimal micro-habitats. In fact, the Farasan
population remained rather stable, ranging in size between 1,013 animals in
1993 and 1,048 animals in 2013 (Wronski, 2013), suggesting that the carrying
capacity may have been reached.
Our behavioral observations were carried out between dusk and dawn and
included midday resting phases in shelter as well as activity phases at dusk and
dawn when animals move to marshes and former gardens (Wronski et al.,
2013; Wronski & Schulz-Kornas, 2015). This foraging in open terrain
(marshes, gravel plains) is another important factor that needs to be considered
when interpreting the small percentage of variance explained by vegetation-
related variables in our current study. Overall then, our current study is the
first to provide empirical evidence for the long-standing notion that the
distribution of G. arabica on the Arabian Peninsula may be tightly linked to
the occurrence of Acacia-dominated habitats (Vesey-Fitzgerald, 1952). Our
findings could have important implications for the selection of suitable sites
for future reintroduction programs using captive stock, e.g., from King Khalid
Wildlife Research Center, in areas where the species has been locally
eradicated (Wronski et al., 2011b).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank His Highness Prince Bandar bin Saud bin
Mohammed al Saud (President, Saudi Wildlife Authority, Saudi Arabia) for
his permission and support to conduct scientific research on wildlife in the
Kingdom. Special thanks are rendered to Mohammed Hassan Khairi who
collected a large part of vegetation data on the Farasan Islands.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Lead author Torsten Wronski began his academic education in Hamburg,
Germany, where he obtained his Bachelor of Science degree in 1997, followed
by a Master of Science in 1999. His MSc study was carried out in cooperation
with the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and the Integrated Pastoralist
Development Program (IPDP) in Lake Mburo NP, Uganda, to develop a
scheme for the sustainable utilization of impala antelopes in the adjacent
Ankole Ranching Scheme. Here, Wronski focused on fire-induced changes in
the foraging behavior of impala (Aepyceros melampus), comparing the
relatively undisturbed National Park and the heavily used ranchlands
surrounding the park.
In 2004, he obtained a PhD in Behavioral Ecology from the University of
Hamburg. The study was carried out in Queen Elisabeth National Park, in
Uganda, and was supported by the German Academic Exchange Service
(DAAD). The study aimed at explaining why the bushbuck, the most common
ungulate species in Africa, does not suffer from human impact while other
antelope species are driven to the brink of extinction. The bushbuck is a
generalist species, surviving in a number of human-modified habitats and is
believed to be so successful because of its crepuscular and secretive lifestyle.
Hence, Wronski studied the social and spatial organization of this overlooked
antelope species.
Following his time as a PhD student, he became a postdoctoral fellow at
the Zoological Museum in Hamburg. Together with Prof. B. Hausdorf, he
implemented a long-term research project on the phylo-geography and ecology
of terrestrial gastropods in the tropical montane rain forests along the
Albertine Rift Valley in East Africa (Uganda, Rwanda and DRC). The project
is still ongoing and was funded by a research grant from the German Research
Foundation (DFG) and several smaller grants from the Zoological Museum in
Hamburg. Since land snails are easy to collect and due to their important role
as decomposers in the ecosystem, they are believed to be good indicator
species to assess the degree of deforestation and disturbance in tropical rain
forests.
After his time as a postdoctoral fellow, Wronski moved to Saudi Arabia,
where he headed the Field Conservation Department at King Khalid Wildlife
Research Centre (KKWRC). Working with the Zoological Society of London
(ZSL), he was involved in the management of several protected areas in Saudi
Arabia and advised the Saudi Wildlife Authority (SWA) on wildlife
reintroduction and conservation management. His work included scientific

breeding of endangered ungulates, project planning and reporting, budgeting,

and capacity building of Saudi rangers and protected area managers. He
implemented ranger-based camera trapping surveys, carried out the post-
release monitoring of reintroduced ungulates and conducted regular game
counts in several protected areas.
In early 2013, Wronski started teaching Ecology and Wildlife
Management at the University of Rwanda. As a Senior Lecturer in the
Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Resources Management, he educated
future Rwandan wildlife managers and decision makers. In cooperation with
the Rwanda Development Board (RDB), he established a project, monitoring
the effect of fencing on the larger wildlife species in Akagera National Park.
Furthermore, he designed and implemented the ecological monitoring of the
degazetted Mutara Game Reserve, a protected area that was rendered to
returning refugees and their cattle after the civil war in Rwanda. The study is
still ongoing and supported by a research grant from the Swedish International
Development Agency (SIDA). The monitoring program involves the local
people in community-based resource management activities that improve the
understanding of sustainable agriculture, promote traditional pastoralism and
reduce human-wildlife conflicts.
During his time in Rwanda he was invited to become a visiting Professor
at Northwest A&F University in Yangling, Shaanxi, P. R. China to teach
Zoology and Wildlife Management. During his one year visit, he also engaged
in the study of stress reduction in captive musk deer, an ungulate species that
is kept in China for the production of musk, an extremely precious substance
used as a carrier of odor and thus important for the cosmetic industry, but also
in traditional Chinese medicine.

In: Wildlife ISBN: 978-1-53611-042-5
Chapter 2
FOREST NATIVE AND NON-NATIVE PLANT

SPECIES ALONG AN ELEVATIONAL
GRADIENT IN A WESTERN
HIMALAYAN RESERVE
Balwant Rawat, PhD

Ecology, Climate Change and Forest Influence Division,
Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
ABSTRACT
Forest vegetation of a protected area (Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve) in west Himalaya (India) was studied for representativeness and
species distribution along an elevational gradient with a special focus on
native, non-native and endemic species. Results based on community
composition suggest that three forest communities, i.e., Mixed Betula-
Abies, Betula utilis and Mixed deciduous showed their importance with
maximum species diversity and density of native, non-native and endemic
species. The maximum density of non-native species in higher elevational
forest communities indicates towards future compositional changes in
these communities. Further, field data was analysed to predict the rate of
change of species richness and density using Generalized Additive Model
(GAM). Generalized Additive Model indicated a significant response of
Balwant Rawat, PhD: Ecology, Climate Change and Forest Influence Division, Forest Research
Institute (FRI), Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India. E-mail: balwantkam@gmail.com.

18 Balwant Rawat
the species richness and density data (P < 0.01 to 0.001). At the target
site, the total species richness was observed decreasing at a rate of
approximately 0-7 species per 1000 m elevation and the total species
density was observed increasing at a rate of approximately 174-
196individuals per 1000 m elevation (P < 0.01). The overall vegetation
response may perhaps be considered as an influence of different
environmental factors, considering altitude as the major influencing
factor, however, more data sets of vegetation dynamics and responses are
required to further strengthen this premise. Both native and non-native
species showed differences in their distribution along the elevational
gradient according to their biogeographical affinities, climatic tolerance
and response to human activities. As most of the non-native species have
already established viable populations within protected areas, further
spread of similar species is likely if conservation planning is not changed
to include the management of non-native species in such areas.
INTRODUCTION
The Protected Areas (PAs) are repositories of biodiversity in a
biogeographic unit. They function as a refuge for native plants, animals, and
microorganisms and as an outdoor laboratory (Brandt and Rickard 1994).
Conservation of the worlds wild genetic resources increasingly depends on a
small percentage of land area in nature reserves, especially at a time when
natural areas are being rapidly depleted (Macdonald et al., 1989). The
protected area network in the Indian Himalayan region comprises of 7
biosphere reserves, 25 national parks and 98 wildlife sanctuaries occupying
9.90% area of Indian Himalaya (Task Force Report 2010). Considering
representativeness, naturalness and uniqueness, the biodiversity elements of
these areas have highlighted the conservation values of Himalayan protected
areas. Adequate databases on existing biodiversity in most protected areas in
the Himalaya, as in some United States National Parks (Stohlgren et al.,
1995), are not available. Without significant biological information, it is
difficult to develop conservation plans for efficient management of protected
areas. Among various biodiversity elements in Himalayan protected areas, the
study of representativeness of forest vegetation considering the distribution of
native and non-native plant species is of high importance as the likely
proliferation of the second following either structural changes or expansion of
forest communities is a serious threat to overall native plant diversity of the
region. Likewise, invasion of non-native species in mountain regions (Jakobs

Forest Native and Non-Native Plant Species 19
et al., 2010) as well as in Himalayan region have attracted attention (Dhar et

al., 1997).
The proliferation of non-native plant species can threaten and even destroy
the integrity of natural habitats because of detrimental effect on native and
consequently on endemic species. The composition of non-native flora and its
frequency in hijacked areas can be influenced by climate, geology, land use,
landscape context, competition with natives and natural or anthropogenic
disturbances. It has been realized that invasion of non-native species has
dramatically changed the composition of native and endemic species. These
species are threatening biodiversity by direct competition with native and
endemic species or by altering ecosystem properties (Vitousek, 1986). Severe
exotic disturbances dramatically affected succession and led to exotic annual
communities with low native species richness (Stylinski and Allen 1999). The
present investigation in a Protected Area of the Himalaya, Nanda Devi
Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), focuses on; i) status and representativeness of
different forest communities with special focus on native, non-native and
endemic species; ii) existing diversity of native and endemic species and
impact of non-native species in different forest communities; iii) possible
factors responsible for the introduction and establishment of non-native
species and thus identification of forest types susceptible to non-native
proliferation; and iii) rate of change in species richness and density and
identification of change sensitive zones along elevational gradients.
METHODS
Study Area
The reserve has a combination of several ecosystems, including traditional

agro-ecosystems, various types of temperate forests, alpine meadows, glaciers,
etc. It represents the west Himalayan highland (2b) province of the
biogeographic zone-Himalaya and lies between 3006 and 3104 North
latitude and 7913 and 8017 East longitude, covering a total of 6,407.03
km2 (Core zone 712.12 km2; Buffer zone 5,148.57 km2, Transition zone
546.34 km2). One of the most striking features of the reserve included the
existence of the glaciers and associated water resources. The unique
topography, climate and soil support diverse ecosystems, habitats,
communities and species. The prevailing representativeness (richness),

20 Balwant Rawat
naturalness (nativity) and uniqueness (endemism) of biodiversity elements in

the reserve highlight its conservation value.
The present study has been conducted in the buffer zone areas of Nanda
Devi Biosphere Reserve. A detailed study was carried out in three
representative watersheds/elevational transects i.e., Pindari (Dhakuti to
Phurkia), Kafni (Dwali to Khatiya) and Sundardhunga (Retung to Kathliya)
from 2013-2015. The locations of different watersheds selected for the study
are presented in Figure 1.
Sampling
Field surveys were conducted during July to August 2013-2015. Various

forest communities were identified based on elevation, topography and
physiognomy of vegetation across the tourist trails in the reserve. Various
growth and life forms in represented forest communities were thoroughly
explored using random sampling method. A total of 300 sampling units (10 x
10 m) were laid to measure tree species. For the enumeration of shrub and
herb species, five (2 x 2 m) quadrats were laid in each sampling unit. In each
forest stand, the number and species of different growth and life forms were
counted. The optimal size and number of sample plots for each floristic type
was determined following Misra (1968) and Muller-Dombois and Ellenberg
(1974). Specific details of locations (elevation, latitude and longitude) were
recorded using hand-held Global Positioning System [GPS (Garmin make-
12)]. At the same time plants were collected and preserved following the
standard methods (Jain and Rao 1977). We tried our best to investigate the
forest communities located in lowest to highest elevation zone (timberline)
along trekking corridors. The large extent of the area combined with problems
of access because of varied topography did not allow us to investigate all
forest communities which might contain more native and endemic species.
Species Identification and Distribution
Specimens are identified and their life forms were recorded with the help
of regional floras (Naithani 1984; Gaur 1999), national floras (Hooker 1872-
1897; Kumar and Panigrahi 1995; Hajra et al., 1997), some
monograph/revision studies (Mukherjee and Constance 1993; Dikshit and
Panigrahi 1998) and checklist (Uniyal et al., 2007).

Figure 1. Location of target watersheds in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (Uttarakhand in Western Himalaya).

22 Balwant Rawat
All the herbarium specimens are housed in the herbarium of G.B. Pant
Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora (GBP).
The nativity of the species has been identified following Anonymous
(1833-1970), Samant et al., (1998). The species having their origin from the
Himalayan region were considered as natives. Endemism of the species has
been identified based on the distribution of species (Samant and Dhar 1997).
The species restricted to Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) were considered as
endemic whereas those with feebly extended distribution in neighboring
countries were considered as near-endemics (Dhar and Samant, 1993).
Due to low a number of endemic species, a mixed category was defined
for endemic and near-endemic species as endemic/near-endemic (E/NE). The
number of native, non-native and endemic/near-endemics were counted
manually and recorded.
Statistical Analysis
We tested similarity between forest communities using a cluster analysis

(SPSS 13.0). Realizing the availability of non-linear and non-constant data
structure, Generalized Additive Model (GAM) was selected as an appropriate
approach to address the elevational pattern of species richness and density
distribution (McCullagh and Nelder, 1989; Hastie and Tibshirani, 1990;
Guisan et al., 2002). Moreover, we used Generalized Additive Model in order
to generate the change patterns of richness and density and generalized the
changing point and driven prediction model (rate of change) with respect to
explanatory variables as elevation. In the Generalized Linear Model (GLM) a
response variable Y is linearly associated with values on the X explanatory
variables (e.g., elevation) while the relationship on the GLM is assumed to be
as:
Y = g (b 0+b 1 X 1+.. .. . ..+b m X m )
where g ( ) is a function and gi( ) is called the link function, so that:
g i (Y )= b 0+b 1 X 1 +.. .. . ..+b m X m

where Y stands for the expected value of response variable. However, the
notion of additive models with GLM (Generalized Linear Model) is derived as
Generalized Additive Model:
g i Y = Si f i X i .
Generally, Generalized Additive Models allow for choosing a wide variety

of distribution for the response variable and linking functions to improve the
effective quality of the prediction. The Generalized Additive Model fit model
considers the estimation of the smoothing terms in the additive model, general
algorithm added in the model using any regression-type smoothers as partial
residuals (i.e., Rjth set of partial residuals):
R ji = Y S0 S X
h j
k k
The partial residuals remove the effects of all the other variables from Y,
therefore, Y can be used to model the effects against Xj. Such foundation
algorithm provides a way for estimating each smoothing function Sj(.) given
estimates S ^., i j for all (Luotoand Hjort, 2005).
i

RESULTS
Species Distribution, Origin and Growth Form
A total of 235 species were recorded from 11 forest communities in

Pindari regions of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. These species represent 56
families and 165 genera. Among the dominant families, Asteraceae holds top
position with 18 genera and 26 species followed by Poaceae with 11 genera
and 13 families, Apiaceae with 9 genera and 12 species, etc. (Figure 2). There
are 18 genera where only one species was present.
We recorded a total of 107 non-native species (45.53%) and 49
endemic/near-endemic (20.85%) from the study area (Table 1). The recorded
non-native species represent 42 family and 87 genera which are higher than
the natives (36 family and 93 genera). The endemic/near-endemic showed
their presence in 27 family and 42 genera. Species density of non-native

24 Balwant Rawat
species was 53.66% of the total density (21604 216) while endemic/near-
endemic contributes about 18.11%. The species density value ranges from 3-
1712 ind 100 m-2 for native species while in case of non-native it ranges from
1-2538 ind 100 m-2 (Table 1). Species richness of native (r2 = 0.78) and non-
native (r2 = 0.65) species showed significant positive correlation with species
richness (Figure 3a, b). Species richness of endemic/near-endemic species
showed non-significant (r2 = 0.48) increasing trend with total species richness
(Figure 3c) and significant (r2 = 0.76) positive correlation with native species
richness (Figure 3d).
Figure 2. Status of dominant families in studied watersheds in the reserve.
Table 1. Status of native, non-native and E&NE species in target

watersheds of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve with regard
to biogeographic and ecological characters
Characters Native species* Non-Native species E&NE

Total average density(ind 100 m-2) 18651 117 21604 216 7292 111
Density range 3-1712 1-2538 4-1099
Lower altitude limit (m) 2428.9 2268.0 2388.8
Upper altitude limit (m) 2934.8 2842.3 2962.2
Altitude range (m) 505.9 574.3 573.4
Families 36 42 27
Genera 93 87 42
Species richness 128 107 49
*
Species density values including E&NE species.

a b
c d
Figure 3. Relationship between a) Total species richness and total species richness of
native species; b) Total species richness and total species richness of non native
species; c) Total species richness and total species richness of E&NE species; d) Total
species richness of native species and total species richness of E&NE species;
*
p < 0.05; ns = non-significant.
Further, we have analyzed the life forms of all herbaceous species. Total
numbers of annual species were maximum (122; 52%) followed by perennials
(92; 39%) and biennials (21; 9%). The species density contributed by annuals
was 51.7% of the total species density. Natives and non-native species were
further divided into three life forms to examine the number and density of
species in particular growth form (Table 2). Some interesting results were
drawn out of this. Among native species, annuals showed maximum average
density (11017 90) and species richness (61%) while in case of non-native
species maximum average density (11326 269) and species richness (53%)
were recorded in perennials. The range of density is higher for perennials in
both native and non-native species (Table 2).

