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AerospaceIndustry
I.Introduction

AerospaceIndustry,complexofmanufacturingfirmsthatproducevehicles
forflightfromballoons,gliders,andairplanestojumbojets,guidedmissiles,
andthespaceshuttle.Theindustryalsoencompassesproducersofeverything
fromseatbeltstojetenginesandmissileguidancesystems.Theterm
aerospaceisacontractionofthewordsaeronautics(thescienceofflightwithin
Earth'satmosphere)andspaceflight.Itcameintouseduringthe1950swhen
manycompaniesthathadpreviouslyspecializedinaeronauticalproducts
begantomanufactureequipmentforspaceflight.

TheaerospaceindustrytracesitsoriginstotheWrightbrothers'historicfirst
flightsinaheavierthanairmachineatKittyHawk,NorthCarolina,on
December17,1903.UntilWorldWarI(19141918),airplaneconstruction
largelyremainedinthehandsofindustrypioneers,whobuilteachwood
framedplanebyhand.Wartimemilitaryneedsdroveimprovementinaircraft
design.Bythe1930sallmetalplanesfeaturingretractablelandinggearand
highperformanceengineswerecommonlyusedtodeliverairmailandcarry
civilianpassengersinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.DuringWorldWarII
(19391945)theindustrymadefurtherstrideswiththeintroductionofmassive
productionfacilitiesthatturnedouttensofthousandsofairplanes.WorldWar
IIresearchanddevelopmentresultedinradar,electroniccontrols,jetaircraft
withgaspoweredturbineengines,andcombatrockets.

PostwartensionbetweentheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics(USSR)and
theUnitedStatesdroveaerospacetechnologiestonewhighsasthetwo
countriesracedtoestablishapresenceinspace.BythestartoftheApollo
Programin1961,developmentandconstructionofspaceflightvehiclesand
supportingsystemsoccupiedamajorportionoftheAmericanandSoviet
aerospaceindustries.Atthecloseofthe20thcentury,aerospacefirmsaround
theworldproducedrocketsandartificialsatellites.Originallydevelopedfor
nationalspaceexplorationandmilitarypurposes,thesespacecraftfound
peacetimeusesintelecommunications,navigation,andmeteorology.

II.EconomicImportance

Morethan40countrieshaveindustriesengagedinsomeformofaerospace
production.Thelargest,theAmericanaerospaceindustry,employs
approximately900,000people.AmericanmanufacturerTheBoeingCompany
leadstheworldinproductionofcommercialairplanesandmilitaryaircraft.
OthermajorU.S.aerospacemanufacturersincludetheLockheedMartin
Corporation,theworld'slargestproducerofmilitaryaircraftandequipment,
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andtheRaytheonCompany,agloballeaderinairtrafficcontrolsystemsanda
majorsupplierofaircraft,weaponssystems,andelectronicequipmenttothe
U.S.government.

TheEuropeanaerospaceindustryemploysabout420,000people,withworkers
fromtheUnitedKingdom,France,andGermanyaccountingformorethantwo
thirdsoftheseemployees.AirbusIndustrie,headquarteredinToulouse,
France,istheworld'ssecondlargestmanufacturerofcommercialaircraft.
Airbusoperatesasaconsortium,orpartnership,offourmajorEuropean
aerospacecompanies:AerospatialeofFrance,DaimlerBenzAerospaceAirbus
ofGermany(seeDaimlerChrsylerAG),BritishAerospace,andConstrucciones
Aeronauticas(CASA)ofSpain.

Canadaranksamongthetopsixaerospaceproducersintheworld.The
Canadianindustryemploys59,000peopleandisagloballeaderinproduction
ofcommercialhelicoptersandbusinessaircraft.Canadianaerospace
manufacturerBombardierranksthirdintheproductionofnonmilitaryaircraft
andleadstheworldintheproductionofbusinessjetsandregionaljetairliners.

III.Products

Productsoftheaerospaceindustryfallintofourgeneralcategories.Thelargest
productcategory,aircraft,encompassesaircraftproducedformilitary
purposes,passengerandcargotransport,andgeneralaviation(businessjets,
recreationalairplanes,traffichelicopters,andallotheraircraft).Thiscategory
alsoincludesaircraftengines.Thewidevarietyofmissilesproducedfor
militaryusemakesupanotherproductcategory.Spacevehicles,suchasthe
spaceshuttleandartificialsatellites,androcketstolaunchthemintospace,
comprisetheirowncategory.Thefinalcategoryismadeupofthethousandsof
differentpiecesofequipmentandequipmentsystemsboththoseonboard
flightvehiclesandthoseonthegroundthatmakeflyingarelativelysafeand
comfortableendeavor.

