Th

is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
 )
om
l.c
ai
gm
Standard: 8-3.7

Faulting @
ka
sh
ni
ka

Faulting occurs when the rocks fail under deformation processes. A fault is a planar
im

!
discontinuity along which displacement of the rocks occurs.
E(
BL

! There are four basic types of faulting: normal, reverse, strike-slip, and oblique.
M
KA

Normal
KA
H

1. Normal: rocks above the fault plane, or hanging

IS

wall, move down relative to the rocks below the

AN

fault plane, or footwall. Strike-Slip

rK

2. Reverse: rocks above the hanging wall moves up

fo

relative to the footwall

ed
is

Reverse 3. Strike-slip: rocks on either side of a nearly

al

vertical fault plane move horizontally

on

4. Oblique-slip: normal or reverse faults have some

rs
pe

strike-slip movement, or when strike-slip faults

s

have normal or reverse movement

ti
en
m
cu

! Geologists recognize faults by looking for off-set rock layers in outcrops.

do

Figure 7 Types of folds

Faults may also be recognized by debris, breccia, clay, or rock fragments that break
is

!
Th

apart or are pulverized during the movement of the rocks along the fault plane. Fault
gouge is a term used to describe the material produced by faulting.
If a fault plane is exposed, there may be grooves, striations (scratches), and
Unit-II- LANDFORMS
!
slickenslides (symmetrical fractures) that show evidence of the rocks movement.
! Large fault systems, such as the San Andreas fault can be seen from aerial imagery.
23
Table of Contents
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
 Mass movement

Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
 
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe

Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
Source: http://cronodon.com/files/River_Processes
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
12

Fluvial Landforms

)
Source: http://cronodon.com/files/River_Processes

om
l.c
ai
gm
@
ka
sh
ni
ka
im
E(
BL
M
KA
KA
H
IS
AN
rK
fo
ed
is
al
on
rs
pe
s
ti
en
m
cu
do
is
Th
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M

Source: http://cronodon.com/files/River_Processes
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m

The middle course

en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS

Source: www.oup.com/pdf/oxed/geog
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
 s
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Karst Landforms

Erosional features

)
om
l.c
ai
gm
@
ka
sh
ni
ka
im
E(
BL
M
KA
KA
H
IS
AN
rK
fo
ed
is
al
on
rs
pe
s

Sinkholes swallow holes and blind valley

ti
en
m
cu
do
is
Th
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Underground features

Caverns
Stalactites and stalagmites
Glacial Action

)
om
l.c
Types of glaciers

ai
gm
@
ka
sh
ni
ka

Glaciers are grouped into two types namely

im
E(
BL

Continental glaciers
M
KA
KA

Valley/Mountain/Alpine glaciers
H
IS
AN
rK
fo
ed
is
al
on
rs
pe
s
ti
en
m
cu
do
is
Th
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s

Depositional Features
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
Sea waves landforms

pe
rs
on
al
is
ed

Coastal depositional features

fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
 Beaches
Th

Sea Beaches
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
Features of Coastal erosion
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
 
Sand Dunes
Th
is
do
cu

groundwater
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
Th
is
do
cu
m
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rK
AN
IS
H
KA
KA
M
BL
E(
im
ka
ni
sh
ka
@
gm
ai
l.c
om
)
18 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Geological Time Scale

Eons Era Period Epoch Age/ Years Life/ Major Events
Before Present
Quaternary Holocene 0 - 10,000 Modern Man
Pleistocene 10,000 - 2 million Homo Sapiens
Cainozoic Tertiary Pliocene 2 - 5 million Early Human Ancestor
(From 65 Miocene 5 - 24 million Ape: Flowering Plants
million years and Trees

d
to the Oligocene 24 - 37 million Anthropoid Ape
present Eocene 37 - 58 Million Rabbits and Hare

e
)
om
times)
Palaeocene 57 - 65 Million Small Mammals :

l.c
Rats Mice

ai
h
Mesozoic

gm
Cretaceous 65 - 144 Million Extinction of Dinosaurs

s
65 - 245

@
Jurassic 144 - 208 Million Age of Dinosaurs

T
Million

i
Mammals Triassic 208 - 245 Million ka Frogs and turtles

l
sh

Permian 245 - 286 Million Reptile dominate-replace

R
ni
ka

amphibians

b
im

Carboniferous 286 - 360 Million First Reptiles:

E
E(

Palaeozoic Vertebrates: Coal beds

u
BL

245 - 570 Devonian 360 - 408 Million Amphibians

M

Million

C
Silurian 408 - 438 Million First trace of life on land:
KA

p
Plants
KA

Ordovician 438 - 505 Million First Fish

N e
H

Cambrian 505 - 570 Million No terrestrial Life :

IS

er
Marine Invertebrate
AN

Proterozoic 570 - 2,500 Million Soft-bodied arthropods

rK

Archean 2,500 - 3,800 Million Blue green Algae:

fo

Pre- Unicellular bacteria

ed

Cambrian
Hadean 3,800 - 4,800 Million Oceans and Continents

b
is

570 Million
al

- 4,800 form Ocean and

on

Million Atmosphere are rich in

rs

Carbon dioxide

o
pe

t
Origin of 5,000 Million Origin of the sun
s
ti

Stars 5,000 -
en

13,700
m

t
Supernova Million 12,000 Million Origin of the universe
cu

Big Bang 13,700 Million

do

o
is
Th

n
to the atmosphere. As the earth cooled, the
water vapour released started getting
condensed. The carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the
temperature further decreased causing more
condensation and more rains. The rainwater
falling onto the surface got collected in the
depressions to give rise to oceans. The earths
oceans were formed within 500 million years
from the formation of the earth. This tells us
that the oceans are as old as 4,000 million
years. Sometime around 3,800 million years
ago, life began to evolve. However, around
2,500-3,000 million years before the present,
the process of photosynthesis got evolved. Life
was confined to the oceans for a long time.
Oceans began to have the contribution of
oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen,
and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen began to
flood the atmosphere.