FLP2266 Module10 Website

DIPLOMA IN
MARINE SURVEYING
2012 / 2013
MODULE 10
Fundamentals of Marine Engineering
AUTHOR
Eur Ing Dr Alec D Coutroubis
Principal Lecturer, Teaching Fellow
University of Greenwich
UK
Lloyd's and the Lloyd's crest are the registered trademarks of the society incorporated by the Lloyd's Act 1871 by the name of Lloyd's
CONTENTS
Page No.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 6
1. INTRODUCTION TO MARINE ENGINEERING 7
2. SHIP TERMINOLOGY 8
3. SHIP STRESSES 17
4. SLOW, MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED ENGINES 33
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

4.2 Slow-Speed Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
4.3 Medium-Speed Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
4.4 High-Speed Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
5. DIESEL ENGINE PARTS 47
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

5.2 Main Structural Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
5.3 Moving Parts (or Running Gear) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
6. OTHER MAIN MEANS OF PROPULSION 73
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

6.2 Steam Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
6.3 Gas Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
6.4 Diesel-Electric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
7. POWER TRANSMISSION 87
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

7.2 Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
7.3 Gearboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
7.4 Clutches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
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Contents Module 10
7.5 Turning Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

7.6 The Way to All Electric Ship (AES) Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
8. BOILERS 98
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

8.2 Terminology and Classification of Main Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
8.3 Auxiliary Boilers and Other Steam Producing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
8.4 Fuel Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
8.5 Boiler Mountings (Fittings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
8.6 Feed Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
9. FEED SYSTEMS 113
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

9.2 Feed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
9.3 System Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
10. PIPING SYSTEMS AND PUMPS 124
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124

10.2 Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
10.3 Basic Pumping Theory and Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
10.4 Pump Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
10.5 Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
10.6 Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
11. GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEMS 141
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141

11.2 Scavenging and Charging, Four-Stroke Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
11.3 Scavenging and Charging, Slow-Speed, Two-Stroke Engines . . . . . . . . . .142
11.4 Gas Exchange Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
11.5 Turbo-charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
11.6 Turbocharger Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
11.7 Charge-Air Cooling / Inter-cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
12. FUELS AND FUEL SYSTEMS 150
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150

12.2 Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
10-2 Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266)

Module 10 Contents
12.3 Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154

12.4 Fuel Oil Treatment on Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
12.5 Fuel Supply Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
12.6 Fuel Injection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
12.7 Fuel Injectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
12.8 Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
13. LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATING SYSTEMS 172
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172

13.2 Properties of Lubricating Oils and the Roles of Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
13.3 Different Types of Lubricating Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
13.4 Lubricating Oil Treatment on Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
13.5 Lubricating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
14. COOLING SYSTEMS 178
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178

14.2 Fresh Water Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
14.3 Seawater Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
14.4 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
14.5 Heat Exchangers (Coolers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
15. STARTING AIR SYSTEMS 186
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186

15.2 Starting Air System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
15.3 Cylinder Starting Air Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
15.4 Starting Air Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
15.5 Intercoolers (and Aftercoolers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
15.6 Starting Air Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
15.7 Health and Safety Issues in Starting Air Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
16. SHAFTING AND PROPELLERS 196
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196

16.2 Shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
16.3 Thrust Block and Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
16.4 Shaft Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
16.5 Stern Tube Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
16.6 Stern Tube Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
16.7 Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
16.8 Propeller Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
16.9 Controllable (or Variable) Pitch Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203

Contents Module 10
17. REFRIGERATION, AIR-CONDITIONING AND VENTILATION 206
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206

17.2 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
17.3 Air-Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
17.4 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
18. DECK MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 215
18.1 Mooring Winches and Anchor Handling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215

18.2 Cargo Handling Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
18.3 Hatch Covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
19. STEERING GEAR 224
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224

19.2 Electric Steering Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226
19.3 Hydraulic Steering Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
20. ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 232
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

20.2 Electrical Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
20.3 Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
20.4 Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
20.5 Current Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
20.6 Transformers, Rectifiers and Thyristors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
20.7 Current Supply and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
20.8 Electric Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
20.9 Voltage Produced by Chemical Action / Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
20.10 Emergency Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
20.11 Navigational Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
20.12 Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
20.13 Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
21. BRIDGE CONTROL AND EMERGENCY SYSTEMS 249
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249

21.2 Unattended Machinery Spaces (UMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
21.3 Bridge Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250
21.4 Diesel Machinery Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
21.5 Electrical Supply Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257

Module 10 Contents
22. SAFETY AND OPERATION OF DIESEL ENGINES 258
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258

22.2 Normal Operating Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
22.3 Watchkeeping Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
22.4 Safety Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
22.5 Common Problems / Dangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
23. MAINTENANCE OF SHIPS MACHINERY 266
23.1 Maintenance of Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266

23.2 Development of a Maintenance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
23.3 Planned Maintenance Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
23.4 Maintenance Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
23.5 Planned Maintenance Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275
RECOMMENDED READING 279
CONVERSION OF UNITS 281
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 283
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
This module has been added to the original diploma course on the sound advice
of both university and institute review panels. It was recognised that, for
those students who were not taking the marine engineering specialist module,
there was a lack of sound marine engineering knowledge which all marine
surveyors should have. Whatever specialist type of marine surveying a student
may be involved in, it would be most unusual for a surveyor not to be involved,
at some stage in their career, in reporting on damage that has been caused
directly or indirectly by some mechanical failure or malfunction on board.
A fundamental knowledge of marine engineering is, therefore, very important.
For those students who are specialising in marine engineering, then this module
is a useful introduction to that subject and for all surveyors it should provide a
good reference manual for the future.

1. INTRODUCTION TO MARINE ENGINEERING
10-001 Marine engineers are concerned with the efficient and safe design, operation
and maintenance of all the ships machinery, with the exception perhaps of some
highly specialised items such as navigational electronics. These functions are
now assigned to the Electro Technical Officer (ETO) and include the mainte-
nance of electrical and electronic equipment on board the vessel, such as power
generation, power distribution, navigational and communications equipment.
Reporting to the Chief Engineer, Electro Technical Officers (ETO) participate in
the planning and execution of all electrical/electronic planned maintenance rou-
tines and repairs. Ships are big, self-sustained and complex vehicles and their
systems involve knowledge of several engineering disciplines such as mechani-
cal, electrical, chemical and refrigeration.
10-002 Naval architects are concerned with the design and construction of the ships hull
and its ability to perform its required duties. They are also concerned with the prop-
erties of the hull as it moves on water under different weather and sea conditions.
10-003 Some overlap of responsibilities exists between the two as, for example, the
ships propulsion inevitably combines the main propulsion drive, shafts and
propellers and hull.
10-004 Naval architects spend a lot of time in the early stages of a ships life, during her
design and construction. They can also be involved at later stages such as
during modifications or major hull repairs.
10-005 Marine engineers, on the other hand, are involved with the vessels technical
management on a day to day basis and throughout her useful life. The results
of their work affect the vessels safety, efficiency, reliability and above all the
economic performance. Working onboard or ashore, they are on call 24 hours a
day and are expected to deal with the myriad of technical questions and
problems that inevitably arise, when complex engineering systems are subjected
to continuous operation. Above all, marine engineers are concerned with the
maintenance of a vessel and its equipment and machinery and therefore are
responsible for a substantial part of the vessels operating budget.
10-006 In a fast progressing technological world, with new products and concepts
continually made available to the marine industry, particularly through the evolution
of materials and electronics, the job of the marine engineer becomes more
demanding in terms of updating knowledge. The introduction of new legislation
such as the International Safety Management Code (ISM Code), or the intense
international awareness on pollution prevention (and the financial consequences
thereof) add further responsibilities to the marine engineers daily life, since ship
failure, in many cases, will be blamed, directly or indirectly, on his performance.
10-007 Surveyors attending vessels for whatever reason must have the fundamental
knowledge to judge the vessels condition. Often a vessel is described as
sub-standard or unseaworthy purely on the basis of an uneducated visual
impression and vice versa. Engineering however is a defined science and does
not allow for errors of judgment. A vessel cannot be standard one day and
sub-standard the next, unless she has been involved in a casualty. A vessel,
like any other engineering structure, can and will deteriorate over time and a
good surveyor and/or marine engineer must be able to point out correctly the
precise condition of what he examines if his work is to be taken seriously.

2. SHIP TERMINOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After successfully completing this chapter, you will:

be able to identify the main ship types; and
have a general knowledge of the ships terminology.
10-008 Terms used to describe ship characteristics need to be accurately defined. The
glossary of key terms that follows is of equal importance to the marine engineer
and the naval architect as it is for the ship operator and the marine surveyor.
Length
10-009 When referring to the shape and size of the hull it is convenient to describe
particular features by standard terms. In practice, for example, a number of
lengths are used for a vessel, each with a particular meaning.
10-010 Reference is sometimes made to overall dimensions and moulded

dimensions. Broadly speaking, overall dimensions are the maximum or
extreme dimensions, and moulded dimensions are measurements to the inside
of the shell plating.
10-011 For calculations on the underwater part of the hull a length underwater is
required. Since this varies depending on the draft at which it is measured, two
reference points are assumed and the verticals at those points are referred to
as the perpendiculars. These lines normally appear on plans, but not of course
on the vessel itself.
Figure 2.1

Module 10 Ship Terminology
Longitudinal
10-012 Refers to any dimension along the length of a vessel.
Forward Perpendicular (FP)
10-013 This is an imaginary vertical line passing through the intersection of the summer-
load water line (SLWL) with the forward edge of the stem or stem plate.
After Perpendicular (AP)
10-014 This is an imaginary vertical line passing through the intersection of the summer-
load water line with the aft side of the rudder post, or to the centre of the rudder
stock if no post is fitted.
Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP)
10-015 This is the distance (length of the vessel) measured between the forward
perpendicular and the after perpendicular. This distance is used for scantling and
classification purposes, and is not to be less than 96% of the extreme length.
Length Overall (LOA)
10-016 This is the extreme length measured from the foremost part of the stem to the
after side of the stern. LOA is used mainly for berthing and docking purposes.
Length on Load Waterline (LWL)
10-017 The length measured on the waterline when the vessel is floating in still water in
the fully loaded, or designed condition. The LWL and the SLWL may be the same
distance.
Amidships (Midships)
10-018 Amidships is the mid-point of the LBP, (i.e. LBP/2 in Figure 2.1)
Longitudinal Dimensions
Figure 2.2

Ship Terminology Module 10
Sheer
10-019 This is the curve of the deck from amidships in the fore and aft (longitudinal)
directions (Figure 2.2). Sheer on exposed decks raises the deck at the fore and
after ends, which helps reduce drainage of water coming on the deck.
Rake
10-020 This is the fore and aft slope from the vertical. Bows, masts and funnels are
often raked.
Draught (Draft)
10-021 This is the vertical distance between the datum line (underside of the keel) and
any waterline. (Note that though draught is in common usage, it is now often
also spelt draft).
Draught Datum Line
10-022 This is the line that passes through the lowest point of the hull and is extended
to the forward and after perpendiculars. This is the line from which the draught
marks are measured.
Draught Marks
10-023 These are the gauge marks at each side of the vessel forward and aft used to
indicate the draught, that is, the amount of the vessel below the waterline.
Draught marks are also often found amidships on both sides of the vessel, adja-
cent the load-line marks.
Freeboard
10-024 This is the vertical distance at amidships between the waterline and upper deck
at the side of the vessel.
Freeboard Deck
10-025 This is the uppermost complete-length deck that has permanent means of clos-
ing all openings to the sea and the weather.
Bulkhead Deck
10-026 This is the watertight continuous deck to which the upper edges of all watertight
bulkheads are attached. It is also known as the Freeboard deck, and may coin-
cide with the Main deck, although not necessarily so.

Tonnage Deck
10-027 This is the upper deck in a single-deck ship, and the second deck from below in
all others. It is chosen arbitrarily, for convenience, in measuring the ship for
cargo tonnage.
Weather Deck
10-028 It is the uppermost deck of the ship that is open to the weather.
Shelter Deck
10-029 This is an upper continuous deck above the Freeboard or Main deck, originally
to protect cargo or cattle carried in spaces not completely excluded from the sea
and the weather. Exemption can be claimed from tonnage dues when this space
is empty, provided a tonnage hatch is fitted. The shelter deck on modem ships
is usually carrying its share of longitudinal strength, and becomes the Freeboard
deck when the tonnage hatch is closed, allowing an increase of draught.
Tonnage Hatch
10-030 This is an opening in the Shelter deck on the centre line of the ship, which may
not have watertight means of closing, if the Shelter deck volume is to be
exempted from tonnage dues when empty. The opening must be at least 4-foot
long, and as wide as the after hatch. It must not be within 1/20th of the ships
length from the stern post, nor it must be within 1/5th of the length from the stem.
Its coaming must be no more then 12-high.
Assigned Freeboard
10-031 This is the vertical distance at amidships from the upper edge of the deck line to
the upper edge of the summer-load water line (SLWL).
Trim
10-032 This is the longitudinal difference between the forward and after draughts, or the
angle the vessel is lying in the water longitudinally. When the draught for-
ward equals the draught aft, the vessel is said to have zero trim, or to be on
even keel.
Trim by the Head
10-033 When the draught forward is greater than the draught aft, the vessel is said to
be trimmed by the head (Figure 2.3). This may be caused by:
Badly loaded cargo;
Badly distributed ballast;

Intentionally done to inspect the underwater components at the after end,

such as the propeller or rudder or
The vessel is sinking!
Longitudinal Dimensions
Figure 2.3
Vessel Trim
Trim by the Stern
10-034 When the draught forward is less than the draught aft, the vessel is said to be
trimmed by the stern. This may be caused by:
Badly loaded cargo;
Badly distributed ballast;
Intentionally done to inspect the underwater components at the forward

end, such as the bulbous bow;
Intentionally done to enter a drydock. The vessel is trimmed by the stern

such that the stern touches the blocks in the dock first, as this is this is the
strongest part of the vessel in terms of construction; or
The vessel is sinking!
Transverse
10-035 Refers to any dimension across the breadth of a vessel (Figure 2.4).

Extreme Breadth (Beam)
10-036 This is the transverse distance measured to the outside of the shell plating at the
widest point of the deck (amidships). This distance includes all rubbing strips
and beadings.
Breadth-registered
10-037 This is the extreme breadth of the vessel, measured over the outer skin at or
below the upper deck, and at the widest part of the hull, disregarding rubbers or
fenders.
Moulded Breadth
10-038 Is the greatest breadth of the vessel measured to the inside of the shell plating.
Figure 2.4
Transverse Dimensions
Moulded Base Line
10-039 It is a line that passes through the upper edge of the keel plate. Vertical,
moulded dimensions are measured to this line.
Camber
10-040 This is the transverse curvature of the deck. It helps shed water from the
upper deck.
Rise of Floor
10-041 This is the angle of rise of the vessels bottom plating above the keel-base line.

Double-bottom Tanks
10-042 These are tanks at the bottom of the ship. Their functions include:
Strengthen the vessel transversely;
Protect the vessel from flooding in the event of grounding damage;
Used for storage of fuel oil, lube oil, ballast water and fresh water.
Tank Top
10-043 This is the deck level on the top of the double-bottom tanks.
Ceiling
10-044 This is a wooden-plank deck, usually laid over battens on the tank top or inner-
bottom plates of a hold.
Depth (Extreme)
10-045 This is the distance from the underside of keel to the upper side of the deck plat-
ing at the side of the vessels.
Depth-registered
10-046 This is the depth, at the centre line, from the underside of the tonnage deck to
the top of the floors or tank top or ceiling, if fitted on the floors or tank top. It is
used for tonnage-registration purposes, and is measured at the middle of the
registered length.
Tumble Home
10-047 This is the falling in of the ships side from the bilge towards the deck level,
which allows any small projections at the deck level to clear wharves etc. The
standard tumble home is 12 inches at the strength deck.
Flare
10-048 This is the curvature of the bow plating. Apart from streamlining the bow section,
flare increases the breadth of the forecastle head and allows anchors to drop
clear of the bow plating. In a seaway, the buoyancy of the bow section will
increase as it is immersed further into the water. This increasing buoyancy helps
to prevent the bow from diving too deeply into heavy seas, and also deflects
water away from the vessel.

Buoyancy
10-049 The force exerted by the weight of the vessel will act downwards, tending to
make the vessel sink into the water (Figure 2.5). Wherever there is a force there
is always an equal and opposite force. In this case the opposite force, exerting
an up-thrust on the vessel, is known as buoyancy.
Figure 2.5
Buoyancy
Reserve Buoyancy
10-050 This is the volume of the enclosed spaces above the waterline. It may be
expressed as a volume in m3 or as a percentage of the total volume of the ves-
sel.
Superstructure
10-051 The superstructure is that part of a vessel built above the freeboard deck (usually
the main deck), and is usually the full width of the ship. It plays an important part
in the protection of machinery space openings and other openings in the main
deck. Frames, plating, girders and brackets are used to construct the
superstructure, similar to those used to construct the hull.
10-052 Because it is vulnerable to the impact of green seas in heavy weather, the
forward end of the superstructure is sometimes curved to add strength and
relieve stress. Abrupt angles are avoided where the superstructure joins the
deck to prevent shearing or cracking of the shell plating.
Freeing Ports
10-053 These are openings in a plated bulwark, which are hinged at their upper edge, and
form a non-return flap to drain water from the deck, but prevent ingress of the sea.
Raised Quarter Deck
10-054 This is the line of main deck of a ship, where the after portion (abaft the fore
edge of the Bridge structure) is higher than the forward section by about 3 to 5
feet. It is of vital importance to maintain the longitudinal strength at the break
or junction of the deck.

Well Deck
10-055 This is the forward lower part of the main deck on a raised quarter deck ship,
and in rough weather is often awash, giving rise to its name.
Side House
10-056 This is the term used to describe any accommodation situated outboard of a
wide working alleyway.
Lightweight (Light Displacement)
10-057 This is the mass of the vessel when complete and ready for sea but with no
crew, passengers, stores, fuel or cargo onboard.
Deadweight
10-058 This is the difference between the displacement at a given draught and the light-
weight; it is a measure of what the vessel can carry, such as the cargo, the crew,
passengers, stores, fuel etc.
Displacement (Load Displacement)
10-059 This is the mass of the hull and everything onboard when floating at the
designed summer-load line: in other words, the most the vessel can legally
weigh. Displacement is the total weight of water displaced by the underwater
form of the hull.
Displacement Lightweight Deadweight
Gross Registered Tonnage (GRT)
10-060 GRT can be considered as the internal volume less certain exemptions. It is a
cubic measure of the interior volume of the ship, with regard to cargo spaces,
stores, fuel etc. Poops, bridges, forecastles, machinery spaces, galleys, bath-
rooms are usually exempted.
10-061 Note that the ton is a unit of volume containing 100 ft3 (2.83 m3).
Registered Tonnage (RT) (Nett Registered Tonnage)
10-062 RT can be considered to represent the earning capacity of the vessel and is
obtained by deducting the non-freight spaces from the GRT.
10-063 Deductions are made in respect of the percentage of the total space occupied
by the propelling machinery, the steering machinery, stores, ballast and crew
accommodation.

3. SHIP STRESSES
LEARNING OUTCOME

have an overview of the various forms of ship stresses and
the consequences.
10-064 Ships are floating structures of diverse size, design and purpose, built using a
variety of construction materials and, when in service, exposed to different
weather, loading and physical conditions. Like all complex structures, ships are
exposed to stresses, while the understanding of the consequences of stress
exposure becomes key knowledge for ship-building, operation and maintenance
and is often the bottom-line cause of hull and machinery failures.
10-065 The stresses to which any vessel is subject to can be divided into two separate
groups:
Structural stress, stress that affects the whole vessel;
Local stress, stress that only affects a particular part of a vessel.
10-066 The cause of any stress can also be classified into one of two categories:
Dynamic stress, stress caused by movement of the vessel;
Static stress, stress caused by local effects.
Stress Formula
10-067 Before considering the stresses to which a ship is subjected, it will be useful to
understand a few definitions in relation to the strength of materials.
10-068 The force applied to a given cross-sectional area of a material is termed

intensity of stress, or more commonly just stress.
Stress Force/Cross sectional area
Strain Formula
10-069 Intensity of strain, or more commonly just strain is the effect on the material
of the applied force, and is defined as the ratio of any change in dimension with
respect to the original dimension.
Strain Change in dimension / Original dimension

Ship Stresses Module 10
Forms of Stress
10-070 Stress can be further classified into three other categories (see Figure 3.1):
Tensile stress, a force that tends to increase the length;
Compressive stress, a force that tends to decrease the length;
Shear stress, when two opposing forces cause the various parts of the
section to slide one over the other.
Figure 3.1
Forms of Stress
Shear Stress
10-071 A vessel floating at rest in still water is subjected to the force of buoyancy act-
ing upwards and the force of weight acting downwards (Figure 3.2). According
to the Archimedes Principle these forces must be equal and opposite.
Figure 3.2
Buoyancy
10-072 The distribution of these two opposing forces may not be equal because of the
following:
The weight of the superstructure acting down;
The weight of the cargo acting down;

Module 10 Ship Stresses
Changes in underwater shape and
The weight of large machinery, such as the main engine acting down.
10-073 These factors make the forces of buoyancy, and weight vary along the ships
length, causing the vessel to be in shear stress at different points (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3
Shear Stress
10-074 In a light-ship condition (i.e. before loading) the structure of the vessel is
designed to withstand these opposing forces. In a loaded condition the structure
will accept these forces provided the cargo is evenly distributed within the
allocated space.
10-075 At the design state the scantlings of the vessel are calculated to accept these
unequal forces, the effects being distributed throughout the structure by the
main longitudinal members.
Hogging and Sagging
10-076 Hogging and sagging are longitudinal bending of the structure caused by an
even distribution of weight or uneven distribution of weight and buoyancy.
Hogging and sagging can occur in still water or at sea.
10-077 Structural failures have occurred but there is little evidence to indicate any
serious failures in vessels under 3035 metres in length.
10-078 To compensate for hogging and sagging in the structure all longitudinal
members are designed to prevent bending. The keel structure gives the great-
est resistance to bending, side girders, stringers and deck girders also increase
longitudinal strength.

10-079 Both hogging and sagging are commonly caused by:
The action of heavy seas
When a vessel is at sea the wave formation produce greater longitudinal

bending. The greatest bending is caused when wavelength and ship
length are about equal. Short, choppy waves cause little, if any, bending.
Badly distributed cargo
In still water, distortion can be caused by bad loading practice creating

excessive trim by the head or stem, or by excess weight amidships. Since
the vessel remains intact, like a girder, these vertical upward and down-
ward forces will tend to distort the vessel.
10-080 These unequal forces can distort the structure as shown in Figure 3.4. A vessel
in this condition is said to be hogging.
Figure 3.4
Hogging
10-081 With excess weight amidships, as shown in Figure 3.5, the reverse distortion will
take place. A vessel in this condition is said to be sagging.

Figure 3.5
Sagging
Racking
Figure 3.6
Vessel Rolling in a Beam Sea
10-082 Racking is the transverse distortion of the structure caused by rolling in a beam
sea (Figure 3.6). The diagram (Figure 3.7) shows the effects of racking.

Figure 3.7
Racking
10-083 A stiff ship will be affected by racking more than a tender ship. Compensation
to resist racking comes from the following:
Bulkheads,
Floors and
Frame and beam connections, in particular with beam knees.
Panting
10-084 Panting is the in and out flexing of the bow structure in a bellows-like fashion.
It is caused by fluctuating water pressure squeezing the hull (Figure 3.8). It
occurs at both ends of the vessel but is most severe forward of the collision
bulkhead when the vessel is running into a head sea and pitching heavily. The
fluctuation in pressure occurs over a short time cycle.
Figure 3.8
Panting Collision Bulkhead

Pounding or Slamming
10-085 Pounding or slamming causes local stresses in way of the bottom structure over
an area just aft of the collision bulkhead. At this point the structure is beginning
to fill out towards amidships presenting a flat area of bottom plating (Figure 3.9).
10-086 Pounding occurs when a vessel is driven into a head sea, it will be most severe
in a light draught condition.
10-087 Thickening the shell plating and reducing frame spacing is the most usual
method of preventing pounding. A vessel with a very fine bow entry will not be
stiffened to the same extent as a vessel with a very flat, full-bow entry.
Figure 3.9
Pounding or Slamming
Dry-docking
10-088 Dry-docking creates forces (see Figure 3.10) on the vessel that can cause
distortion on the structure. Because the vessel has no buoyancy when sitting on
the blocks, additional stresses are put upon the structure. This applies in partic-
ular around unsupported sections of the bottom structure and around the areas
where side supports are used. In order to secure the proper support of the ves-
sel whilst in dry-dock, the ships Dry Docking Plan should be made available to
the yard in advance of the event, indicating the exact positioning of the sup-
porting blocks and side supports necessary when necessary. The docking plan
Figure 3.10
Dry-docking

provides all the information required for the purpose of supporting the hull in a
drydock. It shows in details where and how the vessel is going to be supported
without suffering structural stress or damage and therefore the information pro-
vided is essential for the shipyards preparation in receiving the vessel.
Local Loads
10-089 Local loads within the vessel can cause distortion on the structure (Figure 3.11).
10-090 Typically the main engine is a large concentrated load in the machinery space.
Figure 3.11
Local Loads
10-091 Compensation for this type of load includes the following:
Use of plate floors instead of bracket floors,
Deeper floors,
Increased number of floors, closer spacing and
Use of thicker steel plate and sections.
Water Pressure
10-092 Water pressure can be static or dynamic and it can occur from outside or inside
the vessel. Water pressure increases with draught; the greater the draught the
greater the load on the plating and frames (see Figure 3.12).
10-093 Water pressure from the outside will squeeze the hull structure inwards. At the
design stage allowances are made for this pressure. Very little, if any, structural
failure will occur unless the vessel is badly corroded or, in the case of a wooden
vessel, the caulking breaks down or the planking is rotten.
10-094 Besides affecting the hull structure, the effects of pressure can occur in any tank
space.
10-095 In the case of the double-bottom tanks, when in use, pressure from the outside
and the inside will be about equal depending upon the draught.

10-096 Loading on that area of the structure will be reduced to almost nil.
10-097 The pressure on free-standing oil or water tanks will be the greatest; this will
tend to bulge the plating of the tank outwards. Static pressure can be calculated,
so failure of the structure of tank spaces is uncommon.
10-098 All tanks are tested to a head of pressure greater than any that will be experienced
in service.
Figure 3.12
Water Pressure
Dynamic Stresses
10-099 Because a ship floats on water, and water is a fluid, a ship will be constantly
moving, depending upon the state of the water. This movement causes various
stresses to the structure of a vessel.
Degrees of Freedom
10-100 There are what is known as the six degrees of freedom of movement that a
vessel is primarily subjected to when afloat or moving. These degrees of free-
dom may have an effect individually, but more commonly they have an effect in
any combination.
10-101 The degrees of freedom are known as:
Pitch, pitching Roll, rolling
Heave, heaving Surge, surging
Yaw, yawing Sway, swaying

Pitch, Pitching
10-102 Pitching is the longitudinal rocking of a ship, about a point called the
longitudinal centre of flotation. Pitching is normally caused when the ship
crosses a sea swell at right angles to the troughs of the waves.
Figure 3.13
Pitching
10-103 There are various dangers associated with pitching, especially if the pitching is
severe:
The bow becoming submerged forward, shipping water that may cause
structural damage or flooding;
The stern becoming submerged aft, again shipping water that may cause
structural damage or flooding;
The propeller coming out of the water, this may result in the main engine
over-speed trip operating, which will result in a loss of propulsion;
The bow coming out of the water and slamming down on the surface,
causing underside-plate damage known as pounding or slamming and
Longitudinal stresses may be induced in the ship structure, such as twist-

ing, hogging and sagging (see Figure 3.13).
Roll, Rolling
10-104 Rolling is the transverse rocking of a ship, about a point called the transverse
centre of flotation. Rolling is normally caused when the ship travels in parallel
with a sea swell.

Figure 3.14
Rolling
10-105 There are various dangers associated with rolling, including the following:
At about 10 degrees of roll minor damage occurs, such as plates falling off
tables and people becoming unsteady on their feet;
At about 20 degrees of roll more serious damage occurs, chairs fall over,
heavier objects break loose etc. and people stumble and fall over;
If rolling becomes extreme there is the danger of the vessel capsizing and
Transverse stresses may be induced in the ship structure, in particular

racking (see Figure 3.14).
Yaw, Yawing
10-106 Yawing is a rotary oscillating motion at the water plane of the ship, as the ves-
sel is moving ahead (see Figure 3.15).
Figure 3.15
Yawing

Heave, Heaving
10-107 Heaving is when a ship moves vertically up and down (Figure 3.16), commonly
caused by the swell of the sea. It can cause severe stresses on the structure,
such as hogging and sagging.
Figure 3.16
Heaving
Surge, Surging
10-108 Surging is commonly associated with a vessel moving forward into a heavy sea.
As a vessel hits a wave, and then clears the wave, the vessel will decelerate,
and then accelerate (see Figure 3.17). The vessel appears to suddenly move
forward, then slide backwards, as the vessel is actually moving forwards.
10-109 This may cause propeller slip, which is when the propeller slips through the
water without producing a propulsive thrust.
Figure 3.17
Surging

Sway, Swaying
10-110 Swaying is the bodily movement from side to side (port to starboard and vice
versa) of a ship whilst it is moving either ahead or astern (Figure 3.18).
10-111 Sway may be caused by the interaction effect of passing vessels, or canal and
river banks. Interaction is the name given to attracting and repelling forces when
the ship is passing other bodies.
Figure 3.18
Swaying
Torsion or Twist
10-112 Combinations of any of the dynamic forces can create torsion or twist in the hull
structure, which has to be resisted. Twisting is commonly caused by the action
of the weather (see Figure 3.19), especially if the vessel is at an angle (such as
45 degrees) to the troughs of the waves. Stresses created include tension, com-
pression and shear.
Figure 3.19
Torsion or Twist

Heel, Heeling
10-113 A ship is said to heel when it is inclined (or is leant over) by an external force
to the ship. Typically such external forces, such as centrifugal force, are
created by:
the action of the waves and
the vessel turning.
10-114 When the vessel turning causes heel, the amount of heel depends upon the
speed of the vessel, and the angle of rudder being used. Generally, the higher
the speed of the vessels entry into a turn, the larger its rudder angle, and the
greater its heel.
10-115 In extreme cases, if the speed of the vessel is too great, there is the danger of an
excessive angle of heel developing, which may result in a capsize (Figure 3.20).
Figure 3.20
Heeling
10-116 Note that heel should not be confused with the next item, list.
List, Listing
10-117 A ship is said to list when it is inclined (or is leant over) by an internal force
within the vessel.
10-118 Typical causes of list include the following:
Uneven distribution of cargo;
Moving cargo;
Filling tanks, such as fuel or ballast tanks;
Emptying tanks;

Transferring the contents of tanks and
Flooding due to damage or grounding (Figures 3.21 and 3.22).
Figure 3.21
List Due to Flooding
Figure 3.22
List Due to Cargo
Stresses in Tanks
10-119 Stresses in tanks are caused by slack liquid moving rapidly in a fore aft, trans-
verse, or up down direction. This movement of water is caused by rolling and
pitching. This dynamic stress can be prevented by keeping tanks full. Tanks may
also have internal stiffening in the form of:
Vertical beams bracketed top and bottom;
Horizontal stringers or web plates;

Thicker plating at the bottom of the tank;
Fitting wash plates.
Design Notches
10-120 Naval architects attempt to design ships without design notches and hard
spots.
10-121 A design notch is sharp corner in a sheet of metal plating used to construct the
vessel. If windows, for example, were square on a ship, then as the vessel
flexes in a seaway the stresses passing through the plate would tend to focus
on the corners of the window.
10-122 It is for this reason that doors, hatches and scuttles are either round or have
curved corners.
Hard Spots
10-123 Hard spots are areas of a metal plate that have a rigid support behind. For
example if there were not enough frames in a vessel then the transfer of
stresses from one area of the vessel to another would be focused at the point of
reinforcement of the frame. Cracking would occur at this point. Hard spots can
be reduced, either by making the reinforcing structure more flexible or by
increasing the number of reinforcements, thus making the whole structure
stronger and providing more elements in to bear the stresses.
Compensation
10-124 Openings (such as doors, hatchways, etc.), in deck or shell plating must be com-
pensated to retain structural strength.
10-125 For this purpose, corners are rounded and doubling plates or thicker plates are
used around the opening. Similarly decks are strengthened by additional plate
thickness, brackets or gussets in areas where machinery, winches, bollards,
supporting pillars or girders are located.