A.AircraftandJetEngines

Salesofaircraft,includingtheirenginesandparts,totalmorethanthesalesof
allotheraerospaceproductscombined.Theproductionofmilitaryaircraftand
accessorieshastraditionallydominatedthefieldofaircraftproduction.Inthe
late20thcentury,however,thedemandforcommercialjetsincreasedaround
theworldwhileglobaldefensespendingdeclined.

1.MilitaryAircraft

Aerospacefirmsproduceabroadvarietyofmilitaryaircraft,includingfighter
jets,bombers,attackaircraft,trooptransports,andhelicopters.Eachtypeof
craftisdesignedforaspecificpurpose.Fighterjetsengageenemyaircraft,
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attacktargetsonorbelowtheEarth'ssurface,andperformreconnaissance
missions.Bombersspecializeinstrikingatdistantsurfacetargets.Attack
aircraftcarrylighterbombsthanbombersandhitsurfacetargetsatcloser
range.Helicoptersareusedinrescuework,totransporttroopsandsupplies,
andlessfrequently,onattackmissions.TheBoeingCompany,LockheedMartin
Corporation,andNorthropGrummanCorporationareamongthelargest
buildersofmilitaryaircraftintheworld.

2.CommercialAircraft

Aerospaceproductsinthecommercialaircraftcategoryincludejetairplanes
usedbycommercialairlines.Jetairlinersgenerallyfallunderoneoftwo
classifications,dependingonthenumberofaislesinthemainpassengercabin.
Innarrowbodyjets,asingleaisledividesthecabinintotwobanksofseats.In
widebodyjets,twinaislesseparatethecabinintothreebanksofseats.The
firstofthewidebodyjets,theBoeing747,enteredservicein1970.This
massivejetlineriscapableoftransportingmorethan400passengers.Today,a
varietyofwidebodyjetsareproducedbyBoeingandtheEuropeanconsortium
AirbusIndustrie.

Narrowbodyjetsseatfewerpassengers.BoeingandAirbusbuildlarge
narrowbodyjetsthatcarrybetween100and200passengers.Forcommuter
flights,airlinesusesmallerjets,calledregionaljets,someseatingasfewassix
passengers.ThemajorityoftheseplanesarebuiltbyCanadianairplane
manufacturerBombardierandBrazilianmanufacturerEmpresaBrasileirade
Aeronautica(Embraer).

3.AircraftforGeneralAviation

Aerospacemanufacturersproducemorethan30typesofgeneralaviation
aircraft,acategorythatencompassescorporateaircraft,recreationalairplanes,
planesusedtosprayagriculturalcrops,andhelicoptersforpolice,ambulance,
andpatrolservice.Corporateaircraftareusuallypoweredbyjetenginesand
carryupto40passengers.Majormanufacturersinthecorporatejetmarket
includetheCessnaAircraftCompany,GulfstreamAerospaceCorporation,and
RaytheonintheUnitedStates,BombardierinCanada,andDassaultAviationin
France.Recreationalpilotscommonlyflysingleseatortwinseatplanes
designedandmanufacturedbyseveralcompanies,includingCessnaandThe
NewPiper(formerlyPiperAircraftCorporation).

4.JetEngines

Otheraerospacefirmsspecializeindesigningandbuildingtheenginesthat
poweraircraft.Thethreemostcommontypesofjetenginesaretheturbojet,
theturboprop,andtheturbofan(seeJetPropulsion).Inturbojetengines,
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energyproducedbyburningfuelspinsaturbinethatcompressestheair
enteringtheengineanddirectsitintoacombustionchamber,whereitis
mixedwithfuelvaporandburned.Turbopropenginesaredrivenalmost
entirelybyapropellermountedinfrontoftheengine.Turbofanscombineair
passingthroughtheengine,hotengineexhaust,andairfromafan.