26 Balwant Rawat
Table 2. Differences between annuals, binneals and perennials herbaceous

species with regard to biogeographic and ecological characters
Characters Native species Non-Native species

Annuals Binneals Perennials Annuals Binneals Perennials
Total average 11017 90 1009 6625 9819 459 35 11326
density (ind 100 28 176 142 269
m-2)
Density range 3-689 18-168 6-1712 3-932 17-161 1-2538
Species richness 79 14 35 43 7 57
Table 3. Number of species, genera, families and their proportional

account in various forest communities
Sl. Forest communities No. of No. of No. of Genera: Families: Families:

families genera species species species genera
1 Alnus nepalensis 36 78 95 1.22 2.64 2.17
2 Mixed Oak-deciduous 39 84 96 1.14 2.46 2.15
3 Quercus floribunda 27 44 45 1.02 1.67 1.63
4 Hippophae salicifolia 36 66 74 1.12 2.06 1.83
5 Quercus 32 60 63 1.05 1.97 1.88
semecarpifolia
6 Mixed-deciduous 29 57 66 1.16 2.28 1.97
7 Mixed Abies- 34 57 89 1.56 2.62 1.68
Rhododendron-Maple
forest
8 Mixed Silver fir-Oak 38 77 91 1.18 2.39 2.03
forest
9 Abies pindrow 29 56 58 1.04 2.00 1.93
10 Mixed Betula-Abies 32 71 85 1.20 2.66 2.22
forest
11 Betula utilis 30 63 74 1.17 2.47 2.10
Representativeness and Community Association
The number of species, genera and family in various forest types and the
proportion of genera to species, families to species and families to genera is
shown in Table 3. The ratio of genera to species was recorded maximum for
Mixed Abies-Rhododendron-Maple forest (1:1.56) followed by Alnus
nepalensis (1:1.22) and Mixed Betula-Abies (1:1.20). The ratio of families to
species was maximum in Mixed Betula-Abies forest (1:2.66) followed by

Alnus nepalensis (1:2.64) and Mixed Abies-Rhododendron-Maple (1:2.62).

Similarly, the ratio of families to genera was maximum for Mixed Betula-
Abies forest (1:2.22) followed by Alnus nepalensis (1:2.17) and Mixed Oak-
deciduous (1:2.15). Maximum species density was recorded from Mixed
Betula-Abies forest (93600 61.4) followed by Betula utilis (72400 27.8)
and Mixed-deciduous (66300 79.1) forest. Similarly the diversity value was
recorded maximum from Betula utilis (3.21 0.11) forest followed by Mixed
Betula-Abies forests (3.12 0.28) and Mixed Abies-Rhododendron-Maple
forest (3.10 0.17). Quantitative values for different forest communities are
presented in Table 4. Further, the maximum density of native species was
recorded from Mixed Betula-Abies forest (54630 ind 100 m-2) followed by
Mixed deciduous forest and Betula utilis (26814 ind 100 m-2) forest. Non-
native species density was recorded maximum in Betula utilis forest (45588
ind 100 m-2) followed by Mixed Betula-Abies forest (38969 ind 100 m-2) and
Mixed deciduous forest (33245 ind 100 m-2). Endemic/near-endemic species
density was found maximum in Mixed Betula-Abies forest (16093 ind 100 m-
2) followed by Betula utilis forest (11021 ind 100 m-2) and Mixed deciduous
forest (10293 ind 100 m-2). Similarly, analysis on life forms showed maximum
species density of annuals in Mixed Betula-Abies forest (66220 ind 100 m-2)
followed by Mixed deciduous forest (33855 ind 100 m-2) and Betula utilis
forest (28309 ind 100 m-2). Species density of biennials was relatively low in
all the forest communities ranged from 83-3003 ind 100 m-2. Maximum
species density in case of perennials was recorded from Betula utilis forest
(41089 ind 100 m-2) followed by Mixed deciduous (31433 ind 100 m-2) and
Mixed Betula-Abies forest (24492 ind 100 m-2) (Table 5).
Considering species richness data, the cluster analysis showed that Mixed
deciduous and Mixed Silver fir-Oak forests, and Quercus semecarpifolia and
Mixed Abies-Rhododendron-Maple forests showed affinity. Betula utilis, Q.
floribunda, Mixed Oak deciduous and Alnus nepalensis forest showed less
affinity in cluster (Figure 4A). In case of species density data, Mixed Abies-
Rhododendron Maple, Mixed Silver fir-Oak, Abies pindrow and Betula-Abies
are most similar while Betula utilis, Q. floribunda and Alnus nepalensis are
least similar forest communities (Figure 4B).
Elevational Pattern of Species Richness and Rate of Change
In view of the non-normality of data, Generalized Additive Model was

found the best fit model (95% confidence level) to predict the rate of change in

28 Balwant Rawat
species richness and density at a particular change point. Amongst different

Generalized Additive Model-based results, Poisson-based Generalized
Additive Model indicated the significant patterns of maximum species
richness and density, and that may be considered for detecting change point. In
this context, the Poisson (linear) function was considered for the species
richness and density patterns of different elevation zones as a smoothened
trend.
In case of species richness in all categories, the change point was
revealing at 2400 m asl (Figure 5a, c, e, g). The change point was observed
around 2600 m (Figure 5b, d, f, h) for species density of endemic/near-
endemic, native and total species density. Non-native species density showed
change point near 3000 m asl.
Table 4. Community characteristics and quantitative features

of forest communities
Community types Altitude Disturbance No. of Density Ind Diversity

(m) stands 100 m-2
Alnus nepalensis 2050-2075 Moderate 02 40000 2.76
10.0 0.09
Mixed Oak- 2100-2300 High 03 37700 2.82
deciduous 26.6 0.26
Quercus 2300-2500 Moderate 04 36200 2.38
floribunda 130.1 0.16
Hippophae 2300-2650 Low 03 9100 32.0 2.02
salicifolia 0.45
Quercus 2500-2900 High 04 23500 2.12
semecarpifolia 97.0 0.47
Mixed-deciduous 2600-2850 Moderate 03 66300 2.32
79.1 0.28
Mixed Abies- 2650-2900 Low 03 31100 3.10
Rhododendron- 62.8 0.17
Maple forest
Mixed Silver fir- 2600-3000 Moderate 02 20100 2.88
Oak forest 9.40 0.08
Abies pindrow 2700-3200 Moderate 02 12800 2.22
12.2 0.03
Mixed Betula- 3200 Low 02 93600 3.12
Abies forest 61.4 0.28
Betula utilis 3300 Low 02 72400 3.21
27.8 0.11

Table 5. Quantitative values of plant species density (ind 100 m-2)

under distribution and growth form criteria
Sl. Forest communities Dn Dnn DE&NE Da Db Dp

1 Alnus nepalensis 18836 21165 7355 18951 1955 19096
2 Mixed Oak-deciduous 15285 22416 9580 15090 1001 21610
3 Quercus floribunda 10331 25870 8499 12450 585 23167
4 Hippophae salicifolia 3577 5523 941 5944 083 3072
5 Quercus semecarpifolia 7978 15521 2807 12189 1049 10261
6 Mixed-deciduous 33052 33245 10293 33855 1008 31433
7 Mixed Abies-Rhododendron- 8717 11382 4051 10681 1198 8220
Maple forest
8 Mixed Silver fir-Oak forest 18801 12301 6797 17845 2862 10395
9 Abies pindrow 7137 5663 2771 7666 517 4618
10 Mixed Betula-Abies forest 54630 38969 16093 66220 2888 24492
11 Betula utilis 26814 45588 11021 28309 3003 41089
Dn = Density of native species; Dnn = Density of non-native species; DE&NE = Density of
endemic/near-endemic species; Da = Density of annual species; Db = Density of biennial
species; Dp = Density of perennial species.
Table 6 depicts overall rate of change values across elevational gradients.

The model estimated increase in endemic/near-endemic (approx. 2-5 species
per 1000 m) and native species richness (approx. 5-13 species per 1000 m).
Species richness of non-native and total species richness is decreasing at a rate
of approx. 1-2 and 0-7 species per 1000 m respectively. The density in all
categories is increasing. It varies from endemic/near-endemic species density
(19-29 individual per 1000 m) to native species density (139-153 individuals
per 1000 m). Total species density is increasing at a rate of 174-196
individuals per 1000 m elevation (Table 6).
DISCUSSION
Species Distribution and Community Composition
The species richness varies with a maximum diversity between 2268 and
2962.8 m as elevational gradient. The elevational range of non-native species
as compared to native and endemic species suggests that the tendency of non-
native to spread over a large area along tourist trails or unpaved roads is much
more than native and endemic species (Christen and Matlack 2006).

Figure 4. Similarity between forest communities considering A) species richness and; B) species density, of native, non native and
E&NE species.

Further, the maximum density contribution by non-native showed that the

rate of regeneration and establishment of non-native is remarkable on such
trails. Greater density contribution by non-native revealed some of the species
are largely proliferating. Species with relatively higher density and frequency
values are more in numbers from the non-native group which suggests that
these species has been naturalized in the region (Pauchard and Alaback 2004).
The species with low density and relatively higher frequency revealed the
tendency to spread over a large area but unable to cross the climatic and
geographical barriers. Moreover, species with high density and low frequency
are showing restricted distribution and available as thick stocking.
The growth form pattern follows a general trend with the maximum
number of species in annual growth form followed by perennials and biennials
growth forms. The maximum species richness and density of non-native
species in perennial growth form revealed their naturalized status along tourist
trails in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (see Table 2).
Figure 5. (Continued).

32 Balwant Rawat
Figure 5. Spatial species rate of change and prediction models (a-b: E&NE species
richness and density; c-d: native species richness and density; e-f: non-native species
richness and density; g-h: total species richness and density. GAM estimates partial
residual (species richness and density) (i.e., relationship between the predictor with the
adjusted dependent variable values).
Representativeness and Association of Communities
Community composition suggests that Mixed Betula-Abies forest,

Betulautilis forest and Mixed deciduous forest are important considering
maximum species diversity and density of native, non-native and endemic
species. This is due to the fact that most of the local villages in Pindari-
Sunderdhunga-Kafni watersheds in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve are settled
below 2500 m (Nautiyal et al., 2005) and all the above three communities are
located in moderate to low disturbance areas (see Table 4). Besides, the
relatively good density of non-native species in higher elevational
communities is indicative of future compositional changes in particular
communities. This may adversely affect the population of valuable native and
endemic species in near future.

Table 6. Elevational plant species richness and density change modeling

for distinct categories
Cluster analysis shows the similarity between forest community w.r.t.

richness and density of species. Some forest communities i.e., Mixed
deciduous and Mixed Silver fir-Oak forest community show affinity in species
richness cluster but stay apart in density cluster reveals dominance and high
proliferation of few native or non-native species in that particular forest
community. Instead, communities like Alnusnepalensis and Mixed Oak
deciduous forest possess the higher density of common species and show
closeness in density cluster (see Figure 4 A, B). Moreover, some communities
like Q. floribunda, Hippophae salicifolia and Betula utilis are least similar in
both the cases. It may be attributed to their special/distinct biogeographic
locations (timberline Betula utilis and riverine H. salicifolia community) or
any other environmental and human factor.
Elevational Pattern of Species Richness and Rate of Change
Generalized Additive Model suggests 2400 m asl as the change point for
species richness and 2600 m asl for species density in most of the categories.
Results demonstrate that non-native species can attain a considerable elevation
in high mountain ranges. The non-native species reaching higher elevation are
species with broad climatic tolerance (Alexander et al., 2011), beginning their
spread from lower elevations especially from point of introduction. Non-native
species exhibited a peak at the lower elevation which most likely reflects the

34 Balwant Rawat
influence of human activities. Total human population and agricultural area lie
in this elevational range in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (Nautiyal et al.,
2005). Native species richness and density along environmental gradients have
developed over a long period of time are influenced by area, climate,
productivity and topography (Oommen and Shankar 2005), evolutionary
factors like adaptation and speciation (Roy and Goldberg 2007).
The Generalized Additive Model distribution of native and endemic
species suggest that mass effect, a zone of overlap between lowland and
mountain species (Lomolino 2001) and human impact (Nogues-Bravo et al.,
2008) may be responsible for attaining more than one peak. Under human
activities, the construction of tourist trail and well-developed ecotourism in
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve are the main causes for such responses. The
pastoralism and transport through horses provide luxurious growth of non-
native species (Benninger 1989) by means of seed dispersal through scat,
consequently responsible for competition between native and non-native
species. Hence, trail corridors are serving as the conduit for movement of
species (Benninger-Truax et al., 1992). In this study, at lower elevation high
productivity (Whittaker and Heggard 2003) may also responsible for peak
species richness and density of native and non-native species in this zone. The
shape of these relationships depends largely on the scale and whether parts or
the whole gradient has been taken into account (Nogues-Bravo et al., 2008).
The most striking feature in Figure 5 is the decreasing species richness of non-
native species after 2400 m elevation coincides with a sudden increase in
species density after 3000 m elevation. This pattern suggests that some of the
non-native species have highly proliferating characteristic.
Besides, a number of environmental factors changes with elevation, some
of which are directly determined by elevation e.g., average temperature, whilst
some other like precipitation are not related to elevation (Korner 2007). Thus,
many times, making species-elevation relationships are difficult to interpret.
CONCLUSION
The Generalized Additive Model helped to develop an approach to the
pattern of species distribution across elevation in the Indian Himalayan
Region. Three forest communities Mixed Betula-Abies forest, Betulautilis
forest and Mixed deciduous are found important in terms of maximum species
diversity and density of native, non-native and endemic species. The high
percentage of non-native species in higher elevation zones and their likely

proliferation following either structural changes or expansion of forest

communities is a serious threat to overall native plant diversity of the reserve.
Assessment and analysis of changes in structure and composition of different
forest types would provide baseline data for developing priorities for
conservation of selected Himalayan PAs (i.e., Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve). Human pressure on natural ecosystems and associated habitat
alterations are intense in Himalayan regions, asking for measures towards
mitigating effects of non-native invasive species. Besides, most of the non-
native species confined to lower elevations would potentially expand their
elevational ranges in the future as a result of climate change and adaptation to
higher elevations (Walther 2007), also due to reaching new sited by dispersal
(Becker et al., 2005). With the increase in numbers of non-native species, the
threat on native biodiversity including endemic species will increase. Thus,
intrusion at higher elevation has direct implication for biodiversity
conservation and habitat management in mountain ecosystems especially
where the impact of human construction is higher.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors are grateful to the Director, GBPNIHESD, Kosi-Katarmal,
Almora, Uttarakhand, India and Forest Research Institute, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand, India for providing the necessary facilities to carry out this work.
We are thankful to Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India
(SERB/YS/LS-205/2013) for providing the financial facilities. Sincere thanks
go to Dr. Sanjay Gairola, Dr. Kailash Gaira, Dr. K. Chandrasekar for time to
time support during field visits and MS preparation. Dr. R.S. Rawal is highly
acknowledged for valuable suggestions and guidance. We also thank the local
inhabitants for their generous help during extensive field visits. Society for
Conservation of Nature (SCON) is highly acknowledged for kind suggestions
and support time to time.
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Almora, Uttarakhand, India.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Balwant Rawat
Research Scientist
Ecology, Climate Change and Forest Influence Division
Forest Research Institute, Dehradun
New Forest - 248006
Nationality/Passport No. Indian/H 934770
Email: balwantkam@gmail.com; balwant_rawat03@rediffmail.com
Balwant Rawai is an energetic and versatile researcher with extensive

detailed research and experimental expertise. Holds a broad set of analytical
and technical skills that would benefit the organization. Proven ability to work
in harsh conditions of higher Himalaya for more than 6 years and to manage
challenging research schedule while working in complex and highly
demanding environment. Excellent written and verbal communication skills.
Organized, reliable and effectively computer literate. Associated with various
research projects that enhances and strengthens the research ability and
knowledge. Well-developed perfect skill in formal and non-formal teaching
and training. Able to get involved in versatile environments and help others
overcome their anger/sorrow in adverse situations.
Educational Qualifications:
Degree/Certificate University/Board/Institute Year of % Marks Class/Div.