4. SLOW, MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED ENGINES
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After successfully completing this chapter, you will know:
the categorisation of marine diesel engines regarding

sizes, speed and power; and
the major manufacturers of each type.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
10-126 For a propeller to operate efficiently, it must rotate at about 80 to 100 revolutions
per minute (revs/min, rpm) at the maximum full ahead speed. This is regardless of
the speed of the main propulsion engine driving it. If the speed of the main engine
matches the propeller speed requirements, then a direct-drive can be achieved.
Engines designed to operate in this fashion are known as slow-speed engines.
10-127 Medium-speed diesel engines are considered those that operate and deliver
their maximum output at speeds in the range of 3001,000 rpm. Finally, high-
speed diesel engines are those that deliver their maximum output in speeds in
excess of 1,000 rpm.
10-128 Higher engine speeds offer a better relation between their output and the
physical dimensions and weight of the engine itself. In order, however, for their
power to be transmitted to the propeller, a reduction or gearbox assembly
becomes necessary, converting the high-speed engine output to the speed
required by the propeller to operate efficiently. This additional reduction unit
adds weight and cost (thus partly taking away the weight advantage) and
increases the chances of failures as more moving parts are accumulated in the
assembly. The compensating advantage is that gearboxes include clutches and
reverse gears which permit the vessel to travel from full steam ahead to full
astern, without having to stop the engine dead and restart it in the reverse direc-
tion (a much more complicated and not totally failsafe system either). Similar
dimensional vs. output advantages are enjoyed by medium-speed engines (over
slow-speed engines) and therefore when engine rooms are restricted by height,
high- or medium-speed engines will be selected instead of slow-speed engines.
10-129 All marine propulsion engines are turbocharged, however the actual selection of
the type of diesel engine to be used as main propulsion medium depends
entirely on the ship design, the space available in the engine room, the vessels
overall size and her speed requirements. Generally speaking, fast vessels
require high-speed engines. Medium- and high-speed engines are always
four-stroke, and are often used as auxiliary generator, pump and compressor
drivers even on ships whose main propulsion is a slow-speed engine.

Slow, Medium and High-Speed Engines Module 10
4.2 SLOW-SPEED ENGINES
10-130 Slow-speed engines usually run between 55 and 150 rpm. The common large,
slow-speed engines operate exclusively on a two-stroke cycle and directly
drive the propeller shaft. They are able to burn low quality fuels and therefore
they are economic to run. All these types of engines are of crosshead design,
meaning that there is complete isolation between the cylinders and the
crankcase. Slow speeds and fewer working parts make these engines very
attractive from the point of view of reliability, easier maintenance and longer
life cycles. For these reasons, slow-speed engines dominate the market in
modern merchant ships.
10-131 There is a wide variety of two-stroke engines available around the world and
manufactured in various countries under licence, with certain makes and
designs enjoying the best reputation.
10-132 Speeds, as low as 55 rpm, can be achieved by engines with long-stroke to bore
ratios, driving large, slow and very efficient propellers used by big tankers and
bulk carriers. Such ratios can be up to 3.8:1. As the ratio drops, speeds increase
to cater for different needs in ship design.
10-133 Figure 4.1 on page 10-35 shows a typical, two-stroke engine, cross-section. The
piston rod is solidly connected to the piston and attached to its crosshead
bearing, at the other end. A second connecting rod connects the crosshead with
the crankshaft via a bottom bearing. Inlet scavenging ports are arranged in the
cylinder liner and instead of the exhaust ports, this simpler design uses the
help of a valve, in the cylinder head, enabling the release of exhaust gases.
Air is let in under pressure generated by the turbocharger, driven by the
exhaust gases on their way out of the cylinder. The crankshaft sits in the
engine bedplate and is kept in place by the main bearing. A frames are
bolted on the bedplate and contain the guides that keep the crosshead in
place, while it is travelling up and down. Finally, the engine block sits on top of
the A frames, and includes the cylinder jacket, the cylinder, the cylinder
head, the scavenging trunks etc.
10-134 Brief reference will now be made to specific designs which appear to be domi-
nating the international market.
4.2.1 Wrtsil - Sulzer Engines = Wrtsil-Sulzer =
10-135 Figure 4.2 on page 10-36, shows a cross-section of the popular Sulzer RTA
engine, typical of a modern two-stroke, slow-speed, crosshead type, with an
operating speed of about 100 rpm. Depending on output power requirements,
RTAs can have between four and as many as 12 cylinders of various diameters.
10-136 The bedplate consists of a single wall and is arranged with an integral thrust
bearing housing, at the aft part of the engine. Large welded A frames are
bolted together with cast iron cylinder jackets to form the cylinder block.
Crankcase part of the engine is arranged by individual frames, which also act as
guides for the crosshead movement. Main bearing cap is kept in place by jack-
bolts. This is to enable the tie rods to be placed as close to the centre line of the
engine as possible to aid the rigidity of the engine.

Module 10 Slow, Medium and High-Speed Engines
Figure 4.1
Cross-Section of a Two-Stroke Diesel Engine.
WRTSIL-SULZER LOW SPEED ENGINES
4.2.2 MAN B&W
10-137 Constructed with between 6 and 12 cylinders, these L 70 MC engines have an

operating speed just over 100 rpm and are very suitable for larger and faster
vessels. This engine is typical of the MAN B&W design, with the bedplate being
of rigid block form. A frames are assembled to contain the crankcase and the
crosshead, but also the chain driving of the camshaft. Cylinder frame is of cast
iron and contains the scavenge trucks between cylinder jacket and diaphragm.
Top frame is bolted on the bedplate grinders. B&W were pioneers of the uniflow
scavenge system and the first to use an exhaust value operated in the conven-
tional way. Both Wrtsil-Sulzer and B&W have adopted the uniflow scavenge
system and both now have hydraulic actuation of the value coupled with an air
operated return which takes the place of a mechanical spring. A cross-section of
this type of engine is shown in Figure 4.3 on page 10-37.

Figure 4.2
Cross-section of RTA58T engine. Note the high camshaft level which allows the use of
shorter high-pressure fuel injection pipes for better injection control

Figure 4.3
L70 MC Mk 5 Engine Cross-Section

4.3 MEDIUM-SPEED ENGINES
10-138 Most medium-speed diesel engines are four-stroke and of trunk piston design.
They are much lighter and smaller than equivalent slow-speed engines but they
require gearing to reduce the drive speed for the ships propeller. Furthermore,
they can be straight or of V configuration type. Medium-speed engines are
widely used where space is limited for the production of higher power outputs/
weight and space requirements. When variable pitch propellers are fitted, there
is no need for the expensive reversible versions. Medium-speed engines are
also widely used for auxiliary power generation on board.
10-139 It must be said that this group of engines is probably suffering the most, in
terms of technological progress. As engine designs improve, without compro-
mising reliability or enhancing costs, the tendency is for speeds to increase and
therefore, more and more, high-speed engines are substituting medium-speed
engines. Furthermore, as the fundamental operating principles and the need for
reduction gear are equally applicable to both medium and high-speed engines,
this tendency is further encouraged. It is fair however to add that medium-speed
engines are more economical as they commonly burn heavier fuels, although
again it is correct to say that high-speed engine designs today offer higher fuel
efficiencies and are gradually becoming able to use heavier fuels.
10-140 Straight cylinder configurations are similar to slow-speed four-stroke engine lay-
outs. V configurations, as the name implies, are constructed with two banks of
cylinders arranged at an angle using a common crankcase and bedplate with
considerable saving in size and weight. Twice as many cylinders can be accom-
modated in a given length, although the width of the engine increases. A variety
of methods have been utilised to connect two pistons to each throw of the
camshaft, the most common being the side-by-side arrangement with two
bottom end bearings (see Figure 4.4 on page 10-39). It must be said however
that there is an increasing use of medium speed engines on cruise ships, ves-
sels with restricted engine room spaces and on Diesel Electric drives such as
poddded drives, which are discussed further in Section 6.4, Paragraph 10-261.
10-141 Popular medium-speed engine designs are:
(a) MAN-B&W
Figure 4.5 on page 10-40 shows a MAN-B&W L58/64 engine with bore of
580 mm, stroke of 640 mm and speed of 400 rpm. It is a large engine with
in-line configuration ranging from six to nine cylinders.
(b) Wrtsil-Sulzer
Figure 4.6 on page 10-41 shows a Wrtsil-Sulzer ZA 40 S engine, with

a bore of 400 mm, stroke of 560 mm and speed of 510 rpm. This is the
longer stroke version of the series giving the engine an improved economy
and ability to burn heavier fuels. In-line versions have six to nine cylinders
and V type have 12 to 18 cylinders.
(c) SEMT-Pielstick
Figure 4.7 on page 10-42 shows a Pielstick PC2-6B V engine version of

this popular design for marine applications. Cylinder bore is 400 mm,
stroke is 460 mm and speed is 520 rpm. For straight in-line configuration

Figure 4.4
Wrtsil-Sulzer ZA 40S engine showing the rotating piston, fully bore-cooled
combustion space and single-pipe exhaust system
the number of cylinders can range from six to nine and, in V configuration,
cylinder number can range from 10 to 18.
(d) Wrtsil Vasa
Figure 4.8 on page 10-43 shows a Wrtsil R 46 engine. Cylinder bore is

460 mm, stroke is 580 mm and speed designs of 450, 500 or 514 rpm. It
is a four-stroke trunk piston engine designed to use heavier fuels by using
twin fuel injection. The engine is available in both straight in-line configu-
ration (between four and nine cylinders), or in V configuration with
between 12 and 16 cylinders.

Figure 4.5
MAN B&W L58/64 Design

Figure 4.6
Main Modifications for Uprated ZA40S Engines
4.4 HIGH-SPEED ENGINES
10-142 High-speed, four-stroke trunk piston engines are widely selected for the propulsion
of small, specialised commercial vessels and as main and emergency generator
driving engines on all types of ships. Whilst not clearly defined, it is widely
accepted that engines with speeds in excess of 1,000 rpm fall under this category.
10-143 Broadly speaking, there are two main categories of high-speed engines:
high performance; and
heavy duty.

Figure 4.7
10-144 High performance engines were developed mainly for military purposes and
often are very complex engines with frequent and high maintenance costs. It is
for this reason that they are not popular in commercial marine applications.
There is however an increasing demand for their use in super yachts, itself a
huge industry where high performance engines have become the most popular
power plants.
10-145 Heavy-duty high-speed engines in many cases were originally designed for
off-road vehicles and machinery and found applications in stationary power
generation, locomotive traction etc. They are robust in design with high
weight/power ratio and with acceptable overhaul cycles and component
replacement, thus economical for marine applications.

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9

10-146 Design progress in performance development has been very impressive over the
past decades. Figure 4.9 on page 10-44 shows the cylinder dimensions and the
speed of an engine required to deliver 200 kW/cylinder. In 1945 a bore of 420 mm
and a speed of around 430 rpm were necessary. In 1970, typical medium-speed
engine parameters resulted in a bore of 300 mm and a speed of 600 rpm, while
typical high-speed engine parameters were 250 mm and 1,000 rpm, in order to
yield 200 kW/cylinder. Currently, the same output can be achieved by 200 mm bore
high-speed design running at 1,500 rpm. The introduction of the common rail direct
fuel injection which replaces the direct fuel injection system has further improved
the design and has contributed towards the reduction of piston size. On diesel
engines, a common rail system features a high-pressure (over 1,000 bar/15,000
psi) fuel rail feeding individual solenoid valves, as opposed to the traditional low-
pressure fuel pump feeding unit injectors.
Figure 4.10
Cross-Section of MTU Series 4000 Engine

10-147 Flexible manufacturing systems have allowed a new approach to engine design.
Integrated structural configurations reduce cost of machining with more func-
tions assigned to the same piece of metal resulting in the overall reduction of the
number of parts, improvement of reliability, reducing weight and increasing com-
pactness without compromising on ease of maintenance.
10-148 Figure 4.10 on page 10-45 shows the cross-section of a popular MTU 4,000
series engine. With a bore of 165 mm and a stroke of 190 mm, this V type
engine delivers propulsion power from 840 kW to 2,720 kW at 2,100 rpm by
the V90-degree 8-, 12- and 16-cylinder versions with power-to-weight ratio
between 2.7 and 3.5 kg/kW.
10-149 Popular makes of high-speed engines are:
Caterpillar
Cummins
Deutz MWM
GMT
Isotta Franschini
MAN B&W Holeby
Mitsubishi
MTU
Paxman
SEMT-Pielstick
Wrtsil
Volvo Penta

5. DIESEL ENGINE PARTS
LEARNING OUTCOME
be able to recognise and state the function of the principal

components that are required for the marine diesel engine
to function.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
10-150 Most internal combustion reciprocating engines are designed in a similar

fashion. Clearly, differences exist between different manufacturers but it is worth
noting that many features are common.
10-151 Groups of related components of an internal combustion engine are called

systems. The main components are also distinguished between structural
and moving.
10-152 Structural components do not move but guide those that move. The moving
components that are constrained by, or exist within, the structural components
are those that convert the power developed by the combustion of the fuel in the
cylinder into mechanical energy available for useful work at the output shaft.
5.2 MAIN STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
5.2.1 General Description
10-153 The main purpose of the structural components is to maintain the moving parts
in their proper position. The term frame signifies several stationary components
fastened together and supporting most of the moving components and engine
accessories. The frame includes the cylinder blocks, the crankcase, the bedplate,
the sump tank, the cylinder heads and the end plates (Figure 5.1 on page 10-48).
10-154 The part of the engine that supports the cylinder liners and the cylinder heads is
known as the cylinder block.
10-155 The engine frame section that serves as the housing for the crankshaft is called
crankcase. Depending on engine size and design, this can be an integral part of
the cylinder block or the crankcase may be a separate section bolted to the
engine block. The sump tank found below the crankcase, and the base itself (the
bedplate) completes the engine block.

Diesel Engine Parts Module 10
Figure 5.1
Typical A-Frame and Entablature Structural Arrangement
10-156 Lubrication is essential for proper engine operation. A reservoir for collecting and
holding the lubricating oil is attached to the engines structure. This reservoir
is called the sump or the sump tank or more commonly the LO drains tank.
Force-feed lubricating systems may be mounted on the engine housing to
provide lubrication. The sump tank serves as the lower portion of the crankshaft
housing and as the oil reservoir.
10-157 The cylinder assembly completes the structural framework. Along with vari-
ous related working parts it serves in admitting, confining and releasing the
operating gases. The cylinder assembly consists of the cylinder liner, the

Module 10 Diesel Engine Parts
cylinder head, the supporting studs and the cylinder head gasket. Designs
vary between different engine manufacturers, the aim of this assembly
however remaining common: to provide, when it is required, a gas-tight and
liquid-tight space.
10-158 The barrel, or bore, in which the piston reciprocates, in the case of diesel
engines is a separate sleeve or liner. This is so that they can be replaced when
worn out. Sealing the liner, to prevent leakage of cooling water into the cylinder
space, is a major concern in design and manufacturing of diesel engines.
10-159 Cylinder liners and cylinder heads of an engine must be sealed around the com-
bustion space. These stationary components are sealed with gaskets and studs
that secure the cylinder head to the block.
5.2.2 Specific Structural Components
Cylinder Liners
10-160 Cylinder liners are made of cast iron enriched with elements such as titanium or
vanadium to enhance their strength and friction resistance. Surface chrome
plating is possible although it adds considerably to its cost. The metal itself must
be strong enough to endure the pressure and temperature of combustion,
must be able to transfer heat easily and have good resistance to fatigue,
abrasion and corrosion.
10-161 The liner thickness is dependent on a fine balance between the need for
strength and heat conductivity, so that the jacket water can cool it properly.
Usually, cylinder liners are thicker on the upper part, with thickness reducing
gradually towards the lower end.
10-162 The upper end of the liner is flanged so that it can provide its support on the
cylinder block. This method of support also allows the liner to thermally expand
and contract freely.
10-163 In the case of two stroke engines, scavenge ports are available in the lower part
of the cylinder liner and when the engine uses a loop or cross scavenge system,
exhaust ports will be provided (Figure 5.2 on page 10-50).
10-164 Four-stroke engine liners are similar but simpler, as no ports are required
(Figure 5.3 on page 10-51).
10-165 Modern cylinder liners usually have small holes within the mass of the metal,
particularly on their upper part, allowing water to flow through them and thus
improving cooling. This technique of additional cooling is known as bore cooling.
Cylinder Liner Cooling (or Jacket Cooling)
10-166 Cylinder liners are cooled by water, which flows between the outer surfaces of
the liners and the cylinder blocks or jackets (Figure 5.4 on page 10-52 and
Figure 5.5 on page 10-53).
10-167 Water enters from the lower part of the jacket and travels upwards.

Figure 5.2
Cylinder Liner for Two-Stroke Engine (Sulzer)
10-168 Liners are sealed both in the upper and lower parts so that the cooling space
becomes watertight. This is achieved by using rubber rings for the lower part
and by the flange on the upper part.
Cylinder Liner Wear
10-169 Cylinder liners wear off for several reasons. The most important is internal
friction in the areas of movement of the piston rings. Wear should be measured
regularly in several positions of the liner as per manufacturers procedures

Figure 5.3
Cylinder Liner for Four-Stroke Engine (MAN B&W)
and recommendations and adequate records should be kept. Liner wear tends
to accelerate towards the end of its life.
10-170 Cylinder wear can also be caused by corrosion particularly in engines that use
heavy fuel with high sulphur content. Sulphuric acid is formed on the walls of the
liner, which attacks the metal. Use of alkaline cylinder oil is recommended for
the prevention of this type of wear. In the case of high sulphur fuel (4.5%+) a
lubricating oil with high Base Number (high alkalinity) is required while in the
case of low sulphur fuel (1.5%) a low Base Number is needed which presents a
challenge when switching from one fuel to the other when operating in a SECA
(Sulpher Emmission Control Area)

Figure 5.4
Cylinder Liner and Jacket
10-171 Abrasion results from the accumulation of hard solid particles, which can be
either by products of combustion or pieces of metal, products of mechanical
wear. These particles can be located at the tips of the rings and as they travel up
and down with the movement of the piston, they scratch the surface of the liner.
10-172 Adhesion occurs when the tips of the piston rings are welded on the surface
of the liner due to local high temperatures, usually as a result of poor
lubrication.
Cylinder Lubrication and Cooling
10-173 Lubrication is necessary in order to reduce the friction between the piston rings
and the cylinder liner. The lubricating oil also acts as a gas seal between the
rings and the liner.

Figure 5.5
Cooling Water System
10-174 Crosshead type engines use a separate cylinder oil system, completely isolated
from the crankcase lubrication system.
10-175 Oil is delivered via holes on the side of the liner, in timed intervals to coincide
with the movements of the piston. There are several lubricating holes in order to
cover the full diameter of the liner. The position of the holes depends on engine
design but must be kept as far away as possible from the high-temperature
combustion area. Multi-level lubrication is common with large engines.
Lubricators supply the oil under pressure and at quantities and intervals regu-
lated by the engine speed via the camshaft.
10-176 Lubricating oil is also used to cool the pistons and a typical arrangement is
shown in Figure 5.6 on page 10-54.
10-177 Trunk piston engines might have similar lubrication holes for mechanical
injection of oil through the cylinder liner, although lubrication mainly relies on oil
splashing from the sump tank. The absence of ports and the smaller cylinder
bores, facilitates this operation significantly.

Figure 5.6
Piston Cooling Oil Charge and Discharge
Cylinder Blocks (or Cylinder Jackets)
10-178 In smaller engines, the cylinder block is a solid cast iron unit where the liners are
fitted in their respective position. The block provides the ducting for the passage
of cooling water.
10-179 In the case of larger engines, each cylinder is enclosed in its own block again
containing the ducting for the passage of cooling water. Individual blocks are
then bolted together to form the engine block. This modular design is very
convenient from the point of view of engine assembling.

Cylinder Covers
10-180 The cylinder cover is the top part of the combustion space and is secured on the
cylinder by means of bolts (studs). A gas-tight seal must be achieved and
therefore a suitable gasket is included together with an accurate procedure of
tightening of the bolts, so as to achieve a uniform pressure throughout the metal
contact surface.
10-181 Cylinder covers are made of strong steel as they are under constant high-
temperatures and pressure pulses. Furthermore, cylinder covers provide the
support for exhaust valves, injectors, starting air valves, pressure relief valves
etc (Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7
L58/64 Engine Cylinder Head. Note the exhaust valve with rotator

10-182 A cylinder cover is a complicated and demanding piece of machinery as it serves

several functions. Cooling is achieved through water from the jacket system and
bore cooling is common in large engines.
Cylinder Diaphragm and Piston Rod Gland
10-183 A diaphragm is fitted to crosshead engines to isolate the lower surface of the
cylinder and scavenge box from the crankcase, preventing contamination of
crankcase lubricating oil by heavy fuel residues, wear of piston rings etc. This
isolation of lubricating oil systems (cylinder and crankcase) permits the use of
different and more suitable lubricants for the two separate applications.
10-184 The piston rods pass through the diaphragms which are fitted with seals known
as glands, whose purpose is to secure that no oil passes down to the crankcase.
Glands usually consist of an inward sealing metallic or Teflon packing and oil
scraper rings (Figure 5.8).
Engine Guides
10-185 Guides are fitted to crosshead engines and are vertical sliding bearings, which
locate and align the crosshead over the total length of the engine stroke. They
Figure 5.8
Piston Rod Scraper Box

also take the horizontal component of the thrust transferred from the piston rod
to the connecting rod.
Bedplates
10-186 The bedplate is the bottom part of the engine that provides rigid support to the
crankshaft and the main bearings. The engine A frames or columns are bolted
on the bedplate, which is effectively the engines main structural component and
therefore also the main responsible part for the engines alignment. The bed-
plate also collects the crankcase lubricating oil and returns it to the drain tank.
Engine Frames
10-187 Columns or frames support the cylinder block, usually referred to as A frames
because of their shape. Frames are fabricated steel structures, hollow on the
inside to allow the passage and operation of the engines gear, flow of scavenge
air, cooling water etc. They are bolted together with the cylinder blocks on top to
form the engines block.
Engine Seating
10-188 The ship steel structure at the engine room provides strong foundations for the
seating of the engine, taking into consideration not only its weight but also the
forces generated during its operation, vibration, thrust etc.
Tie Bolts or Stay Bolts
10-189 In most engines, the load created from the pressure of the combustion gases on
the cylinder cover, is transmitted to the lower part of the engine, the bedplate, by
means of long rods or bolts, as shown in Figure 5.9 on page 10-58.
5.3 MOVING PARTS (OR RUNNING GEAR)
5.3.1 General Description
10-190 For the power generated through combustion to be converted to useful

mechanical work, the reciprocating motion of the piston must be converted to
rotational motion. The moving components of the conversion process may be
divided into three distinct groups:
1. those that have only reciprocating motion (piston and valves);
2. those that have both reciprocating and rotating motion (connecting rods);
and
3. those that have only rotating motion (crankshafts and camshafts).
10-191 As shown in Figure 5.10 on page 10-59 and Figure 5.11 on page 10-60, timing
gears between the crankshaft and the camshaft allow cyclic time events to be
controlled by the camshaft.

Figure 5.9
Tie Bolts

Figure 5.10
Piston Assembly
10-192 The first two major groups of moving components can be further grouped
together under the heading of piston-and-connecting-rod-assembly. This
assembly will include a piston, piston rings, a piston pin, a connecting rod,
related bearings, and, in many cases, a piston rod and crosshead assembly.
10-193 The piston must be designed and made from such materials that can withstand
the extreme heat and pressure of combustion. It must also be light enough to
keep inertia loads to a minimum. In large engines, the skirt can be detached
from the crown and is usually made from a lighter material. The piston helps to
seal the cylinder so that it prevents the escape of gases. It also transmits some
of the heat through the piston rings to the cylinder liner wall. Finally, the piston
serves as a valve to open and close the ports of a two-stroke engine.
10-194 Piston rings are usually made of steel and are vital to the operation of the
engine. They effectively perform three functions:

Figure 5.11
Valve and Piston Assembly Arrangement

(a) they seal the cylinder;
(b) distribute and control lubricating oil on the cylinder wall; and
(c) transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder wall.
10-195 All rings on a piston perform the heat transfer function, but two special
types compression rings and oil rings are required to perform the first
two functions. There are various types of rings in each of these groups,
constructed in different ways for specific purposes.
10-196 On single-acting engines, the connection between the piston and the connect-
ing rod is the piston pin (gudgeon) and its bearings. These parts must be very
strong in construction as they transmit the power developed in the cylinder, via
the piston to the connecting rod and the crankshaft. The pin is the pivot point
where the straight-line reciprocating motion of the piston changes to the recip-
rocating and rotating motion of the connecting rod. The principal forces to which
the pin is subjected are the forces created by combustion and the side thrust
created by the change in direction of the motion.
10-197 The connecting rod is the link between the piston and the crankshaft. It is the
moving part that transmits the forces created by combustion to the crankshaft and
converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to the rotating motion of the crankshaft.
10-198 The crankshaft has only rotating motion and is the largest and most important
moving component of the engine (Figure 5.10 on page 10-59). It drives the
external load of the engine and the camshafts. The crankshaft is subjected to all
the forces developed in the engine.
10-199 Crankshafts rotational speed increases every time the shaft receives a power
impulse from one of the pistons and then gradually decreases until another
power impulse is received. The fluctuation of speed of the crankshaft is unsatis-
factory for both the engine itself and the mechanism it drives. Some means must
therefore be provided to stabilise the shaft rotation. This is usually achieved by
installing a flywheel on the crankshaft. A flywheel is a significant mass added to
the crankshaft that stores energy during the power stroke and releases it evenly
during the rest of the cycle. When the speed of the shaft increases, the flywheel
absorbs energy and when the speed decreases the flywheel gives up energy in
an effort to keep the shafts rotational speed uniform. The flywheel keeps these
speed variations within reasonable limits at all speeds and further assists in
forcing the piston through the compression stroke of the cycle. The need for a fly-
wheel decreases as the number of power strokes per crankshaft revolution and
the mass of the moving parts linked to the crankshaft increase.
5.3.2 Specific Moving Components
Pistons
10-200 The pistons are the primary components of an engine and the parts responsible
for the conversion of thermal energy to mechanical work. They are continually
exposed to high combustion chamber temperatures and subjected to high-
pressures and violent changes of movement. The material property requirements

are very similar to cylinder covers and liners, the engine structural components
with which the pistons work very closely. Long fatigue life, good thermal con-
ductivity (for efficient cooling), corrosion and erosion resistance and compatible
thermal expansion and contraction are some of the focal properties.
10-201 The piston crown is the top and main part of the piston arrangement, which
usually includes a bottom part, the piston skirt. Rings are fitted around the
piston stopping compression gases from leaking to the crankcase and helping
the lubrication of the cylinder walls. The upper side of the crown is usually
shaped in a concave fashion, to provide a more efficient combustion space and
a better load distribution of gases on its surface. Piston designs vary according
to different engine type, size and manufacturer. Figure 5.12 shows a two-stroke
engine piston.
10-202 Pistons are cooled by oil or water, flowing through internal passages on the back
surface of the crown. Oil is the most common cooling medium and is supplied
from the crankcase as it is an easier and safer system to maintain.
10-203 Pistons transfer power from their reciprocating motion to the crosshead and/or
the crankshaft, through the piston and/or connecting rods attached to them,
depending on engine type.
Piston Skirts
10-204 Piston skirts are fitted below the pistons for a number of reasons and differ in
height according to engine type and manufacturer.
10-205 They can be viewed as an extension to the piston length and in the case of
two-stroke engines, they are used to cover the scavenge ports, when the piston
is in its highest positions. They can also act as a guide to the piston within the
liner. They can be fitted with rings if needed.
Figure 5.12

Figure 5.13
MAN B&W L58/64 Engine Composite Piston

Trunk Pistons
10-206 Trunk pistons are fitted to four-stroke engines. Crown piece is made of steel
while the skirt is usually made of aluminium. Pressure rings are fitted on the
grooves of the steel crown part while the skirt usually carries oil rings. The two
parts are bolted together, as shown in Figure 5.13 on page 10-63. Sometimes
cooling is enhanced by the cocktail shaker effect of the oil being thrown against
the underside of the piston. This can be a very effective method and could
therefore be very damaging if the effect were reduced for any reason.
Crosshead, Pin and Top Bearing
10-207 The crosshead assembly shown in the upper part of Figure 5.14, consist of a
solid cylindrical pin, where the piston rod is bolted, acting also as the journal of
the top bearing. Guide slippers (or shoes) are attached to the sides of the pin
to keep it in place while travelling up and down with the movement of the piston.
The crosshead assembly is the first step of conversion of reciprocal to rotating
motion in the engine and, for this reason, it is difficult to lubricate. Therefore, the
lubricating oil (LO) is directed to the crosshead bearing first where the full supply
pressure of the system is fed to the bearing.
Gudgeon Pin Bearing
10-208 In trunk piston engines, the gudgeon pin acts as a crosshead. The pin joins the
connecting rod to the piston skirt securing the two together. The rod has a
single-sleeve-bearing bush (the equivalent top bearing) pressed into an eye
at its top end, through which the gudgeon pin is inserted. As the piston travels
Figure 5.14

up and down horizontal movement is permitted by this assembly, corresponding

to the movement needs of the connecting rod, as its lower end travels around
the crankshaft.
Piston Rods
10-209 Piston rods connect the piston to the crosshead in low speed engines. They only
move vertically and their length depends on the engines stroke. Its top end is
bolted to the piston while its lower end is bolted to the crosshead. Piston rods
pass through the diaphragm that separates the cylinder oil system from the
crankcase oil system and must therefore have smooth finish in order not to
damage the gland packing. Figure 5.15 (5.15a and 5.15b) shows a typical
two-stroke piston with piston rod of a MAN engine.
Piston Rings
10-210 Piston rings are inserted in groves around the upper part of the piston and fall
in two main groups but serving several purposes at a time:
Figure 5.15a
Piston and Piston Rod

Figure 5.15b
Piston Cooling Arrangement
The first group is the compression rings that are the first on the upper part
of the arrangement. They act as gas seals stopping combustion gases
from travelling downwards during the power cycle of the engine. They also
act as seals not permitting charge air to escape during compression.
Finally, they convey heat from the piston to the cylinder liner, thus helping
the cooling of the piston.
Piston compression rings must be strong, elastic and wear resistant with
low friction, and should maintain these properties at high temperatures.
They have to be corrosion resistant, must transfer heat readily and have
thermal expansion properties similar to the piston itself, so that clearances
can be maintained at various operating temperatures. Their cross-section
is rectangular with small curving around the edges so that oil residue can
form around these external corners rather than the back of the ring grove
(Figure 5.16 on page 10-67).
The second group of rings fitted below the compression rings, are the oil
rings or scraper rings. They can be fitted on the piston itself, the piston skirt
or in combination, depending on the engine design. Their role is to distrib-
ute cylinder oil evenly on the cylinder walls by creating and maintaining a
film of lubricant of given thickness on the surface. They also stop excessive

Figure 5.16

lubricating oil from entering the compression ring area and ultimately the
combustion chamber itself.
Their cross-section is shaped with a downward edge, spreading the oil as

the piston travels upwards and scrapping off excess oil as the piston travels
downwards (Figure 5.16 on page 10-67).
Connecting Rod
10-211 Connecting rods join the top and bottom end bearings, converting the recipro-
cating movement of the piston to rotational power in the crankshaft. Their length
is maintained as short as possible for each design, in order to keep the overall
engine height to a minimum.
10-212 Connecting rods have appropriate housings for the top and bottom bearings on
either end. Lubricating oil travels upwards through an oil hole bored in the centre
of the rod, in the case of four-stroke engines and downwards in the case of
two-stroke engines. Four-stroke trunk piston engines have only one rod which
substitutes for both piston and connecting rod, joining directly the piston to the
crankshaft. Slow-speed two-stroke crosshead engines use the connecting rod to
join the crosshead with the crankshaft (see Figure 5.17 on page 10-69).
Bottom End or Big Bearing
10-213 The bottom bearing is the joint between the connecting rod lowest end and the
crankshaft. Although it bears the same loads as the top bearing, the bottom
bearing slides continually in rotation and therefore benefits from better lubrica-
tion conditions. As the diameter of bottom bearings increases, friction speeds
improve together with the overall strength of the assembly. The width of the
bottom bearing is limited by engine design and by the distance available
between each pair of crankshaft webs. Clearly, different types of engines have
alternative bottom bearing designs according to crankshaft geometry and
arrangements. The arrangements of V engines are particularly difficult
because two connecting rods are connected to the same crank pin.
Crankshafts
10-214 The crankshaft is a large metal assembly built from high carbom steel (typically
0.4% 0.5% Carbon). It can be forged, semi-built or fully built. On smaller
engines they are commonly forged from a solid piece whilst the larger slow
speed enginees are built up in sections. The function of the crankshaft is to con-
vert the linear motion of the piston into a rotary motion of the driven shaft. The
crankshaft therefore receives and transmits the full load from combustion and is
subjected to several mechanical forces acting together. This also places a large
twisting force or torque on the shaft.
10-215 The forces consist of a number of cranks (or throws) which are rotated by the
piston movement. Most engine designs have one crank per cylinder. In turn,
each crank has two crank webs joined together by one crank pin, to which the
bottom bearing is fitted (Figure 5.18 on page 10-70). An important consideration
is the grain structure of the crankshaft. If that is not correct there is the risk of
building stress raiser which may lead to cracks or fracture.