ProductionoflargejetenginesforairlinersisdominatedbyAmericanjet
enginemanufacturersGeneralElectricCompanyandPratt&Whitney,and
RollsRoyceofBritain.Thesecompaniesalsoproduceenginesforjetfighters,
bombers,andtransports.Severalmanufacturersproducesmallergasturbines
forcorporatejetsandhelicopters.AlliedSignalEngines,partofHoneywell
InternationalintheUnitedStates,suppliesawiderangeofenginesforregional
airliners,corporatejets,helicopters,andmilitaryaircraft.

B.Missiles

Aerospacefirmsdesignandbuildawidevarietyofmissilesformilitaryuse.
Theserangeinsizefromlargeguidedmissilesthatcarrynuclearwarheadsto
smallportablerocketscarriedandlaunchedbyfootsoldiers.Modernmissiles
incorporatetheirownpropulsionsystemsandsophisticatedguidancesystems.

1.SurfaceFiredMissiles

Surfacefiredmissileslaunchfromthegroundorthesea.Therearetwochief
typesofsurfacefiredmissiles:thosefiredattargetsonEarth'ssurfaceorinits
oceans,andthosefiredattargetsintheair.Thelargestsurfacetosurface
missilesareintercontinentalballisticmissiles(ICBMs),whicharecapableof
carryingnuclearwarheadstotargetsasfaras15,000km(9,200mi)away.
Soldiersusesmallersurfacetosurfacemissilesagainstenemytanksortroops.
Stillothermissilesdivedeepintotheoceantosearchoutanddestroyenemy
submarines.Surfacetoairmissilesareusedagainstairbornetargets,suchas
airplanesorothermissiles.ThiscategoryincludestheU.S.Army'sPatriot
missilesystem,alargemissileandlauncherthatinterceptsanddestroys
enemymissilesbeforetheystrike.ThePatriotmissilesystemwasdeveloped
fortheU.S.militarybyRaytheonandLockheedMartin.Patriotsarealsoused
byGermany,Israel,Japan,andanumberofothercountries.

2.AirLaunchedMissiles

Airlaunchedmissilesarelaunchedfromfighteraircraft.Missilesinthis
categorytendtobeshortrange.Airtoairmissiles,suchastheU.S.
SidewindermissilebuiltbyRaytheonandothercompanies,usuallyrelyon
infraredheatseekingdevicestotracktheirtargets.Thesesophisticated
missilesfollowanddestroyenemyaircraftandcanchangecoursewhentheir

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targetsdo.Airtosurfacemissilescommonlyincorporateglobalpositioningand
inertialguidancesystems,orminiaturetelevisionhomingsystems.

C.SpacecraftandLaunchVehicles

Aerospacecontractorsdesignandbuildspacecraftformilitaryandcommercial
purposes,andforuseinspaceexploration.Productsinthiscategoryinclude
unmannedspacecraft,suchassatellitesandspaceprobes,andpiloted
spacecraft.Otheraerospacecontractorsdesignandbuildtherocketsusedto
propelspacecraftoutofEarth'satmosphereandintospace.

1.Satellites

Printsection

Telecommunicationscompaniescontractwithaerospacemanufacturesto
designandbuildcommunicationssatellites.TheseEarthorbitingsatellites
transmitradiosignalsfromcellulartelephones,televisionbroadcasting,anda
numberofotherwirelesscommunications.Militarynetworksofdefensesystem
satellitesdetectmissileandsatellitelaunchesinothercountries.Surveillance
satellitesprovideawaytomonitoractivityinothercountries,makingit
possibletodetectterroristactionsorotherillegalactivities.TheU.S.military
alsomaintains24satellitesaspartoftheglobalpositioningsystem(GPS),an
electronicsatellitenavigationsystem.Researchsatellitesgatherscientific
information.TheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA)uses
researchsatellitestoobserveEarth,otherplanetsandtheirmoons,comets,
stars,andgalaxies.TheHubbleSpaceTelescopeorbitsabout610km(about
380mi)aboveEarth'ssurface,photographingobjectsasfaras15billionlight
yearsaway.

ThelargestmanufacturersofsatellitesincludetheAmericancompaniesHughes
SpaceandCommunicationsCompany,LockheedMartin,andLoralSpace&
Communications,andtheFrenchconglomerateAlcatel.Theseandother
satellitemanufacturersdevelop,build,andsometimesoperatesatellitesfor
privatecompanies,themilitary,andgovernments.