completion obtained
Ph.D.* Kumaun University, 2013 Awarded -
Nainital, India
M.Sc. (Botany) - do- 2005 64 I
B.Sc. (Botany, - do- 2003 67 I
Forestry, IT)
Intermediate(Science, J. N. V. Tarikhet (CBSE) 2000 59 II
Biology group)
High-school(Science -do- 1998 71 I
and Humanities)
* Title: Changes in vegetation diversity and plant response in Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve over the last two decades under the supervision of Dr. R. S. Rawal and Dr.
Lalit Tiwari.

40 Balwant Rawat
Research Experience:
G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development

(GBPIHE&D), Almora, Uttrakhand-An Autonomous Institute of Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India.
1. Junior Research Fellow - MoE&F funded project entitled LEAD-BR

Centre for Himalayan Biosphere Reserves (Principal Investigator:
Dr. R.S. Rawal) from February 2006 to October 2007. Study involved
the synthesis and dissemination of available information on
Himalayan Biosphere Reserve (HBR), through documentation and
digital databases.
2. Junior Research Fellow Project entitled Response assessment and
processing of knowledge base to serve long term management and use
of biodiversity in the Himalaya- focus on representative protected
sites (Principal Investigator: Dr. R.S. Rawal) from October 2007 to
October 2009.
3. Senior Research Fellow - In House project Pro-08 from October 2009
to April 2011. Study involved the synthesis and dissemination of
available information on Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR),
West Himalaya. Further, a revisit study is being carried out in some
target areas for assessment of changes in vegetation in and around
NDBR to define future implications of these changes and to develop a
strategy for long term management in the reserve.
4. Senior Research Fellow - CSIR Fellowship from April 2011 to
November 2012 in a self-investigated project entitled Changes in
vegetation diversity and plant response in Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve over the last two decades.
5. Contractual Researcher Level-II - House project Pro-07 from
February 2013 to March 2013. Study involved the synthesis and
preliminary review of available information on High altitude forests
of Uttarakhand, West Himalaya.
Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun, Uttarakhand- An

Autonomous Institute of Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
India.

1. Visiting Faculty in FRI University, May 2013 to till date. My work

involved teaching foundation course and ecosystem analysis in Forest
Ecology and Environment students (1st Semester).
2. Fast Track Young Scientist (DST), June 2014 to till date. My work
involves investigation on Q. semecarpifolia forests in different sites
(disturbed and undisturbed) in Uttarakhand to explore the species and
genetic diversity patterns.
Publications
[1] Rawat JM, Rawat B, Tewari A, Joshi SC, Nandi SK, Palni LMS,
Prakash A (2017). Alterations in growth, photosynthetic activity and
tissue-water relations of tea clones in response to different soil moisture
content. Trees. DOI:10.1007/s00468-016-1519-x.
[2] Rawat JM, Rawat B, Bhandari A, Yadav S, Mishra S, Chandra A,
Mishra SN (2017). Aconitum biotechnology: recent trends and
emerging perspectives. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum. DOI:
10.1007/s11738-016-2295-3.
[3] Rawat B and Rawal RS (2016) Building on trends of bibliometric
analysis for fixing priorities for research on Himalayan Biosphere
Reserves. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India
Section B: Biological Sciences. DOI: 10.1007/s40011-016-0803-2.
[4] Rawat JM, Rawat B, Mishra S, Bhandari A, Agnihotri RK and Chandra
A (2016) Influence of Agrobacterium rhizogenesstrains, acitosyringone,
inoculums size and temperature on production of active ingredients from
Picrorhizakurrooa. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants. DOI:
10.1007/s12298-016-0341-7.
[5] Mishra M, Rawat B, Rawat JM, Mishra SN (2016). Genetic fidelity
analysis of encapsulated microshoots of Sarcostemmabrevistigma using
RAPD markers. International Journal of Advanced Research 4(5): 1514-
1519.
[6] Rawat B, Gairola S, Rawal RS (2015) Assessing Conservation Values of
Forest Communities in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve: Plant Diversity,
Species Distribution and Endemicity. Journal of Mountain Science
12(4): 878-899.
[7] Rawat B, Gairola S, Chandra Sekar K, Rawal RS (2015) The present
status and future prospects of forest vegetation in part of Nanda Devi

42 Balwant Rawat
Biosphere Reserve (a World Heritage Site), India. Journal of Forestry

Research 8(7): 380-391. DOI: 10.1007/s11676-015-0109-x.
[8] Rawat B, Gairola S, Sekar KC and Rawal RS (2014) Community
structure, regeneration potential and future dynamics of natural forest
site in part of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Uttarakhand, India.
African Journal of Plant Science 8(7): 380-391.
[9] Gaira KS, Rawal RS, Rawat B and Bhatt ID (2014) Impact of climate
change on flowering of Rhododendron arboreum in Central Himalaya,
India: A case study. Current Science 106: 1-4.
[10] Rawat JM, Rawat B, Mihsra S, Negi RK, Mishra SN, Chandra A and
Nautiyal S (2014)Altitudinal and Seasonal Variation in Bioactive
Compound Aconitine in Aconitum violaceum, a Threatened Medicinal
Plant of Indian Himalayan Region. International Journal of Advanced
Research 2(10): 981-988.
[11] Rawat B and Rawat JM (2014) Perception of Students towards
Conservation of Forest Resources: a case study from Western Himalaya,
India. International Journal of Advanced Research 2(8): 53-61.
[12] Rawat B and Joshi M (2014) Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve as a
successful example of old traditions and new approaches in long-term
research and their analyses. International Journal of Advanced Research
2(4): 245-256.
[13] Rawat JM, Rawat B and Mishra S (2014) Effect of elicitation on picrotin
and picrotoxinin production from in vitro products of
Picrorhizakurrooa. African Journal of Biotechnology 13(51): 4612-
4619.
[14] Rawat JM, Rawat B, Mehrotra S, Chandra A and Nautiyal S (2013)
ISSR and RAPD based evaluation of genetic fidelity and active
ingredient analysis in tissue culture raised plants of Picrorhizakurrooa.
Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 35(6): 1797-1805. (DOI: 10.1007/s11738-
013-1217-x).
[15] Rawat JM, Rawat B and Mehrotra S (2013) Plant regeneration, genetic
fidelity, and active ingredient content of encapsulated hairy roots of
Picrorhizakurrooa Royle ex Benth. Biotechnology Letters 35: 961-968.
(DOI: 10.1007/s10529-013-1152-3).
[16] Rawat JM, Rawat B, Agnihotri RK, Chandra A and Nautiyal S (2013).
In vitro propagation, genetic and secondary metabolite analysis of
Aconitum violaceum Jacq.: a threatened medicinal herb.
ActaPhysiologiaePlantarum35: 2589-2599 (DOI: 10.1007/s11738-013-
1294-x).

[17] Rawat B, Negi VS, Rawat JM, Tewari LM and Rawat L (2013) Potential
contribution of wildlife sanctuary to forest conservation-a case study
from western Himalaya. Journal of Mountain Science 10(5): 854-865.
[18] Rawat JM, Rawat B, Chandra A and Nautiyal S (2013). Influence of
plant growth regulators on indirect shoot organogenesis and secondary
metabolite production in Aconitum violaceum Jacq. African Journal of
Biotechnology 12(44): 6287-6293.
[19] Rawat B, Rawat JM, Mishra S and Mishra SN (2013)
Picrorhizakurrooa: current status and tissue culture mediated
biotechnological interventions. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 35: 1-12.
[20] Rawat B (2013) Changes in vegetation diversity and plant responses in
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve over the last two decades. PhD thesis.
Submitted to Kumaun University Nainital, Uttarakhand, India. pp. 182.
[21] Rawat B, Sekar KC and Gairola S (2013) Ethnomedicinal plants of
Sunderdhunga valley, western Himalaya, India - traditional use, current
status and future scenario. Indian Forester 139(1): 61-68.
[22] Sekar KC and Rawat B (2011) Diversity, utilization and conservation of
ethno-medicinal plants in Devikund - A high altitude, sacred wetland of
Indian Himalaya. Medicinal Plants 3(2): 105-112.
[23] Rawat B, Gairola S and Bhatt A (2010) Habitat characteristics and
ecological status of Paeoniaemodi Wallich ex Royle: A high value
medicinal plant of West Himalaya. Medicinal Plants 2(2): 121-125.
[24] Sekar KC, Rawat B and Rawal RS (2010) Taraxacumlanigerum Van
Soest (Asteraceae) A new record from Uttarakhad. Annals of Forestry
18 (2): 331-332.
[25] Sekar KC, Rawal RS, Gairola S and Rawat B (2009)
Arnebianandadeviensis (Boraginaceae) a new species from India.
American Journal of Science 5 (2): 105-106.
[26] Sekar KC, Gairola S, Rawat B and Rawal RS (2008) Avenafatua subsp.
meridionalis Malz. (Poaceae) A new record from Uttarakhad. Annals
of Forestry 16 (2): 361-362.
[27] Rawat B, Majghain S and Joshi H (2007) An Ecological Study of the
status, regeneration, conservation and management of three
commercially important trees of Almora. Vegetos20(1): 71-77.

44 Balwant Rawat
Abstract/Presentations/Workshops/Symposia
International
[1] Rawat B and Rawal RS (10 Dec-12 Dec, 2014) Identification of
important, sensitive and resilient forest communities in a world heritage
site in western Himalaya: an integrated approach to the forest
conservation and management. Tropical Ecology Congress- 2014.
Organized by Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India (Oral
presentation).
[2] Rawat B, Patel Lavkush and Rawal RS (6 Dec-8 Dec, 2010) Trend of
changes in vegetation composition and its future implications: a case
study from Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), west Himalaya,
India. Organized by G. B. Pant Institute Himalayan Environment and
Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India. (Poster
presentation).
[3] Rawat B and Rawal RS (31 July-4 August, 2010) Assessment and future
implications of changes in vegetation pattern in and around Nanda Devi
Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), west Himalaya, India. Organized by
Botanical Society of America at Providence, Rhode Island, US (Oral
presentation).
National
[1] Rawat B and Rawal RS (26-28 February, 2015) Prioritization of mid to
high altitude diverse forests for conservation and management in
western Himalaya: a new approach to the forest ecology and
management. 9thUttarakhand state science and technology congress,
Uttarakhand (Oral presentation).
[2] Rawat B and Rawal RS (14-16 November, 2011) Population structure
and regeneration behavior of forest communities in last two decades in
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, western Himalaya. 6thUttarakhand state
science and technology congress, Uttarakhand (Oral presentation).
[3] Rawat B, Gairola S and Rawal RS (2-7 January, 2010) Forest Vegetation
Changes in and Around Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, West Himalaya.
97th Indian Science Congress, Thiruvananthapuram (Abstract).
[4] Participation in National conference on Orchid systematics and
diversity analysis for conservation and sustainable utilization (19-21
March, 2010) organized by The orchid society of India at GBPIHED,
Kosi Katarmal Almora, Uttarakhand, India.

[5] Participation in Pre Conference Geomatics-2009 Tutorials on

Geomatics in Disaster Management (2-3 February, 2009) sponsored
by Indian Society of Geomatics, Ahmedabad, India and organized at
IIRS Campus, Dehradun, India.
[6] Participation in Consultation Workshop on Himalayan Biosphere
Reserves- Defining role under global change scenarios of climate and
human economics (6-7 July, 2007) organized by GBPIHED, Kosi
Katarmal Almora, Uttarakhand, India.
[7] Participation in National Seminar and Workshop on Application of RS
and GIS in the Natural Resources Management, Sustainability and Uses
(11-13 September, 2008) organized at Department of Geology, HNB
Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal), Uttarakhand, India.
[8] Participation in symposia on Himalayan Biodiversity- Issues and
Options for Priority Research (27-28 March, 2006) organized by
GBPIHED, Kosi Katarmal Almora, Uttarakhand, India.
[9] Participation as a resource person in different training workshops on
People Participation in Biodiversity Conservation (2006-2009).
Organized by Conservation of Biological Diversity Core of G. B. Pant
Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Kosi-Katarmal,
Book Chapters/Proceedings/Reports/Compendium
[1] Rawat B, Gairola S, Rawal RS (2014) Vegetation ecology and

conservation values of forest communities in Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve, Uttarakhand, India. In: Current Trends in Environmental
Resource Management (eds. Naithani S et al.,). Gaura books India Pvt.
Ltd, New Delhi, ISBN: 978-81-929248-1-6.
[2] Rawal RS and Rawat B (2012) Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve-west
Himalaya, India. In: Compendium on Indian Biosphere Reserve.
Progression during two decades of conservation (eds. Palni LMS, Rawal
RS, Rai RK and Reddy SV). Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India.

46 Balwant Rawat
Awards/Distinctions Received
[1] Young Scientist Award for best oral presentation under the discipline
Environmental Science and Forestry. 9th Uttarakhand State Science and
Technology Congress 2014-15. Organised by Uttarakhand State Science
and Technology, Vigyan Dham, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India.
[2] Fast Track Young Scientist under DST Fellowship from June 2014 to till
date in a self investigated project entitled Evaluation of population
status and genetic variability in an important Himalayan Oak,
Quercussemecarpifolia Sm., in Uttarakhand: an integrated approach to
the forest ecology and management (File No: SERB/LS-933/2013).
[3] Senior Research Fellow under CSIR Fellowship from March 2011 to
November 2012 in a self investigated project entitled Changes in
vegetation diversity and plant response in Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve over the last two decades (File No: 09/560 (0015)/2011-
EMRI).
[4] Recipient of full international travel support from Department of Science
and Technology (file no. SR/ITS/01313/2010-2011), Govt. of India for
attending international conference Botany 2010 in Rhode Island, US
(oral presentation).
[5] Identified as a postgraduate fellow under the agreement established by
TWAS and Chinese Academy of Sciences.
[6] Award for best photographs in landscape and cultural diversity in the
year 2011 and 2012 in GB Pant Institute, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora,
Uttarakhand, India.
Training
Training course on Remote Sensing and Geographic Information

System- Digital Image Processing: Watershed Mapping. Sponsored
by: Uttarakhand Space Application Centre, Dehradun (25-30 March,
2008) organized by GBPIHED, Kosi Katarmal Almora, Uttarakhand,
India.
Training course on Introduction to GIS and its Applications (26
Oct-20 Nov, 2009) conducted by National Remote Sensing Centre,
Hyderabad, India.