Figure 5.17
Two-stroke connecting rod showing crosshead, top and bottom end
bearings and guideshoes (MAN B&W)

Figure 5.18

10-216 Weights can be attached in various parts of the crankshaft, to improve its overall
balance, when in operation. High-speed engines or engines with few cylinders
are fitted with flywheels, which act as energy storage mechanisms.
10-217 The turning gear is attached to the crankshaft, enabling the slow turning of the
engine for maintenance and protection purposes.
10-218 Misalignment of the crankshaft can occur for various reasons ranging from
bottom bearing wear to distortions in the engine bedplate or indeed the vessels
steel structure. Misalignment can result in serious damage to the engine and
therefore it should be monitored regularly. This is achieved by measuring the
deflections of crankshaft webs in every unit of the engine. Misalignment causes
the opening and closing of the crank webs as the engine rotates and deflection
reading is the measurement of this movement by means of gauges fitted
between the webs. The procedure followed is quite complicated but absolutely
necessary for diagnosing the engines condition and preventing serious
damage. Deflections are taken periodically and as per classification societys
requirements. Records of deflection measurement should be kept throughout
the life of the engine.
Crankshaft Bearings
10-219 The crankshaft is supported on the bedplate by the main bearings, which take
not only the weight of the crankshaft itself but that of all the moving parts of the
engine that are attached to the crankshaft. In addition to that, they are subjected
to various fluctuating loads resulting from the vessels operation. Main bearings
must be very rigid and properly aligned. They must be inspected periodically and
serviced when necessary. Modern engines are fitted with bearing shells, but
older designs might have solid white metal bearings.
10-220 In many direct-drive main engines, the thrust bearing as described in Section 7.3,
are housed within the main engine. Thrust bearings receive the load from the
propeller push in the water and transfer it to the hull structure, causing the ves-
sel to move. This bearing will have thrust pads and it will work on the Michell
principle (Figure 5.18 on page 10-70).
Camshafts
10-221 Camshafts operate the valves and fuel pumps and therefore control the engine
cycle and timing. Figure 5.19 on page 10-72 shows alternative camshaft driving
arrangements. As the camshaft rotates, the cams change position and push the
cam followers up or down. This movement activates the opening and closing of
valves and fuel pumps. The shape of each cam is designed to give the required
speed, timing and height to the cam follower so that the corresponding opera-
tion can take place. Camshafts and associated equipment are moving parts
which means more maintenance and potentially more problems. With the devel-
opment of electronic technology it is possible to replace the mechanical devices
by electronic ones. This can make timing more precise and eliminates some
lubrication systems, bearings, drive gear etc. As this is very modern technol-
ogy,the Wrtsil-Sulzer RT Flex is at the moment one of the few examples of
such engines.

10-222 Camshafts are usually placed at the top part of the engine, close to the valves
and fuel pumps. They are mechanically driven by the crankshaft, with which they
must be perfectly synchronised. The process of synchronisation or timing is
essential for the good co-operation of the moving parts with the supply of fuel
and the opening and closing of the valves at the correct positions during the
cycle. Timing should be checked at regular intervals.
10-223 Mechanical drive of the camshaft, depending on engine design, is achieved by

gear arrangements or roller chains. Good lubrication of the camshaft system is
essential.
Figure 5.19

6. OTHER MAIN MEANS OF PROPULSION
LEARNING OUTCOME
have a knowledge of the steam turbine operating principle

and the major components needed for the steam and gas
turbine to operate.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
10-224 The previous chapters concentrated on diesel engines as means of main propulsion
and auxiliary power generation. Whilst diesel engines are most common on
cargo vessels, other means of propulsion have been favoured for other types of
vessels. When space or weight restrictions apply combined with high power
requirements, such as in the case of naval vessels or large oil tankers, steam
turbines are often used. Electric prime movers, i.e. electric motors, are also
employed in vessels requiring precise manoeuvring or other special operational
characteristics. The needs for electricity production on board in these cases are
very large and steam or gas turbines are used for the purpose. Nuclear power
is used on vessels that can be self-sustained for long periods at sea. Nuclear
energy is used to produce steam that drives steam turbines as prime movers
and auxiliary power generators. This section will briefly describe steam and gas
turbines and electric driven propulsion.
6.2 STEAM TURBINES
6.2.1 Operating Principles
10-225 A steam turbine converts the thermal energy of the steam to mechanical energy,
with work output being in the form of the rotation of the shaft. Steam turbines
have been used as main propulsion for large commercial vessels, naval vessels
etc as they require limited space, need relatively low maintenance and generate
little vibration. They are however less efficient than diesel engines and the
energy crisis of the 1970s considerably reduced the popularity of steam turbines
for this reason. It therefore appropriate to stress at this point that steam turbines
are not popular on modern tonnage with the exception of LNG/LPG carriers.
10-226 To better understand the operating principles, it is necessary to explain the steps
involved when energy is converted in a steam turbine:
The first step is the conversion of thermal energy to kinetic energy, which
is performed by a device, called the nozzle.

Other Main Means of Propulsion Module 10
The second step is the conversion of steams kinetic energy to mechanical

work, which is performed by the blades of the turbine. All steam turbines
operate using this two-step method.
10-227 Nozzles are mechanical devices that have a large cross-sectional area for fluids
to enter and a small cross-sectional area for fluids to leave. When a fluid flows
through a nozzle it gains velocity and since kinetic energy depends on velocity
(ke 1/2 mv2), this increase in velocity results in an increase of the kinetic
energy of the fluid. Furthermore, as the fluid flows through the nozzle its
pressure drops, meaning that its thermal energy drops and an equivalent gain
in kinetic energy is achieved. This process concludes step one of energy
conversion in a steam turbine.
10-228 To complete the second step, a blade is placed in front of the jet of steam leav-
ing the nozzle. The steam jet moves the blade through a certain distance and
therefore produces work. Blades are mounted around the entire rim of a wheel,
so that as each blade is moved by the steam jet the wheel rotates and the next
blade takes its place in front of the steam jet. Figure 6.1 illustrates a simple
steam turbine.
10-229 Steam can cause blades to move by two different means:
by a direct push or impulse; or
by a force of reaction.
10-230 The first type of blading is called impulse blading while the second is called
reaction blading. These two different arrangements characterise the two main
different types of steam turbines.
10-231 A simple impulse turbine can be built, by placing a row of blades directly in front
of a nozzle. The steam leaves the nozzle at a given velocity, strikes the blade
and causes it to move away and then leaves the blade at a lower velocity. As the
blade is now in motion, work has been done and the amount of work performed
is proportional to the speed of the blade and the drop in the steams velocity (see
Figure 6.2 on page 10-75).
10-232 In the case of a reaction turbine, the steam passing through the nozzle exerts a
force on any object placed in its path. For every force there is a reaction force
and it is this reaction force that is used as means of producing work. This is
Figure 6.1
Simple Steam Turbine

Module 10 Other Main Means of Propulsion
Figure 6.2
Impulse Blading
achieved by a combination of fixed vanes and rotating blades as shown in

Figure 6.3.
10-233 We have so far considered the case of simple turbines consisting of a set of
fixed nozzles and moving blades (in the case of impulse turbines) or a set
of fixed vane nozzles and nozzle-shaped moving blades (in the case of reaction
turbines). Actual turbines consist of several sets of nozzles and several sets of
bladed wheels mounted on a common shaft. Steam passes through one set
after another, with each set converting part of the energy to work. Each of these
sets of blades is called a stage, while the arrangement of successive stages is
called compounding.
10-234 An impulse turbine stage includes one set of nozzles and all blades that follow,
in which only one pressure drop occurs. A simple impulse turbine is known as a
Rateau turbine. A reaction turbine stage is defined as consisting of one set of
fixed vane nozzles and a single row of moving nozzle-shaped blades. Although
similar to the impulse stage, it should be noted that two pressure drops occur in
the reaction stage: one on the vane nozzles and one on the blades. A simple
reaction turbine is known as a Parsons turbine.
10-235 One way of increasing the efficiency in an impulse stage is by redirecting the
steam exiting the moving blade into another set of blades to extract more work
Figure 6.3
Reaction Blading

from the remaining velocity of the steam. This is called velocity compounding and
is achieved by fixing blades on the turbine casing that redirect steam back to the
blade. These type of turbines are known as Curtis turbines (see Figure 6.4 ).
10-236 Another way of increasing efficiency of an impulse turbine is by pressure-

compounding, i.e. by combining a series of simple impulse stages together in
a single turbine casing. Steam leaving the first stage is directed to the next
stage where it is expanded again in the second stage-nozzle and so on.
Figure 6.5 on page 10-77 shows a four stage pressure-compounding
arrangement.
10-237 Impulse turbines consisting of one velocity-compounded stage followed by

several pressure-compounded stages, called velocity-pressure-compounded
turbines, are used in marine applications, as blade speeds are relatively low.
10-238 The term cross-compounding is used to describe steam turbine plants that
consist of two turbines:
a high-pressure; and
a low-pressure turbine.
10-239 These designs are very popular in marine applications and a typical
arrangement is shown in Figure 6.6 on page 10-78.
10-240 Reversibility of steam turbines is achieved by the inclusion of several rows of

astern blades fitted on both high and low-pressure turbines capable of deliver-
ing about half the turbine power when the vessel is reversing.
Figure 6.4
Pressure vs Velocity in a Velocity-Compounded Impulse Stage

Figure 6.5
Four-Stage Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine
6.2.2 Basic Components
10-241 Figure 6.7 on page 10-79 shows an impulse turbine cross-section and indicates
its main components:
(a) Casing
The turbine casing is the external container in which the rotor is housed. It
also supports the steam guiding structures, which direct steam to the

Figure 6.6
Cross-Compound Turbine Arrangement
nozzles. Casings can be opened for blade inspection and are made with
a high degree of machining accuracy.
(b) Rotor
The rotor carries the turbine blades and transmits the work generated by
the turbine. Rotor and shaft are usually forged together as one accurate
metal structure. Rotors must be balanced, as high-speed rotation would
otherwise cause vibration and damage.

Figure 6.7
Impulse Turbine
(c) Blades
Blades are of various designs and are mounted on the rotor by means of
fastening slots. During operation, blades expand due to heat and are sub-
ject to high centrifugal forces. Correct mounting is therefore important.
(d) Bearings
The rotors are supported and kept in position within the casing, by means
of bearings. The bearings that maintain the correct radial clearance
between casing and rotor are called radial bearings. Bearings that limit the
rotors longitudinal movement are called thrust bearings. Propulsion
turbines usually have one radial bearing at either side of the rotor shaft
known as journals and one thrust bearing on one side only.
(e) Shaft Glands
In order to reduce the leakage of steam out of the turbine casing and/or the
inflow of air into the casing, shaft glands are used at the points where the
rotor shaft extends through the casing. Glands are constructed in a way
that do not restrict shaft rotation and generally use two types of packing:
labyrinth; and/or
carbon packing.
Labyrinths are accurately machined strips extending from the casing into
matching grooves on the shaft. Carbon packing rings are fitted on the shaft
and again the small clearance achieved reduces steam leakage. When
labyrinth packing alone is not sufficient, a gland-sealing steam system is
used in combination with labyrinth and carbon packing. The steam circu-
lating in the gland acts as a seal between the turbine shaft gland and the
atmosphere (see Figure 6.8 on page 10-80).

Figure 6.8
Typical Turbine Gland
6.3 GAS TURBINES
6.3.1 Operating Principles
10-242 Gas turbines have been developed as prime movers for the marine industry
based on original designs employed in the aviation industry. The US Navy has
been constructing vessels powered by gas turbines since the 1960s whilst the
evolution and development of new materials in recent years has permitted
modern marine gas turbines to operate at higher temperatures and pressures,
further increasing output and efficiency.
10-243 Diesel engines are reciprocating engines and operate on a diesel cycle of
intermittent-flow nature, as explained in Chapter 3 of this text. Gas turbines, on
the other hand, develop their power by a rotating turbine and operate on a
steady-flow cycle, known as the Brayton cycle. The cycle is shown as a P-V
diagram in Figure 6.9 on page 10-81.
10-244 Brayton cycles may operate either as open or as closed cycles. Open cycles
use atmospheric air as the largest mass of their working substances; closed
cycles may use other substances whose physical and other properties are
suitable for the function to be performed. All marine gas turbines operate on
open cycles, with air drawn into a compressor at state 1 of Figure 6.9 on
page 10-81, compressed to state 2, has heat added at constant pressure from
state 2 to state 3, and then is expanded in a turbine from state 3 to state 4. At
state 4, the working substance is returned to the atmosphere as combustion
products.
10-245 As in the case of diesel cycles, the ideal Brayton cycle has no thermal or
mechanical losses and is thus reversible and adiabatic. The actual Brayton
cycle is different from the ideal in that both thermal and mechanical losses are
present. Good designs minimise these losses as much as possible offering
higher efficiencies and better operating characteristics.

Figure 6.9
Brayton Cycle (Open) P-V Diagram
10-246 Gas turbines are made of three basic parts:
a compressor;
a combustor (or combustion chamber); and
a turbine as shown in Figure 6.10.
10-247 The compressor draws in air from the atmosphere and compresses it (process
1-2 in Figure 6.9) to combustor pressure. In the combustor or combustion
chamber, fuel is pumped in and ignited to burn with the compressed air
(process 2-3). After combustion the hot gases pass through a turbine (expansion
process 3-4), which converts the thermal energy into mechanical work in the
Figure 6.10
Basic Parts of a Gas Turbine

form of shaft rotation. This work can be used to drive both the compressor and
an external load such as the propeller.
10-248 Gas turbines in some ways resemble both steam turbines and internal combustion
engines. They compress air and then combine it with fuel for combustion, like
diesel engines, but their power output is of steady flow nature and not intermittent
power pulses, as is the case for reciprocating engines. In steam turbines, the work-
ing substance is water and steam, the cycle is closed (except for steam losses) and
fuel is burned at atmospheric pressure to produce the heat required to raise steam,
which is the working substance and produces work. As in the case of gas turbines,
the steam turbine cycle uses atmospheric air and fuel, however not as primary
working substance.
6.3.2 Basic Components
Compressor
10-249 Compressed air is needed before heat is added by the combustion of the fuel.
The quantity and pressure of air is determined by the quantity of fuel burnt and
the required combustion temperature. Centrifugal or axial-flow compressors,
such as the ones shown in Figure 6.11 and Figure 6.12 perform air compression.
Figure 6.11
Single-Stage Centrifugal Compressor Components
Figure 6.12
Axial-Flow Compressor (Courtesy General Electric)

10-250 Centrifugal compressors, like centrifugal pumps, draw air near the centre of the
impeller and accelerate it radially outwards by centrifugal force. Single-stage
centrifugal compressors are relatively inefficient but are simple in design and
manufacture. Multi-stage centrifugal compressors (more than one impeller)
have better overall efficiency but are still less efficient than multi-stage axial
compressors.
10-251 Axial-flow compressors compress air as it flows from stage to stage, axially,
along the shaft. It is theoretically possible to build single rotor axial compressors
consisting of as many stages as is necessary to produce any required pressure
ratio. At a constant rotational speed however, it is difficult to achieve a balanced
compression operation, as the initial stages of compression will be overloaded
while later stages will be under-employed. Modern designs therefore split the
compressor into two mechanically independent sections, each driven at its own
best speed by its own separate turbine.
Combustor or Combustion Chamber
10-252 The combustor is the part of the gas turbine where air and fuel are mixed, ignited
and burned. It consists of an outer casing, a perforated inner shell, a number of
fuel nozzles and a device for initial ignition. There are many different designs
and Figure 6.13 shows the main elements of a tubular type combustion cham-
ber. Large turbines can have as many as 20 such combustion chambers
arranged in a way to deliver the hot combustion products to the full periphery of
the turbines inlet vanes and first row of moving blades.
Figure 6.13
Elements of Tubular or Can-Type Combustion Chamber
10-253 Fuel is injected by the nozzles into the flowing air at the forward end of the
combustion chamber. The burner section is designed to burn the mixture of fuel and
air and to deliver the resulting gases to the turbine at a temperature not exceeding
the permissible limits of the turbine inlet. The burners must be able to add enough
energy to the gases passing through to produce turbine power for driving the
compressor and meeting the mechanical power requirements from the engine.
10-254 Not all air is mixed with fuel for burning as this would lead to very high combus-
tion temperatures and would damage the turbine blades. In fact only about 30%
of the compressed air from the compressor, known as primary air, passes
directly to the combustor where it is mixed with fuel and burned. The remaining
70%, known as secondary air, passes into the combustion chamber directly

through holes in the perforated inner shell preventing the inner shell from
overheating and cooling the combustion gases to an acceptable inlet tempera-
ture for the turbine. For good efficiency, the pressure drop of the gases passing
through the combustion chamber must be minimal.
Turbine
10-255 Like steam turbines, the turbine section of a gas turbine consists of a casing
called the stator and a rotor that is located downstream of the combustion
chamber. The blade arrangement is of the axial-flow type as shown in
Figure 6.14. The blade arrangements are set out in one or more stages, devel-
oping rotational energy on the shaft from the kinetic energy of the gases travel-
ling through them. The shaft powers the compressor while the balance in power
is used either to mechanically drive other equipment, such as the propeller, or
produce jet thrust.
10-256 Axial-flow turbines consist of two main elements:
a set of rotor blades; and
a set of stationary guide vanes (nozzles).
10-257 The vanes of the gas turbine, the stator vanes, act as the nozzles of a steam
turbine converting energy to kinetic, by discharging high-speed gases onto the
moving blades. The rotor element of the turbine has a set of bladed wheels
mounted on a shaft, which transmits the driving power. Gas turbines operate at
high rotational speeds, which impose high centrifugal forces on the blade
Figure 6.14
Elements of High-Pressure Turbine Rotor

wheels, and at high temperatures, which weaken the blade materials. Blade
cooling is therefore a very important process which is achieved by the flow of
secondary air and by intelligent design of the blades themselves permitting film
cooling of their surface.
10-258 Gas turbines may be of single or split-shaft construction, the second arrange-
ment being used when the compressor section is also divided into two sections
each operating at a different rotational speed for maximum efficiency.
6.4 DIESEL-ELECTRIC POWER
10-259 Diesel-electric propulsion plants are becoming popular, particularly with certain
categories of vessels such as cruise liners. Generators generate adequate
power and propellers are driven by electric motors.
10-260 Whilst it is somehow inefficient to use fuel and convert energy from chemical
to mechanical (diesel drives), then from mechanical to electrical (generators) and
then back to mechanical (electric motors driving the propellers), these type of
installations have several advantages and in particular the flexibility of vessels
layout, and the possibility of smaller engines running at optimum efficiency.
10-261 The prime movers (the electric motors driving the propellers) and their
generators are only connected by a cable and it is therefore possible to locate
the generators at a remote distance from the propeller shaft or the podded drive
(see Figure 6.15 on page 10-86). Generators have even been installed on deck
or other compartments of the vessel far remote from the traditional engine room.
It is easily understood that arrangements of this nature can offer the naval archi-
tect, designing a passenger vessel, the ability to maximise the income earning
spaces, the vessels accommodation, to a maximum degree. Similarly, diesel-
electric installations on board tankers can reduce the overall size of the vessel
considerably with serious savings on construction costs. For long journeys,
efficiency cannot match that of slow-speed diesel engines, but in the case for
example of shuttle tankers working in the North Sea on short voyages from rigs
to shore, this alternative become economically attractive.
10-262 In the case of passenger vessels, substantial power is required for ships hotel
services all the time when demand of power for the propulsion system is
relatively small and only needed during sailing which on average is a few hours
per day. This is another reason that has promoted the power-station concept
for meeting all propulsion, manoeuvring and hotel energy demands. Good
control of electrical loads can increase efficiency considerably.
10-263 Furthermore, diesel electric systems offer ease of control, low noise and higher
environmental protection, which by themselves constitute additional reasons for
their preference.
10-264 Medium-speed diesel engines have been powering the electricity generation
plants although recent designs have incorporated marine gas turbines as
generator movers.

Figure 6.15
Machinery arrangement in a diesel-electric tanker: 1. Diesel generator sets,
2. Main switchboard and cyclo-converters, 3. Propulsion motor, 4. Stern thrusters,
5. Cargo pumps, 6. Engine control room

7. POWER TRANSMISSION
LEARNING OUTCOME
how the power is transmitted from the prime mover to the

propulsion.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
10-265 Ship propulsion is achieved through the conversion, transmission and use of
energy. Power is developed by the prime mover, the main engine, and is
transmitted via the propeller shaft arrangement to the propeller. The develop-
ment of thrust by the propeller blades working against seawater is transmitted
back, through the shaft arrangement and the thrust block, to the vessels hull, in
a way that it propels it through water.
10-266 Currently, transmission shafts are made of steed as they are relatively low cost
and suitably strong. It is possible with modern technology to use carbon fibre if
there is a need for weight reduction. It must be noted however that this option is
indeed very high cost and currently the most likely place to find these is on mega
yachts.
10-267 The most efficient propeller speeds generally appear to be in the region of 100 rpm.
The most efficient operating speed of the main engine, however, depends entirely
on its type and design. In the cases where the two speeds match, a direct-drive
arrangement is possible, with the main engine coupled directly to the propeller
shaft. In this case, reversing the direction of the vessels movement is achieved by
stopping and restarting the main engine in the opposite direction.
10-268 When the efficient operating speed of the main engine mismatches that of the
propeller, the use of reduction gear arrangements (gearboxes) becomes neces-
sary. When a gearbox is installed and it is provided with a clutch mechanism and
reverse gear, reversing the direction of travel of the vessel becomes simple. It is
a matter of disconnecting and reconnecting the gears, in a way that they make
the propeller shaft turn in the opposite direction, without having to stop, reverse
and restart the main engine.
10-269 Main engine is usually connected with the gearbox via a flexible coupling,
designed to absorb vibrations and thus reduce mechanical shocks to the system.
10-270 Turning gears (Section 7.5) are electrically driven mechanisms enabling the
slow turning of the engine for the he purpose of inspection or maintenance.

Power Transmission Module 10
7.2 COUPLINGS
10-271 Flexible or elastic couplings absorb vibrations generated by the engine due to
torque variations. They also compensate for minor misalignments between the
engine and the gearbox and/or the propeller shaft. They also allow for some room
for thermal expansion between the warm engine and the cold propeller shaft.
Typical mechanical flexible couplings are shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1
Flexible Coupling
10-272 There are various designs of couplings ranging from simple mechanical to
hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical.
10-273 Depending on its type and design, a coupling can act as a clutch or disconnecting
mechanism. This option is impractical for simple mechanical arrangements, but
possible in hydraulic, electrical and/or pneumatic designs.
7.3 GEARBOXES
10-274 Single reduction ratios and usually single helical or epicyclic gear arrangements
are used to reduce the medium-speed engine drive, to slower propeller speed
requirement. Reduction ratios usually range from 2:1 to 4:1.
7.3.1 Helical Gearing
10-275 Helical gears have been in use for the purpose of revolution reduction for many
years. Helical means that the teeth form part of a helix on the periphery of the
pinion or gear wheel, meaning that at any time several teeth are in contact, thus
load is spread and transferred smoothly.
10-276 Helical gears can be of a single or double configuration (meaning with one or
two sets of teeth cutting in opposite direction). The double-helical configuration
better balances the forces that tend to push the working of the teeth sideways,
and therefore retains the position of the gears better, avoiding misalignment
and wear. A typical double-helical, double-reduction system of gearing is shown

Module 10 Power Transmission
Figure 7.2
Double-Helical, Double-Reduction and Locked-Train Reduction Gears
in Figure 7.2 on page 10-89. Such system arrangements are popular with
high-speed turbine propulsion plants, connecting both the high and the low-
pressure parts of the plant with the propeller drive gear.
7.3.2 Epicyclic Gearing
10-277 Epicyclic gears with compact lightweight features are becoming very popular in
marine applications.
10-278 It is a system of gears where one or more wheels travel around the inside or the
outside of another whose axis is fixed. Typically, there are three different
arrangements known as planetary gear, solar gear and star gear. Figure 7.3 on
page 10-90 shows these three alternatives.
10-279 The principal wheel on the input shaft is called sun wheel. The wheel whose
centre revolves around the principle axis and itself around the sun wheel is
called the planet wheel. The internal teeth gear, which meshes with the planet
wheel, is called the annulus.
10-280 Different arrangements and sizes of the sun and planet wheels result in differ-
ent reduction ratios.