2.SpaceShuttle

ThespaceshuttleistheonlypilotedspacecraftproducedintheUnitedStates.
Itconsistsofthreemaincomponents:anorbiter,propulsionsystemstwosolid
rocketboostersandthreemainenginesandanexternalfueltank.Shuttle
orbitersarereusable,designedtowithstand100missionsormoreeach.Many
differentaerospacecontractorscontributetotheshuttle'sdesign,construction,
andmaintenance.NASAandtheUnitedSpaceAlliance,apartnershipbetween
BoeingandLockheedMartin,overseeshuttledesignandconstruction.

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3.LaunchVehicles

Someaerospacecompaniesdesignandbuildlaunchvehiclesrocketsthat
propelspacecraftoutofEarth'satmosphereandintospace.ToescapeEarth's
atmosphere,launchvehiclesmustreachvelocitiesofabout30,000km/h
(about18,500mph).Toachievethisspeedandpower,aerospacefirmsbuild
rocketscomposedoftwoormoreengines,oneatopanother.Thelargest
manufacturersoflaunchvehiclesincludeLockheedMartin,whichmakes
severalversionsofitsAtlasandTitanrockets,andFrenchrocketmanufacturer
Arianespace,whichbuildstheArianelaunchvehicle.Boeingalsomanufacturers
rocketsforuseaslaunchvehicles.RocketsfromBoeing'sDeltafamily,for
example,launchedalltheGPSsatellites.

D.FlightEquipmentandNavigationalAids

Thefourthandfinalcategoryencompassesthethousandsofdifferentpiecesof
equipmentandequipmentsystemsfoundonflightvehiclesandgroundbased
flightsupportfacilities.Somefirmsspecializeinflightandenginecontrolsfor
variousflightvehicles.Thespaceshuttleorbiterhasmorethan2,000different
controlsanddisplaysinthecrewcompartment.Otherfirmsdesignandbuild
instrumentsforflightnavigationandradarsystems,landinggear,flightdata
recorders,andcabinpressurecontrolsystems.Stillothersmanufactureseats,
lights,kitchenequipment,andwastemanagementsystems.Companiesthat
specializeinmissiletechnologybuildstateoftheartguidancesystems,such
asinfraredheatseekingdevicesandcomputernavigationalsystems.

Aerospacefirmsalsoproducegroundbasednavigationalsystemsthatsupport
flightvehicles.Theserangefromtheradar,radio,andcomputersusedinair
trafficcontrolatairportstothestateoftheartcommandandcontrolsystems
thattrackandoperatespacecraftmillionsofmilesfromEarth.Othersproduce
sophisticatedremotecontrolsthatenableengineersonthegroundtochangea
spacecraft'scourseortooperatetelescopesorcameras.

IV.ResearchandDevelopment

Theareaofresearchanddevelopmentconstitutesoneofthelargest
expendituresoftheaerospaceindustry.Developmentofanewflightvehicle
mighttakeadecadeormoreandinvolvethousandsofpeople.Suchan
endeavorrequiressignificantadvancesinequipmentandsystemsinsome
casesitcallsforentirelynewinventionsandseveralbilliondollars.Because
thecostofdevelopingnewflightvehiclesissohigh,mostlargeaerospace
companiesdevotetheirresearchanddevelopmentresourcestoimproving
existingproducts.Theymayredesignaircraftcomponentstomakethem
lighterandmorefuelefficient,forexample,orredesignwingsorbodysurfaces
tomakethecrafttravelfaster(seeAerodynamics).
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Muchofthedesignprocesstakesplaceonsupercomputerscapableof
performingbillionsofoperationspersecond.Computeraideddesignenables
engineerstotestthousandsofdesignparameters,suchastheshapeorangle
ofwings.Thedesignerusesacomputertocreateamodeloftheflightvehicle's
basicstructure,orairframe,andthentosimulateflightinvariousatmospheric
conditions(seeComputerAidedDesign/ComputerAidedManufacturing).In
additiontotheshapeandsizeoftheairframe,engineersmustalsoconsider
thousandsofdetails.Forexample,theymustconsidertheweightand
placementoftheengines,howandwherefuelwillbestored,thetypeand
layoutofinstrumentsinthecockpit,anddetailsofthepassenger
compartment,suchasthenumberofseatsandtheirdimensions.Indesigning
commercialairplanes,engineersmustalsoplanforentertainmentsystems,
foodstorageandpreparation,andthelocationandnumberoflavatories.