Training course on Soil Analysis and Data Interpretation (15-17

November, 2010) conducted by GBPIHED, Kosi Katarmal Almora,
Uttarakhand, India.
Training course on Photography: Training on Basic Techniques
(27-28 September, 2012) conducted by GBPIHED, Kosi Katarmal

In: Wildlife ISBN: 978-1-53611-042-5
Chapter 3
THE HUMAN PLACE IN NATURE:

THE WILD HORSE TELLS ALL
Claudia Notzke, PhD

Faculty of Management, The University of Lethbridge,
Lethbridge, AB, Canada
ABSTRACT
Free-ranging horse populations are encountered worldwide in widely
differing habitats. Their presence often engenders controversy which is
further intensified in protected areas. This chapter intertwines the socially
constructed meaning of the wild horse with that of protected areas. Using
qualitative methods, it showcases the situation of wild horses in protected
areas within diverse political and cultural contexts in Canada and
Namibia and introduces the wild horse as a fitting crucible to document
different conceptualizations of protected areas, the nature/culture
interface and the native/alien paradigm. Wild horses reveal themselves as
powerful agents in their own right, developing complex relationships
with other agents in their environment including humans, and with
surprising outcomes. The three cases documented here lend credence to a
revised approach to determining a species nativity in an area which takes
into account ecological naturalization and cultural association rather than
just drawing lines in space and time.

50 Claudia Notzke
INTRODUCTION
Free-ranging horse populations are encountered worldwide in widely
differing habitats. There is general consent that the Mongolian Przewalski
Horse should be considered the only surviving true wild horse (even though
the Exmoor Pony and the Portuguese Sorraia may lay claim to the same
designation (Oelke, 1997, 2012) while all others are feral, i.e., previously
domesticated. However, the application of the socially constructed (Notzke,
2013) terms feral and wild is highly inconsistent and mirrors the
controversy surrounding free-roaming horses. They are managed as exotic
pests in Australia (Linklater, Stafford, Minot, & Cameron, 2002; Robinson,
Smyth, & Whitehead, 2005; Symanski, 1994), rigorously controlled in New
Zealand (Fleury, 2006), and used as agents of restoration ecology in Siberia
(Zimov, 2005), Germany (Sonnenburg & Gerken, 2003), Austria, the
Netherlands and Great Britain (Zimmermann, 2005). Horses play a crucial role
in the Rewilding Europe initiative (Linnartz & Meissner, 2014). The American
mustangs are not protected as wild animals but rather controlled and managed
for their perceived cultural significance. Ever since the passage of the 1971
Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act (US Congress, 1971) their
situation has been mired in controversy (De Steiguer, 2011; Downer, 2011;
Morin, 2006; Ryden, 1999; Stillman, 2008; Symanski, 1985, 1996). Western
Canadas free-roaming horses have no status other than that of stray animals
(Notzke, 2013). For the purposes of this article the term wild will be utilized
to describe horses who have no owners, who range free, and who have
survived without human support for generations.
This chapter will intertwine the socially constructed meaning of the wild
horse with that of protected areas. The exploration of this topic is an integral
part of a more broadly focused research program on wild horses which also
addressed management issues in a cross-cultural context (Notzke, 2013) and
wild horse-based tourism (Notzke, 2016). Both articles feature approaches
engaging with the social and political construction of animals and their places
as well as the agency of the animals themselves. These approaches are also
pertinent for investigating the status of wild horses in protected areas within
different geographical and cultural environments. A detailed discussion of the
theoretical frameworks of social and political constructivism and nonhuman
agency was featured in an earlier publication (Notzke, 2013) and will not be
repeated here.
This chapter introduces wild horses living in protected areas in three
profoundly different locations. The first example showcases wild horses

The Human Place in Nature: The Wild Horse Tells All 51
occupying protected lands on the Chilcotin Plateau in British Columbia,

western Canada, namely Nuntsi and Tsil?os Provincial Parks and the ?Elegesi
Qayus Wild Horse Preserve, the latter having been established by aboriginal
decree. The second case introduces the horses of Nova Scotias Sable Island in
eastern Canada, a newly designated national park reserve1. The third example
is represented by the wild horses of the Namib desert in Namibia whose
habitat became part of Namib Naukluft Park in 1986. In all three cases the
animals have overcome the odds staked against them by conventional
scientific wisdom and widespread government authorities perception of the
horses as an alien/non-native/introduced and even invasive species. Compared
with the scenario of wild horses on public lands within a multiple use
framework (Notzke, 2013) their presence in protected areas of various
designations adds an additional layer of complexity, namely the question of
their fit with the philosophical underpinnings of the protected areas in
question.
I will explore the different conceptualization of protected areas by western
industrialized society and indigenous peoples, as well as differing views on the
nature/culture interface and the native/alien paradigm. The wild horse will be
presented as a fitting crucible to document these different perceptions.
However, the animal will reveal itself as much more than a mere canvas onto
which stakeholders views are projected. Wild horses are powerful agents in
their own right who develop complex relationships with other agents in their
environment including humans, and with surprising outcomes.
THE THREE CASES BRIEFLY INTRODUCED

The Chilcotin, British Columbia, Canada
In British Columbia wild horses
are unofficially managed as an undesirable species under the B.C.

Grazing Act under the Ministry of Forests. Management policy in the
past has led to extensive extirpation programs of feral horses in British
Columbia and lack of protection will eventually lead to total extirpation,
1
The reserve designation signifies that there are outstanding boundary issues to be finalized
with First Nations. In all other respects the area is subject to national parks jurisdiction and
legislation.

52 Claudia Notzke
in our opinion, if some measures are not taken to study and protect
surviving herds, where appropriate. (McCrory, 2002, p. 53)
The majority of free-roaming horses in British Columbia occur on the

Chilcotin Plateau, and much of the land they occupy is designated as a
protected area either by Euro-Canadian authorities ((Nuntsi and Tsil?os
Provincial Parks) or indigenous people (Nemiah Aboriginal Wilderness
Preserve and ?Elegesi Qayus Wild Horse Preserve). The issue is further
complicated by the fact that the two provincial parks are encompassed by the
Nemiah Aboriginal Wilderness Preserve and the ?Elegesi Qayus Wild Horse
Preserve, and all of them are located on Xeni Gwetin Aboriginal title land.
B. C. Parks (the agency managing British Columbias provincial parks)
sees its mission as the protection of representative and special natural places
within the provinces Protected Areas System for world-class conservation,
outdoor recreation, education and scientific study. (Government of British
Columbia, n.d.) Tsil?os and Nuntsi Parks are both remote wilderness parks
with minimal infrastructure, mostly suited for backcountry hiking and
horseback riding. Tsil?os (233 000 hectares) was established in 1994 to
protect the diverse vegetation and ecologically sensitive animal populations in
this transition zone between dry interior and wet coastal landscapes (Anderson
2011, p. 203). Some free-roaming horses live on the parks periphery. Nuntsi
Provincial Park (22 898 hectares) was primarily established to protect valuable
moose habitat, in 1995. This park is part of the Brittany Triangle (155 000
hectares), a very remote area bounded by the Chilko and Taseko Rivers, which
is inhabited by a wild horse population of roughly 170-220 animals. Both
Parks are co-managed by B. C. Parks and the Xeni Gwetin people. B. C.
Parks toleration of free-roaming horses within the provincial parks,
particularly Nuntsi, is largely due to the agencys desire to accommodate the
First Nation co-management partner, the Xeni Gwetin (whose political clout
has been reinforced by recent court decisions).
Before the provincial parks were established in the 1990s, the Xeni
Gwetin created the Nemiah Aboriginal Wilderness Preserve through the
Nenduwh Jid Guzitin Declaration in 1989. This aboriginal decree provided for
the protection from industrial exploitation of the major part of the Xeni
traditional Caretaker Area (only excluding those parts already damaged by
clearcuts and other developments). Its purpose is the preservation of the Xeni
spiritual and economic homeland in perpetuity.
The year 2002 witnessed the ?Elegesi Qayus Wild Horse Preserve
Declaration. This declaration added a further element to the 1989 decree,

singling out the wild horses and their habitat as a cornerstone for the
protection of the entire wilderness preserve. The text of the Declaration
(Friends of the Nemaiah Valley, n.d., Website http://fonv.ca/wildhorses/)
seems to indicate that both preserves are synonymous, i.e., have the same
boundaries.
Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada
Sable Island is Canadas newest national park reserve (2013) and an

ecological and geological rarity. Referred to as a shape-shifting ghost of an
island (de Villiers & Hirtle, 2004, dust jacket) as well as the graveyard of the
Atlantic, the island is located 300 kilometres southeast of Halifax and
measures just over 40 kilometres in length and one and one-half kilometres in
width. Its ecosystem of sandy dunes, grasslands, freshwater ponds and beaches
provides habitat to remarkable plant, bird and marine life as well as the largest
grey seal colony in the world. Its best known and most iconic inhabitants are
the Sable Island wild horses who descend from horses confiscated from the
Acadians and left on the island during the 1750s (Christie, 1980). Until the
passage of Saskatchewans Bill 606, An Act to protect the Wild Ponies of the
Bronson Forest in 2009, these horses constituted Canadas only protected herd
of wild horses, after Prime Minister Diefenbaker protected them under Federal
Law in 1961. A public outcry prevented their removal from an ecosystem
where they must be considered alien. These animals are entirely unmanaged.
Their numbers fluctuate between 250 and 500+ and, in the absence of
predators, seem to be effectively controlled by climate and food supply
(Welsh, 1977). Prior to the national park reserve designation, Environment
Canada maintained a presence on the island by means of a meteorological
research station. Visitor access has been restricted since 1801 and was
regulated by the Canadian Coast Guard. Visiting Sable Island was contingent
on a permit from the Canadian Coast Guard and chartering a five passenger
plane. The station manager and a resident biologist and environmental
consultant were the only permanent human inhabitants, in addition to
temporary station employees. The majority of Sable Island visitors (ca. 100
annually) were photographers, cinematographers, artists and researchers. In
2008 the Provincial Horse Act 2008, c. 43, s. 1. declared the Sable Island
Horse to be the Provincial Horse of Nova Scotia. Sable Islands designation as
a national park reserve was the harbinger of a new era with an uncertain
outcome for the islands iconic wild horses.

54 Claudia Notzke
Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia
With an overall area of almost 50 000 square kilometres, the Namib-

Naukluft National Park is the largest wildlife park in Africa and the fourth
largest in the world. A population of approximately 220 free-roaming horses
occupies its southeastern corner. Their presence in this area can be traced back
to the chaotic events of World War I in this part of German South West Africa,
when German and South African mounted troops clashed and stud farms were
abandoned in 1914/15. The dispersed horses lived in a restricted diamond area,
the so-called Sperrgebiet, where they were protected from hunters and horse
capturers, while relying on an artificial water source, maintained for the
railway. Their presence became a contentious issue in 1986 when the
Sperrgebiet was incorporated into the Namib-Naukluft Park, monitored by the
Directorate of Nature Conservation (which would become the Ministry of
Environment and Tourism, MET, after Namibias independence in 1990). A
group of purists within the Directorate of Nature Conservation wanted to
remove the horses from the park in 1986, but this idea met with strong
opposition from the public and within government. The 1990s brought times
of drought with a drastic reduction of the horse population through mortality
and human intervention (and the world was watching!), and the 2000s ushered
in a time of plenty. These two decades also brought about a change in
perception, bolstered by scientific research. There has been a shift in thinking
from the toleration of an alien species inside a national park to respect and
appreciation as a unique breed, a tourist drawcard and a national treasure,
which has a century-old role in Namibian history (Goldbeck & Greyling,
2011).
FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY

The Horse
In the animal kingdom the horse occupies a special position.
The wild horse is enhanced as well as compromised in its otherness

[based on Haraway, 2003, 16] by having taken the leap into
domestication and having then reversed this move by regaining its wild
heritage. Arguably no other animal is as deeply entrenched in our cultural
fabric as the horse. There is an overabundance of evidence throughout

history and prehistory, of how the horse has inspired the arts,
revolutionized warfare, shaped societies and conquered continents
(Chamberlin 2006). A memory of this is deeply ingrained in our
collective psyche. The horses prominence as a cultural being
complicates its encounter as a wild animal. (Notzke, 2013, p. 402)
The animals hybrid status is compounded by a very important spatial

dimension. The human construction of animals is closely linked to the human
construction of place (Granfield & Colomy, 2009, p. 139). As Philo & Wilbert
(2000, p. 11) put it,
Thus zones of human settlement (the city) are envisaged as the

province of pets or companion animals (such as cats and dogs), zones of
agricultural activity (the countryside) are envisaged as the province of
livestock animals (such as sheep and cows), and zones of unoccupied
lands beyond the margins of settlement and agriculture (the wilderness)
are envisaged as the province of wild animals (such as wolves and lions).
This quote belies the non-existence of clearly defined boundaries defining

these realms, but brings the issue of free-roaming horses in protected areas
more sharply into focus.
Protected Areas
The wild horse as a cultural construct and ecological agent is a unique and
fitting crucible to elucidate the social construction of protected areas and
conservation management decision-making (and by implication the interface
between culture and nature) in different cultures and different political
frameworks. As Ryan & Huyton (2000, p. 27) point out, parks represent a
nexus of different cultures, Western concepts of the hedonistic and scientific,
and Aboriginal concepts of identification of self with place as living entities.
The record of the relationship between indigenous peoples and protected areas
worldwide is a checkered one (Lewis, 1990; Notzke, 1994; Shelton, 1983;
Wells, Brandon, & Hannah, 1992; West & Brechin eds., 1991), but this
relationship has undergone considerable evolution. Environmental perception
is where worlds collide. (Notzke, 2006, p. 171). To speak with Machlis &
Tichnell (1985, p. 95), We must always remember that national parks, for all
their seeming wildness and the apparent dominance of Nature are partly social

56 Claudia Notzke
creations. They are conceived, established, maintained, and in turn threatened

by society. This has major implications for what is deemed worthy of
protection and why, and for how potential tensions between the long term
conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural
values (International Union for the Conservation of Nature, n.d.) will be
addressed. There are fundamental differences between cultures in this respect.
This also affects the management authorities approach of free-roaming horses
who, in turn, serve as an indicator of how nature and culture are perceived in
different societies.
Nonhuman Agents
The three examples presented here were chosen not only because of my
personal familiarity with them, but also for being well suited to demonstrate
the human dimensions of wildlife and parks management as well as the
horses capacity as nonhuman agents to influence their own fate.
Rather than viewing animals merely as passive surfaces on to which

human groups inscribe imaginings and orderings of all kinds (Philo &
Wilbert 2000, 5) we need to focus our attention on animal subjectivity
and agency (Wolch 2002, 724). In the case of the wild horse this means
paying tribute to the animals complex relationships, behaviour, and
ecology as well as its nonhuman charisma. (Lorimer 2007).
Understanding the animals affective materiality (Dempsey 2010,