Figure 7.3
Epicycle gearing: (a) planetary gear, (b) solar gear, (c) star gear

7.4 CLUTCHES
10-281 Clutches, by definition, are devices that can engage or isolate the driving unit
from the unit it drives.
10-282 The principal advantage that a clutch offers to a ship propulsion system is, that
by separating and re-engaging the engine to a reverse gearbox, it permits the
vessel to change direction of travel, without stopping and reversing the main
engine(s). If more than one engine provides power to the propulsion shaft, a
clutch can be used to isolate for example one of the engines, if this is required
for economic or technical reasons.
10-283 There are effectively two types of clutch arrangements:
the plate-type; and
the hydraulic coupling clutches.
7.4.1 Plate-Type Clutches
10-284 A plate-type clutch operates on the principle of a friction grip created between
the smooth pressure plate and the clutch plate linings. As in the case of a motor-
car, when the two plates are in touch, the engine is engaged to the gearbox and
axle. When the two plates are apart, the engine is separated and can turn freely,
without transferring power to the wheels. The same concept applies to ships
with the axle now replaced by the propeller shaft.
10-285 Plate-type clutch arrangements usually incorporate a reverse engagement

option permitting the change of rotational direction of the propeller shaft.
10-286 A typical plate-type clutch arrangement is shown in Figure 7.4. Pressure plates
and clutch plates are arranged in a spider. There is a forward and reverse
Figure 7.4
Plate-Type Clutch

clutch assembly, selected with the help of a hydraulic control device, which
engages the desired clutch arrangement.
10-287 The forward clutch arrangement consists of the input shaft and the forward
clutch spider. The input shaft turns the forward driving gear and the hub, in which
the pressure plates are mounted. The forward drive gear continually turns the
reverse drive gear, which, however, will only become the driving gear when the
forward clutch is disengaged and the reverse clutch spider is engaged instead.
Transfer of rotational power forward happens when the forward clutch spider is
engaged and thus begins to turn. The forward pinion, in the front of the clutch
spider, itself a gear engaged and permanently turning with the propeller shaft,
now becomes the conduit through which power is transmitted to the shaft. The
reverse applies when the forward clutch spider is disengaged thus is left to
turn freely with the rotation of the output shaft and the reverse clutch spider is
engaged. The reverse pinion, also in front of the reverse clutch spider and
permanently in contact with the output (propeller) shaft, becomes now the
moving force and as it is turning in the opposite direction via the reverse driven
gear, it reverses the rotation of the output shaft.
7.4.2 Hydraulic Coupling Clutches
10-288 A typical hydraulic coupling clutch is shown in Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5
Hydraulic Coupling

10-289 The contact or equivalent friction medium is in this case, hydraulic fluid. The
driving section, the impeller, is thus engaged with the driven section, the runner.
The impeller and the runner have fins facing each other and as the impeller is
turning, immersed in hydraulic oil, it creates vortices, which drags the opposite
fins on the runner and causes it to turn. Hydraulic clutches operate very
smoothly, as there is never any direct mechanical contact of moving parts, and
have very long lives as there is no wear arising from their operation. This also
makes them very reliable for marine application purposes.
10-290 Thrust bearings are present on both sides of the coupling in order to convert the
axial thrust, developed by the couplings operation, to ship movement.
7.5 TURNING GEAR
10-291 Often it becomes necessary to rotate the main engine, propulsion shaft and
reverse gear without starting the engine. This is achieved by a mechanism, which
permits the coupling of a worm gear on the engines toothed flywheel. The worm
gear is usually driven by a reversible electric motor, powerful enough to slowly
rotate the engine and the complete transmission arrangement. This mechanism
is called the turning gear or jacking gear (see Figure 7.6).
10-292 The need for this process arises when convenient positioning of the engine parts
becomes necessary, for inspection and maintenance purposes. It is also advisable,
particularly when an engine has remained idle for a period of time, to employ the
turning gear for a couple of complete revolutions, prior to starting up, in order to
confirm that the engine is free to turn and no water has accumulated in the
cylinders. Indicator cocks must always be open when the turning gear is operated.
Figure 7.6
Shaft-Turning Gear

7.6 THE WAY TO ALL ELECTRIC SHIP (AES) DESIGNS
10-293 Certain types of modern vessels value engine-room spaces very highly (in terms
of overall ship size, commercial performance and maximisation of space utilisa-
tion). In addition, special requirements in terms of weight, speed and noise pro-
files (e.g. naval) or huge electricity demand (e.g. cruise liners, where well over
60% of power consumed is for hotel services) have driven designers to new
combination of prime movers/electricity generation systems with complex Energy
Flow Diagrams (EFD), combining multiple types of engines (diesel or gas
turbines) for mixed propulsion/power generation use, and further employing
combinations of traditional propulsion media (fixed or variable pitch propellers)
and newer propulsion concepts such as jet, electric pods etc. With rising fuel
costs, the need for new fuel-efficient ships also means that waste heat/energy
recovery systems must be installed and integrated in the overall EFD profiles.
10-294 Whilst most vessels, currently built to meet the above requirements, employ
Integrated Electric Power Plant (IEPP) concepts, with degrees of complexity that
vary from relatively simple to indeed very challenging, the all electric ship con-
cept appears to be embracing designers at a fast pace.
10-295 The purpose of this paragraph is to offer the reader a simple introduction to
these concepts and an overview of some popular modern propulsion units.
7.6.1 Integrated Electric Power Plants
10-296 Figure 7.7 shows the Energy Flow Diagram of an integrated electric power plant.
It includes a number of engines, not necessarily of the same size, feeding one
Figure 7.7
Energy-Flow Diagram of an Integrated Power Plant Concept
(Source: H K Woud, D Stapersma, Design of Propulsion and Electrical Power
Generation Systems)

electrical network and the propulsion system and ship services drawing energy
from one primary net. This way all engines can be used more efficiently under
all operating conditions.
10-297 The high-voltage system is usually a three-phase alternating-current system

with a voltage in the range of 3 to 6 kV. The E/E converters after the main
switchboard adapt the electric energy supply to the local needs and act as a
buffer against electric distortion in the net.
10-298 Many configurations are possible. Diesel-electric drives often include more than two
medium-speed diesel engines and they drive the electric motor of an FP propeller.
They may be found in all kinds of ship types; amongst others cruise ships, ferries
and chemical tankers. The generators may also be driven by gas or steam turbines.
7.6.2 Water Jets
10-299 A water-jet propulsion system operates on the principle that water is drawn in
through a duct in the underwater part of the vessel and then it is accelerated
and forced out from the stern of the vessel via a nozzle, at a speed usually twice
that of that of the vessel. Water acceleration is achieved mechanically via the
use of an impeller in the duct which, in turn, is driven by prime mover (usually
an internal-combustion engine).
10-300 Guide vanes within the duct secure the uniform direction of water flow. Steering
of the vessel is achieved by mechanically or hydraulically driven directional
deflector normally capable of covering the range from 45 port to 45 starboard.
In effect, the directional deflector turns along the vertical axis shifting the outlet
water flow to the desired steering position. With turning now depending on the
jet speed rather than the velocity of the approaching water, water-jet-powered
vessels are vary manoeuvrable and can turn at a very close radius.
10-301 Stopping or astern movement of the vessel is achieved by changing the thrust of
the jet flow with the help of a reversing plate or bucket. As the bucket is brought
down over the steering deflectors, the water-jet bounces on it and is forced to the
opposite direction. In an intermediate down position, the reversing bucket will
equalise the forward thrust thus will stop the vessel or, if moved further down, will
make the vessel move astern with the jet impeller always in operation.
10-302 Water jets are still popular with pleasure crafts, but are gaining ground in larger
ferries where speed, efficiency and low draught operations are important. Figure 7.8
shows the cross section of a Wrtsil direct-drive water-jet unit.
Figure 7.8
Cross Section of a Wrtsil Direct-drive Water-jet Unit

7.6.3 Azimuth Thrusters
10-303 Mounted at the bottom of the hull, an azimuth pod thruster (or thrusters, as
multiple arrangements are often used for directional stability) this propeller can
rotate a full circle of 360, thus propelling the vessel in any desired direction
with very high accuracy. It acts as a propeller and a ruder at the same time.
10-304 Azimuth thrusters can be mechanically or electrically driven. Their size and power
output can very considerably from 500kW to 30MW. An azimuth thruster can be the
prime mover of a smaller vessel (where directional accuracy matters, such as a tug)
or an auxiliary propulsion unit facilitating manoeuvrability, saving the cost of using tugs
in docking/undocking operations or in dynamic positioning operations (oil-drilling).
10-305 The term pod refers to the underwater section of the azimuth thruster, where the
electric motor will be located (if it is electrically driven) (Figure 7.9). Propellers can
be fixed or variable and often ducted for higher efficiency and damage protection.
The underwater part (the pod) of a mechanically driven azimuth thrusters is less
bulky than its electric equivalent, as it does not contain a motor. AZ- or L-driving
arrangement will be coupling it with a diesel (or electric) mover within the vessels hull.
Figure 7.10 shows a Z-type mechanical configuration with a ducted CP propeller.
Figure 7.9
Electric Azimuth Pod Thruster
7.6.4 VoithSchneider Units
10-306 A VoithSchneider (VS hereafter) propulsion unit is mounted on the hull under
the keel and consists of a number of vertical blades which rotate around a circle
and around their own vertical axis, so as to generate thrust as desired, from time
to time, for very accurate steering and manoeuvrability. Each blade generates
thrust as it moves in the water, while the pitch angle of the blades and the speed
of rotation are controlled in a way that the overall thrust direction and propulsion
power can be regulated as required. Thus, any direction of steering becomes
possible.

Figure 7.10
Steerable Wrtsil Z-type Mechanical Configuration Thruster, With a Ducted CP
Propeller
10-307 VS propulsion units are popular where accurate propulsion is necessary. The
units can be powered electrically or mechanically, depending on the application.
Figure 7.11 shows a tug with a mechanically driven VS propulsion system.
Figure 7.11
Tug With a Mechanically Driven VS Propulsion System (Courtesy of Voith-
Schneider)

8. BOILERS
LEARNING OUTCOME
how marine boilers are constructed and how they operate.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
10-308 Boilers are fitted in most vessels either for the production of primary steam used
to power the main propulsion turbines or for the production of auxiliary steam
used for heating, powering auxiliary equipment and other ship services.
10-309 In a boiler, heat is introduced by burning a fuel and is converted as energy stored
in the steam produced. The heat transfer process from the burning fuel to the water
producing steam is complex and boiler designs must maximise efficiency to the
highest degree possible. The properties of the steam produced are also directly
related to its ability to convert its energy to work and therefore careful selection of
operating parameters is essential. Water heating and steam raising are also
employed as means of recovering waste heat from other operating systems, such
as the main engine heat present in exhaust gases, and the incorporation of their
contribution to the overall vessel energy balance can be very significant.
10-310 The steam drum is the part of the boiler where water and steam can separate.
Feed water enters the drum, is heated and becomes steam. There are two types
of steam: wet and dry. Wet steam produced in the drum contains small quan-
tities of water and is called saturated steam. If this steam is heated further in
a super-heater within the boiler becomes dried, i.e. all water present will be
converted to steam and will be ready for use in the steam turbine. Super-heated
or dry steam has a higher temperature than wet steam.
10-311 Boilers are fitted with mountings or components that are essential for the boilers
efficient and safe operation.
8.2 TERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION OF MAIN BOILERS
10-312 Although boilers vary significantly in design, they can however be described in
terms of some basic features.
Fire / Water Location
10-313 Water and combustion substances are kept apart inside the boiler by means of
tubes. A boiler is classified as a fire-tube boiler if the combustion gases flow

Module 10 Boilers
through the tubes, which are immersed in water. Water-tube boilers are the
boilers in which water flows through the tubes surrounded by combustion gases
(see Figure 8.1).
10-314 Water-tube boilers are employed in the large installations for the production
of high-temperature, high-pressure superheated steam for main propulsion
Figure 8.1
Common Types of Boilers Fire and Water Tube

Boilers Module 10
purposes. Fire-tube boilers are used for auxiliary purposes and for relatively
small steam requirements.
Steam and Water Spaces
10-315 Drums are located in the lower parts of the boiler and collect and distribute water
to the tubes. If these drums are large the boiler is called a drum-type boiler. If on
the other hand they are small, the boiler is called a header-type boiler (see
Figure 8.2). Header-type boilers usually have no drums at all, while the size
comparison between a drum and a header is significant. Usually drum is large
enough for a person to enter while a header is only accessible by hand.
Type of Circulation
10-316 In natural-circulation boilers, the flow of cold water downwards and the flow of hot
water and steam upwards, takes place in different tube arrangements (see
Figure 8.3 on page 10-101). In accelerated natural-circulation large pipes known
as downcomers are provided externally and the smaller boiler tubes are used
only for the upward flow of heated steam and water (see Figure 8.4 on page 10-
101). A third type of circulation is possible, though not common, employing the use
of pumps and is known as controlled or forced circulation.
Figure 8.2
Drum and Header Boilers

Module 10 Boilers
Figure 8.3
Natural Circulation
Figure 8.4
Natural Circulation (Accelerated Type)

Boilers Module 10
Number of Furnaces
10-317 Single-furnace boilers use the same combustion gases for the production of
saturated and superheated steam. Double furnace or controlled superheat
boilers use separate heating arrangements for the production of saturated
steam and the superheating of steam and therefore offer a higher degree of
control and operational flexibility.
8.2.1 Water-Tube Boilers
10-318 Water-tube boilers using small diameter tubes have been the favourite design
for the production of high-pressure and temperature steam. They are much
lighter in weight than the equivalent fire-tube boilers and much quicker in raising
the necessary steam for the vessels propulsion.
10-319 A very popular design has been the single-furnace D-type boiler, which is a
water-tube boiler with drum-type watersides, uses accelerated natural
circulation and produces high-pressure superheated steam. As there is only one
furnace, superheating is uncontrolled and therefore protection of the boiler is
necessary particularly during warming-up and shutting-down. These shortfalls
are acceptable given the boilers other advantages, notably its favourable weight
and volume, its easy operation and maintenance and its requirements for less
sophisticated fuel and air supply systems. If the burners are situated at the top
of the boiler then it is said to be roof-fired. This gives a long flame path in contact
with the main steam generating tubes to increase efficiency.
10-320 Figure 8.5 and Figure 8.6 on page 10-103, show a photograph and the cross-
section of the water and steam systems of a D-type boiler. The various key
components that constitute the boilers system are briefly described below.
Figure 8.5

Module 10 Boilers
Figure 8.6
Foster Wheeler ESD-Type Boiler
Economiser
10-321 Feed water is introduced into the boiler via a heat exchanger known as the
economiser. During this passage, water temperature is raised using exhaust
furnace heat thus recovering energy that would otherwise be lost. This preheating
process also helps in relieving thermal stresses from the system.
Steam Drum
10-322 From the economiser, water is directed into the steam drum and is distributed
throughout the length of the drum, mixing with the water already present.
Downcomers
10-323 To provide accelerated natural circulation, several downcomers (usually seven),

are provided in the front and the back end of the boiler feeding water to the water
drum, screen header, side-wall header and rear-wall header. These large pipes
pass between the inner and outer casing of the boiler, away from combustion
gases in order to prevent heating of the water.
Water Drum, Headers and Tubes
10-324 The water drum is of similar construction to the steam drum and distributes
water to the generating tubes. More than 24 generating tubes of about 25 mm
in diameter connect the water drum and the steam drum and it is in these tubes
that evaporation occurs.

Boilers Module 10
10-325 The water-screen header tank also feeds water to a bank of larger diameter
water-screening tubes generating some steam in the process. The prime objec-
tive however of these tubes is to shield the superheater elements from the direct
radiant heat of the burners. These tubes also end up in the steam drum.
10-326 The rear-wall header and the side-header supply the water-wall tubes, which
protect the furnace brickwork from excessive heating.
Steam Drum Moisture Separators
10-327 Moisture separators are housed within the steam drum. They are small cyclone-type
units, which permit the separation of steam and water, driving water downwards in
the steam drum (for further circulation and heating) while permitting steam to flow
upwards. Steam leaving the separators rises to the top of the steam drum, where
the dry box is located. The dry box removes any remaining moisture and dry
saturated steam leaves the drum and is directed to the superheater for the addition
of more heat.
Superheater
10-328 All steam generated in a D-type boiler passes through the superheater, although
some will later be desuperheated for auxiliary use. This is necessary in order to
maintain the boilers operational thermal balance. Steam enters the inlet-outlet
header through the inlet nozzle, makes several passes through the U-shaped
tubes before it reaches the outlet, in a superheated state. From there, the bulk
of the steam enters the main steam piping system while a small portion is
directed to the desuperheater.
10-329 Secondary Air Dampers (SADC) are also used for controlling temperature. In
actual fact rather than controlling the Super Heated temperature, SADC help
good combustion. If however they are positioned improperly, they can cause
delayed combustion through oxygen starvation in the furnace, which leads to
higher local deposition of ash and desupeheating.
Desuperheater
10-330 The desuperheater is a heat exchanger located within the water drum or
the steam drum. Steam gives up heat to the water inside the drum and its
temperature is reduced to saturation temperature levels, suitable for auxiliary
steam use.
Blowdown System
10-331 Impurities are removed from boiler water by means of a suitably provided
blowdown system. Water spaces of the boiler, are connected by pipes to the
outside of the hull, and when appropriate valves are opened, the pressure inside
the boiler blows out the water, together with the impurities it contains. Blowdown
valves are usually at the bottom of the boiler and scum valves remove the
surface layer from the water in the steam drum.
8.2.2 Fire-Tube Boilers
10-332 These boilers are used for low-pressure steam production for auxiliary service
purposes. They are sometimes called tank boilers because of the large quanti-
ties of water they contain. As water flows on the outside of the tubes, risks of

Module 10 Boilers
scaling and tube blocking are reduced and therefore this type of boiler can use
less pure water. Such systems are today supplied as complete package units
and are often fitted on deck.
10-332a As the boiler itself is the pressure vessel, a number of safety features are nec-
essary in order to prevent failure and/or explosion. They include safety valves
that release steam before it reaches critical pressures and fusible plugs that melt
at a temperature lower than the firebox plates, allowing steam to escape. Finally
and in order to prevent thermal deformation, the firebox and the boiler are
secured with ties, drilled in a way that leakage will occur before operating con-
ditions become unsafe.
8.3 AUXILIARY BOILERS AND OTHER STEAM PRODUCING EQUIPMENT
10-333 Auxiliary boilers are used for the production of service steam. Depending on the
requirements, auxiliary boilers can be water-tube boilers with high-pressure
steam produced for driving machinery or, in the most common case of diesel
powered cargo vessels, auxiliary boilers will be of the fire-tube type. The auxil-
iary steam system of a modern vessel will combine boilers with heat recovery
equipment such as exhaust gas heat exchangers thus maximising the overall
fuel efficiency of the vessel.
10-333a There are several cases when steam is produced on board, by means other
than straightforward steam boilers. Some examples of other common steam
producing equipment are:
(a) Steam-to-Steam Generators
To prevent risks of contamination, it is frequently desired that main boiler

feed water is used indirectly for the production of secondary steam for
domestic and other purposes. A steam-to-steam generator is usually
employed for this purpose, which is essentially a shell and tube heat
exchanger allowing high-pressure steam to flow through the tubes while
water is held in the shell of the exchanger. The passage of hot steam
through the tubes boils the water in the shell and generates low-pressure
steam ready for use.
(b) Double Evaporators
Double evaporator boilers are designed, like steam-to-steam generators,

with prime feed water contamination avoidance in mind. Prime feed is
heated in one part of the boiler and steam is produced, which in turn
passes to a steam-to-steam generator built within this type of boiler, where
secondary steam is produced in a closed system and unit arrangement.
(c) Exhaust Gas Exchangers and Boilers
Main and auxiliary diesel engine combustion gases contain heat which can
be recovered at the exhaust points and used to heat water and raise steam
for auxiliary uses. A simple exhaust gas exchanger or economiser will
consist of a bank of tubes through which feed water circulates, while hot
exhaust gases will be flowing on the outside of the tube walls. On entry,
exhaust gases will typically have a temperature of around 340C, and by

Boilers Module 10
the time they reach the outlet, their temperature may drop to about 160C.
It can therefore be readily understood, that the fuel savings generated from
these units are considerable. At sea they are on their own capable of pro-
ducing all the steam needed for auxiliary uses. They are usually combined
with a fire-tube boiler, which will substitute production of steam when the
vessel is in port.
8.4 FUEL COMBUSTION
10-334 Fuels used to supply boilers today are usually residual low-grade type oils with high
density and viscosity. For the fuels to be used they must be atomised and mixed
with adequate quantities of air (about 14 times as much air is required per quantity
of fuel for complete combustion), ignited and burnt. The supply of fuel to the
burners requires preparation in the way of pumping from tanks, settling, filtering
and pressurising. Flow of air requires draught which is usually provided for by
mechanical means, such as fans, that force air into the combustion chamber of the
boiler. Air supply is controlled by the air-registers, i.e. mechanical assemblies
designed to regulate the airflow such as the one shown in Figure 8.7. Quantity of
air intake is adjusted by increasing or decreasing the opening ports through which
the air flows in. Air-registers also include a swirl plate which will cause air also to
turn in the opposite direction to the fuel for better mixing.
10-335 Fuel is atomised by the burners and there are many types of burners
available for this purpose. In the case of a pressure jet burner, fuel will
typically enter the burner at a high-pressure and will leave in the form of
Figure 8.7
CE Marine Oil-Burner Assembly

Module 10 Boilers
small droplet spray, usually rotating with the help of a swirl plate at the exit,
for better mixing with air as it enters the furnace. Other types of burners are
the spinning cup burners, using centrifugal forces generated by oil being
thrown from the edge of a rotating cup driven by an electric motor to
atomise and swirl the fuel. Jet steam atomisers achieve the same results
by employing a high velocity steam jet. Figure 8.8 shows the various types
of burners discussed.
Figure 8.8a
Types of Burner (a) Pressure jet burner
Figure 8.8b
Types of Burner (b) Spinning cup burner
Figure 8.8c
Types of Burner (c) Jet steam atomiser

Boilers Module 10
8.5 BOILER MOUNTINGS (FITTINGS)
10-336 There are a number of fittings necessary for the safe operation of boilers.
Those fitted to the pressure parts of the boiler are commonly known as boiler
mountings.
10-337 The most important mountings are listed and briefly described below.
Water Level Gauges
10-338 Water level gauges permit the visual inspection of the water level in the boiler, by
means of a glass tube mounted externally and covering the height region of
normal boiler feed water level. Two gauges are fitted to compensate for the vessels
motion and their regular reading is essential for the boilers safe operation.
10-339 Depending on boiler operating pressure, two types of gauges are employed.
For low-pressure boilers (below 17 bar) tubular glass gauges are used such
as the one shown in Figure 8.9. For higher pressures, plate glass gauges are
used which can operate safely under such higher temperatures and pressure.
Figure 8.9
Tubular Gauge Glass

Module 10 Boilers
10-340 Cocks are provided on either side of the gauge, permitting its isolation in case
the glass breaks.
Pressure Gauges
10-341 Pressure gauges are provided in several sections of the boiler for monitoring its
safe operation.
Safety Valves
10-342 Safety valves are mounted on boilers to prevent the build-up of excessive
pressure. They open automatically at a pre-set pressure and permit steam to
escape at a rate defined for maximum operational safety. For the same rea-
son, safety valves are usually fitted in pairs and the most common type of such
valves are the spring-loaded valves. Figure 8.10 on page 10-110 shows the
cross-section of a typical spring-loaded valve. The valve is kept closed by the
pressure exercised on the spindle by a spring loaded at the desired pressure.
The loading of the spring can be adjusted by screwing down the compression
nut on the top. When steam pressure exceeds pre-set pressure of the valve,
the spindle is raised and steam is allowed to escape. There are several
designs available most of which operate along these basic lines. When oper-
ated the safety valve sho uld still reduce the pressure inside the boiler even if
it is still on maximum fire and full feed water injection.
10-343 A special type of safety valve that presents itself as the best option in steam
applications is the Full Lift valve. The term full lift refers to the amount of travel
the disc undergoes from the shut position to the position necessary to allow
the required discharge capacity. In a full lift safety valve the disc lifts in a way
that the curtain area does not influence the discharge area. The bore area will
determine the discharge area and therefore the capacity of the valve. This is
achieved when the disc lifts over a distance which is at least 25% of the bore
diameter. Other similar types of valves are the high lift and low lift safety
valves, however less relevant to steam applications.
Main and Auxiliary Steam Stop Valves
10-344 One valve is fitted in each of the main and auxiliary steam supply lines, for the
isolation of steam flow to the two systems.
Control Valve
10-345 Feed control valves are non-return valves controlling the inflow of feed in the
boiler. They are installed in pairs for maximum safety.
Blowdown Valve
10-346 Blowdown valves are installed to permit the extraction of impurities from the
boiler. They are usually fitted to the lowest part of the water side of the boiler.
Air Release Cock
10-347 Air release cocks are fitted in the drums, allowing the release of air when the
system is being refilled.

Boilers Module 10
Figure 8.10
Ordinary Spring-Loaded Safety Valve
Automatic Feed Water Regulator
10-348 Such regulators are fitted to ensure the adequate inflow of feed water for the
maintenance of water level in the boiler under the different load conditions.

Module 10 Boilers
Low Level Alarm
10-349 An alarm device is usually installed to give warning when water level drops in
the boiler.
8.6 FEED WATER TREATMENT
10-350 Water can be described as a universal solvent and this is due to its unique
molecular structure. Natural water therefore contains impurities, which can
cause problems when water is used in evaporators, boilers and in cooling
systems. The list of impurities found in natural waters is long and could include:
calcium and magnesium bicarbonates;
calcium-sulphate, chloride and nitrate;
magnesium-sulphate, chloride and nitrate;
sodium-sulphate, chloride and nitrate;
silica;
iron compounds;
carbon dioxide;
oxygen etc.
10-351 Without appropriate chemical treatment, impurities in boiler feed water can
cause the following problems:
(a) Corrosion
Corrosion can take place in several ways in the feed system, with oxygen
pitting being the most prominent risk, leading to boiler tube failure.
Alternatively, iron and copper products can be transported from any part of
the system into the boiler, build-up as hard insulating scale giving rise to
local overheating and perforation of tubes.
(b) Scale
The building-up of scale results at first with reduction in boiler efficiency.

Excessive build-up however, will cause local overheating of the tubes and
as a result their eventual failure.
(c) Carry-over
Impurities brought into the boiler by the feed water will concentrate and will
eventually be carried over with the steam as soluble salts or suspended
solids. The damage caused on turbine blades, as a result, can be grave.
10-352 Water treatment is therefore necessary for the prevention of all three categories
of potential problems. The methods employed are briefly summarised below.

Boilers Module 10
Corrosion Prevention
10-353 The corrosion process is essentially an oxidation process, which takes place
when a metal comes in touch with oxygen, reacts and is wasted. The most usual
forms of corrosion are pitting, general wastage and corrosion fatigue. Corrosion
is not easily detectable as it can take place under layers of scale or other
covered areas.
10-354 The main cause of corrosion in boilers is the presence of dissolved oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the feed water. The risk becomes more apparent, when the
operating pressures of the boiler are higher.
10-355 The removal of dissolved oxygen can be achieved through mechanical de-aera-
tion, which is discussed in the next chapter. It is however advisable that chemicals
are also used after mechanical de-aeration, to further reduce the concentration of
oxygen to the minimum possible level. Chemicals used for this purpose are
hydrazine (N2H4) which reacts with oxygen to form water and nitrogen gas.
Alternatively, for the case of lower pressure boiler systems, sodium sulphite can be
used which reacts quickly with oxygen even at normal temperature and pressure
conditions.
Scale Prevention
10-356 To prevent scale from forming, water must be treated chemically inside the boiler
even when the source of water is de-ionised and considered pure. The inter-
nal treatment chemicals used include soda ash, caustic soda and various types
of sodium phosphates. It is essential to properly monitor and control the quanti-
ties of chemical used, which will depend on the amounts of impurities present.
Chemical tests are used to monitor chemical addition and these tests will vary
according to the type of treatment in use. It is necessary to blow the boilers at
regular intervals in order to remove the sludge, dissolved salts and iron/copper
oxides brought in from the feed system. By replacing blowdown water with feed
water the concentration of impurities is diluted and the concentration of suspended
and dissolved solids can be better controlled.
Carry-over Prevention
10-357 Carry-over takes place when steam is contaminated by boiler water and by the
solids, which this water contains. With time and as evaporation takes place in
the boiler, the concentration of certain salts increases and if this is allowed to
exceed certain limits, carry-over will occur, i.e. these salts will pass through the
water steam interface and will be carried away with the steam generated in the
boiler. The interface is the boiler water surface where bubbles formed escape as
steam. When concentration of dissolved solids increases, the water film around
each bubble is made stronger and foaming occurs. Foaming can also be caused
by the presence of organic materials or oil, but in a normal case, foam indicates
the increase in concentration of dissolved salts.
10-358 By controlling the formation of foam it is possible to prevent carry-over. It was

not until recently that suitable chemicals were developed which are complex
compounds of high molecular weight that sit on the water surface and permit
steam to flow through them. For their use to be effective, their concentration in
the boiler must always be kept above certain minimum concentration values.

9. FEED SYSTEMS
LEARNING OUTCOME
know the components of the closed system needed to keep

the steam boiler and turbine operation.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
10-359 A feed system is necessary in order to enable the exhausted steam from a
steam turbine or an auxiliary steam plant to return to the main boiler, as feed
water. This water is commonly referred to as condensate.
10-360 A simple feed system would consist of a condenser, which removes the latent
heat from the exhaust steam, a drain tank where the condensate is collected
and a feed pump, which returns the condensate to the boiler. Oxygen contained
in the atmosphere can cause serious corrosion and therefore the returning
condensate must be free of air.
10-361 In order to supplement losses from leakage, a certain amount of make-up feed
water will be necessary. This is fresh water obtained either through seawater
evaporation or shore supply, and is stored in a feed water tank.
9.2 FEED SYSTEMS
10-362 There are two types of drain tanks:
tanks open to atmospheric pressure, known as hot-wells, used for low-

pressure systems (such as auxiliary boiler systems on motor vessels); and
tanks closed to the atmosphere in high-pressure installations such as main

turbine propulsion systems.
10-363 The first type of system with an open tank is known as an open feed system
and the second is known as a closed feed system.
9.2.1 Open Feed Systems
10-364 A relatively simple open feed system for an auxiliary boiler is shown in Figure 9.1
on page 10-114. The system includes a condenser operating at atmospheric
pressure with seawater used as coolant. Exhaust steam is condensed and is

Feed Systems Module 10
Figure 9.1
drained by gravity into a low-pressure feed filter, also acting as a hot-well. The
system includes an observation tank, a suitably designed container where
oil-contaminated water is directed and oil is removed before water is returned to
the system. The feed pump draws water from the hot-well and supplies it to the
boiler. The water level in the boiler is kept constant by means of a float operated
feed regulator. Losses are made up by addition of fresh water into the condenser,
while the hot-well can overflow into the feed tank, when the need arises.
10-365 Simple open feed systems are suitable for supplying boilers working at up to
pressures of about 1,600 kN/ m2. At higher pressures it is recommended that a
de-aerator is included to prevent corrosion and increase the efficiency of the
system.
9.2.2 Closed Feed Systems
10-366 Closed feed systems are grouped into two main categories on the basis of
the inclusion or not of a de-aerator. When the boiler working pressures are
above 3,000 kN/m2, the presence of such a unit is necessary, as stated in
the previous paragraph, to reduce corrosion and increase the efficiency of the
system.
10-367 Figure 9.2 on page 10-115 shows a main turbine closed feed system with a
de-aerator. A regenerative type condenser receives exhaust steam and converts
it to condensate, stored in its sump. The level in the sump varies and the extrac-
tion pump is therefore designed to self-regulate its discharge rate, according to
the varying tank levels. An air ejector, a gland steam condenser and a drain
cooler follow, with passing water acting as the cooling medium in the process.

Module 10 Feed Systems
Figure 9.2
A low-pressure surface heater follows, heating the water to a temperature

suitable for entry into the de-aerator. Once through the de-aerator, the water is
stored in a buffer tank underneath ready to be fed back to the boiler. In case the
water level in the tank rises above a set value, the system is fitted with a diverter
valve that permits the flow of excess water to the feed tank, from where it
re-enters the system via the condenser.
9.3 SYSTEM PARTS
9.3.1 Condensers
10-368 The main function of the condenser in a feed system is to convert steam back
into water so that it can be pumped back into the boiler. This is done by remov-
ing the latent heat from the exhaust steam, converting it to condensate, which is
then returned to the boiler by the feed pumps for further use. It is important to
note that maximum operating efficiency means that only the latent heat is
removed from the steam and therefore the actual steam and condensate tem-
peratures remain equal and unchanged. Any further heat removed will be lost
and therefore additional heat energy will be required in the system in order to
restore condensate temperature to a reusable level.
10-369 There are two basic types of condensers: auxiliary and regenerative.
Auxiliary type condensers are used on ships when steam is provided for
auxiliary purposes and not as means of main propulsion. Figure 9.3 on
page 10-116 shows a simple, single-pass auxiliary condenser. It is a tube
type heat exchanger with steam entering from the top centre and passing
through the outer surface of the seawater-cooled tubes. Latent heat is
removed, steam converts to water condensate and settles in the bottom of
the condenser, from where it is collected and transferred to the hot-well.