Afterpreliminarycomputerdesignsareinplace,engineersbuildascalemodel
oftheaircraftandsubjectittoaseriesoftestsinawindtunnel.Windtunnels
simulatetheconditionsencounteredbytheflightvehicleasitmovesthrough
theair.Manyresearchfacilitieshavetheirownwindtunnels.Manufacturers
alsohaveaccesstogovernmentfundedwindtunnels,suchasNASA'sAmes
ResearchCentertunnelatMoffettField,California.Thismassivewindtunnel
canaccommodateafullsizeaircraftwithawingspanof22m(72ft).
Observationsmadeduringwindtunneltestingconfirmorinvalidatedesign
assumptionstestedonthecomputer.Engineersusetheresultsofthewind
tunnelteststorefinedesignasnecessary.

Oncethedesignhasbeenfinalized,engineersbuildoneormorefullsize
prototypesoftheflightvehicleandsubjectthemtoabarrageofadditional
tests.Engineersconfirmthatthestructurecanwithstandthethundering
vibrationsandheatproducedbythejetengines.Theyusemachinestobend,
twist,andpushtheaircrafttoverifythatitcanwithstandthestressesitwill
likelyencounterduringflight.Engineersalsoconfirmthatflightinstruments
willwithstandthepressureandsubzerotemperaturesofhighaltitudes.The
engines,landinggear,navigationalsystems,andotheraircraftequipment
undergoequallyrigoroustesting.Finally,pilotstakeaprototypeforatest
flighttoverifytheresultsofearlierexercises.

V.Manufacturing

Themanufacturingprocessisusuallycoordinatedbyaprimecontractorthat
managesanumberofsubcontractorsspecializinginparticularcomponentsof
theflightvehicle.Subcontractorsbuildandtesttheirproductsintheirown
facilities,thendeliverthemtotheprimecontractor'sfacilitytobeintegrated
intotheflightvehicle.Theprimecontractoroverseestheassemblyoftheflight
vehicle,ensuresthattheprojectmeetsscheduleandbudgetrequirements,
andassumesultimateresponsibilityforthesafetyoftheaircraft.
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Modernaircraftareoftenbuiltfrompartsthatcomefromallovertheworld.
Forexample,theMcDonnellDouglasMD11commercialjet,whichentered
productionintheearly1990s,incorporatedpartsfromItaly,Spain,Japan,
Brazil,Canada,theUnitedStates,andBritain.Theexteriorpanelsofthe
plane'smainbody,orfuselage,wereproducedbytheItaliancompany
Aeritalia,whichalsosuppliedtheplane'sverticalstabilizerandotherparts.The
SpanishfirmCASAmadelandinggeardoorsandthehorizontalstabilizer.
Japanesecompaniessuppliedcertaintailpartsandmovableflapsonthewings
calledailerons.AdditionalaileronscamefromBrazil,thenosegearoriginated
inBritain,Canadianfirmsdeliveredmajorwingassemblies,andtheengines
werebuiltintheUnitedStatesandBritain.Theplanecametogetheratthe
plantoftheprimecontractor,McDonnellDouglas,inCalifornia.

VI.History

Theearliestaviatorsmadetheirownwoodframedairplanesbyhand.OrvilleandWilburWrightcompletedtheir
historic1903flightinamachineoftheirowndesign.WhiletheWrightbrothersquietlyworkedtoperfectand
patenttheirflyingmachine,BrazilianinventorAlbertoSantosDumontdesignedandflewabiplaneinParisin
1906.Inthefollowingyears,fledglingaviationfurthercapturedtheattentionofthepublic.WilburWrightmade
atriumphalairplanetourofEuropeinthesummerof1908.InJuly1909FrenchaviatorLouisBlriotflewa
planeofhisowndesignacrosstheEnglishchannel,completingahighlysymbolicjourneyinthehistoryof
flight.

A.TheFirstAirplaneManufacturers

ThesuccessoftheWrightbrothers,SantosDumont,andotherpioneeringaviatorscreatedasmalldemandfor
flyingmachinesonbothsidesoftheAtlanticOcean.InParis,France,theVoisinbrothers,whohadhelped
SantosDumontbuildhisbiplanein1906,setupthefirstfacilitytobuildairplanesforsale.Intheearliest
airplaneshops,asmallnumberofworkersbuiltairplanesfromwoodandbambooframeworkscoveredwith
fabric.Theyusedmodifiedenginesfromautomobilesandmotorcyclesorlightweightboatenginestopowerthe
planes.Theytestednewideasbybuildingtheplanestoseeiftheyworked.