1142) in its encounters with humans helps us appreciate that conservation
and resource management politics encompass more than just different
interests and values, particularly when we consider different stakeholders
and the public. Wild horses by virtue of their tangible and intangible
properties directly affect people encountering them, and as a result, may
also effect policies determining their future. The role played by what
Lorimer (2007) calls nonhuman charisma can hardly be overstated.
(Notzke, 2013, p. 402)
Equines in Other Protected Areas
Wild horses are present in several other protected areas, but few have been
explored by scholarly researchers. Rikoon (2006) recounts a conflict in the

Missouri Ozarks in the United States where local residents clash with the
National Park Service over the removal of a small herd of wild horses from the
Ozark National Scenic Riverways. This article highlights competing cultural
constructs about the object of the conflict the horses themselves and the
challenge to understand how the conflicting parties framed the wild horses in
relation to both nature and culture (Rikoon, 2006, p. 201). Theodore
Roosevelt National Park (TRNP) in North Dakota represents another
interesting example that I visited during my research travels. TRNP was
established in 1947 with an unusual mandate, namely as a memorial park to
honour Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt was deeply affected by the years he
spent ranching and hunting in the North Dakota Badlands during the late 19th
century, and these rugged lands came to be forever associated with him in the
American psyche. As a result the national park was not only intended to
preserve the natural ecosystem, but rather the natural environment as
Roosevelt encountered it. From the 1950s to the early 1970s every effort was
made to eradicate the wild horses that were found in the area when the park
was established. Then park management remembered that Roosevelt in his
writings had actually talked about wild horses being present on these lands,
and it was decided to maintain what was officially called a historic
demonstration herd. Not surprisingly, the management of this herd ranging
between 60-140 animals is ripe with controversy, particularly during the
round-ups that take place every couple of years. These are storied horses,
rumoured to be descended from the horses of Sitting Bulls tribesmen as well
as from 19th century ranch horses, but since then subjected to various outside
breeding manipulations. The so-called Nokota Horse was declared North
Dakotas state equine. (Interview 2006.16; McLaughlin, 1989).
In other cases wild equids, namely burros, were denied residency rights in
American national parks after their supporters lost a court challenge. Wild
burros were removed from Grand Canyon National Park and Bandelier
National Monument (Houston & Schreiner, 1995). In both cases the courts
upheld the legitimacy of National Park Service policy on alien species
management.
The Native/Alien Paradigm
Inconsistency in management actions of authorities even within one

country and the frequency of conflict arising over the presence of equines (and
other species) in parks hint at the complexity of the concepts of native versus

58 Claudia Notzke
alien species. Fruitful engagement with these categories involves much more
than drawing lines in space and time (Houston & Schreiner, 1995, p. 204)
which in itself is anything but straightforward. There is a voluminous literature
on the native/alien paradigm. Warren (2007) provides us with an excellent
overview and critique of the concepts and associated practices.
The classification of species as either native or alien is one of the

organizing principles of conservation biology and restoration ecology
(...). In simple terms, native species are those which have auto colonized
an area since a selected time in the past (in Scotland, the end of the last
glacial period), and alien species are those which have been introduced by
humans, intentionally or otherwise [T]he pace and scale of
anthropogenic ecological change increased sharply during the era of
European exploration, the so-called Columbian exchange (...), when
ancient biogeographical frontiers were repeatedly breached. (Warren,
2007, p. 428)
The wording a selected time in the past is a clear indicator of the

discretionary and relative nature of this categorization which is particularly
relevant for wild horses on the North American continent (Notzke, 2013).
There is an unequivocal and pragmatic focus by park authorities in Canada and
the United States on historical, post-Columbian species composition in
protected areas (Houston & Schreiner 1995, p. 207). This sharply contrasts
with Donlans & Martins (2004) call to consider North Americas ecological
(deep) history when determining the legitimacy of a species ecological status,
and their proposition that the arrival of human hunters representing the Clovis
culture at least 13 000 years ago may constitute a more fitting benchmark and
equally incisive ecological event as the arrival of Columbus. However, the
shifting baseline syndrome (Monbiot, 2013; Pauly, 1995) is only one of
numerous criticisms launched against this paradigm. Too many assumptions
are made about nonnative species damaging the environment and being
invasive. To make a case against introduced species, scientists must rely
not on a priori stipulation but on empirical evidence and argument (Sagoff,
2005, p. 219). Furthermore, there is Hettingers (2001) proposition that exotic
species need not stay exotic, that indeed there ought to be a statute of
limitation on their exotic status (Pollan, 1994, p. 55 cited in Hettinger, 2001,
p. 208). Their transformation into a native species occurs over time through
the process of naturalization. This process involves not only the species
ecological adaptation to the local environment and its fellow species, but also

its evaluative naturalization, i.e., any human influence in the species presence
in its ecosystem must have been sufficiently eliminated to deem that species a
natural member of its community (Hettinger 2001, p. 208).
Space prevents me from doing justice to the complexity of the problems
associated with the juxtaposition of the concepts alien/exotic/introduced and
native. This was done by other authors cited in this article. Warren (2007, p.
441) arrives at a compelling conclusion:
The alien/native paradigm, conceived as a rigid moral scheme, seems

destined for abandonment because its conceptual foundations are
disintegrating. It is under multidisciplinary attack, accused of being
historically arbitrary, geographically ambiguous, ecologically unsound,
culturally insensitive, sociopolitically dubious and economically futile.
Notwithstanding this comprehensive indictment, it is important to restate
that invasive species do pose serious threats to many facets of non-human
nature that are valued highly by society...... However, this review
suggests that the justification for controlling and eliminating invasive
species should not be their time, mode and place of origin but their
potential for causing damage.
There seems to be agreement on the necessity of considering each case

individually and on the implications of social, cultural, and ideological values
(Hettinger, 2001; Sagoff, 2005; Warren, 2007). For this reason Knights
(2008) approach to assessing a species fit into its natural and cultural
community seems particularly appropriate for the case of the wild horse.
Knights (2008) advocates a departure from the technocratic approach of just
drawing lines in space and time (Houston & Schreiner 1995). He calls our
attention to two questions which have informed decision-making about
species: the conceptual question of what makes a species a native or non-
native species, and the axiological question of under what circumstances
should such species be valued or disvalued. Most importantly, Knights
introduces cultural relationships between human communities and species into
this discussion, claiming that these relationships enter into conceptualisations
of species as native or non-native, and into the value judgments made of them
(Knights, 2008, p. 354).
Knights (2008, p. 358) uses Woods & Moriartys (2001) five-criteria
cluster conceptual analysis of nativity as the basis for his approach. These five
criteria are the Non-Human Introduction Criterion, the Evolutionary Criterion,
the Historical Range Criterion, the Non-Degradation Criterion, and the

60 Claudia Notzke
Ecological Community Membership Criterion. In this multi-faceted treatment

of nativity, for a species to be considered native it is neither necessary nor
sufficient to satisfy any particular one of the five criteria. Further, it may
satisfy each criterion to a greater or lesser degree (Knights 2008, p. 354). In
addition, Knights argues for the inclusion of a sixth criterion for nativity in the
above cluster concept, namely the Cultural Criterion.
In contrast to the previous five criteria, rather than establishing a
relationship with a geographical location or an ecological community, this
aspect seeks to detect an association with the human community. According to
Knights (2008, p. 361) three factors are influential in weighing the relevance
of this cultural association: the length of time the association (and resultant
practices) have existed; its cultural significance, and whether it is culturally
alive or dead. The author anticipates criticism that such cultural criterion
may be too value-laden to determine a species nativity (Knights, 2008, p.
365), but his point is being reinforced by Woods & Moriarty (2001, p. 181)
who list five values at stake whenever policy decisions are made which hinge
on the classification of species as native or non-native: ecosystem health,
biodiversity, naturalness, animal welfare and anthropocentric values of nature,
such as economic, aesthetic, and recreational values. Ecologists and biologists
are likely to argue that it runs counter to the biological, ecological, and natural
historical nature of the concept of nativity to incorporate human-centred
considerations in judgments about the nativity of a species. Knights (2008, p.
366f) reminds us that such anthropocentric perspective accurately reflects the
way the concept is used in practice, particularly in view of the fact that publics
are unlikely to judge the problem of non-indigenous species solely in
ecological terms.
Conservation, as characterised by Aitken (2004, 43), is the

safeguarding of nature in something like the form that we currently know
and cherish it. The nature that we know is the result not only of millions
of years of evolution, but also millennia of cultural relationships, and it is
cherished not only for its wildness and otherness, but also for its
familiarity and involvement in our lives and lives of our predecessors.
Nativity is not only a descriptive concept employed to classify nature, but
also a normative concept used to guide conservation practice in its
endeavour to safeguard nature. If it is to guide conservationists
appropriately in their task, some acknowledgment is required of the role
cultural relationships play in the shaping of the natural world into its
current familiar (but increasingly threatened) form, and of the

corresponding value that attaches to species with which human

communities have long associations. The inclusion of the cultural
criterion in a cluster conceptual analysis of nativity, while leaving the
concept a primarily ecological, geographical and natural historical one,
achieves this acknowledgement. (Knights 2008, p. 367)
Methodology
This chapter draws on literature as well as empirical data. Published and

unpublished literature in such diverse fields as geography, conservation
biology, natural resource management, ecology, palaeontology, paleoecology,
prehistory, history, and tourism was reviewed. This includes content analysis
of government documents. The collection of data for this chapters topic was
an integral part of a more comprehensive research program on management
challenges relating to wild horses. Fieldwork took the form of participant
observation and 33 in-depth semi-structured key informant and stakeholder
interviews. These interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed, and analysed for
contents. To protect the interviewees privacy the interview transcripts were
assigned a number code.
PROTECTED AREAS: HOMEPLACE, A PLACE APART

AND SOME RAPPROCHEMENT THE WILD HORSE
TELLS ALL
The parks idea is a product of Western industrialized society. It is based
on the fundamental principle of a dichotomy between nature and culture,
between wild and tame, between wilderness and humans. The human
construction of animals is closely tied to the human construction of place. The
philosophical underpinnings of the parks idea have important implications for
who is in and who is out in terms of the determination of what constitutes a
non-indigenous/alien/exotic species, and the decision-making about how to
deal with it. Science, conflicting value systems, environmental ethics, and
public policy all intersect on this issue (Lodge & Shrader-Frechette, 2003, p.
32). The treatment of free-roaming horses in different park settings yields
interesting evidence as to how the parks concept is evolving, and by
implication, about the notion of our place in the natural world.

62 Claudia Notzke
Traditionally most indigenous societies functioned in a social universe

which included not only humans but also the animate and inanimate natural
world. Like mainstream western societies aboriginal societies are constantly
evolving and changing, but many have retained their own notion of what
constitutes their social universe and make no distinction between nature and
culture (Martinez, 2003, p. 248; Taylor, 1999, p. 81.) This has profound
implications for their sense of place. Frequently there is congruence between
aboriginal and non-aboriginal peoples desire to set aside protected areas, but
their purpose of designating such lands may be entirely different.
The similarity is that both groups value, on a basic level, retaining

and protecting pristine ecosystems, wilderness, and unique natural areas.
The crux of the issue is that Anglo-Americans often see the value of
parks and protected lands as being places separate from human existence
where people can go for a short amount of time to recreate, introspect,
and fulfil spiritual needs and then return to an industrial or modern way
of life. American Indians/First Nations often see parks and protected
lands as places where they can fulfil their way of life as a part of the land
on a level of co-existence which is not separate from these areas.
(McAvoy, McDonald & Carlson, 2003, p. 90)
The Chilcotin, British Columbia, Canada
The Xeni Gwetin First Nations Aboriginal Wilderness Preserve

(established in 1989) and the ?Elegesi Qayus Wild Horse Preserve (designated
in 2002) are excellent examples of the latter. Encompassing Tsil?os and
Nuntsi Provincial Parks, they are located on aboriginal title lands which the
Xeni Gwetin are determined to protect from unsustainable resource
development incursions. They also occupy what McAvoy et al., (2003, p. 89)
describe as contested terrain, a term which is used to describe the
controversy between a dominant societys sense of place and the competing
views of minority peoples sense of place. In their Nenduwh Jid Guzitin
Declaration (1989) the First Nation makes it very clear that the Nemiah
Aboriginal Wilderness Preserve constitutes the Xeni peoples spiritual and
economic homeland where they will continue in perpetuity to pursue their
land-based activities and practice their spirituality (Friends of the Nemaiah
Valley, n.d.).

In 2002, the Xeni Gwetin collaborated with the Friends of the Nemaiah
Valley (a non-aboriginal NGO) in designating approximately the same area as
the ?Elegesi Qayus Wild Horse Preserve. This action unequivocally stated
their sense of stewardship for the wild horses in their territory. It may also be
viewed as a strategic move by both the aboriginal group and the
conservationists, purposefully capitalizing on the charisma and iconic stature
of the wild horse with the public in order to garner support for the protection
of the area as a whole and for the First Nations souvereignty aspirations. The
wild horse served as a flagship species to safeguard the entire ecosystem, as
it appeared to be easier to relate to by an urban public than an animal like the
grizzly bear. While being strategically employed this move was not devoid of
genuine feeling or cultural legitimacy. The Xeni Gwetin recall a long socio-
ecological association with wild horses, and the horse continues to play a
central role in their spirituality, cultural revitalization initiatives, youth work,
and recreation (Notzke 2013).
In 2002 the Wild Horse Preserve is something that we thought,

well, the Title Case is one, and the back-up plan would also be the horses.
So if we can protect the horses, then we can protect our traditional use
areas or title area and protect a lot of our moose and deer, so we felt
people love horses, everyone throughout anywhere, they love horses, so
we felt we get a lot of support to protect horses. And in our culture, we
want to protect horses as well, and you know, our people have history,
theres legends and stories about wild horses. For example, my uncle....
hes got a power, medicine power of a horse, so he can train any horse, he
can do anything with a wild horse. In our Tsilhqotin culture everybody
had a power, and the medicine people had two or more powers, they were
called medicine people, spiritual power, so in our culture, when you come
into adulthood, you would go out one week, and you would seek your
power, you would eat very little, drink very little, you would think
positive, you would work hard and youd be on your own, and then you
would get your power. Every individual had a power, and the ones that
became medicine people, had several. Horses was a big part of that, and
being that people love horses, we thought wed get a lot of support with
that. (Interview 2011.9)
A distinction between wild and feral, wild and domesticated, or

indigenous and non-indigenous has no meaning for the Xeni Gwetin people.