Figure 9.3
Single-Pass Auxiliary Condenser
Regenerative type condensers are used on systems supplying high-pressure

steam for main turbine propulsion or for large power generating plants.
They are designed to perform the condensation process with high degrees
of efficiency by using several features. Figure 9.4 shows a typical regen-
erative condenser. Regeneration is obtained by allowing steam to pass
through a bank of tubes that allows a portion of the exhaust steam to
reach the lower parts of the condenser. Droplets of condensate, dripping
from the tubes above, mix with this hot steam which, in turn, cools down,
releasing its latent heat while re-heating the droplets. The process permits
the control of under-cooling to a point of accuracy of 1C of the exhaust
steam temperature, which also helps de-aerate the condensate as droplet
temperatures are raised to the corresponding saturation temperatures. At
these levels, waters ability to dissolve matter becomes minimal and there-
fore any gases already dissolved in it are forced out. The condenser must
also provide fittings, ensuring the release of these gases (mainly oxygen
and carbon dioxide) to the atmosphere. The tubing arrangements, as
expected, are very complex in order to facilitate the flow of steam, conden-
sate and cooling seawater and there are many designs available by sev-
eral manufacturers. Water is finally collected at the bottom of the con-
denser, the sump, from where it is withdrawn by the extraction pump and
fed to the parts of the system that follow.
9.3.2 Extraction Pumps
10-370 Extraction pumps are used to pump the condensate from the condenser sump
to the de-aerator or the feed pump inlet. Pressure in the condenser is below

Figure 9.4
atmospheric while the delivery pressure should be adequate to overcome the

systems head losses.
10-371 Extraction pumps are usually two-stage vertical centrifugal pumps as shown on
Figure 9.5. The first stage impeller raises the pressure of the boiling condensate
from its vacuum pressure to a pressure slightly above atmospheric. The second
stage impeller then increases the pressure further to the desired system level.
When the level of condensate in the sump is allowed to vary, the type of two-
stage pumps used are self-regulating. When, as a result of the lowering of
condensate in the sump, the suction head falls, cavitation occurs in the pumps
impeller and discharge rate is reduced to zero. Cavitation is the formation and
collapse of bubbles around the impeller fins, which disrupts the pumping
process. When the level of the condensate increases cavitation stops and the
pump resumes its normal operation. Whilst cavitation normally would cause
damage, for example in the case of propellers, in this case the impeller design
is such that damage is totally avoided.
9.3.3 Air Ejectors
10-372 The presence of air should not be permitted in the system, as it will cause
corrosion in the boiler and the turbine. When the condenser is operating at high

Figure 9.5
Extraction Pump
vacuum pressures the risk is increased and an efficient system of air removal
must be incorporated in the feed water system. Steam jet air injectors are used
for this purpose, converting the heat energy of contaminated high-pressure
steam into kinetic energy, as steam passes through a nozzle, and then, as it
passes through a diffuser this kinetic energy is converted to pressure. The
steam is then cooled and most of the vapour is returned to the condenser via a
steam trap while the air and the remaining vapour pass to the next stage where
the process is repeated, until all vapour is extracted from the mixture and thus
separation has been completed. Air is then discharged in the atmosphere.
10-373 Figure 9.6 shows a two-stage air ejector arrangement. Air and vapour mixture
enters the first stage at condenser pressure, with the help of a steam operated
air ejector, which acts as a pump. The mixture passes through the diffuser and
the pressure is considerably increased. It then enters the first cooling section,
with feed water used as a cooling medium where vapours condense.
Condensed vapours and operating steam are returned to the condenser while
air and the remaining vapour pass to the second stage where the process is
repeated.
9.3.4 Heat Exchangers
10-374 In addition to the condenser, extraction pump and air ejector, various heat
exchangers are incorporated in the feed system in order to increase the thermal

Figure 9.6
Two-Stage Air Ejector
efficiency of the plant. They do so by recovering thermal energy present in

exhaust steam or hot water drains in various parts of the system and by returning
this heat to the feed water in circulation.
10-375 The most important heat exchangers in the system are the gland steam
condensers, the drain coolers and the low-pressure feed heaters. Gland
steam condensers receive vapour from the turbine glands vapour collectors,
condense the steam and return the condensate to the feed system. Drain
coolers recover heat from the hot drains of various units while cooling them to a
temperature suitable for their entry to the condenser. Low-pressure feed heaters
receive steam bled from the low-pressure turbine and use it to heat feed water
to a temperature suitable for its introduction to a de-aerator.
10-376 All of the above are tube and shell type heat exchangers such as the one shown
in Figure 9.7. The circulating feed water passes through straight tubes while
drain flows in the shell space and around the outside surface of the tubes.
Baffles are provided to increase the flow path of the drain and thus increase the
contact time between the two fluids.

Figure 9.7
Drains Cooler
10-377 Plate heat exchangers are another type of heat exchangers, using metal plates
to transfer heat between the two different fluids. Given the large size of the
plates that the fluids are exposed to (as opposed to that of the tubes) plate type
designs facilitate the transfer of heat and more importantly provide the temper-
ature change at a greater speed. Generally speaking they are suitable for use
with low to medium pressure fluids and can compensate temperature differ-
ences as low as 1 C. The plates are usually made of stainless steel which is
resistive to corrosion and better withstands higher temperature. The plates are
supported in a frame and connected with gaskets at spacing gaps of about
1.5 mm.
10-378 The are several advantages associated with this type of design, including com-
pactness, relatively easy manufacturing and high operational efficiency.
Drawbacks include the relatively high drop of pressure on the fluids passing
through them and the risks of leakage associated with the gaskets that join the
plates together. Figure 9.8 shows a basic plate exchanger assembly.

Figure 9.8
Plate Heat Exchanger Assembly
9.3.5 De-aerators
10-379 Feed water in high-pressure boilers must be free of dissolved gases. By using the
property that water releases dissolved gases when heated to its boiling point, this
can be achieved. A regenerative condenser in a closed feed system will remove
the bulk of the gases but for boiler pressures above 4,000 kN/m2 it is recom-
mended that additional de-aeration should take place. This is achieved by the inclu-
sion of a de-aerator in the system, like the one shown in Figure 9.9.
10-380 Feed water passes through a number of spray nozzles, which force the water
to enter the de-aerator space in the form of small droplets. The heating steam
introduced therefore comes in contact with large surface area of water,
transferring adequate heat to the feed water droplets, which in turn release any
dissolved gases. As the droplets travel downwards they fall onto a series of
plates which further help the release of gases as thin films of water drip from
the plate edges. Condensed steam and feed water are then collected at the
bottom of the de-aerator and are fed to the boiler.

Figure 9.9
De-aerator
9.3.6 Feed Pumps
10-381 The feed pumps main task is to raise the feed water pressure to the high level
requirement for entry into the boiler as you need to overcome the pressure in the
boiler and allow the water to enter. Depending on the installation type and the
quantities of feed water handled, several types of pumps are used, of both pos-
itive displacement and centrifugal configuration, driven by steam or electrical
means (see also Chapter 10).
10-382 A particular type of steam driven pump, known as the turbofeed pump, is
shown in Figure 9.10 on page 10-123. These pumps are used in high-pressure,
water-tube type installations and can be of single or multiple type (one or more
impellers). They consist of two distinct parts:
the driving turbine, working at speeds as high as 7,000 rpm; and
the centrifugal pump including the impeller(s).
10-383 Turbine and pump have a common shaft supported by oil lubricated bearings,
adjustable so that correct balance can be maintained. In the case of centrifugal
pump it is essential to prime the system to exclude air which could prevent the
pump from working correctly. Give information about the dangers of gassing up
see below

Figure 9.10
Turbo-Feed Pump, Oil Lubricated Bearings
It is important to remember that when a centrifugal pump is operated with no

flow through it, for example, if the discharge valve is closed, the impeller will
sweep the same volume of fluid as it rotates in the pump casing. Due to friction,
this will increase the temperature of the liquid in the pumps casing to the point
that it might vaporise. The vapour will interrupt the cooling flow to the pump's
packing and bearings, causing excessive wear and heat and if the pump is
allowed to run in this condition, it will be damaged.
9.3.7 High-Pressure Feed Heater
10-384 High-pressure feed heaters are shell and tube type heat exchangers heating
feed water before it is introduced to the boiler. As feed water is now under the
high discharge pressure provided by the feed pump, this added heater will not
convert it to steam.

10. PIPING SYSTEMS AND PUMPS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
be able to identify the different types of pumps and valves

used on ships; and
know the purpose and reasons for pumps and valves on

ships.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10-385 Pumping and piping systems onboard vessels are employed for the transfer of
various liquids around the engine room and to other compartments of the vessel.
They are complex systems, often interrelated and duplicated for safety and
performance reasons. Pipes deliver among other fluids, fuel, lubricants,
hydraulic fluids, cooling and feed water, domestic water, air, steam, fire fighting
media and so on. Piping systems are therefore essential for the vessels safety
and operation and must be properly understood and maintained. Given the
complexity and quantity of pipe-work on board, both these tasks are not at all
easy to perform and require special effort and attention.
10.2 PIPES
10-386 Pipes are the means through which liquids travel from their source or storage
point to the desired destination. There are several miles of pipes on board a vessel
designated for the different uses. Pipes vary in size and diameter, material of
construction and pressure specification according to the desired application or
use. They are a combination of straight lengths and bends joined together by
flanges or couplings. The selection of a particular pipe diameter and thickness for
a given application is a function of pressure and quantity of liquid flowing through
it. Equally, the selection of pipe material depends on the liquids chemical and
physical properties. Carbon steel of various specifications is generally used with
copper, brass and flexible rubber hosing found usually in more specialised
applications. Pipes are usually insulated when carrying hot liquids and provisions
are made for their thermal expansion and contractions. Vibration is a crucial factor
to be considered when laying pipes and hangers are usually used for this purpose.
Piping systems are also usually provided with drainage arrangements used for
removing the liquids for cleaning and maintenance purposes.
10-387 The identification of pipes in the engine room and elsewhere on board is crucial.
Colour coding has been introduced in recent years but the system can vary from

Module 10 Piping Systems and Pumps
country to country or ship to ship as international standards are not quite yet
employed. The painting of the complete length of the pipe by a different colour
has now been substituted for reasons of cost and engine room clarity by strip
colouring around the flange joints and at given intervals over the pipe length.
The table below briefly describes the pipe identification colours based on which
more elaborate colour coding systems have been developed.
Colour Fluid
Blue Fresh water

Red Fire main
Yellow Luboil
Green Seawater
Grey Steam
Light brown Diesel
Dark brown Heavy fuel
Black Bilge water
Mauve Compressed air
10.3 BASIC PUMPING THEORY AND CALCULATIONS
10-388 Pumps are used for adding energy into a fluid, which in turn will result in an increase
in the fluids pressure. Increased pressure enables the transfer of the fluid to higher
levels, such as tanks higher up in the engine room, the transfer of larger quantities
of fluids in smaller size pipes or the delivery of fluids at increased pressure.
10-389 Pumping systems typically consist of suction piping, a pump and discharge piping,
as shown in Figure 10.1. For the fluid to be delivered to a discharge tank above the
Figure 10.1
Basic Pumping System

Piping Systems and Pumps Module 10
level of the suction tank and in this case the pump, positive pressure or head must
be added to the system. The pump provides the energy necessary for the
development of the head, in order to overcome the head loss and for overcoming
the losses due to friction, as the fluid flows through the pipes.
10-390 The total system losses are therefore:
HTOTAL HFRSUCT HFRDIS HDISTANK HSUCTANK
where: HFRSUCT Friction head loss in suction piping
HFRDIS Friction head loss in discharge piping
HDISTANK Height of discharge level above pump
HSUCTANK Height of suction tank level above pump

(negative when tank level is below pump suction)
(Head is measured in metres of liquid)
10-391 A further important consideration is the determination of Net Positive Suction Head
(NPSH) for the pump and system. NPSH is the difference between the absolute
pump inlet pressure and the vapour pressure, which is the pressure where gases
start to form, of the liquid (also expressed in metres of liquid). As vapour pressure
is temperature dependent, the operating temperature must be taken into account
and correct vapour pressure value should be chosen for that temperature.
10-392 The NPSH available in the system is calculated as follows:
NPSHAVAIL HATM HSUCTANK HFRSUCT HVAPPRESS
where: HATM Atmospheric pressure
HSUCTANK Tank level from pump (negative when tank level is

below pump level)
HFRSUCT Friction head loss in suction piping
HVAPPRESS Liquid vapour pressure
(Head is again measured in metres of liquid)
10-393 The pump and system NPSH must be matched so that the NPSH required is
always greater than NPSH available. Pump NPSH required characteristics, are
provided by pump manufacturers.
10.4 PUMP TYPES
10.4.1 Introduction
10-394 In principle, there are three families of pumps:
(a) Positive Displacement (PD)
Working on the principle that the liquid is displaced by the mechanical

variation of the volume of the pump chamber, PD pumps deliver fluids at

high-pressure but at relatively low flow rates and volume. They do not
need priming to start operation but their high-pressure output means that
all valves downstream should be open before pumping starts. PD pumps
are mainly used for the transfer of lubricating oils, fuels and other fluids
where pressure matters.
(b) Centrifugal Pumps (CP)
Working on the principle that rotational centrifugal forces induce flow,

CP pumps deliver large flow rates at relatively low-pressure. They normally
need priming, which is the removal of air from inside the pump, and are
therefore usually provided with non-return valves to avoid draining or are
submerged in the fluid. Unlike PDs, CPs should be started with discharge
valves closed to avoid excessive electricity loads on the ships system. They
are mainly used for water circulation on board and for liquid cargo handling.
(c) Axial-Flow Pumps
Using screw propellers, axial-flow pumps accelerate the flow of fluids

which is then converted to pressure increase via suitably arranged outlet
passages and guide vanes.
10.4.2 Positive Displacement Pumps
Reciprocating Pumps
10-395 Figure 10.2 on page 10-126, illustrates the working principles of reciprocating
pumps. The essential parts are the cylinder, the piston and the valves.
Figure 10.2(A) on page 10-128 shows a single-acting pump. On the downward
stroke, the valve in the bottom of the cylinder is closed and the water in the lower
part of the cylinder is forced up through the valves in the piston. On the upward
stroke, the weight of the water above the piston closes the piston valves and is
discharged through the outlet. As the piston moves upwards it draws water into
the cylinder through the cylinder valve.
10-396 The double-acting pump shown in Figure 10.2(B) on page 10-128 is designed
to deliver a steady stream of water under high-pressure. While the general
operating principle is similar to the single-acting pumps, double-acting pump valve
system is arranged differently and includes an air chamber, which maintains the
pressure when the piston is at the top and bottom of each stroke. A stream of
water is forced out of the double-acting pump on both the up and down strokes.
On the up stroke the water above the piston is forced out through the upper outlet
valve. At the same time, water is being drawn into the space below the piston
through the lower inlet valve. On the down stroke the water below the piston is
forced out of the cylinder through the lower outlet valve, and a new charge of
water is drawn into the top of the cylinder through the upper inlet valve.
Gear Pumps
10-397 In simple-gear pumps, as shown in Figure 10.3 on page 10-128, there are two
spur gears that are meshed together and revolve in opposite directions inside the
pump casing. The clearance between the case, gear faces, and teeth extremities
is very small. Any liquid that fills the space A, bounded by two successive teeth

Figure 10.2
Operating Principles of Reciprocating Pumps
Figure 10.3
Simple-Gear Pump
and the case, is carried along with the teeth as they revolve. When the teeth mesh
again, the space A between them disappears and the entrapped liquid is forced
into the discharge pipe. As the teeth revolve and unmesh, the space A again
opens on the suction side and entraps a new quantity of liquid and again carries
it around the case to discharge. As the liquid is carried away from the suction side,
a lower pressure is created, which draws liquid in through the suction line. When
a large number of teeth are employed on the gears, the discharge is relatively
smooth and continuous, with small quantities of liquid being delivered to the
discharge line in rapid succession. If the pump is designed with fewer teeth, the
space between teeth is greater and the capacity is increased for a given speed.
10-398 Power is supplied to the shaft of one of the gears and is in turn transmitted to
the driven gear through the meshing teeth. There are no valves in the gear pump
to cause friction losses, as in the reciprocating pump. Therefore, the gear
pump is very suited for handling viscous fluids such as fuel and lubricating oils.

Rotary Vane Pumps
10-399 The arrangement of a simple rotary vane pump is shown in Figure 10.4. As the
shaft turns, a volume of liquid is trapped in the space between the vane and the
Figure 10.4
Rotary Moving- (Swinging-) Vane Pump
casing, which is discharged as the vane moves to the outlet position. The
volume becomes smaller as the vane moves towards the outlet chamber,
creating pressure on the fluid. Rotating vane pumps suffer wear and tear at the
vane edges, particularly when the liquid pumped carries abrasive or corrosive
substances.
Screw Pumps
10-400 There are many variations in the design of rotary-screw type positive displacement
pumps, the key parameters being:
the number of screws;
the pitch of the screws; and
the general direction of the fluid flow (single or double-flow).
10-401 We will only examine one version, which hopefully will explain how these pumps
operate.
10-402 Figure 10.5 on page 10-130 illustrates the elements of a two-screw, low-pitch
double-flow screw pump. The rotating elements (A) are two pairs of screws,
which intermesh with close clearances, mounted on two parallel shafts. The
pitch of each pair of screws is oppositely threaded with respect to the other. One
shaft is driving the other through a set of timing gears. Side view cross-section
(B) shows how the screws rotate within the cylindrical walls. All clearances are
very small but there is no actual contact between the screws and the cylinder
walls. Two external openings are provided: one on the top above the centre of
the screws and one at the bottom, with a connecting chamber to the outer ends

Figure 10.5
Two-Screw, Low-Pitch, Double-Flow Pump
of the screws. Liquid is trapped at the outer end of each pair of screws. As the
screws turn, the space between the screw threads rotates away from the
opposite screw. In one turn of the screw a spiral-shaped quantity of liquid is
enclosed when the end of the screw again meshes with the opposite screw. As
the screw continues to rotate, the trapped spiral quantities of liquid slide along
the cylinder towards the centre discharge space. Each screw functions similarly
and discharges an equal quantity of liquid in opposed streams towards the
centre. The removal of liquid from the suction end creates a reduction in
pressure, which draws liquid into the suction line. The pump is reversible, with
the centre space becoming the suction and the outer ends becoming discharge.
10.4.3 Centrifugal Pumps
10-403 In its simplest form, a centrifugal pump consists of an impeller rotating inside an
eccentric casing (volute), as shown in Figure 10.6. The operation of centrifugal
pumps depends on the centrifugal force generated by the high-speed rotation of
Figure 10.6
Centrifugal Pump

the impeller. The impeller consists of a disc upon which a series of curved vanes
are mounted, while an inlet exists in the centre (the eye) for the entry of the
liquid. A shaft connected to the driving motor rotates the impeller. When a supply
of liquid enters the eye, the high-speed of rotation of the impeller permits the
vanes to literally throw the liquid outward imparting to it high-velocity, thus
inducing a large amount of kinetic energy. Upon leaving the curved vanes of the
impeller, the high-velocity liquid enters the stationary pump casing that encloses
the impeller. This section of the casing is called the volute, as its shape is
derived from the involute of a circle. The volute is a variation of the straight
diffuser in which the straight diverging nozzle has been changed to a diverging
nozzle whose axis is bent in a full 130 circle around the pump impeller. The
clearance between the impeller and casing increases as the liquid approaches
the discharge connection to the casing. The purpose of this volute is to collect the
liquid being discharged from the impeller and convert the kinetic energy of
the high-velocity mass of liquid into pressure, by permitting the moving mass to
slow down as it passes through the widening channel. As the passage widens
towards the outlet, less linear velocity is required to pass the same mass of
liquid in a given time interval. If, at the same time, the discharge is restricted so
that the volute remains filled with liquid, the impact of the entering fluid upon the
retarded mass of liquid will be the development of static pressure.
10-404 Centrifugal pumps can have several configurations. Figure 10.7 shows a vertical,
single entry, centrifugal pump for general duties on board, while Figure 10.8 on
page 10-132, shows a two-stage centrifugal pump typically used as fire line
pumps.
Figure 10.7
Single-Entry Centrifugal Pump

Figure 10.8
A Two-stage Centrifugal Pump, Typical of a Fire Pump
(Hamworthy Engineering Ltd)
10.4.4 Axial-Flow Pumps
10-405 Figure 10.9 shows a typical axial-flow pump. Such pumps are used when large
quantities of water at low-pressure are required and their efficiency is equivalent
Figure 10.9
Axial-Flow Pump

to low lift centrifugal pumps. Circulation of condenser water is an example of an

axial pump application. The prime advantage of these pumps is that they will offer
little resistance to flow when idle and can therefore be used to boost the flow in
scoop circulation systems when the vessel is moving slowly or is stopped.
10.5 VALVES
10-406 Various types of valves exist, the most common of which are listed and briefly
described in the paragraphs that follow. Classification is by valve design while most
types can be found operating either manually or by other means such as electric,
hydraulic or air-motors. The various designs are available in different construction
materials to suit the properties of the liquids handled by particular piping systems.
10.5.1 General Use
Globe Valves
10-407 Globe valves have spherical bodies that enclose the valve disc or plug and seat.
Flanges are provided on both ends for connection to the piping system while inlet
is always arranged to be below the valve seat so that the upper chamber is not
under pressure when the valve is closed. The type of valve with the disc
attached to the spindle is called screw lift type. The material of seat and
disc faces is very strong while some designs provide for their replacement when
worn. A circular hand wheel is used to turn the spindle and raise or lower the
valve disc. Figure 10.10 shows the cross-section of a common globe valve.
Figure 10.10
Globe Valve

Gate Valves
10-408 Unlike globe valves, gate valves give full bore flow without the change of
direction of the fluid. The disc is in this case called the gate and moves vertically
to the flow operated by a spindle which, in turn, is operated by a hand wheel.
Gates may be parallel or wedge-shaped in section fitting against a matching
seat and gate facings and seat rings can be replaceable. Gate valves should be
operated as fully open or closed and are not suitable for flow control. In fact,
partial flow will eventually damage the seat. The spindle is threaded at the lower
part and when turned will lift or lower the gate in its seat. Figure 10.11 shows the
cross-section of a gate valve.
Figure 10.11
Gate Valve
Butterfly Valves
10-409 Butterfly valves consist of a disc pivoting across the bore of a ring, which has
the same diameter as the pipe itself. The use of the full bore and the streamline
shape of the disc result in very low-pressure drop across the valve. Butterfly
valves are quick to operate, as they only require a quarter of a turn of the spindle
to move from fully open to fully closed position. Butterfly valves are commonly
used in low-pressure systems, such as cooling or domestic water.
10-410 A cross-section of a butterfly valve is shown in Figure 10.12 on page 10-135.
Non-Return Valves
10-411 Non-return valves are designed to permit the flow of the fluid in the pipe in one
direction only. The non-return feature can be used alone, or can be incorporated
within the casing or body of most types of valves. The valve disc could or could not
be attached to the spindle, depending on the design and can be manually or liquid
operated. Figure 10.13 on page 10-135, shows a liquid operated non-return valve.

Figure 10.12
Type B A Butterfly Valve (Hindle Cockburns Ltd)
Figure 10.13
Non-Return Valve
10-412 A special type of non return valves with particularly attractive features and
applications is the screw down non return valve. Whilst essentially designed to act
as non-return valve, this type also has the capacity to hold the valve permanently
closed. They are ideal when, due to space restrictions, two separate valves can
not be fitted or in cases where safety is of very high importance. See figure 10.14
Figure 10.14
Screw Down Non-Return Valve (Source: Taylor Shaw)

Figure 10.15
Example of a Sleeve-Packed Cock
Cocks
10-413 Cocks are simple mechanisms consisting of a central plug rotating within its
housing over a turning radius of 90 degrees by an external lever from open
to closed position. Their lever can be arranged to be parallel to pipe or
perpendicular to pipe when closed, depending on application requirements and
safety considerations. Packing is usually achieved by means of a sleeve for
easy replacement. Cocks are used in small pipe diameter applications usually in
sounding arrangements and when on or off are the main required positions.
A typical sleeve packed cock is shown in Figure 10.15 on page 10-136.
10.5.2 Three-Way Valves
10-414 Three (or more)-way valves allow the selection of the desired alternative piping
connection in particular arrangement. For example, there might be two tanks
available to supply lubricant oil but only one tank is feeding at a time the
common supply line. A three-way valve will be used to permit switching suction
from one or the other. Three-way valves can be of a cock type or more

Figure 10.16
Two-valve changeover chest for oil and ballast suctions as
arranged when filling or discharging ballast
complicated and robust designs such as change-over valve chests, an example of

which is given in Figure 10.16 on page 10-137. By selecting the appropriate tank
suction valves position the main pump can draw either fuel oil or water ballast.
10.5.3 Special Type
Self-Closing Valves
10-415 Self-closing valves are designed to shut down automatically when certain operating
criteria are not met. There are several types of such valves for different
applications. They can be sensitive to temperature changes such as thermostatic
type valves or to pressure, such as pressure reducing valves in a steam system.
Opening and closing is usually achieved by the load of a spring, which is either
balancing the effects of heat on a bi-metallic element or a pressure diaphragm.
Quick Closing Valves
10-416 Fuel oil tanks are fitted with quick closing valves, which can be operated from a
remote distance in the case of a fire emergency. The remote mechanism usually
consists of a pull wire and levers, which can be pulled from a location outside
the engine room. Alternatively, hydraulic valves can be fitted offering the same
effect. The mechanism relies on a spring, which is loaded when the valve is
open, but when the fulcrum is collapsed, by the wire trigger or the hydraulic
piston displacement, the valve quickly closes under the load of the spring. A
typical quick-closing valve is shown in Figure 10.17 on page 10-138.

Figure 10.17
Howden Instanter Quick-Closing Valve (James Howden & Co Ltd)
10.5.4 Safety or Relief Valves
10-417 Pressure relief valves are fitted when control of excess pressure is necessary.
The disc is held closed by a compressed spring whose tension can be regulated
by the adjusting nuts to meet the required relief pressure value. Excess pressure
applied on the disc by the fluid in the piping system will cause the disc to lift and
allow flow to the outlet. Once the pressure is reduced, the spring load will push
the disc back in the closed position. Figure 10.18 on page 10-138 shows a
cross-section of a typical relief valve.
Figure 10.18
Relief Valve

10.6 FITTINGS
Strainers
10-418 Strainers are coarse filters usually employed at the suction end of a piping
system, designed to protect it by blocking the flow of large items such as rags,
big pieces of metal etc. Their filter element is usually a perforated metal plate
or a coarse wire mesh, which is easily removable for cleaning. There are many
different designs of strainers with mud boxes, fitted in the machinery bilge
space, being a typical example of their applications.
Filters
10-419 A variety of filters can be used in piping systems and more precise description
is given in other sections of this text. Cartridge filters are for example employed
extensively in lubricating and fuel oil systems. Figure 10.19 on page 10-139
shows an example of a cartridge filter.
Steam Traps
10-420 Steam traps are specially designed valves and, whilst blocking the flow of steam,
permit only the passage of condensate, i.e. of water. Their main aim is to retain
the steam in the pipe until it has delivered all its thermal energy and is converted
to water. There are three main types of steam traps: mechanical, thermostatic
Figure 10.19
Cartridge Filters

and thermodynamic employing different working principles. A typical mechanical

steam trap is shown in Figure 10.20.
Figure 10.20
Steam Trap
Figure 10.21
Automatic Pumping or Vacuum Trap (Royles Ltd),
A, B Non-return valves, C Exhaust valve, D Steam valve, E Float,
F Collar, G Magnet, H Spring, J Spindle
Vacuum or Pumping Traps
10-421 By employing vacuum or pumping traps, water can be removed locally from the
piping system and directly returned to the engine room, thus relieving the
system from its unnecessary further circulation. Figure 10.21 shows such a
vacuum trap. When the trap is empty, the exhaust valve C is open and the steam
valve D is closed. Water flowing into the trap through the non-return valve A
raises the float E until it compresses the spring H, exerting a force which plucks
the spindle J away from the magnet G until steam valve D is opened. Steam is
then admitted to the trap and pushes the water out through the non-return valve
B. Once empty, the trap returns to its original cycle.

11. GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEMS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
the different systems used by engine designers to bring air

into a diesel engine; and
how air is used to burn fuel and expel exhaust gases.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
10-422 Scavenging means the disposal of spent combustion gases from the cylinder, by
means of fresh air blown through it.
10-423 Charging means the filling-up of the cylinder volume with fresh air at the beginning
of the compression stage, supplying the oxygen needed for the combustion of
the fuel.
10-424 Supercharging is a process by which the quantity of intake air in the cylinder
volume is further increased so that more oxygen is made available to burn more
fuel, per cylinder cycle, thus increasing the engines power output and efficiency.
10-425 Charge-air cooling is the process by which charge (inlet) air, after being
compressed and before it enters the cylinder is cooled by a cooler, in order that
its density is increased to again burn more fuel and that it provides an additional
cooling method for the engine and the metal parts surrounding the combustion
chamber.
11.2 SCAVENGING AND CHARGING, FOUR-STROKE ENGINES
10-426 Scavenge and charging of four-stroke engines is mainly achieved by the actions
of the piston during two of its strokes. Figure 11.1 on page 10-142 shows these
two strokes and their overlap.
10-427 As the piston moves up during the exhaust stroke and the exhaust valve opens,
spent combustion gases are pushed out of the cylinder. As the piston
approaches its highest point, the inlet valve opens and air is blown in. There is
a short period over which both valves remain open and for as long as the inlet
air pressure is higher than the exhaust pressure, air will continue to flow in and
purge the system. In the next stroke, the exhaust valve closes and as the piston
travels downwards, it sucks fresh air in. Inlet valve closes at the lowest piston
point and compression begins.