By1909theVoisinbrothershadgainedareputationforbuildingreliableairplanes.Thatyear,several
competitorsarrivedwithVoisinmachinesatanaerialexhibitionandflyingmeetheldatRheims,France.
PublicityfromtheexhibitionatRheimsbroughtordersforabout20morebytheendoftheyear.

B.WorldWarI

IntheyearsleadinguptoWorldWarI,militariesonbothsidesoftheAtlanticOceangrewtoappreciatetherole
airplanescouldserveinthemilitary.WhileWilburWrighttouredEuropetoattracttheinterestofthepublic,
OrvilleWrightdemonstratedtheirinventionbeforeofficersoftheU.S.Army.Blriot'ssuccessfulcrossingofthe
EnglishChannelconvincedEuropeanmilitariesoftheirneedforairplanes.

Themilitarysawusesforairplanesinaerialscoutingmissionsandtocarrysmallbombsthatweredroppedby
hand(seeAirWarfare).TheNieuportfirm,foundedinFrancein1909,respondedtothisdemandbyproducing
monoplanesfortheFrencharmyandformilitaryservicesinItaly,Britain,Russia,andSweden.Blriotanda
numberofothermanufacturersfollowedsuit,andbythestartofWorldWarIinthesummerof1914,Germany,
France,Britain,andRussiaeachhad200to300militaryplanesplusseveralairships.Americanmanufacturers
laggedbehindtheirEuropeancounterparts.In1912U.S.firmsproducedjust39airplanes.In1915,asthewar
ragedacrossEurope,theUnitedStatesCongressformedtheNationalAdvisoryCommitteeforAeronautics
(NACA)tofundresearchanddevelopmentintheflightindustry.Despitethiseffort,whentheUnitedStates

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enteredthewarin1917,ithadonly16airplanebuildingcompanies,andonly6ofthemhadbuiltasmanyasten
airplanes.

TherateofairplanemanufactureinEuropeandtheUnitedStatesskyrocketedduringthewar.Britainturnedout
morethan55,000airplanesfrom1914to1918,andGermanyproduced40,000airplanesduringthesameperiod.
ThefledglingAmericanindustryalsoralliedbehindthewareffort,turningout14,000planesin1918alone.By
theendofthewar,theAmericanaerospaceindustryhadgrownto200,000workers.

C.InnovationBetweentheWars

IntheyearsfollowingWorldWarI,thefrenziedpaceofairplaneproductionslowed,andtheaircraftindustry
turneditsattentiontoimprovementstoaircraftdesign.AmericanandBritishfirms,encouragedbyNACAinthe
UnitedStatesandtheRoyalAircraftEstablishmentinBritain,investigatedabroadrangeofdesigninnovations.
Progressivetechniquesofdesign,engineering,andconstructionalsocamefromgraduatesofnewlyestablished
professionalaeronauticalengineeringschools,firstintroducedduringthe1920s.Theseinnovationefforts
resultedindramaticchangestoaircraft.Woodenairframesgavewaytolightweightmetalstructures,while
improvementsinenginetechnologyandfuelsyieldedgreaterspeedandenginereliability.

Theseandotheradvancesopenedupnewusesforairplanes.In1921theU.S.PostOfficebeganregular
transcontinentalairmailservicebetweenNewYorkCityandSanFrancisco,California.Boeingdevelopedits
firstcommercialaircraft,theModel40,in1927afterwinningacontracttoflymailfortheU.S.PostalService
betweenChicago,Illinois,andSanFrancisco.

In1933BoeingintroducedthetwinengineModel247airplane,anallmetal,lowwingmonoplanewith
retractablelandinggearandroomfortenpassengers.TheModel247revolutionizedcommercialaircraftdesign
butwassoondisplacedbythelarger,fasterDC3designedandbuiltbytheDouglasAircraftCompany.TheDC
3carried21passengersandcouldtravelacrossthecountryinlessthan24hours,thoughithadtostopmany
timesforfuel.TheDC3quicklycametodominatecommercialaviationinthelate1930sandhelpedestablish
theUnitedStatesastheleadingproducerofglobalairlineequipment.