64 Claudia Notzke
They [the Xeni] say it is a silly discussion, an irrelevant discussion.

And as people will say, they are Chilcotin horses, they have particular
characteristics and the ability to survive in that ecosystem, and that makes
them Chilcotin horses. If they have been here for a couple of hundred
years .... I would say its a government debate. (Interview 2011.1)
For the Xeni Gwetin the animals rootedness in their homeplace provides
the Chilcotin (wild) horse with its special character. There appears to be little
differentiation between wild and domestic horses. Horses are viewed as having
always been a part of Xeni life.
Horses have always been part of our life for many generations, and
they are very significant. (Interview 2011.5)
To us horses have been part of our culture a long time. It has an

effect on our way of life, our traditional way, it actually enhances our
traditional way. When I was young, I always thought horses were part of
us, but when I went to school, I learnt through studies and reading that
horses were brought into Canada. (Interview 2011.9)
The capture of wild horses takes centre stage in the Xeni Gwetin peoples
cultural self-expression and sense of identity as documented by the famous
Nemiah Valley Mountain Race. This particular genre of horse racing has been
an integral part of Chilcotin Country Cowboy culture since the 1920s, but the
Nemiah Valley Mountain Race takes on special significance as a re-enactment
of the exhilarating chase of wild horses still practiced by the Xeni Gwetin
(Interview 2011.9). Captured wild horses are the most treasured mounts for
this challenging race as they are known for their bush savvy, natural smarts,
surefootedness, and exceptional toughness (Notzke, 2013).
June 26, 2014, witnessed a groundbreaking decision by the Supreme Court
of Canada which acknowledged Xeni Gwetin aboriginal title to their
traditional territory, 1 750 square kilometres. But even prior to this ruling the
First Nation had gained considerable clout with regard to resource-related
decision-making. As co-management partners with B.C. Parks they have a
voice in addressing issues related to the wild horse populations in Nuntsi and
Tsil?os Provincial Parks. Horse capture activities in the past have always
excluded herds residing in the provincial parks. There seems to be an effort on
the part of B.C. Parks to accommodate the First Nation co-management
partner (Interviews 2011.1, 2011.4, 2011.5, 2011.11). The most tangible

expression of this cooperation is the creation of a Wild Horse Ranger position,

jointly funded by the Friends of the Nemaiah Valley and B.C. Parks (the Wild
Horse Ranger also acts as a Park Ranger). This individual closely monitors the
condition, numbers and activities of the wild horses within the ?Elegesi Qayus
Wild Horse Preserve.
The case of the ?Elegesi Qayus Wild Horse Preserve illustrates that not
only are [a]nimals [...] critical to the making of places and landscapes
(Wolch, 2002, p. 729), but the land is equally instrumental in shaping the
essence of an animal, ecologically as well as culturally. In the Xeni Gwetin
universe the human and non-human world (Robbins, 2006, p. 187) are one,
and the wild horse is a powerful messenger of this lived truth. It is an
existential lived world, where people, animals, plants and place are one.
(Taylor, 1999, p. 82) This strongly resonates with [n]ew geographical
perspectives on people and place [which] introduce the notions of hybridised,
networked, and relational forms of nature-culture. (Carter, 2010, p. 398) The
relationship between people and (wild) horses is being communicated as a
defining element for the Xeni Gwetin homeland and exerts its influence
beyond the Xeni Gwetin community. It also drives home the importance of
Knights (2008) Cultural Criterion to assess a species nativity in its (human)
community in terms of its cultural association. The Xeni Gwetin association
with horses dates back many generations, and it is culturally alive. Their
relationship with these animals transcends pure utilitarianism as horses (along
with other wild animals) constitute a source of spiritual power (Interview
2011.8; see also Bhattacharyya, Slocombe, & Murphy, 2011). Such
intellectual openness towards new species that have intersected with
Aboriginal lives, identities and territories (Robinson, 2005, p. 898) has also
been observed in Australia. In Kakadu National Park the Jawoyn
affectionately acknowledge wild horses as bush pets who have a legitimate
place in their country and cosmology (Robinson et al., 2005). These
observations emphasize the importance of situated engagement when
making environmental management decisions. Situated engagement means
that all thought and action is fully contextualised by where people are
positioned. (Suchet, 2002, p. 154) Furthermore, [t]he notion of situated
knowledges demands that our knowledge making is never innocent or
universal. (Instone, 2004, p. 135) This is something to be borne in mind when
applying geographical and ecological criteria to the notion of an animals
nativity.
An application of Woods and Moriartys (2001) five criteria to the case at
hand can only be briefly touched upon. Applying the Non-Human Introduction

66 Claudia Notzke
Criterion leaves us with the conclusion that the Chilcotin wild horses owe their
presence in the area to human influence. It is known that horses (who probably
reached the Xeni by intertribal trade from the south) were an integral part of
Tsilhqotin First Nations culture by the early 1800s when Simon Fraser
encountered them (Lamb, 1966). It is likely that the people were introduced to
the horse during the early 18th century (Correspondence between Mike
Cowdrey and Wayne McCrory on June 19, 2011). It is also known that there
was an abundance of free-roaming horses in the area during the late
1800s/early 1900s (Birchwater, 1995). What remains unclear is how long ago
horses started roaming the area freely, and when the Xeni Gwetin started
capturing them. The Evolutionary Criterion yields some interesting questions
about the wild horses being introduced exotics or reintroduced native wildlife
depending on the frame of reference being used (see Notzke, 2013, for a
detailed discussion of this topic)2. The spatial scale is as problematic as the
temporal dimension as we tend to have a very loose sense of what constitutes
an area of origin. (Woods & Moriarty, 2001, p. 168) The Historical Range
Criterion is equally difficult to define in space and time. The presence of
horses predates the arrival of Europeans in the Chilcotin region, but (unlike in
neighbouring Alberta) we cannot be sure about the presence of wild horses.
The Non-Degradation Criterion and the Ecological Community Membership
Criterion are closely related. There is a pronounced lack of data (not to
mention scholarly peer-reviewed literature) on the ecology and ethology of
wild horses in Canada in general and British Columbia in particular. However,
2
An abundance of fossil evidence has rendered the horse a textbook example of evolution. The
North American origin of the family Equidae ca. 60 million years ago is undisputed. A
precise timeline for the process of speciation, a fixed date for the emergence of the caballoid
horse (and its fellow species), and very importantly, a firm grasp of the emergence of
ecotypes and/or subspecies of Equus Caballus, are less clear and still evolving (Weinstock
et al., 2005; Fazio, 2010 [E-mail correspondence with Patricia M. Fazio, February 1]). What
is uncontested is that over a time period of hundreds of thousands of years various ecotypes
or subspecies of equines coevolved with their habitat in North America while enduring
extinctions, migrations to Asia, and return migrations (Kirkpatrick & Fazio, 2010). North
Americas last extinction is dated at approximately 11 000 years ago. Things came full
circle during the 15th century when Christopher Columbus on his second voyage to the
Americas brought Spanish horses representing Equus Caballus to North America, first to
the Virgin Islands, and in 1519, to the mainland, namely modern day Mexico. Their
northward spread was aided by escape from their owners, Native American trade, and
presumably, expansion of wild herds habitat (Cowdrey et al., 2012; Dobie, 2005;
Kirkpatrick & Fazio, 2010). There is also increasing evidence to suggest that small pockets
of North American equine populations may have survived until the reintroduction of
European horses. This evidence comprises fossils, petroglyphs, geoglyphs, and indigenous
oral history (Alison, 2008; Downer, 2011; Fazio, 2006 [Telephone interview with Patricia
M. Fazio, September 1]; Henderson, 1991; Notzke, 2013; Ryden, 1999, p.49ff) .

McCrory (2002, p. viiff,) makes a strong case for the wild horse to be
accepted as a resident, rather than an alien, species within Nuntsi Provincial
Park and managed accordingly. Based on this biologists observations the
equines seem well integrated in their ecological community which includes a
full suite of large predators. They do not appear to compete with other
ungulates. Horse trails are used as travel routes by both prey species and
predators (McCrory, 2002, p. 40f).
Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada
Sable Island was already a Canadian landmark when discussions were

initiated in 2010 to have the island designated as a national park reserve, thus
providing the strongest possible mandate for the protection of its natural
environment. However, this prospect also immediately called into question the
future fate of Sables most iconic inhabitants, the wild horses, who have called
this island home for over 260 years.
The Canada National Parks Act (Government of Canada 2000; Dearden &
Dempsey, 2004) requires national parks to be managed for ecological integrity
first. Ecological integrity with respect to a park is defined by the Act as a
condition that is determined to be characteristic of its natural region and likely
to persist, including abiotic components and the composition and abundance of
native species and biological communities, rates of change and supporting
processes. (Canada National Parks Act 2.[1]) National Park Policy provides
the guidelines for how this mandate is to be operationalized. With regard to
protecting and managing park ecosystems the policy stipulates that [A]ll
practical efforts will be made to prevent the introduction of exotic plants and
animals into national parks, and to eliminate or contain them where they
already exist. (Government of Canada 1995a, section 3.2.11) For this reason
critics suggested an alternative designation for Sable Island as a National
Landmark or a National Historic Site to permit the continued existence of its
equine inhabitants while avoiding a conflict with the law and policies
which are meant to guide national park management (Sable Island Green
Horse Society website http://www.greenhorsesociety.com/Status/National%
20status.htm; see also Mosquin, 1997). Nevertheless, after extensive public
consultation Parks Canada made its position on the topic of Sable Islands
horses clear:

68 Claudia Notzke
The horses have been living on the Island since the mid-1700s, and
are therefore considered to be part of the ecosystem of the island. All
wildlife on the island, including horses, and birds, will be protected under
the Canada National Parks Act. (emphasis added) (Government of
Canada, n.d., Parks Canada Homepage, www.pc.gc.ca/eng/progs/np-
pn/cnpn-cnnp/sable/faq.aspx).
The consultation process revealed a broad-based public concern that the

Sable Island horses be protected and be allowed to remain wild with no active
human management. Another recurring theme was the recognition of the
cultural significance of the island for Nova Scotians (Parks Canada, 2010).
The National Park Service clearly strove to avoid a public outcry like the one
that followed the governments first attempt to remove the horses prior to
1961. With its declaration of the horses as wildlife it acknowledges them as a
naturalized species in the island ecosystem, an ecosystem which has continued
to thrive and includes the largest breeding colony of grey seals in the world, a
diverse avian fauna (including the endemic Ipswich Sparrow and the Roseate
Tern, both species at risk) and over 190 different plant species (Parks Canada,
2010). This action also constitutes a tacit admission that there is not always a
sharp dividing line between natural and cultural heritage. Not all cultural
heritage is man-made and inanimate. A close examination of Parks Canadas
Cultural Resource Management Policy (Government of Canada, 1995b)
provides an opening for including Sable Islands wild horses in the protection
of this unique place. While the agency stops short of explicitly including
animals (feral, introduced or other) in these guidelines, the reasons for
extending the islands protection to its equines are clear. Not only do Sable
Islands free-roaming horses contribute to the wild allure of the place, but they
are also an indelible part of its human history, from their Acadian origin to
their crucial role assisting Sables life-saving stations at this graveyard of the
Atlantic. If it is Parks Canadas goal to make Canadas places and stories
more relevant to Canadians (Parks Canada, 2010, p. 1) it must acknowledge
Sable Islands wild horses as part of the story.
Thus Sable Island constitutes another example of the wild horse asserting
its agency and charisma in establishing relationships with the human
community and hereby securing its own future. This case is very different
from the Elegesi Qayus Wild Horse Preserve. While horses are indigenous to
North America and arguably indigenous to western plains, foothills and
intermountain regions, they are ecological newcomers to dune ecosystems as
represented by Sable Island. And yet they seem firmly established and thriving

in their ecological community which does not exhibit signs of degradation

caused by equines (Welsh, 1977). Furthermore, in contrast to the Chilcotin
horses, they no longer share their habitat with a human (indigenous or
immigrant) society. And yet, they inspire a province, a nation, and even the
international community (as evidenced by the 2008 documentary featuring
Roberto Dutesco, New York Citys top fashion photographer, Trecartin,
2008). Their allure is effectively captured by Joan Larson, a British Columbia
equine artist whose first visit to Sable Island I had the pleasure to share.
You know right away that you are somewhere special. I think wild
horses appeal to everybody, and the word wild says it all. ....they [Sable
Island horses] have such an appeal because they are so natural. To get to
hang out with an animal in its natural environment is so special.
They have had to adapt and they have adapted over 250+ years to a
very harsh environment. On Sable Island the only protection those horses
have is the leeward side of a sand dune, and the wet goes right through
the coat, and down to the skin, and it cools the body temperature off. I
know they have adapted to their environment by becoming smaller and
more compact. They are very small, but you are not getting the feeling
that you are looking at a pony, you are looking at a small horse. So they
had to adapt in order to survive, and I think, truly, it is survival of the
fittest there. They still continue to capture me, four years and counting! I
still cant get past them, over them, or around them. Its been four years
of painting them, and I feel I am just getting started.
It is a very, very special little slice of Canada, and it is tiny, and it is
remote, and not many people will get to go there, but that doesnt mean
that it isnt special. It just deserves our continuing support and protection.
(LaPlante, 2014)
Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia
The theme of the wild horses charisma travelling well continues halfway
around the world. The history of Namibias Namib-Naukluft National Park
can be traced back to its origin as Game Reserve No.3 under the German
Colonial Administration. Subsequently it was repeatedly expanded under
South African rule and the auspices of the Directorate of Nature Conservation.
Since Namibias independence in 1990 the park has been administered by the
Ministry of Environment and Tourism. The names of the administering
agencies since the incorporation of the wild desert horses habitat into the park

70 Claudia Notzke
are somewhat prophetic with regard to the horses treatment. It is hardly

surprising that there were purists within the Directorate of Nature
Conservation (in the European mould) who would consider the presence of an
exotic species as anathema to nature conservation. On the other hand, the
designation of the same department as the Ministry of Environment and
Tourism clearly introduces an economic agenda for the environmental
resources of a poor developing country with predictable consequences for a
charismatic (if alien) species.
However, there may be other more nuanced forces at play. By the 1980s
and 1990s approaches to conservation and protected areas throughout Africa
had begun to undergo an evolution. Authorities had realized that displacing
local people from protected areas and thus disenfranchising them from their
(wildlife) resources was counterproductive to conservation purposes. This
recognition gave rise to community-based wildlife management regimes
throughout southern and eastern Africa (Roe, 2001). In Namibia this
movement resulted in the establishment of communal area conservancies with
rights to use and benefit from wildlife which was accompanied by the
formation of the Namibia Community-Based Tourism Association in 1995
(Notzke, 2006). Both of these initiatives were most successful in northern
Namibia which is richer in wildlife resources than the dry south of the country.
As a result it is hardly surprising that the presence of a charismatic animal
like the wild desert horse in Namibias remote south is being eagerly
welcomed and capitalized upon by tourism interests, especially after prolonged
research has shown that these exotic animals have no negative impact on the
ecosystem they inhabit, including other wildlife species they share their habitat
with (Greyling, 2005).
Little is known about cultural traditions relating to equines among the
local Nama population. Originally a people of cattle herders, they readily
adopted horses and later utilized them in their guerilla warfare against the
German occupiers in the late 19th century. In contemporary Nama culture
there does not appear to be anything that could be referred to as a horse
complex. However, there is an interest in acquiring captured desert horses as
draught animals for carts (to replace the commonly used donkeys). These
animals are looked upon with pride, since they are Namibian horses (Telane
Greyling, September 2011, personal communication). This element of
nationalism seems to be shared by the multiracial government, as there have
been no further attempts to remove the horses and careful considerations are
underway of how to address crisis situations created by drought conditions
(Telane Greyling, September 2011, personal communication). A questionnaire

survey of tourists documented that the vast majority of visitors does not regard
the horses as an exotic species not belonging in the Namib Naukluft Park,
quite the opposite: most people feel that the horses have adapted to and
therefore deserve the right to live a free life in the desert, just like other wild
animals of the park (Greyling, 2005, p. 165).
The sparkling qualities which make it [Namibia] such an appealing

destination are described as soulful, liberating, rugged, natural and free.
These are the selfsame qualities which characterise the wild horses. The
Namib wild horses embody the spirit of Namibia. (Goldbeck & Greyling,
2011, p. 53)
CONCLUSION
The three cases presented in this chapter introduce the recurring theme of
an animal, the wild horse, asserting its charisma and relational agency to
counteract a rigid and technocratic approach to determining its legitimacy in
its habitat. In all three cases the wild horse emerges as an animal that has not
only become naturalized ecologically and culturally but has come to symbolize
the very place where its legitimacy is contested. The three cases are also linked
by an ever expanding circle of humanity being reached by the equines
nonhuman agency. As Suchet (2002, p. 145) asserts, non-human agents send
out messages. These messages may go beyond specific ecological
information and rather confer a sense of cosmological belonging.
The Chilcotin Plateau is contested territory. First Nations and Canadas
mainstream society -different cultures, worldviews, and economic systems-
strive for supremacy and compete for scarce resources. To many the fate of a
few hundred wild horses may seem merely incidental to this struggle and
entirely peripheral. And yet, these animals take centre stage. What is
fragmented in our western societys perspective of nature and culture is
integrated and whole in the Xeni Gwetin worldview which still asserts itself
despite challenges and intrusions of the outside world. This includes both
societies ideas of protected places, the Xeni Gwetins sense of a homeplace
and the British Columbia governments idea of a place apart. The First Nation
and their conservationist allies gambled when choosing the wild horse as their
flagship species or poster animal for protecting the Xeni Gwetin homeland.
For the Xeni Gwetin the horse is central to their cultural identity and an
indelible part of their social universe, with little consideration as to its