Gas Exchange Systems Module 10
Figure 11.1
Scavenge Process in a Four-Stroke Engine
10-428 Four-stroke scavenging and charging is very efficient even with high-speed
engines. Valves are typically operated by camshafts which rotate with their
lobes pushing against the valves causing them to open at the appropriate time.
Springs act to return the valves in their closed position when the lobe releases
the valves. However as demands for higher efficiency, speed and power
increase, power output of an engine can be restricted by the ability to allow large
volumes of air/fuel mixture or exhausts through the valve openings at the cor-
rect time. There are several design improvements including enlarging openings,
multiple valves per cylinder etc. All these mechanical improvements have
restrictions and newer developments include engines with computer controlled
valve operation, in an effort to optimise performance over a wide range of
speeds and loads and thus adjusting the valve timing to suit the particular oper-
ating conditions. In certain applications of high performance engines cams have
been totally replaced with pneumatically operated systems where the opening
and closing of the valves is driven by computer controlled compressed air, con-
tinually adjusting to performance conditions requirements.
11.3 SCAVENGING AND CHARGING, SLOW-SPEED, TWO-STROKE ENGINES
10-429 Two-stroke engines are scavenged and charged by the actions of air, with the
assistance of the piston movement. It is therefore essential that air inlet pres-
sure is significantly higher than exhaust gas pressure, otherwise this exchange
cannot happen.

Module 10 Gas Exchange Systems
10-430 There are several ways of supplying scavenge air to large two-stroke diesel
engines:
(a) By direct-driven reciprocating pumps, usually connected to the crosshead

bearing or positive displacement rotary blowers again driven by the engine
itself.
(b) In the case of supercharged engines, by exhaust gas turbochargers alone

or assisted by auxiliary fans.
(c) By turbochargers in parallel with single or multiple reciprocating pumps.
(d) By turbochargers arranged in series with single or multiple reciprocating

pumps.
10-431 The arrangement of the pistons, the cylinder scavenge ports and valves, as well
as the path chosen for the scavenge air, will characterise the particular type of
the two-stroke engine (see Figure 11.2 on page 10-144).
10-432 Loop and cross scavenge engines are the ones in which the piston in the
cylinder alone controls both the exhaust and scavenge ports.
10-433 Uniflow scavenge engines have their piston controlling the scavenge port only,
while exhaust is controlled by a camshaft driven exhaust valve positioned in the
cylinder cover. Figure 11.2 on page 10-144 shows diagrammatically the different
arrangements.
11.4 GAS EXCHANGE PROCESS
10-434 As piston reaches the end of the expansion stroke, the exhaust valve or port is
opened. With the pressure in the cylinder being considerably higher than that
in the exhaust manifold, the result is that exhaust gases will start to flow out by
their own means. When the pressure drops at a level below that of the inlet air
manifold, air scavenge air will begin to flow in thus starting the scavenging
process. Enough time is allowed for scavenge air to clean up the remaining
exhaust combustion gases, before the exhaust port or valve is closed and the
charging air process commences. The volume of air supplied for the process is
therefore in excess of the cylinder volume itself, so that complete removal of
exhaust gases is achieved.
10-435 As soon as the compression stroke commences, scavenge/charge ports are

closed, entrapping the fresh air charge in the cylinder space.
11.5 TURBO-CHARGING
10-436 Most of the marine engines in operation today are pressurised. Turbocharger
units are installed, which are driven by the exhaust gases. At the end of the
expansion stroke exhaust gases are released from the cylinder still containing a
considerable amount of energy which is used to drive a turbine. The turbine itself
drives a blower (or compressor) impeller which provides air under pressure to
the cylinder. The turbine and the blower are an autonomous mechanical unit and

Cross Scavenge Loop Scavenge
Uniflow Scavenge (Exhaust Valve) Loop Scavenge (Opposed Piston)
Figure 11.2
Scavenging Methods in Two-Stroke Engines

are known as a turbocharger. Figure 11.3 shows a turbocharger system, which

also includes the air cooler and Figure 11.4 on page 10-146 shows a water-
cooled turbocharger unit in detail. If a mechanically driven blower is used, the
engine is said to be super-charged.
10-437 When exhaust gases are released from the cylinder, they create a
pressure pulse, a shock wave, which contains a considerable amount of energy.
There are two basic ways of utilising the energy of this pulse. One way is to
direct the pulse, via a narrow exhaust ducting system, to the turbine nozzles,
which will receive it and convert it to mechanical energy. This system is known
as the pulse turbocharging system. The second method is to allow the pulse to
enter into a large exhaust gas receiver and dilute by increasing the pressure
of all the gases contained in the receiver at any time. Gases are then fed from
this receiver to the turbine nozzles at a reasonably constant pressure. This sys-
tem is known as the constant pressure system.
10-438 In order to overcome the turbo lag common to single turbine, newer designs
include a second power turbine positioned next to the first and also mounted on
Figure 11.3
Turbocharge System

Figure 11.4

the common drive shaft that transmits the rotation to the compressor. In effect,
these designs use two turbines to drive one compressor resulting with a
smoother operation. In some cases there is also an auxiliary airflow generator,
such as a blower fan, directing air through the turbine with the aim of supporting
compression when the engine is operating at low speeds.
10-439 Design developments in modern engines with high-efficiency turbochargers

offer surplus capacity at the engine's upper load range when matched for ambi-
ent air intake. About 10% of the engine's exhaust gas flow can therefore be used
to drive a power turbine that is incorporated in the turbo-generator package. This
is a new concept of energy recovery supplementing the traditional method of
using main engine exhaust gases to produce steam via an economiser
which in turn is used for driving a turbo-generator or heat water via an exhaust
gas boiler.
10-440 In the pulse system, arrangements are made so that the exhaust gases from the
cylinders are collected in groups, according to the firing order of the pistons at
given time intervals. They are kept separate in the exhaust manifold and fed to
the turbine nozzles in a programme fashion. The system provides a way for the
pulse from one cylinder not to interfere with the scavenge air supplied to another
cylinder as pressure shocks can damage the engine.
10-441 The selection of the correct system of pressure charging depends mainly on the
ratio of the pressure of the air supplied to the engine by the blower and the
atmospheric pressure. In the case of low-pressure ratios, i.e. below 2.5 times,
pulse systems are employed, which offer higher efficiency in capturing the
energy contained in the pulse. At higher ratios, where the pulses contain a
smaller portion of the total energy available in the exhaust gases, constant
pressure systems are used.
10-442 When the engine is running normally, the air provided by the turbochargers is
sufficient for the scavenging and charging needs. During starting, slow-running
and manoeuvring however, this supply might not be sufficient and therefore
additional electrically or mechanically driven blowers or air pumps are used to
assist in the task of the turbocharger(s).
11.6 TURBOCHARGER DESCRIPTION
10-443 A typical cross-section of a turbocharger is shown in Figure 11.5 on page 148.

The main body consists mainly of three casings:
the gas inlet casing;
the gas outlet casing; and
the compressed air outlet casing.
10-444 The air inlet casing, the fourth compartment, is usually on the side of the main
body and it draws air in via an air filter. Air inlets are sometimes to the deck or
sides of the vessel and connected via ducts to the turbocharger, so that truly
fresh air can be supplied to the engine.

Figure 11.5
10-445 The compressor wheel usually consists of two parts: the main impeller and the
inducer and both are mounted on the shaft. A labyrinth air seal on the back of
the impeller rotor together with grooves in the heat shield, combined, provide
the effective seal between the compressed air outlet casing and the exhaust
gas outlet casing on the turbine side. Seal clearances are important as if too
much compressed air is allowed to escape to the gas outlet side, the efficiency
of the turbocharger will be significantly reduced.

10-446 The shaft on the turbine side carries the turbine impeller and is supported within
both sides of the casing by two ball-and-roller or plain bearings, depending on
their design. These bearings are lubricated by oil from the oil sump, immediately
underneath, with the help of a pump and a closed lubricating system, including
filters and oils coolers. Bearings need regular replacement as per their
manufacturers recommendations. Turbocharger units need regular cleaning as
residues and contamination can affect their operation very seriously.
11.7 CHARGE-AIR COOLING / INTER-COOLING
10-447 The compression of air by the blower creates heating of the air and this heat,
when pressure is released, leads to lower densities of air, i.e. less mass of air in
a given volume. Unless air compression ratios are very small, it becomes
necessary to cool the charge air after it is compressed by the turbocharger and
before it enters the cylinder. There are two benefits arising from this process:
The first is that by cooling, density is increased and more air, i.e. more
oxygen reaches the combustion chamber.
The second benefit is that cooled air acts as a cooling to the metal parts
of the combustion chamber and the engine itself, creating opportunities for
further engine efficiency improvements.
10-448 Charge air is cooled, by passing through banks of tubes with closely knit fins.
Like in the case of a car radiator, cooling water flows through the tubes while the
fins are necessary in order to increase the surface area of contact of passing air
with the tube elements of the cooler. For maximum temperature difference and
thus cooling effect, seawater is usually used as coolant. If not maintained,
these coolers can become blocked and the engine becomes less efficient.
Blocked coolers can be detected by an increase in the pressure difference
across the cooler, me asured with a manometer.

12. FUELS AND FUEL SYSTEMS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
be able to recognise the components of a marine fuel

system; and
know the fuel treatment process prior to use in the engine.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
10-449 Crude oil, when refined, yields a range of products including the various
fractions of fuels used by marine engines. Lighter distillates such as paraffin are
used by gas turbines; gas or diesel oil is used by medium and high-speed diesel
engines and heavy fuels by slow and medium-speed engines.
10-450 Light distillates such as gasoline, paraffin and diesel oil are easy to handle as
they flow readily in normal temperatures. Heavy fuels however are much more
dense and need to be pre-heated in order to be pumped from the fuel storage
tanks, in the double bottom tanks of the vessel, to the settling tank(s) of the
engine room and on to the engine fuel supply system.
10-451 Heating in fuel tanks is achieved by means of steam heating elements pipes
positioned in the tanks through which steam passes and heats up the fuel to
pumpable temperatures.
10-452 Water is a common contaminant of fuels particularly on board vessels. The

presence of globules of water at the outlet of an oil burner may lead to flame
failure, either by interruption of the oil supply or quenching the flame by sudden
evolution of a mass of steam. Prior to being used, fuels on board are treated for
water removal by passing them through a centrifuge.
10-453 Fuel on board vessels is stored in double bottom tanks and is transferred to the
engine room by pumps. Fuel is processed in the engine room and when ready,
it is supplied to the main engine and auxiliary engines. The fuel system of every
vessel consists of two main parts: the fuel supply system and the fuel injection
system, which are discussed in detail towards the end of this chapter.
10-454 Fuel quality is a key factor to machinery performance and it is the responsibility
of the owner/operator of the vessel to assure quality of fuel (and lubricating oils)
otherwise machinery manufacturers warranties can be seriously compromised.
Regular and meticulous use of external laboratory support has been common

Module 10 Fuels and Fuel Systems
practice for many years but the nature of the industry, as it develops, often
makes this impractical. Ultimately the only guarantee of quality is on-board
analysis and this practice has become part of the condition based monitoring
practice, including analysis and investigations for contaminants and ash-forming
metals in bunkers and fuels. There is a good number of suppliers of suitable
equipment for use on board, while the testing and recording of fuel specifications
has become an integral part of the machinery monitoring operation.
12.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
10-455 Physical properties are the fuel characteristics that affect their safe handling,
storage and effective delivery to the combustion chamber of the engine.
Viscosity
10-456 Viscosity is defined as the fuels resistance to flow. The heavier the fuel, the more
viscous it is. Viscosity increases as temperature drops until the fuel solidifies.
Marine heavy fuels unless heated, will solidify in tanks at ambient temperatures
not much below 0C.
10-457 A liquid in laminar flow (i.e. without any transverse mixing) can be considered as
a series of playing cards sliding over one another when the bottom card is
stationary. A certain force is required to produce this motion depending on the
resistance between the layers of liquid (or playing cards, in our analogy).
Absolute viscosity is defined as the force required to move one square metre of
plane surface at the rate of 1 m/s relative to a second plane surface, parallel to
the first and separated 1 metre from it by a layer of liquid. A second viscosity
term, Kinematic viscosity, is defined as the ratio of the absolute (or dynamic)
viscosity to the density of the fuel, the units being m2/s. A stoke (St), which is
the common reference unit of viscosity for fuels, is equal to 0.0001 m2/s.
Kinematic viscosity is now the universal method for determining and reporting
the viscosities of liquid petroleum products, including fuels. 50C is the most
widely used temperature for both measuring and classifying fuels.
10-458 Historically, viscosity was measured in time units (seconds, s) indicating the
time it takes for a given volume of fuel, at a specified temperature, to pass
through an orifice of a given diameter, with only the help of gravity. The most
common instruments for the measurement of viscosity were the Redwood,
Saybolt or Engler viscometers. These empirical methods have effectively
become obsolete but, evidently, the more viscous fuels take more time to
pass through the orifice.
10-459 Since viscosity varies inversely with temperature, knowledge of the

viscosity/temperature characteristics enables the temperature for the required
viscosity to be estimated. Using charts such as Figure 12.1 on page 10-152 and
Figure 12.2 on page 10-153, or other available formulae, these estimates can
be obtained. It is however important to note that all methods are based on aver-
aged data from large numbers of representative fuels and that, because the
characteristics vary, even between fuels of similar viscosity, estimations cannot
be regarded as precise.

Fuels and Fuel Systems Module 10
Figure 12.1
10-460 Figure 12.1 which gives typical viscosity/temperature curves for a range of fuels,
may be used for determining storage and pumping temperatures from a viscos-
ity point of view (see also Pour Point in para 10-458). It can also be used as an
indication of viscosity and temperature ranges for injection and atomisation, with
a lesser degree of accuracy. Figure 12.2 on page 10-153 may provide the closer
identification of the desired temperature for three different injection viscosities. At
the higher nominal viscosities the curves widen into a band that indicates the pos-
sible variations in required temperature, the darker parts of the bands being more

Figure 12.2
Fuel Injection Temperature Selection Chart

commonly appropriate. A degree of experimentation within the band may be nec-

essary to obtain the best combustion.
10-461 In addition to its impact on injectors efficiency, viscosity also affects the
operation of jerk-type injector pumps since this type of pump are lubricated by
the fuel itself.
Density (Relative) or Specific Gravity
10-462 Density (relative) or specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a
given volume of fuel over the weight of the same volume of water, both meas-
ured at the same temperature. It expresses how heavy or light the fuel is com-
pared to water and is a useful parameter for the calculation of the absolute
weight of fuels (bunkers) on board the ship.
Flash Point
10-463 Flash point is defined as the temperature at which a fuel, when heated, will ignite
when in contact with flame. It is indicated as a temperature value in C. There
are usually two different flash points associated with every fuel; the Open Flash
Point referring to atmospheric heating and the Closed Flash Point referring to
heating in a confined environment.
Pour Point and Cloud Point
10-464 Pour point and cloud point expressed in C, the pour point is a temperature
slightly above the temperature at which the fuel just flows under gravity. The
cloud point is the temperature at which wax begins to form in the fuel, risking the
blockage of pipes, filters etc. It is therefore an important property of the fuel as
it dictates the limits of operating temperatures for the whole of the fuel system.
12.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
10-465 Chemical properties are the fuel characteristics that describe its value in terms
of energy content and their ability to release it, and the combustion by-products
effecting the working parts of the engine and the environment.
Calorific Value
10-466 Calorific value is defined as the heat energy of the fuel, which is released in
combustion. It is measured in units of heat energy, calories (cal), by using an
instrument called the bomb calorimeters, where a given quantity of fuel is
burned in controlled conditions and the energy released is measured. There
are two different calorific values used with fuels. The higher calorific value is
the total of the heat energy released from combustion. The lower calorific
value is the real heat energy available through combustion, excluding the
amounts lost in steam production during combustion, which is evidently lost.

Ignition Quality
10-467 Ignition quality is indicated as the time delay between injection and ignition in the
combustion chamber. Its unit is the cetane number, the diesel index and the
calculated cetane index. A short delay is necessary for good controlled com-
bustion and for the oil droplets to mix fully with the air. Higher cetane numbers
indicate better quality fuels. Cetane numbers or diesel indices are very impor-
tant for the correct timing of the engine, the noise and smoke production.
Residual Carbon
10-468 Residual carbon represents the amount of carbon and other residues that are
formed and remain unburned per given quantity of fuel. They are measured
using the Conradson method, where samples of fuel are burned in a controlled
environment and the quantity of residues weighed. Carbon and residues affect
the wear of the engine and reduce its efficiency. Furthermore, they can
contribute to fire hazards and to atmospheric pollution.
Sulphur Content
10-469 Mineral sulphur is contained in crude oils with varying concentrations dependant
on the origins of the crude oil. Sulphur presence accelerates the wear of engines
attacking metal components. When released to the atmosphere as sulphur
dioxide it combines with water to form sulphuric acid, in turn harmful to humans
and the environment. Sulphur content is measured as a percentage (%) by
weight, with maximum permissible limits specified both by engine manufactur-
ers and environmental legislation. Clearly, the lower the sulphur content of a
fuel, the better the quality.
12.4 FUEL OIL TREATMENT ON BOARD
10-470 Fuels require treatment before being introduced to the engine. This involves
storage and heating for the separation of large amounts of water present, filtering
for the removal of solids and centrifuging to finally clean the oil before use.
12.4.1 Separation
10-471 As a first step of the fuel cleaning process, before it is supplied to the engine,
fuels are left in settling tanks over periods of time, where separation by gravity
takes place. This first step is very basic and is meant to remove excessive water,
sludge and sediment. The time necessary for settlement depends on the quan-
tity and type of impurities present, the geometry and physical dimensions of the
tank and the degree of cleaning sophistication that follows. Special settling tanks
are provided on board for the different fuels, their size being proportional to
anticipated fuel consumption. 24 hours is an average good time and in some
cases more than one settling tank is provided. Heavy fuels are normally heated
to 50C during the settling operation.

Figure 12.3
Auto-Klean Filter

Figure 12.4
Coalescer Filter
12.4.2 Filtering
10-472 Mechanical separation of solid contaminants in a fuel can be achieved by means

of filters. Various arrangements are available in fuel oil systems. Usually all
systems have a transfer pump which is protected on the suction side by a filter, pre-
venting large solid particles from damaging the pump. In a distillate fuel system a
coalescer filter is often included and in residual fuel systems hot filters are fitted.
10-473 A typical Auto-Klean suction filter is shown in Figure 12.3 on page 10-156.
It consists of a stack of thin steel annular discs mounted on the central spindle.
A number of guide rods pass through each disc which carry thin steel washers
that separate the discs to provide small clearance through which fuel flows. Thin
cleaning blades project into the space between each pair of discs and are fixed
close to the stack. The disc stack is rotated past the cleaning blades, which push
the dirt out and into the bottom of the filter.
10-474 A typical coalescer filter is shown in Figure 12.4. It is used to remove water and
solid particles from the fuel. A two-stage process takes place in the filter car-
tridge, which is a single replaceable unit. The fuel flows radially outwards
through the cartridge, first through a pleated inner element, then through the
outer coalescer stage. The inner element removes solid particles from the fuel

and protects the outer part of the filter from excessive quantities of contami-
nants. The outer coalescer element is made from inorganic fibres of
predetermined density, causing fine water droplets to agglomerate to such a
size that they fall by gravity to the sump.
10-475 The purpose of a hot filter in the fuel system is to remove particles and impuri-
ties that have entered after separation. They are meant to protect the engine and
are located as close as possible. There are several types of such filters such as
the Moatti type, the Notch type or depth filters and the like, with designs contin-
ually improving as technology advances and new filtering materials are made
available.
12.4.3 Centrifuging
10-476 Centrifuging is the process by which two liquids or a liquid and solids can be
separated.
10-477 The equipment used for this process are known as centrifugal separators. In
turn, separators used for separating two liquids are known as purifiers and those
used for separating solid impurities and small amounts of water from oil, are
known as clarifiers.
10-478 Centrifuging operations can be continuous or non-continuous depending on

design of the separator and its ability to discharge sludge accumulated auto-
matically and without the need of dismantling and manual cleaning.
Clarifier
10-479 The principle of operation of the centrifuge is simple. When a bowl containing
impure fuel is rotated, centrifugal forces will throw any item with density greater
than the fuel oil density (solids and free water) to the periphery of the bowl. The
addition of an inlet and an outlet connection forms a simple clarifier. Rotational
speeds vary according to designs and are of the order of 7,000 to 9,000 rpm
(Figure 12.5 on page 10-159). Efficiency is increased by the inclusion of a num-
ber of discs (up to 150) that increase the surface area and thus help separation.
Discs are separated at a distance of 0.50.6 mm by a series of caulks fixed to
the upper side of the disc. After passing down the central passage, the untreated
oil is carried by centrifugal forces towards the periphery of the bowl and then
passes up through the disc stack. It is here that the actual separation takes place,
in the channel formed between two discs. Two forces act on each solid or liquid
particle. The particle is pushed upwards with the oil stream towards the centre
while the centrifugal force directs it to the periphery. The residual force on denser
particles (impurities) will drive them towards the periphery, while the less dense
particles (oil) will be directed towards the centre of the bowl and raised to the out-
let connection.
Purifier
10-480 When a centrifuge is set up as a purifier, a second outlet pipe is used for
discharging water as shown in Figure 12.6 on page 10-160.

Figure 12.5
Simple Centrifugal Clarifier
10-481 In the fuel oil purifier, the untreated fuel contains a mixture of oil, solids and
water, which the centrifuge separates into three layers. While in operation, a
quantity of oil remains in the bowl to form a complete seal around the underside
of the top disc and, because of the density difference, confines the oil within the
outside diameter of the top disc. As marine fuel oil normally contains a small
quantity of water, it is necessary to prime the bowl each time it is run, otherwise
all the oil will pass over the water outlet side to waste. The water outlet is at
greater radius than that of the fuel. Within the water outlet there is a gravity disc,
which controls the radial position of the fuel/water interface. A set of gravity discs
is supplied with each machine and the optimum size to be fitted depends on the
density of the untreated oil.
10-482 In addition to the density ratio between oil and water, there are other factors that can
influence the position of the interface. These are viscosity, flow rate and variation in

Figure 12.6
Centrifugal Purifier with Correct Interface
density. The optimum position of the interface is between the edge of the disc stack
and the outer diameter of the top disc as shown in Figure 12.6.
10-483 When the fuel centrifuge is operating, particulate matter will accumulate on the
walls of the bowl. If the centrifuge is set as a clarifier, the particulate matter will
be a combination of water and solid material. If it is set as a purifier, the free water
is continuously discharged and, therefore, the particulate matter will consist of
solid material. In older machines it is necessary to stop the centrifuge to manually
clean the bowl and disc stack; however, the majority of machines today can dis-
charge the bowl contents while the centrifuge is still running. The actual method
of discharge, which may be total or partial, depends on the model.
Heavy Fuel Oil Separation
10-484 Changes in refining processes are resulting in heavier density fuels usually
contaminated with fine particles from the catalysts used in cracking crude oils. They
are very abrasive and must be removed before entering the engine. Traditional puri-
fiers have an upper limit of fuel density of 991 kg per cubic metre at 15 C.

Figure 12.7
Fuel Oil Separation Control
10-485 A system of treating fuels with densities up to 1,010 kg per cubic metre is the
ALPAC system (Figure 12.7), where the centrifuge basically operates as a
clarifier. Clean oil continuously discharged from the clean oil outlet and any free
water and separated sludge accumulates at the periphery of the bowl. When the
sludge space fills up, the separated water approaches the disc and traces of
water start to escape with the clean oil. Increased water content in the clean oil
is a sign of reduced separation efficiency. In the ALPAC system changes in the
water content are sensed in the clean oil by the water transducer shown in
Figure 12.7.
10-486 The electrical signals from the transducer are continuously transmitted to and
interpreted by the control unit. When the water content in the clean oil reaches
a specific point, the control unit determines which of the two methods it will
choose to empty the bowl, based on the time elapsed since the last sludge
discharge. This can be through a water drain valve or through the sludge ports
at the periphery of the bowl.
Blenders
10-487 Blenders are used to mix fuels, usually heavy fuels with marine diesel oil, to
create intermediate viscosity oils that can be used by auxiliary diesel engines on
board. This is a cost-effective method for the management of fuel consumption
on board. Mixing must be thorough and should be monitored carefully.

Homogenisers
10-488 Homogenisers are used to create a stable oil/water emulsion that can be burnt
in a boiler or diesel engine. Emulsions produce more efficient combustion and
reduce emissions in the exhaust gas. The application of this process on board
vessels is still limited.
Bacterial Infestation
10-489 Bacteria are present in fuel oils and can grow very rapidly under certain conditions
of higher temperature and water and oxygen presence. Bacteria can cause a
variety of problems ranging from acid and sludge production to corrosion and
staining of metals. Their presence is usually detected by the bad smell of
hydrogen sulphide produced by special testing kits. Treatment will include the
removal of water and thorough cleaning of the system and the use of biocides.
12.5 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS
10-490 A typical fuel supply system for a slow-speed two-stroke engine is shown in
Figure 12.8 on page 10-163. Both heavy fuel and diesel oil are used by
these engines: heavy fuel for continuous operation at sea and diesel oil for
manoeuvring.
10-491 Fuel is stored in the double bottom fuel tanks and is pumped, by the transfer
pumps, to the settling tank for heating. It is then processed by the centrifuges for
cleaning and then pumped to the daily service tank.
10-492 Heavy oil is then fed from the daily service tank to the mixing tank via a three-way
valve. The system provides a flow meter, indicating the fuel consumption at all
times. From the mixing tank fuel is fed to heaters and the viscosity regulator,
under pressure generated by the booster pumps. The viscosity regulator controls
the fuel oil temperature for the correct combustion viscosity. A by-pass is provided
for preheating fuel before the engine is started. A pressure-regulating valve
ensures the constant pressure supply to the fuel pumps. The mixing tank
receives the surplus oil and acts as a reserve tank for the system.
10-493 The fuel is finally delivered to the injectors by means of mechanically engine-
driven fuel pumps.
10-494 A diesel oil daily service tank is provided in the engine room and is connected
to the system via the three-way valve, enabling the supply of any desired mix-
ture of heavy fuel and diesel oil for use by the main engine.
12.6 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
10-495 For efficient combustion to take place, fuel must be supplied to the cylinder at
the right moment, in a correct amount and in a suitable condition.
10-496 Correct timing is achieved by the order delivered to the fuel pumps by the
camshaft. Correct quantity is measured and provided by the fuel pumps while
suitable condition (atomisation) is achieved by the fuel injectors.

Figure 12.8

10-497 There are two common fuel injection systems: the jerk pump system and the
common rail system both relaying in a combination of mechanical and hydraulic
operations.
12.6.1 The Jerk Pump System
10-498 In this system, a separate fuel pump is provided for each cylinder, operated once
per cycle, by a cam follower on the camshaft. Each pumps plunger and barrel
are designed to deliver the required quantity of fuel to satisfy the engines
requirements and can be fine-tuned by means of a regulating mechanism.
10-499 Each cylinder might have one or more injectors supplied by the same fuel pump.
10-500 Injectors contain needle valves, which open when pressurised fuel is delivered
from the fuel pump, and they deliver the fuel in atomised form to the cylinder.
10-501 There are two main designs of fuel pumps:
valve controlled pumps (or variable injection timing pumps); and
helix-type injector pumps.
10-502 The first are used on slow-speed two-stroke engines while the second are used
on medium- and high-speed four-stroke engines.
10-503 Figure 12.9 shows a typical variable injection timing (VIT) pump. The control-
ling mechanism of this system is the governor output shaft and there are two
linkages associated with it. The upper linkage changes the injection timing by
raising or lowering the plunger in relation to the cam. The lower linkage
rotates the pump plunger and the helix and therefore changes the pump
output.
10-504 Figure 12.10 on page 10-166 shows a typical helix-type injection pump. The
cam drives the plunger up or down and, therefore, timing can be adjusted by
raising or lowering the plunger in relation to the cam. The pump has a constant
stroke and, consequently, by screwing or unscrewing the plunger in its
threaded housing, the changing of quantity of fuel supply can be achieved. Fuel
is supplied to the plunger through ports. When the plunger moves down fuel
flows in through the port. When it moves up, it shuts the port, fuel is pressurised
and when the desired pressure is reached, the non-return valve opens to
deliver the fuel to the injector. The plunger can be rotated in the cylinder
enabling the helix edge to move up or down thus increasing or reducing the
amount of fuel supplied. This movement is regulated by the governor or throt-
tle control of the engine.
12.6.2 Common Rail System
10-505 This system incorporates one multi-plunger fuel pump supplying all cylinders.
Figure 12.11 on page 10-167 shows such a system, where fuel is supplied to a
manifold or rail maintained in high-pressure and from there it is supplied to all
injectors (or fuel valves). For every cylinder, between the rail and the injector(s),

Figure 12.9
Variable Injection Timing (VIT) Pump
there is a timing valve determining the timing and the amount of fuel delivery.
Spill valves are connected to the rail to release excess pressure while the
accumulators help dampening pump pressure pulses.
10-506 A timing valve is shown in Figure 12.12 on page 10-167. The valve is operated
by a cam and a lever and when lifted, the high-pressure fuel flows to the injector.
The lever is attached to a sliding rod, which can be adjusted according to fuel
quantity requirements at any moment during the engines operation.

Figure 12.10
Injector Pump with Detail View Showing Ports and Plunger

Figure 12.11
Common Rail Fuel Injection System
Source: Wrtsil Corporation
Figure 12.12
Timing Valve
The greater the injection pressure, the more finely the injection system atomizes
the fuel, thus permitting more efficient combustion and further reducing harmful
emissions. Modern common rail systems use fuel injection pressures up to
1,000 bar but these will certainly be increased as technology develops.
10-507 It is very important to note at this stage the latest developments in fuel injection
systems. Notably the RT Flex Common Rail System which is discussed in this
paragraph.

10-508 The common-rail fuel injection system is not a new concept. It has however only
become practical in recent years through the use of fully-integrated electronic
controls utilising high-performance computers that allow the best use of the flex-
ible option available to common-rail injection systems.
10-509 Traditional camshafts are limited by the fixed timing obtained mechanically by
the cams. Although many slow-speed engines have long had the benefits of
double valve-controlled fuel injection pumps with variable injection timing (VIT),
and a degree of variable exhaust valve timing achieved hydraulically in the VEC
system, the overall variation in timing has nevertheless been quite limited.
10-510 As a replacement of camshafts, electronically-controlled (or more accurately

computer controlled) common-rail systems have been adopted in many new
engines such as the Wrtsil Sulzer RT-flex engines to give complete control of
the timing, rate and pressure of fuel injection and the exhaust valve operation,
allowing patterns of operation which cannot be achieved by purely mechanical
means. In fact, in the case of the RT-flex system engine all functions are fully
programmable to the designers best specifications thus offering huge practical
benefits for the engine users.
10-511 The common-rail concept was adopted also because it has the advantage that
the functions of pumping and injection controls are separated. This, in turn,
allows a straightforward approach to the mechanical and hydraulic aspects of
the design, with a steady generation of fuel oil supply at the desired pressure
ready for injection. The common-rail concept also has the unique advantage that
it allows the fuel injection valves to be individually controlled. Usually there are
three fuel injection valves in each cylinder cover, and in the Wrtsil Sulzer RT-
flex engines they are operated mostly in unison but under certain circumstances
they are operated separately for optimum combustion performance.
10-512 The common-rail concept thus provides an ideal basis for the application of a
fully-integrated electronic control. The combined flexibilities of common rail and
electronic control provide improved low-speed operation, engine acceleration,
balance between cylinders, load control, and longer times between overhauls.
They also ensure better combustion at all operating speeds and loads, giving
benefits in lower fuel consumption, lower exhaust emissions in terms of both
smokeless operation at all operating speeds and less NOX emissions, and also
a cleaner engine internally with less deposits of combustion residues. Engine
diagnostics are built into the system, improving engine monitoring, reliability and
availability. Figure 12.13 on page 10-169.
12.7 Fuel Injectors
10-513 A typical fuel injector such as the one shown in Figure 12.14 on page 10-170
consists of two basic parts:
the nozzle; and
the nozzle holder or body.