D.WorldWarII

In1939WorldWarIIbrokeoutinEurope.AirplanemanufacturersinBritainandFrance,alreadyoverburdened
withordersformilitaryaircraft,placedmassiveordersforplanesandequipmentwithAmericanmanufacturers.
Inresponse,theAmericanaeronauticsindustrysignificantlyexpandeditsproductioncapabilities.Bythetime
theUnitedStatesenteredthewarinDecember1941,thenation'saerospaceindustrywaspreparedtomeetthe
increaseddemandforaircraftandproducedmorethan300,000aircraftbeforethewarwasover.

DuringthewarthegeographiccentersofU.S.aircraftproduction,traditionallyconcentratedonthecoasts,
becamemorediversified.Wartimeplannersmovedproductioninlandtoimprovesecurityagainstforeignattack
andtosatisfytheskyrocketingdemandforworkers.InWichita,Kansas,formerlycenterofthelightplane
industry,manufacturersproducedthousandsoftrainingaircraftandlargercombatplanes.Newfacilitiesin
Atlanta,Georgia,builtB29bombers,andnewplantsintheDallasFortWorthregionofTexasturnedoutB24
Liberatorbombers,P51Mustangfighters,andAT6trainers.

WorldWarIImilitaryresearchalsoproducedtechnologicalinnovationsthatforeverchangedaviation.Rocket
scientistsinGermanydevelopedmissileprototypesthatlaterservedasthefoundationforspaceexploration.The
mostimportantoftheseprototypeswastheworld'sfirstlargescalerocket,theA4(laterrenamedtheV2).

Wartimeeffortsalsoresultedintheuseofjetpropulsioninmilitaryaircraft.Inthelate1930sBritish
aeronauticalengineerFrankWhittlemadethefirstsuccessfultestsoftheturbojetengine.TheGermans,French,
andItaliansmadesubsequentimprovementstojetenginedesignduringthewar.TheBritishsharedtheirengine
technologywiththeUnitedStates,andbytheendofWorldWarIIin1945,Germany,Britain,andtheUnited
Stateshadbuiltjetpoweredfighterplanes.

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Afterthewar,mostairplanemanufacturersshiftedtheireffortsbacktopassengerairplanes.Theyincorporated
technologydevelopedfortrooptransportsduringthewar,suchaspressurizedcabins.Thisinnovationenabled
pilotstoflyathigheraltitudes,aboveturbulentweather,increasingpassengercomfort.Lockheedbegan
commercialproductionoftheConstellation,oneofthefirstcommercialairplaneswithapressurizedcabin.The
ConstellationjoinedtheDouglasDC3andthenewerDC6intranscontinentalandtransatlanticservice.
Togethertheselarge,comfortableairlinersposedasignificantthreattorailwaytravelandoceanlinersasthe
principalmodesoflongdistancetransportation.

E.TheColdWar

FollowingWorldWarII,theUnitedStatesandtheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics(USSR)engagedina
longstrugglethatcametobeknownastheColdWar.Thedefensebudgetsofbothcountriesescalatedduring
thisperiodaseachtriedtostayaheadoftheother'smilitarytechnology.AssistedbyNACAresearchand
generousfederalfundingforaeronauticalresearchanddevelopment,AmericanfirmssuchasGeneralElectric
andPratt&Whitneydevelopedpowerfuljetengines.Thesenewenginespoweredsubsequentgenerationsof
militaryaircraft,suchastheNorthAmericanF86SabrefighterandtheBoeingB47Stratojetbomber.
AmericanmanufacturersreapedadditionalprofitsduringtheColdWarbysellinghelicopters,fighters,and
transportaircrafttofriendlyforeignpowers.

In1957theUSSRputSputnik,theworld'sfirstartificialsatellite,intoorbit.Inresponse,theUnitedStates
revampeditsaerospaceefforts.In1958itrestructuredNACAanddubbedtheneworganizationtheNational
AeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA).NASAdevotedallofitsresourcestocatchingupwithand
beatingtheSovietspaceprogram.TheUnitedStatesalsoannounceditsintentiontobethefirstnationtoputa
humanonthemoon.ThisledtotheApolloprogram,amultibilliondollarspaceexplorationeffortthat
eventuallysent12Americanastronautstothesurfaceofthemoon.