72 Claudia Notzke
placement in a wild or domestic sphere. While aware of the wild horses

ambiguous status with management authorities and some resource users, they
intuitively recognize the animals special appeal to the general public and trust
in its power to secure allies. The provincial government as represented by B.C.
Parks has yielded to its First Nation co-management partner by tolerating the
free-roaming horses in the provincial parks. In all likelihood this has been
prompted by realpolitik, i.e., a realization of the First Nations political and
legal clout, but also a recognition that a technocratic approach to handling the
wild horse issue is out of step with the publics preferences.
The Sable Island horses have also defied the official technocratic
approach to handling non-native species in national parks. They proved their
detractors wrong by not destroying their habitat or interfering with their fellow
species. They became part of Sables sense of place. In the minds of people,
near and far, Sable Island would not be the same without them as both a
natural and cultural place. Parks Canadas move to declare them wildlife by
virtue of them having inhabited the island since the mid-1700s is
unprecedented.
In Namibia the wild desert horse is not only an introduced species
(notwithstanding the presence of another equine species, namely the mountain
zebra in neighbouring areas) but also a relic of the countrys colonial past. In
the newly independent Namibia the technocratic approach to protected areas
management was replaced by a pragmatic approach which strives to capitalize
on environmental resources for community benefits and thus accords high
priority to tourism. Furthermore, time has worked in favour of the desert
horses. Their valiant struggle to survive the devastating droughts of the 1990s,
the demonstration of worldwide concern for their survival, and the realization
of how they have become a unique type or breed shaped by their challenging
environment have all contributed to truly make them a Namibian icon,
transcending cultural and ethnic boundaries.
The lessons taught by these cases are not just about horses and their
places. They are also about people from different cultural backgrounds who
usually occupy opposite ends of a spectrum where the culture/nature
dichotomy is concerned. While we all seem to think animals (Levi-Strauss,
1963, p. 89) and their places differently, we may not be as far apart as it would
appear at first glance. The Xeni Gwetin clearly fail to make a sharp
distinction between domestic and wild horses and the realm of culture and
nature, and never question the animals legitimacy in its habitat or their social
universe. While the discussion about the future of Sable Islands horses took
place within different parameters, the outcome for the Sable horses is the

same. They are fully acknowledged as having become naturalized

ecologically, historically and evaluatively (Hettinger, 2001, p. 209ff). The
same is true for Namibias desert horses whose fate was decided by a multi-
racial government.
Could it be that there is a broader realization of the artificiality of the
nature/culture duality paradigm, either consciously or subconsciously? In this
age of accelerated human-driven environmental change such recognition is
long overdue. And yet, based on this very paradigm, today there is no pure
nature left, no footprint-free world (Janzen, 1998, p. 1312f; McKibben,
1989). What we are left with is the realization that all environments are
messy and heterogeneous co-constructions of nature and culture (Instone,
2004, p. 136), and the wild horse is a charismatic testament to this.
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Claudia Notzke, PhD
Claudia Notzke is a geographer and recently (September 2016) retired

from her position as an Associate Professor in the Aboriginal and International
Programs of the Faculty of Management at the University of Lethbridge,
Alberta, Canada. She taught courses and conducted research in the fields of
environmental management and sustainable tourism. She studied geography,
social anthropology and geology in Germany, South Africa and Canada. She
received the equivalent of a Masters degree in geography from the University
of Cologne, Germany. To carry out fieldwork for her thesis on the Ciskei (a
Bantustan/Homeland in South Africa under the Apartheid regime) she spent 18
months in the Republic of South Africa where she studied at Rhodes
University, Grahamstown. Her thesis The Ciskei. Development Problems of a
South African Homeland with Focus on Agriculture was published by the
University of Cologne.
She earned her PhD in geography at the University of Calgary. Her Ph.D.
research built on her experience in South Africa, i.e., work in a cross-cultural
and politically challenging environment. Her thesis dealt with Indian
Reserves in Canada. Development Problems of the Stoney and Peigan
Reserves in Alberta. It was published in 1985 by the University of Marburg
in Germany. She taught geography at the universities of Calgary and
Lethbridge, before joining the Faculty of Management in 1988 to work for the
BESS Program (BESS = Business Enterprises and Self-Governing Systems for
Indian, Inuit and Metis Peoples). During this programs evolution she
managed and conducted numerous research projects and developed and taught
five different courses for Aboriginal students in the areas of natural resources
and environmental management, tourism and research methods.
During the late 1990s and early 2000s she made the transition to the
International Program, where she continued to teach and conduct research in
the fields of environmental management and sustainable tourism until her
retirement in 2016.

80 Claudia Notzke
Throughout her career much of her research and publishing was

positioned on the borderline between the social and the physical sciences and
in a cross-cultural context. In the early 1990s she embarked on a research
project which explored Aboriginal peoples natural resource management
issues throughout Canada, and which resulted in a book with the title
Aboriginal Peoples and Natural Resources in Canada. (1994). Fieldwork for
this book was funded by the National Geographic Society and enabled her to
spend time in Aboriginal peoples territory throughout Canada including the
western and eastern Arctic.
In the later 1990s her research interest expanded into tourism and the
challenges and opportunities faced by indigenous people in this industry. This
work eventually culminated in a book entitled The Stranger, the Native and
the Land: Perspectives on Indigenous Tourism. (2006). This book was based
on her personal travel and observations on four continents as well as on
fieldwork in southern and northern Canada and Australia.
In 2006 Claudia Notzke embarked on a new research program focusing on
the challenging circumstances of wild/feral horses in North America as well as
in other parts of the world. This research comprises several projects dealing
with management and conservation issues, wild horse-based tourism and
indigenous perspectives. She has enjoyed the company of wild horses and
explored the complex issues associated with them throughout western Canada
and the western United States, on Sable Island/Nova Scotia, in Germany, in
Namibia and in Mongolia.
She is currently completing her latest research project encompassing
another passion of hers, equestrian tourism. After her retirement Claudia
Notzke plans to remain active in conservation matters, particularly those
pertaining to wild equids.

In: Wildlife ISBN: 978-1-53611-042-5
Chapter 4
CLIMBERS FOR BAT CONSERVATION:

METHODS IN FORMING
A NOVEL PARTNERSHIP
Shawn K. Davis1,, PhD, Robert Schorr2

and Bernadette Kuhn3
1
Parks and Recreation Department, Slippery Rock University,
Slippery Rock, PA, US
2
Colorado Natural Heritage Program, Fort Collins, CO, US
3
Front Range Community College, Fort Collins, CO, US
ABSTRACT
In recent years, North American bat populations have been presented
with new conservation threats including population declines due to wind
energy developments, habitat loss, and white-nose syndrome (WNS).
Much of this mortality has been documented in the eastern half of North
America, however, the impact on bat populations in the western United
States is relatively unknown. It is likely that western bats utilize cracks
and crevices, an abundant resource in the western United States, to a
greater degree for roosting than their eastern counterparts. Unfortunately,
the inconspicuousness of crevices and the difficulty of observing small,
nocturnal, volant animals make finding bat roosts in cracks and crevices
problematic. A possible solution to this problem may exist within a
Corresponding Author: shawn.davis@sru.edu.

82 Shawn K. Davis, Robert Schorr and Bernadette Kuhn
particular sub-set of outdoor recreationists. Rock climbers have visited

many rock features that are inaccessible or unknown to bat biologists and
could be a valuable source of knowledge regarding potential bat roost
locations; however, many rock climbers may be apprehensive to share
information that could result in the loss of access to a valued recreational
resource. As outdoor recreational pursuits continue to overlap with
limited and oftentimes sensitive wildlife habitat we are often prompted to
look at these interactions as forms of conflict; however, if the right
inclusive processes are used, conflict can not only be avoided, but areas
of mutual stakeholder benefit can be identified. Therefore, the main goals
of this project were to: 1) improve knowledge of bat roost locations; 2)
develop relationships among climbing enthusiasts and bat biologists
throughout Colorado; and 3) empower climbers as ambassadors for bat
conservation. Through the use of World Caf facilitated dialogues, social
media, and mobile observation recording software (iNaturalist) the
researchers were able to build a collaborative network of over 140 rock
climbers, land managers, and bat biologists. This collaboration has
resulted in the identification of a number of bat roost locations deemed
valuable for future study by bat biologists. Through the use of the
aforementioned methods, the researchers have developed a potential
model for collaboration that can be used throughout the western United
States for improving bat conservation.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, North American bat populations have been presented with
new conservation threats. With the increase in wind energy development has
come the understanding that turbine collisions have claimed an estimated
600,000 bats annually (Hayes, 2013). Even more problematic is the emergence
of White Nose Syndrome in North America. Starting in 2006, bats began
dying due to infection of a cold-adapted fungus and it is estimated that
millions of bats are dying annually (Frick et al., 2010). Much of this mortality
has been documented in the eastern half of North America with most of the
declines documented at large cave- or mine-roosting bat colonies (Lorch et al.,
2013). It is unknown how much western bat populations have been impacted.
Unlike the East, the West has fewer large bat colonies associated with caves
and mines, and it is possible that western bats utilize crevices and cracks to a
greater degree. The amount of data documenting crack and crevice (herein
simply crevice) use by bats is increasing (Lausen & Barclay, 2003;
Neubaum, OShea, & Wilson, 2006) and, although these resources are
valuable, they are inconspicuous on the landscape (Bogan et al., 2003). The

Climbers for Bat Conservation 83
geologic processes that produced the mountain ranges of the West also created
an abundance of crevice resources for bats to use. Unfortunately, the
inconspicuousness of crevices and the difficulty of observing small, nocturnal,
volant animals make finding bat roosts in crevices problematic. Because it is
likely that bat populations are declining there is a need to quantify bat
population parameters, such as survival, abundance, and persistence.
Estimating population dynamics requires knowing where populations are, and
for many species, biologists are still identifying important roosts that can be
monitored. This is true of bat populations in the West, especially crevice-
roosting bats.
There is a natural resource users group that understands the spatial
distribution and accessibility of crevices of the West like no other. Rock
climbers have visited many rock features that are inaccessible or unknown to
bat biologists, and know what areas are used by bats. In addition, there is
existing data that climbers have encountered bats on a number of climbs
(climbing accounts at mountainproject.com) and there is growing interest in
understanding if there are conflicts between climbing and bat conservation
(Rolfe & Adams 2014, Loeb & Jodice 2015).
Developing and maintaining a constructive relationship between user
groups and bat conservation community can be challenging. Many of the
challenges arise when access to recreational resources are jeopardized by
conservation measures (Peterson, et al., 2010). These challenges can be seen,
for example, in the reaction of the climbing community to the proposed fixed
anchor ban in the early 1990s (Baker, 1999). The fact that rock climbing
may disturb breeding raptors had been known for quite some time (Olsen &
Olsen, 1980), however, little is known about the impact of rock climbing on
bat populations. Many climbing areas are seasonally closed to protect breeding
raptors, therefore it is likely that rock climbers may fear the same restrictions
being imposed due to sensitive bat populations. The relationship can be further
strained when assessments of disturbance from climbing may be biased (Kuntz
and Larson, 2006). There is growing evidence that climbing does not disrupt
bat use patterns or the diversity of bats using an area (Rolfe & Adams 2014,
Loeb & Jodice 2015).
Collaboration has become increasingly important in natural resource
decision making in order to solve, and in some cases, avoid potential conflict
(Daniels & Walker, 2001). The authors of this chapter wanted to develop a
relationship with the user group (rock climbers) that allowed them early input
on a partnership to facilitate bat conservation. The researchers utilized a new
discourse-based approach to engage climbers, discuss benefits and challenges

to collaboration, resolve misconceptions, and creatively find a mutually-

beneficial outcome.
The goals of this project were to: (1) acquire information about where
crevice roosts are to understand bat roosting ecology; (2) locate crevices with
substantial bat populations as potential population-monitoring locations; (3)
develop a mutually-beneficial collaboration with the climbing community that
could expand knowledge of bat roosting ecology; (4) empower climbers as
ambassadors for bat conservation; and (5) develop a model collaboration that
can be used to develop relationships with other climbing groups.
METHODS
Gathering Participants
One of the main goals of this partnership was to forge lasting relationships
between rock climbers, bat biologists, and land managers within Colorado.
The researchers gathered input from these three stakeholder groups in order to
create a successful project which would be mutually beneficial to each
concerned party. To begin this process, the research team utilized a snowball
sampling method to gather participants for the first meeting (Goodman, 1961).
The team included two researchers with numerous contacts within the rock
climbing community, and one member who is a bat biologist with access to bat
biologists and land managers who have dealt with rock climbing and bat
conservation issues. In following with the sampling technique, each contact
was asked to supply any names and contact information of additional rock
climbers, bat biologist, and/or land managers who might have interest in the
project. All contacts gathered were invited via email to the first World Caf
style meeting for the proposed working group.
World Caf
The first meeting utilized a World Caf facilitated dialogue technique,

which is a process that simulates caf-type conversations to stimulate
brainstorming and dialogue among the diverse stakeholder groups. The World
Caf process creates a collaborative and productive dialogue and deliberately
seeks everyones voice and wisdom in a welcoming, conversation-based

atmosphere (Brown & Isaacs, 2005). Essentially, participant responses to

pertinent questions are shared in caf-like conversations and then each small
group shares their main ideas through a full group harvesting process
(Brown & Isaacs, 2005). These small, three to four person, groups are
randomly formed and shuffled between each question, allowing for multiple
perspectives from different stakeholders to be shared. World Caf is a proven
process that has demonstrated a remarkable capacity to foster authentic
conversation and knowledge sharing among people of varied backgrounds
(Brown & Isaacs, 2005).
During the initial World Caf meeting, three discussion questions were
asked of the participants. These questions were created in earlier intensive
meetings with the research team as powerful, generative questions are
essential to the process (Vogt, Brown, & Isaacs, 2003). The questions used to
discover possible means of collaboration were: 1) What is important to you
about bats, climbing, and/or conservation, and why; 2) What challenges might
come our way moving forward in this project and how can we work together
to meet these challenges; and 3) How can we use our unique contributions to
exchange information about bats in the future of this project? Participants
shared their reasons for valuing bats, climbing, and conservation, and then
discussed the challenges and opportunities that a collaboration would present.
Individuals aired concerns and brainstormed ideas for developing and
expanding the collaboration. Throughout the discussions, important comments
and points were captured artistically through a process called graphic
recording so that participants could see the development of common issues
and future participants could see how the process developed and how
discussion evolved (Kelly, 2005; Figure 1). Answers to the three questions
were collected from each small group, categorized, and posted.
The World Caf process ends with a gallery walk (Brown & Isaacs,
2005). During this part of the process participants are given a number of
stickers, which are used as votes for the most influential ideas from each
question. This process allows for an enumerative way of quantifying the
importance of ideas presented throughout the meeting. At the close of the
meeting ideas and votes were tallied and recorded. Each participant ranked the
importance he/she placed on each challenge and opportunity that was raised
during the Caf meeting. The cumulative ranks from all participants were used
to prioritize concerns and motivate more discussion.