Figure 12.13
RT Flex Common Rail System Source: Wrtsil Corporation
10-514 Fuel flows through the body of the injector and out through a passage in nozzle,
to the area around the needle valve. The valve is kept shut by a spring mechanism.
The pressure of the spring and hence the injection pressure can be regulated by
a compression nut that acts on the spring. The needle valve will open when the
fuel pressure exceeds the spring strength. The fuel then passes to the lower
chamber and is forced out through a series of small holes. These holes are
designed to atomise the fuel, i.e. break it into small droplets that can burn easily.
The lift of the needle valve is very important and must not exceed manufacturers
recommendations when the nozzle and valve are reconditioned.
12.8 GOVERNORS
10-515 The governor is the principal device for the control of the engine. It controls the
engines speed under different loads or output power requirements. This is
achieved by the governor that automatically adjusts the engine fuel pump
settings in order to deliver the necessary fuel required under the different engine
load conditions.
10-516 Governors usually contain two systems: a speed sensing mechanism and a
hydraulic unit, which operates on the fuel pumps and changes the engine power
output.

Figure 12.14
Fuel Injector
10-517 A typical mechanical governor assembly is shown in Figure 12.15 on page 10-171.
10-518 A flywheel is used to determine the engine speed with two flyweights fitted to a
plate (or ballhead). As they rotate about a vertical axis, centrifugal forces acting
on them push them outwards. This lifts the vertical spindle and compresses the
spring until equilibrium is reached. By changing the spring compression, engine
set speed may be changed bringing about a new equilibrium position.
10-519 A hydraulic unit is connected to the vertical spindle, which acts on a piston valve,
which, in turn, supplies or drains hydraulic oil from the power piston thus moving
the fuel controls accordingly.
10-520 When the engine speed increases, the spindle rises pulling the piston valve up
and draining oil from the power piston, resulting in movement of the fuel control.
This causes reduction of fuel supply to the engine and therefore slowing down.

Figure 12.15
Mechanical Governor

13. LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATING SYSTEMS
LEARNING OUTCOME
the different properties of lubricating oils and what

treatment is carried out on board ship.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
10-521 Lubricating oils, like fuel oils, are by-products from the crude oil refining process.
Lubricants are used for a wide number of applications with different requirements
and tasks, and therefore specification of properties. The variety of lubricants
available is achieved via blending and the use of additives, which can change
the physical and chemical properties of oils.
10-522 The basic role of lubricants is to prevent metal-to-metal contact of the moving
parts of the engine, thus reducing friction and wear.
10-523 Some of the characteristics of lubricants are similar to fuel oils and are meas-
ured using similar methods. The properties associated with their particular use
are however very important and the improvement of products available in the
market is the subject of continuous research.
10-524 Lubricant consumption reflects the condition of an engine and can be a serious
cost element of its operation. In turn, use of wrong or bad lubricants will result
in serious wear and damage of an engine, with consequent financial losses.
In a marine environment, where presence of both fresh and salt water is in
abundance, the risk of pollution of lubricants with water is real. Regular control
and proper treatment is therefore absolutely necessary for safeguarding the
engines operation and life.
13.2 PROPERTIES OF LUBRICATING OILS AND

THE ROLES OF ADDITIVES
Viscosity
10-525 Viscosity is as relevant to lubricating oils as it is to fuel oils. It is measured by

using the same techniques as with fuel and is expressed in units of stokes. In
the case of lubricating oils, the Viscosity index is also introduced, expressing the
change of the oils viscosity with temperature. Viscosity and surface tension
affect the oils ability to perform its main task of keeping the moving parts of the
engine from coming in contact and causing friction and wear.

Module 10 Lubricants and Lubricating Systems
Surface Tension
10-526 Surface tension of a liquid is important as a measure of its wetability or the way
in which it forms drops and globules on a flat surface.
Total Base Number (TBN)
10-527 Total base number lubricating oils are expected to be able to neutralise acid and
TBN indicates the quantity of alkali (base) available for this purpose. Lubricants
are expected to neutralise any acidic products of combustion and alkaline
additives are used for this purpose.
Carbon Forming Tendency
10-528 Carbon forming tendency reflects the quantity of carbon formed, through breakdown
of the lubricating oil, particularly when exposed to heat. It is expressed as a
percentage (%) and it is measured in a similar way as fuel oils. Increased carbon
residue presence reduces lubricating properties and in certain application can
even cause explosions, e.g. when used as a cooling medium. Carbon is also
present in an engine as a by-product of fuel burning and lubricants with the help
of detergent additives are expected to clear that from metal surfaces and be
held in suspension by dispersing additives.
Acidity
10-529 Acidity, if increased, will cause damage to metal parts in contact, in the way of
corrosion and chemical wastage. It should be monitored and controlled regularly
in order to avoid damage to the engine. Acidity is measured in neutralisation
numbers.
Oxidation Resistance
10-530 Oxidation resistance, measured also in neutralisation numbers, indicates the

degree of oxidisation of the lubricant, which again must not be allowed to
exceed specified ceiling values, as it will cause damage to the engine.
Demulsibility
10-531 Demulsibility indicates the lubricating oils ability to mix with water and release
it when centrifuged which combines well with the tendency of lubricating oil to
form sludge. Good properties are achieved by using demulsifying additives.
Corrosion Inhibition
10-532 Corrosion inhibition expresses the ability of lubricating oils to offer protection to
metal surfaces when water becomes present due to leaks or other reasons.
Lubricating oil is expected to absorb the water present and release it when it
undergoes purification.
13.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LUBRICATING OILS
10-533 There are several types of lubricating oils on board the ship, some of which are
also used in deck and auxiliary equipment. Each group of application usually

Lubricants and Lubricating Systems Module 10
requires different properties and products and it is therefore recommended that

a lubrication plan be produced for the vessel. Marine lubricant suppliers would
usually provide their assistance in this respect.
10-534 Engine room lubricants again vary according to the type of main propulsion
engine(s) and auxiliary generators. Trunk piston engine lubricating oil must lubri-
cate the cylinders and the crankcase. The oil will thus be contaminated from
products of combustion resulting in acidity and carbon formation. In addition to
lubrication, the oil must neutralise the acids and absorb the deposits.
10-535 Slow-speed diesel engines have separate cylinder and crankcase lubrication
systems. The cylinder oil will have to neutralise the acidic products of combustion
and have good detergent properties to keep the metal surfaces clean. Crankcase
oils are either detergent type multi-purpose oils or rust and oxidation inhibitors.
Good demulsification and anti-corrosive properties are therefore required together
with oxidation resistance, which is provided by the inhibited crankcase oil. The
detergent or multi-purpose oil is particularly useful where oil cooling of pistons
occurs or where contamination by combustion products is possible.
13.4 LUBRICATING OIL TREATMENT ON BOARD
10-536 Lubricants are stored in tanks close to the engine room where some form of
settling takes place.
10-537 While travelling through a diesel engine, lubricating oils will become contami-
nated with combustion products, water and metal particles from the wear of the
engine. As in the case of fuels, a centrifuge arranged as a purifier is used to
continuously clean the oil.
10-538 Dirty lubricating oil is drawn from low down in the oil sump or drains tank, is
purified and then returned as clean oil close to the oil pump suction. A by-pass
arrangement saves the cleaning of the whole quantity of lubricating oil continually.
10-539 Water-washing during centrifugation can take place, on the condition that the oil
does not contain water-soluble additives, which would be lost if water-washed.
Water-washing allows the dissolving and removal of acids and assists separation
of solid impurities by wetting them. It also permits the continuous renewal of the
bowl liquid seal.
10-540 Detergent type lubricants are often used for both cleaning and lubricating,
particularly in trunk-type engines and certain slow-speed engines. Detergent
type additives are usually water-soluble and would be lost if water-washed.
10-541 Filtering is also common for lubricating oils as it is for fuel oils. Various types of
filters can be used for the purpose of mechanically removing solid particles
from the lubricant. In addition to normal filters with felt elements, magnetic
strainers are often used in lubricating oil systems, with large permanent
magnets collecting any steel particles circulating with the oil. Fine filters such
as the one shown in Figure 13.1 on page 10-173 are used to clean all the oil
supplied to the engine with the filtering substance being natural or synthetic
fibrous woollen felt or paper.

Figure 13.1
Fine Filter
10-542 An alternative to filters containing a filtering medium to entrap contaminants was

developed originally by Glacier Filter Corp. This centrifugal oil filter is a rotary
sedimentation device using centrifugal force rather than gravity and/or filtering
medium to separate contaminants from the oil, in the same manner as any other
centrifuges. Pressurized oil enters the center of the housing and passes into a
drum rotor free to spin on a bearing and seal. The rotor has two jet nozzles
arranged to direct a stream of oil at the inner housing to rotate the drum. The oil
then slides to the bottom of the housing wall, leaving particulate oil contaminants
stuck to the housing walls. The housing must periodically be cleaned, or the par-
ticles will accumulate to such a thickness as to stop the drum rotating and thus
allowing unfiltered oil to be re-circulated. Figure 13.2 shows a Glacier type cen-
trifugal oil filter.
10-543 As with fuel oils, bacteria can exist in lubricating systems and under certain
conditions can multiply at high rates. They encourage the formation of acids,
sludge metal staining, deposits and corrosion. Presence of water and oxygen at
higher temperatures will accelerate their growth. Test kits are available for detec-

Lubricants and Lubricating Systems Module 10
Figure 13.2
Glacier type centrifugal oil filter
tion of bacteria and biocides can be used for their elimination. Advice from the
lubricants manufacturer is always recommended under such circumstances.
13.5 LUBRICATING SYSTEMS
10-544 The lubrication system provides the supply of lubricating oil to the various
moving components of the engine. Lubricating oils reduce the friction and wear
of the moving parts by creating a thin film of oil between them and thus stopping
them from rubbing directly against each other. Lubricating oil acts also as a
coolant in certain engine designs and although less efficient than water, it offers
certain advantages as it is a simpler and safer system to maintain. By circulating
around the engine, lubricating oil can also act as a cleaning medium for the
engine, collecting solid particles and water present in the various parts of
the engine and depositing them in the filters or releasing them at the centrifuge.
10-545 A simple sketch of a vessels lubricating system is shown in Figure 13.3. Oil is
stored in the engines sump tank under the crankshaft, and is pumped through
strainers and fine filters. Mesh size of filters depends on bearing materials and
clearances and in the case of large engines is of the order of 50 microns.
All systems include two pumps and two sets of filters for safety reasons. Oil is
then cooled by the oil cooler, i.e. a tubular heat exchanger using usually sea-
water as the cooling medium. It then reaches the engine and is distributed to the
various parts via the branch pipes of the oil manifold thus reaching all bearings,
piston cooling, exhaust valve actuators, sprayers etc before returning back to
the sump tank.
10-546 Lubrication might require different pressure at different sections of the engine
and this is provided by local engine driven pumps. A bypass arrangement is
provided allowing lubricating oil to be treated by the centrifuge continually when
the main engine is in operation. As centrifugation requires temperatures of about
80C, for efficient separation and cleaning, it is necessary to heat the oil to that
temperature and therefore a heater is provided locally for this purpose.

Figure 13.3
10-547 The system is fitted with an alarm system giving out a warning to the control
room, in the case of oil level or pressure drops in any part of the lubricating oil
system.

14. COOLING SYSTEMS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
be able to identify the components of marine cooling

systems; and
know the different arrangements for these systems.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
10-548 Diesel engines need to be cooled so that the high temperatures developed by
combustion do not heat up the cylinder, the piston and the cylinder head. Engines
are cooled by water passing through internal channels in the body of the key
components. Cold water is fed in, which comes in contact with the warm engine
steel parts and becomes heated as it travels out. Cooling is essential otherwise
the metal parts that are exposed to the high combustion temperatures will soon
lose their mechanical strength and properties and fail to function. Furthermore,
high temperatures reduce significantly the lubricating abilities of oils causing
damage to engine parts as a result of excessive friction. A significant increase
in heat could also cause metal parts to expand excessively taking up design
clearances and interfering with other components resulting in damage.
10-549 Engines are cooled by fresh water, which in turn is cooled by seawater. The
reason why seawater is not used directly is because it is very corrosive and
would attack the steel parts in contact with it, thus considerably shortening the life
of the engine.
10-550 Sometimes, lubricating oil is used instead of water as a cooling medium for the
engine. Due to its thermal properties, however, lubricating oil is a much less
effective cooling medium and therefore much larger quantities are required to
give the same cooling effect. The reason why lubricating oil is sometimes used
for this cooling task is because in the case of a leak from the cooling system in
the engine, water will not be available to enter into the crankcase, causing
contamination and damage.
10-551 The cooling system of the engine should be allowed to continue running, after
the engine is switched off, so that all metal parts are helped to cool down to
ambient temperature, evenly and without the creation of thermal stresses. The
cooling down procedure, as specified by the engine manufacturers, should be
followed closely, as indeed the pre-heating procedures, which are also managed
via the cooling system.

Module 10 Cooling Systems
10-552 All cooling water circuits include two pumps as a safety feature, each one
separately being able to drive the system alone.
10-553 A central water cooling system is shown in Figure 14.1, incorporating the fresh
and the seawater cooling systems (further description in Section 14.3).
Figure 14.1
Central Cooling System
14.2 FRESH WATER COOLING SYSTEM
10-554 To overcome the disadvantages of the SW open system, a FW closed cooling

system, using fresh water, is used. Only FW passes through the engine pas-
sages, the FW is cooled by SW in a heat exchanger.
10-555 The fresh water is circulated through the engine starting at the bottom, where
the engine is coolest and the water is also coolest (jackets). It circulates verti-
cally to the top where the engine and the water are warmest (cylinder heads). It
is considered desirable to have a temperature differential of only 10C to 20C
across the engine to prevent the build-up of thermal stress.
10-556 There is an expansion tank above the engine. This tank must have a minimum
capacity of 5% to 10% of the engine cooling water by volume. Its purpose is to

Cooling Systems Module 10
Figure 14.2
Fresh Water Cooling System
compensate for the density (and thus, volume) variation in the water due to
increases or decreases in temperature. In addition, make-up water for the cool-
ing system is supplied to the expansion tank.
10-557 With this system two pumps are used and both maybe engine driven.
10-558 One pump circulates sea water from the sea suction strainer through the engine
mounted cooler (also referred to as a heat exchanger).
10-559 The other pump is used to circulate fresh water through the engine water jack-
ets and the heat exchanger.
10-560 A cooling system is designed to operate between specified temperatures which

will vary between engine models and manufacturers. One example engine is a
jacket temperature discharge of 85 C to 90 C, with a 1.03 bar pressure cap in
place on the header tank. The engine can operate intermittently up to a tem-
perature of 96 C. The cooling water high temperature alarm is set at 96 C. See
Figure 14.2.
10-561 In the engine cooling water system a three-way thermostatic valve controls the
engine water temperature.
10-562 The thermostatic valve bypasses the cooler to increase the temperature of the
water entering the engine.
10-563 Bypassing typically occurs during start up and will also occur on a bleed basis
during actual engine running as the fresh water engine outlet temperature
varies.
10-564 There is a manual bypass of the cooler in case the three-way thermostatic valve
fails.

Figure 14.3
Engine Cooling Water System
10-565 It is desirable to maintain an average temperature of approximately 80C in the

engine. This necessitates mixing the bypassed warm water and the remainder,
which is cooled in the heat exchanger before the mixture re-enters the engine.
The water cooler uses sea water for cooling, with high and low water suctions
through a strainer and salt water pump to the fresh water cooler.
10-566 The circuit provides steam heaters of water as well. They are used to pre-heat
the engine, before starting and when it is cold. This is necessary so that all the
metal parts expand evenly to the working conditions. The generator cooling
could be on the same system and therefore the heat from them can be used to
keep the main engine warm when it is not working.
14.2.1 Jacket Cooling Water System
10-567 The jacket cooling system takes care of the cooling of the engine block and the
turbochargers. It is therefore a main feature of every engine afloat or ashore.
10-568 Cold water is fed, with the help of mechanically or electrically driven pumps,
from the heat exchanger to the jackets, cylinder covers and turboblowers. In the
case of a closed system, much like in the case of an ordinary motor car,
it includes a header tank, which allows water expansion and make-up in the
system. Air vents are also connected to the header tank, permitting the release
of air entrapped in the cooling water system.
10-569 The circuit includes a water-warming-up tank, necessary for the pre-heating of
the engine. Steam is usually used for the purpose of heating up this tank and it
is usually part of the fuel heating system, with steam provided by the vessels
main or auxiliary boilers.

14.2.2 Piston Cooling Water System
10-570 Water piston cooling is common to some slow-speed large propulsion engines.
In smaller sized engines, piston cooling is achieved through the circulation of
lubricating oil from the sump tank.
10-571 The piston cooling circuit system is very similar to the jacket cooling system. The
main difference is that the function of the header tank is substituted by a drain
tank. Vents are now connected to higher parts of the machinery space.
10-572 To protect contamination of the cooling system from piston cooling glands, a
separate cooling system is used.
14.2.3 Fresh Cooling Water Treatment
10-573 Water fed in a warm engine can cause corrosion. To limit this effect, zinc anodes
were fitted in the past. Chemical additives, inhibitors, such as nitrite-borates, added
in the fresh water system have now replaced anodes. Their purpose is the creation
of thin film layers (coatings) on the metal surface, which prevent the continuous
direct contact of water. Frequent tests are necessary for the measurement of the
concentration of such additives in the fresh water cooling system, as they are
constantly needed to replace protective layers lost, through turbulent flow and
cavitation effects. Scale formation is also reduced by the use of inhibitors. Inhibitors
are generally classed as safe and dangerous. Inhibitors of the first kind reduce
overall corrosion of the engine without increased attack on unprotected parts.
Inhibitors of the second kind are more effective but when used in insufficient
concentrations may promote accelerated corrosion on the areas left unprotected.
10-574 Water used in fresh water cooling system must ideally be distilled or de-ionised
and if this is not possible, soft or low hardness water should be used.
10-575 Micro-organisms can develop in the fresh water system and therefore the use of
biocides is recommended, as long as they are compatible with the fresh water
generator, if there is one connected in line with the system.
14.3 SEAWATER COOLING SYSTEM
10-576 Seawater is used to cool the fresh water that cools the jackets and pistons, and
the lubricating oil system.
10-577 Common designs will involve three separate heat exchangers (coolers) as
shown in Figure 14.4 on page 10-183 (see Section 14.5). One cooler is used for
cooling the fresh water jacket cooling system, the second for the piston cooling
system and the third for the lubricating system. Most recent designs however,
employ a central cooling system which consists of one big seawater cooler
which cools fresh water that is in turn circulated for the cooling of the three
individual systems. With seawater, in this case, coming in contact with fewer
pieces of equipment, corrosion in considerably reduced.
10-578 There are always two pumps, each capable of operating the system alone, which
suck seawater from via the sea chests and supply the three separate coolers on

Figure 14.4
Sea Water Cooling System
one hand and the charge air cooler on the other, before discharge back to the
sea.
10-579 A typical central cooling system was shown in Figure 14.1 on page 10-179.
Seawater is circulated through the central cooler and discharged back to the
sea. Fresh water system consists of a high and a low temperature system. The
high-temperature system is used for the cooling of the main engine and might
be used as the heating medium of a fresh water evaporator. The low tempera-
ture system is used for cooling the lubricating oil system, the main engine air
coolers and all the auxiliary machinery in the engine room. There is a regulat-
ing valve that controls the mixing of water between the two circuits (high and
low temperature) so that the desired temperatures can be achieved. The regu-
lating valve is in turn controlled by a temperature sensor, while another regu-
lating valve, controlled by a different temperature sensor, regulates the by-pass
of the central coolers.

10-580 The exact flow of seawater, to meet the temperature requirements, can also be
regulated by means of control equipment and regulating valves. This feature is
very useful for vessels that travel frequently to different sea temperature zones
around the world.
14.4 PUMPS
10-581 Water pumps employed in water cooling systems are usually of the centrifugal
type separately driven by electric motors. All systems provide for standby pumps
in the case of failures. It is common practice that standby pumps have other
duties as well. Bilge and ballast pumps may be arranged, in an emergency, to
replace the sea water pump while the general service pump may be replacing
the fresh water pump, if the need arises.
14.5 HEAT EXCHANGERS (COOLERS)
10-582 Tubular type heat exchangers are used in marine applications for both jacket and
lubricating oil cooling, like the one shown in Figure 14.5. They consist of a stack
of thin walled tubes supported by buffer plates within the cylindrical casing and
communicating at the ends via the header boxes. Seawater (the secondary fluid
for this operation) enters from one header box, travels through the tubes and
leaves from the second header box. The primary fluid (fresh water or lubricating
oil) flows through the cylindrical casing over the outside of the tubes giving up
heat to the tubes external walls and through them to the seawater. The header
boxes can be removed and the tube stack withdrawn for periodic cleaning.
The relative pressures are arranged so that if a leak occurred, then the oil would
propagate to the water and not the other way around.
10-583 In addition to tubular type heat exchangers, in section 9.3.4 plate type exchang-
ers were discussed. Plate heat exchangers are another type of heat exchang-
Figure 14.5
Tubular Heat Exchanger

ers, using metal plates to transfer heat between the two different fluids. Given
the large size of the plates that the fluids are exposed to (as opposed to that of
the tubes) plate type designs facilitate the transfer of heat and more importantly
provide the temperature change at a greater speed. Generally speaking they
are suitable for use with low to medium pressure fluids and can compensate
temperature differences as low as 1 C. The plates are usually made of stain-
less steel which is resistive to corrosion and better withstands higher tempera-
ture. The plates are supported in a frame and connected with gaskets at spac-
ing gaps of about 1.5mm.
10-584 The are several advantages associated with this type of design, including com-
pactness, relatively easy manufacturing and high operational efficiency.
Drawbacks include the relatively high drop of pressure on the fluids passing
through them and the risks of leakage associated with the gaskets that join the
plates together. Figure 14.6 shows a basic plate exchanger assembly.
Figure 14.6
Plate Heat Exchanger (Source: UK Exchangers Ltd)

15. STARTING AIR SYSTEMS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
know the arrangements of diesel air-starting systems; and
be able to identify the principal components of a starting

system.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
10-595 Marine diesel engines are started by compressed air being introduced into the
cylinders in a sequence reflecting the desired starting rotation (for clockwise or anti-
clockwise turning of the propeller and ahead or astern movement of the vessel).
Compressed air is stored and supplied from air receivers, which are in turn charged
by air-compressors. The starting air system is crucial to a vessels operation, as it
is responsible for starting both main propulsion and auxiliary engines on board.
Under difficult navigating conditions such as port approaches, the main engine is
required to perform repeated ahead or astern manoeuvres which, in the case of
direct-driven propellers, relies entirely on the ability of the starting air system.
10-596 Starting air systems are complicated and relatively delicate arrangements,
requiring close monitoring and regular maintenance.
15.2 STARTING AIR SYSTEM
10-597 Valves control the admission of starting air to the cylinders. They are operated by a
mechanism timed to open each valve immediately after the top dead centre position
has been passed, and to close it just before the exhaust ports are due to open,
according to the direction of rotation required. When compressed air is supplied to
an engine at rest, it enters those cylinders in which the pistons are in a position
corresponding to some part of the power stroke, causing the engine to rotate. When
sufficient speed has been achieved (usually about 20 rpm), the air supply is cut off
and fuel is injected causing the cylinders to fire and continue to run in a normal way.
10-598 The operation of the air valves can be mechanical via the cams of a camshaft
or pneumatic (servo). In the case of mechanical systems, two cams are provided
on the shaft: one for ahead running and one for astern. With servo systems, a
distributor is used, situated at some convenient point on the engine and driven
at crankshaft speed, supplying pilot air at the appropriate time intervals to the
starting air valves, which in turn admit starting air from the main air supply into
the cylinders.
10-599 A typical servo type air-starting system is shown in Figure 15.1 on page 10-184.
A remote air-starting valve in the starting air line admits air to the air-starting

Module 10 Starting Air Systems
Figure 15.1

Starting Air Systems Module 10
valve of the cylinder only when it is operated automatically by the pilot air. The
pilot air control valve is operated by the starting air lever, either manually or by
a pneumatic cylinder, when a bridge control system is fitted. When this valve is
moved to the ahead or astern position, it admits air simultaneously to the piston
of the remote air-starting valve and to the starting air distributor. The admission
of pilot air to the remote air-starting valve opens the valve to allow compressed
air to be supplied to the starting valves of the cylinders. The distributor, which is
driven from the camshaft, controls the admission of compressed air to the pilot
cylinders of the starting valves. A starting valve is fitted to each cylinder and
each valve is connected to the starting air main. The starting valves are kept
closed by means of springs when the engine is running but during starting, each
one of them is operated by pilot air from the distributor.
15.3 CYLINDER STARTING AIR VALVE
10-600 Every cylinder cover is fitted with a starting air valve (Figure 15.2 on page 10-186).
10-601 The starting air valve permits the introduction of air in the cylinder. It also acts
as a non-return valve to prevent high-pressures from the working cycle in the
cylinder entering into the starting air system. In some cases a separate
non-return valve at each cylinder is incorporated for this purpose. As a further
safeguard against explosion, the starting air supply line to each cylinder
contains a flame trap and the air should be shut off when not required to start
the engine.
15.4 STARTING AIR COMPRESSORS
10-602 There are at least two compressors on board, each one capable of delivering
the total compressed air requirements of the vessel. This is an essential safety
requirement with a further condition that at least one compressor should be
driven by independent means (in the case of a blackout).
10-603 Common compressors such as the one shown in Figure 15.3 on page 10-187,
are usually two-stage, meaning that air is compressed in two steps by two
different pistons, the second being considerably smaller reflecting the reduction
of the air volume that has passed through the first step.
10-604 Compression of air releases heat and therefore compressor cylinder and cover
are cooled by water. Air is also cooled between step one and two by means of
a heat exchanger known as an intercooler. Air is also cooled after the second
compression by a similar heat exchanger, in this case called the aftercooler. Exit
compressed air temperature should never be allowed to exceed 93C and spe-
cial safety mechanisms are provided to ensure that. Air drawn for compression
should be as clean and as dry as possible to avoid contamination and damage
to the compressor itself and the total air system. Filters are provided for the
purpose of collection of volatile solid particles such as dust, while water from
moisture is bled out at different stages of the compressed air circuit. Care should
also be taken in avoiding the introduction of oil into the system, usually drawn in
the form of oil vapours present in the engine room. This is achieved by locating
compressors and their air intake points as far away as possible from operating
diesel engines and other working machinery.

Figure 15.2

Figure 15.3

15.5 INTERCOOLERS (AND AFTERCOOLERS)
10-605 Intercoolers are ordinary tube heat exchangers with cooling water passing through
the tubes and air flowing around. Air contact surface area with the tubes is
maximised by using a large number of smaller diameter tubes. The outside walls
of the intercooler must be as robust as the receivers, in order to withstand the
inside air pressure. An explosion relief disc called the bursting disc is provided,
designed to burst open at a pressure below that of the intercooler fracture pressure,
so that in the case of a pressure build-up, the pressure resulting relief will not
materially affect the unit. Intercoolers must be clean, particularly on the inside of the
tubes where the water flows, otherwise their efficiency is reduced resulting in higher
air temperatures, lubrication problems in the compressor and ultimately risks of
explosion. Figure 15.4 shows a typical intercooler design.
Figure 15.4
Compressor Intercooler
15.6 STARTING AIR RECEIVERS
10-606 Starting air receivers (Figure 15.5 on page 10-189) store compressed air for the
starting of main and auxiliary engines and for supplying air where needed
aboard the vessel. Compressed air is normally stored at a pressure of 30 bars
in two receivers of enough capacity to start the main engine at least 12 times

Figure 15.5
Starting Air Receiver
without recharging. They are made of steel according to strict specifications cov-
ering the quality of material and welding. Pressure relief valves are provided to
allow relief of excessive pressure build-up. Drains are provided at the lowest
point to permit the periodic withdrawal of water that accumulates in compressed
air, as a result of atmospheric moisture. Periodical internal inspection and
cleaning is essential and extreme care should be taken, as dirt or solid particles
permitted to remain inside the receiver, will ultimately find their way and thus
damage the air system. The presence of moisture causes corrosion and special
coatings are applied internally to protect the steel structure. Safety considera-
tions require that two valves should be fitted in all lines connecting the receivers
between themselves or with other parts of the system, which could be under
pressure at any time. This is required in order to minimise the risk of an
unwanted escape of compressed air to areas where maintenance or repair
works are undertaken.
15.7 Health & Safety isues in Starting Air Systems
10-607 There have been several cases of fires in air start systems, but the classic case
involving the m.v. Capetown Castle in 1960 is detailed in MSN 474. As a result
of this particular accident many changes were made regarding the fitting of
safety devices in air start systems.
Copy of MSN 474
MERCHANT SHIPPING NOTICE

MSN 474
EXPLOSIONS IN DIESEL ENGINED VESSELS
Notice to Shipowners, Shipbuilders and Chief Engineers
The court of formal investigation, which inquired into the explosion on the m.v.
Capetown Castle on 17th October 1960 found that the explosion, which led to

serious loss of life, may have occurred owing to an accumulation of oil in the air
starting system of the port engine. An initial explosion led to flame acceleration,
which caused film detonations involving compressor oil in the main air pipelines.
It had apparently been the practice on this vessel to clear choked drains on
starting air pipelines by means of a portable oil pressure pump, using lubricat-
ing oil as the pressure medium. The court pointed out that this practice could
result in oil being forced into the air pipelines.
It is therefore recommended that:
1. Oil force pumps should not be used to clear drains on starting air pipelines.
2. Oil from any source should, as far as practicable and reasonable, be

excluded from air pipelines. In particular, air compressor discharge lines
should be provided with means for effective interception and draining of oil
and water. If necessary, filters or separators should be fitted for this pur-
pose and drains of adequate size and number should be fitted to air pipes,
receivers and other fittings to avoid any accumulation of oil at low points
in the system.
3. Periodic inspections should, where practicable, include examination of air

pipelines to ensure that measures taken are effective.
(MS 7/8/045)
Board of Trade, London, S.E.1.
February, 1963, Reprinted November, 1965
Extract from Lloyds Rules - Part 5, Chapter 2, July 2009
Section 8
Starting arrangements and air compressors
8.1 Dead ship condition starting arrangements
8.1.1 Means are to be provided to ensure that machinery can be brought into
operation from the dead ship condition without external aid.
8.1.2 Dead ship condition for the purpose of 8.1.1 is to be understood to mean
a condition under which the main propulsion plant, boilers and auxiliaries are not
in operation. In restoring propulsion, no stored energy for starting and operating
the propulsion plant is assumed to be available. Additionally, neither the main
source of electrical power nor other essential auxiliaries are assumed to be
available for starting and operating the propulsion plant.
8.1.3 Where the emergency source of power is an emergency generator which

fully complies with the requirements of Pt 6, Ch 2, this generator may be used
for restoring operation of the main propulsion plant, boilers and auxiliaries where
any power supplies necessary for engine operation are also protected to a sim-
ilar level as the starting arrangements.