F.RiseofCommercialAirTravel

Britishaerospaceengineersrevolutionizedtheairtransportindustrywhentheyincorporatedthejetengine,
previouslyusedonlyinmilitaryaircraft,intoacommercialplane.ThedeHavillandComet,introducedin1952,
wascelebratedasthefirstcommercialairplanepoweredbyjetengines.Unforeseenstructuralweaknessesinthe
Cometcausedaseriesofcrashes,twoofthemfatal.TheCometwasgroundedforinvestigationforseveral
years,givingAmericanmanufacturerstheopportunitytocatchuptotheirBritishcounterparts.Inthelate1950s
BoeingandDouglasintroducedthejetpowered707andDC8.PanAmericanWorldAirwaysinaugurated
Boeing707jetserviceinOctober1958,andairtravelchangeddramaticallyalmostovernight.Transatlanticjet
serviceenabledtravelerstoflyfromNewYorkCitytoLondon,England,inlessthaneighthours,halfthetimea
propellerairplanetooktoflythatdistance.Boeing's707carried112passengersathighspeedandquickly
completedthedisplacementofoceanlinersandrailroadsastheprincipalformoflongdistancetransportation.

In1970Boeingintroducedtheextremelysuccessful747,ahuge,widebodyairliner.Thegiantaircraft,
nicknamedthe"jumbojet,"couldcarrymorethan400peopleandseveralhundredtonsofcargo.Douglasand
Lockheedsoonturnedouttheirownversionsofthejumbojet,theDC10andtheL1011.

G.GlobalizationandMergers

TheColdWar,thespacerace,andadvancesincivilaeronauticsmadetheaerospaceindustryoneoftheUnited
States'largestemployersandoneofthestrongestandmostrobustindustriesofanykindintheworld.Bythelate
1960sEuropeanaerospaceindustrieswereseekingwaystoreducetheirdependenceonAmerican
manufacturers.

InanefforttousurpAmericanleadershipintheproductionofcivilairliners,BritainandFrancejoinedforcesto
developtheConcordesupersonictransport,thefirstcommercialjettoflyfasterthanthespeedofsound(see
Aerodynamics:Supersonics).TheConcorde,introducedin1967,setthestageforothermultinationalEuropean
effortstobuildandsellairplanesincompetitionwiththebigAmericanaerospacecompanies.In1970French,
German,British,andSpanishaerospacecompaniescollaboratedtoformAirbusIndustrie.TheAirbusA300
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airplane,introducedfouryearslater,inauguratedafamilyofairtransportsthatbytheearly1990srankedsecond
onlytoBoeinginworldwidesales.AdditionalEuropeanprogramsevolvedasmultinationalgroupsformedto
developfighters,attackaircraft,andhelicopters.

In1989,thecollapseoftheUSSRandtheensuingdemiseoftheColdWarbroughtfundamentalchangestothe
globalaerospaceindustrialcommunity.Sovietaerospaceagenciesreorganizedasprivateentitiesthatoften
collaboratedwithAsian,European,andAmericanfirmsstrategicpartneringthatputtheminbetterpositionsto
obtaincontracts.ThisstrategytouchedoffawaveofmergersintheAmericanaerospaceindustry.Martin
MariettaacquiredtheaerospacedivisionfromGeneralElectricCompanyin1992,thenmergedwiththe
aerospacegiantLockheedtwoyearslater.In1997BoeingacquiredlongtimerivalMcDonnellDouglas.Several
EuropeanfirmsannouncedtheirintentiontocombineforcestochallengethenewlyformedAmericanaerospace
giants.In2000BoeingannounceditsintentiontoacquireHughesSpaceCompany,theworld'sleading
manufacturerofcommunicationssatellites.

ContributedBy:

RogerE.Bilstein,B.A.,M.A.,Ph.D.

ProfessorofHistory,UniversityofHoustonClearLake.AuthorofFlightinAmerica:FromtheWrightstothe
Astronauts,TheAmericanAerospaceIndustry:WorkshoptoGlobalEnterprise,andotherbooks.

Seeanoutlineforthisarticle.

HOWTOCITETHISARTICLE

"AerospaceIndustry,"MicrosoftEncartaOnlineEncyclopedia2000

http://encarta.msn.com19972000MicrosoftCorporation.Allrightsreserved.

19932000MicrosoftCorporation.

Allrightsreserved.

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