Figure 1. Graphic recording of Climbers for Bat Conservation World Caf session.

Stakeholder Meeting
A second stakeholder meeting was convened to talk about progress and

future directions of the project. During this meeting, the working group
discussed important next steps that were identified during the World Caf
process. The conversation was audio recorded, transcribed, and open coded in
a qualitative process outlined by Strauss (1987) to discover important topics
and next steps. The working group discussed how to brand itself, how to
collect data, how to include more participants, and what methods would be
best for sharing the project.
RESULTS
Participants
A total of 11 participants were in attendance for the first World Caf

meeting. There were six in attendance representing federal and municipal land
management agencies, three representing bat biologists, and two in attendance
representing rock climbing interest. The second meeting of stakeholders had a
total of seven participants and included two representing land management
agencies, two representing bat biologists, and three rock climbing
representatives.
World Caf
Answers to the first question asked during the World Caf, What is
important to you about bats, climbing, and/or conservation, and why?, elicited
a number of responses including: Education of rock climbers regarding bat
conservation; Types of interactions climbers are currently having with bats (if
at all); Bats are amazing mammals worthy of protection; Rock climbers and
bats share fascinating similarities; Conservation of wildlife along with
recreation as a balance; and Discoveries of previously undocumented bat
hibernacula.
The responses from the first part of the second question (What challenges
may come our way moving forward in this project?) fit into four themed
categories after being subjected to a process of open coding (Strauss, 1987).
These categories include: collaboration, goals, recreation, and language.

Numbers following each of the statements represent the number of votes

received by participants during the gallery walk; the absence of a number
reflects a statement that was given during the harvest but received no votes.
The category of collaboration contained the following statements:
Engagement of climbers (7); Fear or lack of trust leading to untruthful
information (2); Maintaining a connection between climbers and bat biologists
(1); Raising conflict where none exists; Collaboration and conflict; and How
to collaborate to get bat encounter information from climbers. The following
statements were coded into the category, goals: Undefined goals - education
or data collection? (3); Collecting the right data (2); Logistical information
from climbers (1). The category of, recreation, contained the following
statements: Tourism and timing; and Increased recreation leads to increased
exploration which leads to increased pressure on resources. The final themed
category of, language, consisted of the following statements: Shared
language; Improved communication: limiting jargon.
Part two of the second question was: How can we work together to meet
these challenges? Answers to this question fell into three categories:
commitment, research, and engagement. The following two statements were
coded in the category of commitment: Gaining the trust and buy-in from
climbers (7) and Providing incentives for climbers (2). The category of,
research, contains the following comments: Define goals for coordination
between groups (1); Gather general information about bat sightings by having
a main contact point (1); and Development of an iNaturalist project
(www.inaturalist.org) (1). Two statements fit into the final category of
engagement: Public speaking at the Reel Rock Film Festival (2) and
Addressing climbing gyms/shops in winter and on evenings or weekends for
presentations (1).
The final question of the World Caf, How can we use our unique
contributions to exchange information about bats in the future of this project,
fit into themed categories of particular stakeholder groups: rock climbers, bat
biologists, and administrative (referring to the research team). Four statements
given outline possible contributions for rock climbers: Make a list of climbing
groups: Access Fund, Colorado Mountain Club, American Alpine Club,
Northern Colorado (NOCO) Climbers Coalition (5); Provide free
presentations to climbing groups (2); Investigate corporate sponsorship from
outdoor gear companies; and Gauge the interest from climbers at climbing
walls. Two potential contributions for bat biologists included: Have bat
biologists invite climbers to participate in the field (1) and Determine the
nature of encounters between bats and climbers. Finally, four suggestions

were made for administrative contributions: Market the project with a logo,
project title, and social media (5); Decide what information we are
exchanging (2); Invite people to share information through a network rather
than a top down approach; and Create a short film about the project.
Stakeholder Meeting
The second meeting with stakeholders began with a brief presentation of

findings from the World Caf and followed with a discussion regarding how to
move forward. Many topics were discussed during this meeting, including
ways to reach new audiences of rock climbers and biologists, ultimate use of
the data, new partnerships to pursue, having a clear vision and mission
statement, and appropriate protocol for climbers to use when collecting data.
One of the largest concerns was what these data would be used for and how
the communication of those aims to the public needs to be carefully
approached. Leaving the end use of the data ambiguous could cause many
climbers to jump to conclusions that this project would eventually lead to the
closure of climbing areas, a fear exemplified by the following quote from one
of the rock climbing participants:
This is definitely a huge concern, Im worried about just being

involved in this project because about 50% of the climber population is
probably not on the ecology band wagon. As part of promoting this
project a big part should be, we are not here to close climbing area;
were here to collaborate, get information and find out where [the bats]
are living. Climbers will continue to be involved as long as they know
you are not maliciously trying to preserve bats and throw climbers by the
wayside.
There was also a concern regarding use of data from a utility perspective
from bat biologists. Much of the discussion on data acquisition revolved
around the possible functions of the smart phone enabled iNaturalist app.
These discussions led to the decision that taking pictures of bats may disturb
them and probably would not lead to an accurate identification. Instead, it was
suggested that the picture function of the proposed iNaturalist app may be
better served to take a picture of the particular climb where the bat was found.
Additionally, date, time, and geolocation data, which are automatically
recorded via the iNaturalist app, were mentioned as valuable data to obtain.

Another concern that was mentioned repeatedly during the meeting was
the need for a clear mission statement. Discussions led to the decision that the
group goals should reflect equal parts data collection and education/
interpretation. Suggestions for achieving this included supplying information
to climbers through web-based and print media regarding the types, ecology,
and value of bats as well as what types of questions we hope to answer with
the data. Additionally, educational information should include steps on how to
collect data without disturbing bat populations. Discussions during the meeting
also led to the formation of a name for the collaboration, Climbers for Bat
Conservation (CBC), as well as the following mission statement for the group:
to better understand and conserve bat populations by building

connections with rock climbers, land managers, and biologist.
Near the end of the second meeting the discussion focused on ways to
raise the awareness of this project to other rock climbers. Ideas included
creating posters, tee shirts, stickers, and tri-fold information pamphlets to post
at rock climbing gyms and outdoor stores. Additionally, participants suggested
the group reach out to partners such as the Access Fund, Pikes Peak Climbers
Coalition, and other climbing groups. Finally, the idea of producing a short
video describing the project from multiple perspectives; rock climbers, bat
biologist, and land managers, was suggested as a way of further raising
awareness and support of the project.
Social Media
The CBC Facebook page (now with over 230 likes from US, Europe, and
Central and South America) was developed along with a website
(www.climbersforbats.colostate.edu) to facilitate dialogue and information
exchange among climbers and bat biologists. The research team developed an
iNaturalist project page and mail-in postcards for climbers to submit data for
the project. The iNaturalist website is a citizen-science based site which
includes an integrated smart phone application that allows participants to
record, identify, and geo-locate observations of plants and animals in the field.
Observations are automatically shared on an interactive map via the project
website which other collaborators can access. Our project site currently has ten
members, and three current observations posted. A majority of bat data reports
have come via direct solicitation from The Mountain Project

(mountainproject.com), while some have come via postcards. In fact, the first
data point for the project originated from searching and soliciting information
from rock climbers on the Mountainproject.com webpage. The following is an
excerpt from a rock climber who had an encounter with a bat on a climb in
Colorado:
I was up in the boulders below Arthur's Rock in Lory State Park

on Oct 11 of last year doing some afternoon climbing (around 2pm). I
was attempting a route on the Snake and Skewer boulder (the Northern
Colorado Climbers Collation guidebook for Arthur's Rock bouldering has
a good description on how to get there, but the attached Google map
shows an approximate location) and there is a feature on the rock which
is a small vertical pocket about 15cm deep and 5cm in diameter. This
pocket is about a meter off the ground. This pocket is used in the climb I
was attempting, and after sticking my fingers inside, I felt something
move. Further investigation with my headlamp revealed a lone bat
hanging in the small pocket. The bat did not leave the pocket while I was
there, but when I returned about a month later, there was no sign of bat
activity (or at least no guano) in the area.
This particular climber went on to give longitude and latitude location

data as well as detailed maps for this bat encounter. Most data accounts thus
far are of single-roosting bats, but one account has over 100 bats, which is a
potential future study site.
Figure 2. Winning logo design for Climbers for Bat Conservation.

Outreach
The researchers have placed outreach materials, such as posters and

brochures, at climbing gyms throughout the Front Range of Colorado, hosted
free climbing nights at a local climbing gym to promote the project, and given
multiple presentation to local student organizations at Colorado State
University, including The Wildlife Society, Outdoor Club, and Society of
Conservation Biology.
The working group felt that developing a logo, website and outreach
materials were imperative for sharing the project with such organizations as
Mountain Project, Access Fund, Colorado Mountain Club, American Alpine
Club, and NOCO Climbing Coalition. A logo competition was started among
the working group and the winning design was developed by the director of
the NOCO Climbing Coalition (Figure 2). This logo was used in the
development of promotional materials including tee shirts, stickers, and
posters.
CONCLUSION
During the World Caf meeting, biologists, land managers, and climbers
were supportive of developing a collaboration to collect information on bats.
The biggest challenges were overcoming the external belief that the data
would be used to restrict access to climbs. Thus, the group felt the biggest
priority was to refine the goals for the project and gain trust within the
climbing community by giving public presentations and hosting bat-survey
outings. Development of the collaboration was met with less resistance than
expected; however, there is some concern within the climbing community that
the data will be used to preclude climbers from climbs. Seasonal climbing
closures currently exist for raptors and bats in Colorado, but most climbers
have been supportive.
The World Caf process worked well at bringing multiple stakeholders
together to share their different views on the intersection of recreational rock
climbing and bat conservation. One of the main limitations to this process was
the low number of participants involved in the first World Caf. Though this
process has been effective with as few as nine individuals (Brown & Isaacs,
2005), the more stakeholders present creates a more varied and holistic view
of the issues and serves to create better solutions. Even with the low
attendance, the World Caf process supplied adequate self-generated direction

for the collaboration to move forward. This process lends itself well to future
potential user group conflicts with natural resources but it is essential that the
process be started early, ideally before conflict becomes entrenched. The
World Caf process allows for the creative capacity of individuals to see areas
of mutually beneficial collaboration while openly expressing different
perspectives from a wide range of stakeholders.
REFERENCES
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missing the mark. Bio Science, 49(7), 529. Retrieved from Academic One
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(2003). Western crevice and cavity-roosting bats. In T. J. OShea and M.
A. Bogan (Eds.), Monitoring trends in bat populations of the United States
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conversations that matter. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
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from https://www.theworldcafe.com.

INDEX
A D
Acacia, vii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 desert ungulate, 2, 12

alien/native paradigm, 59
E
B
Elegesi Qayus Wild Horse Preserve, 51, 52,
Bandelier National Monument, 57 62, 63, 65, 68
British Columbia, 51, 52, 62, 66, 69, 71, 73, elevation, viii, 18, 20, 22, 28, 29, 33, 34, 37
74, 76 endemic species, vii, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24, 27,
burros, 50, 57, 78 29, 32, 34
exotic species, 58, 61, 71, 75, 78
C
F
Canada, viii, 49, 50, 51, 53, 58, 62, 64, 66,
67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80 feral, 50, 51, 63, 68, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78,
Canada National Parks Act, 67, 68, 74 80
Capparis sinaica, vii, 1, 2, 5, 10 first nation, 51, 52, 62, 63, 64, 66, 71, 76
Chilcotin Plateau, 51, 52, 71 flagship species, 63, 71
Climbers for Bat Conservation, v, 81, 86, forests, 15, 19, 27, 36, 40, 41, 44, 45, 51
90, 91 free-roaming, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 61, 66, 68,
co-management, 52, 64, 72 72
community -based wildlife management,
70, 77
crevice-roosting bats, 83 G
cross-cultural, 50, 79, 80
gallery walk, 85, 88
generalized additive model, viii, 17, 22, 23,
27, 33, 34, 36

96 Index
Grand Canyon National Park, 57 non-native species, viii, 17, 18, 19, 23, 25,
graphic recording, 85, 86, 93 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 59, 72, 77
Nova Scotia, 51, 53, 67, 68, 78, 80
H
P
Himalaya, vii, 17, 18, 19, 21, 36, 38, 39, 40,
42, 43, 44, 45 political constructivism, 50
home range, vii, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, poster animal, 71
14 protected areas, vii, viii, 15, 18, 37, 49, 50,
horses, viii, 34, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 51, 55, 56, 58, 62, 70, 72, 73, 76
56, 58, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70,
71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80
S
I Sable Island, 51, 53, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 74,
75, 76, 77, 78, 80
iNaturalist, ix, 82, 88, 89, 90 Saudi Arabia, 1, 2, 3, 11, 12, 14, 15
indigenous peoples, 51, 55, 76 situated engagement, 65
introduced species, 58, 72 socially constructed, vii, viii, 49, 50
invasive, 3, 14, 35, 51, 58, 59, 74, 76 spiritual power, 63, 65
stray animals, 50
M
T
management, viii, 12, 15, 16, 18, 35, 40, 43,
44, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 61, Theodore Roosevelt National Park, 57, 76
64, 65, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, tourism, 50, 54, 61, 69, 70, 72, 76, 77, 78,
79, 80, 87 79, 80, 88
mustangs, 50, 73, 74
W
N
White Nose Syndrome, 82
Namib Naukluft Park, 51, 71 wild, v, vii, viii, 18, 38, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
Namibia, viii, 49, 51, 54, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66,
80 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77,
national park reserve, 51, 53, 67 78, 80
native species, viii, 18, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, World Caf, ix, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89,
27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 58, 59, 92, 93, 94
67, 72, 75, 77
naturalization, viii, 49, 58
Nemaiah Valley, 53, 62, 63, 65, 74 X
Nemiah Aboriginal Wilderness Preserve,
Xeni Gwetin, 52, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 71, 72
52, 62
nonhuman agency, 50, 71
nonhuman charisma, 56, 75

Wildlife, Perception, Threat and Conservation

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ISBN:  H%RRN

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

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This book provides new research on the perceptions, threats and

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RESOURCE AVAILABILITY PREDICTS

Torsten Wronski1,2,*, Ping Sun3,4 and Martin Plath4

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source of hygroscopic water) had no effect on abundance estimates,

Keywords: Acacia, Capparis sinaica, desert ungulate, home range, Saudi

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arabica population in Saudi Arabia (Cunningham & Wronski, 2011b) and

MATERIAL AND METHODS

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Vegetation-related variables were: (i) the Acacia-index (Acacia

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Kent & Cocker, 1992) up to a height of 1.4 m, multiplied by the number of

Table 1. Correlation matrix (Spearman rank correlations) for all

A. Wet Acacia- Capparis- Herb frequency Indigofera- Acacia-tree

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Table 2. Axis loadings for principal component (PC) 1 and 2

Wet season Dry season

The population density in the southern part of Farasan Kebir equals

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We used individual location fixes to generate kernel density estimations in

Table 3. Results from multiple regression analyses using an index

A. wet season Factor B SE t P

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Vegetation-related variables showed a high degree of inter-correlation, as

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area. More specifically, pronounced variation in numbers of gazelles per study

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Taylor, C. R. (1968). Hygroscopic food: a source of water for desert

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breeding of endangered ungulates, project planning and reporting, budgeting,

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FOREST NATIVE AND NON-NATIVE PLANT

Balwant Rawat, PhD

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et al., 2010) as well as in Himalayan region have attracted attention (Dhar et

The reserve has a combination of several ecosystems, including traditional

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naturalness (nativity) and uniqueness (endemism) of biodiversity elements in

Field surveys were conducted during July to August 2013-2015. Various

Species Identification and Distribution

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ISBN: H%RRN