8.1.4 Where there is no emergency generator installed or an emergency gener-

ator does not comply with Pt 6, Ch 2, the arrangements for bringing main and
auxiliary machinery into operation are to be such that the initial charge of start-
ing air or initial electrical power and any power supplies for engine operation can
be developed on board ship without external aid. If for this purpose an emer-
gency air compressor or an electric generator is required, these units are to be
powered by a hand-starting oil engine or a hand-operated compressor. The
arrangements for bringing main and auxiliary machinery into operation are to
have capacity such that the starting energy and any power supplies for engine
operation are available within 30 minutes of a dead ship condition.
8.1.5 For cargo ships of less than 500 gross tons and which are not required to
comply with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as
amended (SOLAS 74), alternative arrangements to those specified in 8.1.3 or
8.1.4 may be proposed for consideration. Details of the alternative arrange-
ments are to be included in the plans and details required by 1.1.6 and are to
demonstrate that the arrangements provide for starting from the dead ship con-
dition and are in accordance with any applicable statutory requirements of the
National Authority of the country in which the ship is to be registered.
8.2 Air compressors
8.2.1 Two or more air compressors are to be fitted having a total capacity,
together with a topping-up compressor where fitted, capable of charging the air
receivers within 1 hour from atmospheric pressure, to the pressure sufficient for
the number of starts required by 8.3. At least one of the air compressors is to be
independent of the main propulsion unit and the capacity of the main air com-
pressors is to be approximately equally divided between them. The capacity of
an emergency compressor which may be installed to satisfy the requirements of
8.1 is to be ignored.
8.2.2 The compressors are to be so designed that the temperature of the air dis-
charged to the starting air receivers will not substantially exceed 93C in serv-
ice. A small fusible plug or an alarm device operating at 121C is to be provided
on each compressor to give warning of excessive air temperature. The emer-
gency air compressor is excepted from these requirements.
8.2.3 Each compressor is to be fitted with a safety valve so proportioned and

adjusted that the accumulation with the outlet valve closed will not exceed 10
per cent of the maximum working pressure. The casings of the cooling water
spaces are to be fitted with a safety valve or bursting disc so that ample relief
will be provided in the event of the bursting of an air cooler tube. It is recom-
mended that compressors be cooled by fresh water.
8.3 Air receiver capacity
8.3.1 Where the main engine is arranged for air starting the total air receiver
capacity is to be sufficient to provide without replenishment, not less than 12
consecutive starts of the main engine, alternating between ahead and astern if
of the reversible type and not less than six consecutive starts if of the non-
reversible type. At least two air receivers of approximately equal capacity are to
be provided. For scantlings and fittings of air receivers, see Chapter 11.

8.3.2 For multi-engine installations, the number of starts required for each
engine will be specially considered.
7.4 Starting air pipe systems and safety fittings
7.4.1 In designing the compressed air installation, care is to be taken that the
compressor air inlets will be located in an atmosphere reasonably free from oil
vapour or, alternatively, an air duct from outside the machinery space is to be led
to the compressors.
7.4.2 The air discharge pipe from the compressors is to be led direct to the start-
ing air receivers. Provision is to be made for intercepting and draining oil and
water in the air discharge for which purpose a separator or filter is to be fitted in
the discharge pipe between compressors and receivers.
7.4.3 The starting air pipe system from receivers to main and auxiliary engines
is to be entirely separate from the compressor discharge pipe system. Stop
valves on the receivers are to permit slow opening to avoid sudden pressure
rises in the piping system. Valve chests and fittings in the piping system are to
be of ductile material.
7.4.4 Drain valves for removing accumulations of oil and water are to be fitted
on compressors, separators, filters and receivers. In the case of any low-level
pipelines, drain valves are to be fitted to suitably located drain pots or separa-
tors.
7.4.5 The starting air piping system is to be protected against the effects of
explosions by providing an isolating non-return valve or equivalent at the start-
ing air supply to each engine.
7.4.6 In direct reversing engines bursting discs or flame arresters are to be fit-
ted at the starting valves on each cylinder; in non-reversing and auxiliary
engines at least one such device is to be fitted at the supply inlet to the starting
air manifold on each engine. The fitting of bursting discs or flame arresters may
be waived in engines where the cylinder bore does not exceed 230 mm.
7.4.7 Alternative safety arrangements may be submitted for consideration.

16. SHAFTING AND PROPELLERS
LEARNING OUTCOME
the different arrangements for prime shafting and

propellers on marine vessels.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
10-608 The assembly of the equipment needed for the transmission of power from the
engine to the propeller of the vessel is shown on Figure 16.1 on page 10-197. It
is the same system that transfers the thrust from the propeller to the ship, thus
causing it to move.
10-609 The main items of the system are the thrust shaft, the intermediary(s) shaft and
the tail shaft, supported by the thrust block, the intermediary bearings and the
stern tube respectively.
10-610 Seawater is prevented from entering into the engine via a system of seals arranged
around the final housing of the tail shaft, the stern tube, and tail shaft itself.
10-611 Depending on the length of the vessel different configurations can be used. Shaft
diameters vary in accordance with the vessels size and the main engines output.
16.2 SHAFTING
10-612 The thrust shaft is the shaft closest to the engine that goes through the thrust
block and bearing.
10-613 Tail shaft is the last section of the shaft that goes out through the stern tube and
supports the propeller.
10-614 There may be one or more pieces of intermediate shafts between the above two,
depending on the distance between engine and propeller. The ends of the
intermediate shafts are flanged and are joined together by strong bolts. The
diameter of the shaft is larger at the points where they are supported by bearings.
10-615 The tail shaft has one flanged end to join to the next intermediate shaft, and on
the other side is tapered to suit the propeller boss and will be threaded to receive
the nut holding the propeller in place.
10-616 The thrust shaft is flanged on the side that it joins the intermediate shaft and also
flanged on the engine side, this flange however being designed to suit the
engines (or reducing gears) coupling.

Module 10 Shafting and Propellers
Figure 16.1

Shafting and Propellers Module 10
10-617 Transmission shafts are made primarily from forged steel as they are relatively
low cost and suitably strong. As already stated in section 7, It is possible with
modern technology to use carbon fibre if there is a need for weight reduction. It
must be noted however that this option is indeed very high cost and currently the
most likely place to find these is on mega yachts.
16.3 THRUST BLOCK AND BEARING
10-617 The main thrust block is a strong and solid metal construction that transfers the
propeller thrust to the hull of the vessel both under normal operation as well as
under extreme conditions. It is found at the aft side of the engine, after the
gearbox if one exists, and can be a part of it or it can be an independent unit
altogether. The thrust block sits on strong foundations, capable of supporting the
forces that are transferred to the hull by the movement of the propeller.
10-618 The thrust bearing consists of pivoted sections or shoes or pads, placed between
a rotating thrust collar, which is fastened to the thrust shaft section of the propulsion
shaft, and a stationary base ring, which is mounted to the hull of the vessel. As the
propulsion shaft turns the propeller pushes water away from the ship, producing a
thrust on the propulsion shaft. This thrust tends to move the shaft forward. As the
shaft moves forward, the thrust collar contacts the pivoted shoes and transmits the
thrust to the base ring, producing propulsion (see Figure 16.2 on page 10-193).
When the bearing is rotating, a wedge-shaped film of oil forms between the thrust
collar and the individual shoes. This film prevents excessive wear and allows a
much heavier load to be carried by the bearing of a given size, than would other-
wise be possible. Thrust bearings cater for the ahead and astern movement of the
vessel. Thrust casing contains the oil needed for the lubrication of the bearing.
Journal bearings are sometimes fitted at either side of the thrust bearing to protect
shaft from moving vertically to its axis, as thrust is applied.
16.4 SHAFT BEARING
10-619 There are basically two types of shaft bearings. Those that are designed to
support the weight of the shaft from below, along the length from the thrus
bearing to the stern tube, are called intermediary, tunnel or shaft bearings
(Figure 16.3 on page 10-194). They include journal bushes or pivoting pads,
which sit at the bottom part of the casing. The oil that is present in the lower part
of the casing adequately lubricates the pivoting pads. Oil is fed around the
system by an oil-throwing ring, which as it rotates with the shaft, draws the oil
out from the lower part and delivers it to the highest part of the casing.
10-620 The last tunnel bearing before the tail shaft connection to the propeller is called
the aftermost tunnel bearing and unlike the intermediary tunnel bearings, it is
expected to counteract the propeller mass and take a vertical upward thrust as
well as the forward thrust. To perform this task, this type of tunnel bearing needs
to have both a top and a bottom bearing shell, otherwise being quite similar to
the rest of the tunnel bearings.
16.5 STERN TUBE BEARING
10-621 The stern tube bearing is designed to support the weight of the tail shaft and a
good part of the weight of the propeller and also acts as the means of keeping
seawater from entering into the engine room.

Figure 16.2

Figure 16.3

Figure 16.4
Oil Lubricated Sterntube Bearing
10-622 Modern stern tube bearing arrangements operate on oil lubricated systems of white
metal lined bearing. A typical design is shown in Figure 16.4.
10-623 Oil flows under pressure, through special external channels and into internal
passages that fill up, at all times, the available space with oil. Oil flows out from
the ends of the bush and is driven back for cooling by a strong pump. To pre-
vent water leaking into the engine room, the system is joined with a feed tank
located higher up to give a head pressure and the basis of pressure calculation
is the need for the oil pressure to be higher than that of the seawater static pres-
sure, thus always keeping the seawater out.
16.6 STERN TUBE SEALS
10-624 Seals are used on the outboard and inboard ends of the tail shaft to ensure the
prevention of flow of seawater inwards and of stern tube oil outwards. There are
several designs available to perform this function. The most common, for oil
lubricated stern tube systems, are the lip or radial face systems.
10-625 As their name suggests, lip seals are rings with lips closely in contact with the
shaft to prevent unwanted flows of seawater or oil in either direction. It is
common practice to use several lip seals to achieve the desired results.
10-626 Radial face systems involve two corresponding flat surface rings, with minimum
separation between them, secured in place usually by a spring mechanism. One
seal is a flat faced seal and is fixed; the other rotates with the shaft. The propeller
boss secures the rotating face of the after-seal (outboard), while the fixed face
boss (of the forward (inboard) seal) is usually supported by the aft bulkhead.

16.7 PROPELLER
10-627 The basic elements of a propeller are the boss, the central metal block where the
fins (blades) are attached and the blades themselves. There can be any number
of blades in a propeller ranging normally from the minimum of two to as many
as six, or eight. The fins have a helicoidal shape and when they turn they act as
if they are screwing themselves in the mass of seawater. By so doing they
create a force that pushes them forwards or backwards. This push, the thrust, is
transmitted to the vessel itself via the shaft arrangement, and finally, via the thrust
block to the vessel itself. This makes the vessel move in the desired direction.
10-628 Figure 16.5 shows a typical fixed pitch propeller. It is worth observing the various
characteristic measurements, all of which contribute to its ability to move in the
mass of water and create the propulsion of the vessel. Propeller design
and the suitable combination of its various parameters and physical measure-
ments is a highly specialised matter and indeed an art in its own right.
10-629 Propellers are right-handed or left-handed meaning that, if viewed from

behind the vessel when the vessel moves forward, the one that turns clockwise
is called right-handed while the one that turns anti-clockwise, is called a left-
handed propeller.
10-630 In the case where two propellers are fitted on a ship, usually the port propeller
is left-handed and the starboard propeller is right-handed.
10-631 Cavitation occurs when water is stirred-up, and air filled water bubbles are created
and burst, upsetting the uniformity of water as a medium and affecting the
propellers ability to screw into it. Not only thrust is lost, but also, cavitation
causes erosion of the propeller fins and can possibly lead to vibration and noise.
The phenomenon becomes more common with high-speed propellers and limit
conditions of design and operation.
Figure 16.5
Solid Propeller

16.8 PROPELLER MOUNTING
10-632 The propeller is inserted on the matching tapers of the tail shaft and held in
position by means of a nut. A metallic cone is further fitted that secures a laminar
flow of the water away from the propeller. Keys of various designs are some-
times inserted to secure the propeller into position.
10-633 There are hydraulic designs for propeller mounting, sometimes avoiding key
arrangements altogether and relying on high-pressure which pushes the
propeller up the shaft taper, to its desired position. Once the position is reached,
pressure is released and propeller stays in place as positioned.
10-634 In some designs, pilgrim nuts are provided, achieving a predetermined grip of
the propeller to the tail shaft, with the engine torque submitted to the propeller
without stressing the key. The pilgrim nut acts as a threaded hydraulic jack,
screwed into the tail shaft.
10-635 When propeller removal is desired, the pilgrim nut is reversed and with the help
of a withdrawal plate fastened to the propeller boss, the same is achieved.
Figure 16.6 on page 10-204 will help explain the system employed.
16.9 CONTROLLABLE (OR VARIABLE) PITCH PROPELLERS
10-636 Pitch is immediately identified with the angle of the fin or blade in relation to the
propeller boss and shaft. It is the angle with which the propeller screws into
the water mass or using a simple analogy the equivalent of the thread of a
wood screw as it is driven in solid wood. By varying the threads pitch or by
using different screws we can screw in faster per turning of the screwdriver
as long as there is strong enough power to turn it!
10-637 The dead point of pitch would be the point where although the engine is turning,
due to the angle of the blades, the vessel remains in the same position (no
forward or aft thrust created). Depending on whether the propeller is left or right-
handed, by marginally changing the pitch one way or the other, we can just
achieve the forward or backward movement of the vessel.
10-638 This concept led to the design of controllable pitch propellers which permit the
vessel to move forward, stop or move backward, without changing the direction
or speed of main engine, but by merely altering the propeller pitch.
10-639 As with the case of a fixed propeller, a controllable pitch propeller consists of a
boss and blades attached to it. There is an internal mechanism that permits the
blades to move simultaneously through an arc to change the pitch angle and
consequently the pitch. Figure 16.7 on page 10-205 shows a typical arrangement.
10-640 When a pitch change order is received, a valve controlling the low-pressure oil
supplied to the servomotor is activated. The effect is to move the sliding thrust
block assembly to the new desired position, by positioning the valve rod extending
into the propeller hub. This signalling move permits high pressure oil to flow on
either side of the main servo motor cylinder, which is in turn transferred to the pro-
peller blades via the crank pin and ring mechanisms. The consequence is the com-
mon rotation of the propeller blades until their new position counter-balances the
command received by the secondary, low-pressure system. In the case of loss of
power, emergency control of propeller pitch can be achieved manually.

10-641 Control of propellers pitch is operated directly from the vessels bridge and
facilitates enormously the manoeuvrability of the vessel.
Figure 16.6
Pilgrim Nut Operation

Figure 16.7

17. REFRIGERATION, AIR-CONDITIONING
AND VENTILATION
LEARNING OUTCOMES
be able to recognise the principal components of marine

refrigeration;
be able to recognise the principal components of air-

conditioning systems; and
understand the different arrangements of these systems.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
10-642 Refrigeration is the cooling of an object to a temperature below ambient and

maintaining that low temperature. It is necessary for the preservation of provi-
sions and refrigerated cargo but is also used for the cooling of certain systems
that would otherwise overheat. Air-conditioning is the process of treating air in
order to control its temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribution to meet
the requirements of the air-conditioned spaces. Ventilation is the circulation and
cleaning of air in spaces without changing its temperature. All three processes
use components such as ducting and fans and are therefore interrelated
in terms of equipment employed. Furthermore, they are linked by their com-
mon purpose, i.e. the provision of suitable environments for the operation of
machinery, storage of cargo and life of crew on board.
17.2 REFRIGERATION
17.2.1 Refrigeration Cycle
10-643 In order to produce refrigeration, it is necessary to expose the object to be

cooled to a cooler object or environment and allow heat to flow from the object
to be cooled to the colder object. Taking the simple example of a container full
of water placed on top of a block of ice, heat will flow from the water to the ice
and thus the water temperature will drop. However, the lowest temperature
the water will be able to reach is that of ice at which point no more heat will
be transferred because of the lack of temperature difference. It is therefore not
possible to freeze water in this manner; to do so would require the extraction
from the water its latent heat of fusion. Use of ice is therefore not suitable for the
production of ice or for cooling at temperature below 0 C.

Module 10 Refrigeration, Air-conditioning and Ventilation
10-644 In order to achieve these objectives, another method of refrigeration must be

employed. The second law of thermodynamics states that heat cannot by itself
flow from a colder region to a hotter region unless energy is expended. The
expended energy can be either mechanical or thermal and this process is
referred to as the refrigeration cycle.
10-645 In a refrigeration cycle, the working substance (the refrigerant) must alternate
between the cooler and the hotter regions. When the refrigerant is at a temper-
ature below that of the object to be cooled, heat flows from the object to
the refrigerant; when the temperature of the refrigerant is greater than that of
the surrounding atmosphere, heat is given up to the atmosphere. In most refrig-
eration systems this change of temperature in the refrigerant is effected by
the expenditure of mechanical work. The sequence of events in a refrigeration
cycle is therefore exactly reverse to that of the power cycle. A refrigeration cycle
is sometimes called a heat pump because energy is supplied to the cycle in
order to extract heat from a low temperature area and discharge it at a higher
temperature area.
10-646 The most common refrigeration cycle is one in which mechanical work is applied
to cause heat transfer from a low-temperature region to a high-temperature
region. This cycle is known as the vapour-compression refrigeration cycle. In
this cycle the refrigerant undergoes repeated transformations between liquid
and vapour phases. Heat is absorbed by the refrigerant in the low temperature
regions, where the refrigerant changes from liquid to vapour. Here the refrigerant
is at a low-pressure and low temperature, so that there is a temperature difference
between the low-temperature region and the refrigerants saturation temperature.
The refrigerant vapour then undergoes compression, by a compressor, and is
condensed at the high-pressure. In the high-temperature region, the refrigerant
gives up heat to the surrounding atmosphere or to another coolant because of
the temperature difference between the refrigerants high saturation temperature
(at the higher pressure) and the surrounding temperature.
10-647 A typical vapour-compression refrigeration cycle is shown in Figure 17.1 on

page 10-202 together with the corresponding pressure/volume diagram.
Between points 1 and 2, the refrigerant is expanded adiabatically, i.e. without
gain or loss of heat, by the expansion device as it flows from the high-pressure
side to the low-pressure side. The refrigerant is then vaporised and slightly
superheated from point 2 to 3, the latent heat of vaporisation being absorbed
from the low-temperature region. From points 3 to 4 the refrigerant vapour is
compressed back to the high-pressure side by the input of work to the cycle. The
refrigerant is then condensed and slightly sub-cooled from points 4 to 1, the
latent heat of condensation being rejected to the high-temperature region.
17.2.2 Refrigeration System Components
10-648 The basic components of a vapour-compression refrigeration cycle are shown

in Figure 17.2 on page 10-203.
10-649 The major components of the system are the refrigerant, expansion device,
evaporator, compressor, condenser and receiver. A simple system will consist of
one evaporator, one condenser and one compressor as shown in Figure 17.2 on
page 10-203, although systems found on ships may include more than one

Refrigeration, Air-conditioning and Ventilation Module 10
Figure 17.1
Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
evaporator and many include additional compressors and condensers to provide

operational flexibility and reliability.
Refrigerants
10-650 Refrigerants are generally divided between primary and secondary. Primary
refrigerants are the ones employed as working fluid in the vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle. Secondary refrigerants are employed in large installations to
avoid the circulation of expensive primary refrigerants in large quantities. In the
case of an air-conditioning plant, for example, fresh water might be the second-
ary refrigerant. In this section only primary refrigerants are discussed. In the
case of cargoes where the temperature is required to be very low, the brine (very
salty water) is used as a secondary refrigerant.

Figure 17.2
Schematic of a Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
10-651 An ideal refrigerant should have the following properties:
(a) High Latent Heat of Vaporisation
Allowing the refrigerant to absorb a large amount of latent heat from the
low-temperature region and thus maximise the refrigeration effect per unit
of mass circulated.
(b) Non-toxicity
Not presenting itself as a health hazard in case of leaks.
(c) Desirable Saturation Temperatures
The pressures between which the refrigerant operates should result in

saturation temperatures, which provide adequate heat transfer in both the
low and high-temperature regions. The high-pressure should not be too
high as to require heavy construction and low pressure not be so low as
to permit air to enter in the system.
(d) Stability
Should be chemically stable, non-flammable and non-explosive. It should

also be non-corrosive for the plant materials.
(e) Ease of Detection of Leaks
(f) Low Cost and Availability

10-652 Modern refrigerants are fluorinated hydrocarbons of various compositions, with

the exception of Refrigerant 502, which is an azeotropic (fixed boiling point)
mixture of Refrigerant 22 and Refrigerant 115. These are usually referred to as
Freons with a number related to their particular formulation:
Freon-11 is a low-pressure refrigerant requiring large circulation for cooling

effect. Used in air-conditioning, as it requires low power consumption.
Freon-12 was the first to become readily available at low cost but as
evaporation pressures are below atmospheric, in case of a leak it risks
drawing air into the system.
Freon-22 is the most common refrigerant providing a range of low-

temperature operations at evaporator pressures above atmospheric. It
also requires smaller compressors.
Freon-502s are similar to 22 with the additional advantage that compressor

gas delivery temperatures are reduced thus being safer for compressors
and system devices.
10-653 Most modern refrigerants are chloro-fluoro-carbons (CFCs) and have a damaging
effect on the ozone layer and cause global warming through accumulation in the
atmosphere. These refrigerants are now being replaced by new products and are
gradually being phased out. The latest legislation regarding Fluorinated
Greenhouse Gases Regulations 2009 are now in force in the UK, implementing
EU regulations (EC) No 842/2006, Commission Regulations (EC) 1493/2007,
1494/2007, 1497/2007, 1516/2007, 303/2008, 304/2008, 305/2008, 306/2008,
and 307/2008. They concern the prevention of leakage, the recovery and recy-
cling of fluorinated greenhouse gases, their delivery and distribution, the need for
reporting and record keeping, labelling, the instruction provisions for their use and
the certification of various parties responsible for carrying out related activities.
These rules apply to both HFC and HCFC, which follow the phasing out of R22.
Expansion Device
10-654 An expansion device controls the reduction of the refrigerants pressure as the
refrigerant moves from the high-pressure to the low-pressure side of the system.
It also helps control the quantity of refrigerant entering the evaporator, thus
regulating refrigeration capacity. The most common expansion devices are ther-
mostatic expansion valves, devices designed to monitor evaporator temperature
and proportion the rate at which the refrigerant enters the evaporator to maintain
a constant evaporator temperature at varying loads. They are commonly referred
to as regulators and an example is shown in Figure 17.3 on page 10-205.
Evaporator
10-655 The evaporator is an indirect heat exchanger in which the refrigerant absorbs
heat from the substance to be cooled. As the liquid refrigerant leaves the expan-
sion device and enters the evaporator at low-pressure, heat from the substance
being cooled is absorbed by the refrigerant, which is now vaporised.
10-656 There are two main groups of evaporators:
refrigerant to air; and
refrigerant to secondary refrigerant.

Figure 17.3
Thermostatic Expansion Valve (Regulator)
10-657 A simple refrigerant to air assembly would be that of a domestic fridge. The refrig-
erant is expanded in tubes while air is circulated around the tubes with the help of
a fan. Heat passes from the air to the tubes effectively cooling the fridge space and
heating the refrigerant that passes through the tubes. In the case of secondary
refrigerant cooling systems, tube heat exchangers are used to cool the secondary
refrigerant, which then in turn, provides cooling to the desired spaces.
Compressor
10-658 The compressor pumps heat from the low-temperature region to the high-
temperature region and this is achieved by the expenditure of mechanical work.
Having passed through the expansion device and having acquired thermal
energy in the evaporator, the refrigerant enters the compressor as a low-pressure,
low-temperature superheated vapour. It leaves the compressor as a high-
pressure, high-temperature superheated vapour capable of delivering its super-
heat and latent heat of condensation to the high-temperature region.
Compressors also maintain the circulation of the refrigerant in the system.
10-659 Essentially, three types of compressors are used on board vessels for refrigera-
tion purposes:
Centrifugal compressors, very much like centrifugal horizontal pumps, are

rarely used in large refrigeration systems employing Freon-11 or 12.
Reciprocating compressors, such as the one shown in Figure 17.4 on

page 10-206, are the most commonly used types of compressors for air-
conditioning systems, for a wide variety of refrigerants and applications.
With pistons arranged in a V or W form and number of pistons ranging
from 4, 6, 8, 12 or even more, they are very much like air compressors.
For low-temperature applications they can be arranged as two-stage
compressors and some designs permit the interchange between single
and two-stage configuration depending on cooling requirements. Modern
compressors operate at speeds of 1,5002,000 rpm and incorporate
sophisticated features for the prevention of refrigerant leaking out of the
compressor or the ingress of air into the system.

Figure 17.4
Reciprocating Compressor
Screw type compressors are the most common type used in large
installations, such as cargo refrigeration, as they offer some operating
and maintenance advantages. They can be of different designs and
their general working principle is similar to that of screw pumps. Rotary
screw compressors use one or two screws to compress the gas. The
screws are driven through a set of synchronization gears. Gas enters at
the suction side and moves through the threads as the screws rotate.
Clearances between the threads decrease and compress the gas. The
gas exits at the end of the screws. The effectiveness of this mechanism
is dependent on close fitting clearances between the helical rotors and
the chamber for sealing of the compression cavities. J&E Hall
International, a UK company, launched in 1978 its first single screw
compressor known as the HallScrew, later to be followed by a range of
hermetic screw compressors designed for high, medium and low tem-
perature applications and open type compressors designed for refriger-
ation, air conditioning and heat pump applications using R717
(Ammonia), normal refrigerant and many other process gasses.
Condenser
10-660 The condenser is an indirect heat exchanger in which the refrigerant rejects heat
to a cooling medium such as air or water. Shipboard refrigeration systems
usually use seawater as the cooling medium. When the refrigerant vapour
enters the condenser it first rejects its superheat to the cooling medium. When
the refrigerant vapour temperature drops to the saturation temperature for the
existing pressure, the vapour condenses and rejects the latent heat of vapori-
sation absorbed in the evaporator.

Figure 17.5
Condenser
10-661 Condensers are usually heat exchangers of shell and tube type. Figure 17.5 on
page 10-207 shows a typical condenser unit with seawater flowing through the
pipes and refrigerant circulating the shell casing.
Receiver
10-662 The receiver is a temporary storage space and surge tank for the sub-cooled
refrigerant flowing out of the condenser. It also serves as a vapour seal to prevent
vapour from entering the expansion device.
17.3 AIR-CONDITIONING
10-663 The acronym HVAC is often used when describing the essential functions for main-
taining comfort in living spaces. HVAC stands for Heating, Ventilation and Air-
Conditioning; the three closely related fundamental functions for improving living
conditions and therefore the HVAC system is also known as climate control. The
primary use of HVAC is to regulate room temperature, humidity, and air flow, ensur-
ing that such elements remain within their acceptable ranges. Effective control of
these factors minimizes health-related risks. For example, highly humid atmos-
phere impairs the bodys ability to regulate body temperature as it prevents the
evaporation of sweat decreasing physical strength and leading to fatigue. Poorly
ventilated space can affect peoples thinking abilities whilst extreme temperatures
can result, among others, in hypothermia, heat stroke, and hyperpyrexia. Heating
is significant in maintaining adequate room temperature especially during colder
weather conditions. Ventilation is necessary to allow carbon dioxide escape and
oxygen levels to improve, making sure that people are inhaling fresh air. Stagnant
air causes the spreading of sickness, usually airborne, and allergies. Low ventila-
tion often results in high humidity promoting growth of bacteria and fungi. Finally,
the air-conditioning system controls the heat as well as ventilation. In conclusion,
the installation of an appropriate HVAC system is imperative if we want to achieve
maximum comfort and health in living and working environments.

Figure 17.6
Twin-Duct Air-Conditioning System
10-664 An air-conditioning system cools, humidifies or dehumidifies, ventilates and puri-

fies the air it circulates. The heart of an air-conditioning system is a refrigeration
system, which cools and dehumidifies the air. A heating coil (steam or electric)
and a humidification chamber may be required for heating and humidification.
Most of the air in the spaces is re-circulated with only a small portion of fresh air
added to meet consumption requirements.
10-665 Air-conditioning systems are characterised by their ducting arrangements.

Single duct systems are mostly used on cargo vessels with a single pipe
supplying both conditioned air and heated air to crew spaces. Twin-duct sys-
tems used on board passenger vessels, have separate ducting for the provision
of cool dehumidified air and for the provision of cooled and reheated air. The two
are mixed to the required proportions at the delivery point. Figure 17.6 shows a
twin-duct air-conditioning system.
17.4 VENTILATION
10-666 Ventilation is the provision of fresh air through spaces. This is necessary for the
supply of oxygen and the cooling to accommodation, cargo and machinery
spaces. The quantities of air required in different spaces can be considerable
and essential to the vessels operation. Ventilation installations therefore can be
substantial in size and can be costly to install and operate.
10-667 Ventilation is generally distinguished between natural and forced. Natural

ventilation occurs when changes in temperature or air density cause circulation
in a given space. Mechanical or forced ventilation employs fans (usually axial-
flow) for the positive movement of large quantities of air.
10-668 Ventilation is necessary for some types of cargo as it prevents growth of certain
types of bacteria, which would otherwise damage the cargo and in so doing
could cause fires and structural damage to the cargo holds.

18. DECK MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
be able to recognise the equipment used for anchoring,

mooring and cargo operations; and
understand the principles of operating this equipment.
18.1 MOORING WINCHES AND ANCHOR HANDLING EQUIPMENT
18.1.1 Mooring Winches
10-669 Winches are used for handling wires or ropes that fasten the ship to the shore.
They are positioned on the forecastle and poop decks, although modern ships
might have additional units in other areas for the easier handling of the ship
during mooring operations.
10-670 Modern winches are electrically or hydraulically driven. A typical winch is shown
in Figure 18.1 on page 10-216. It consists of six main parts:
the driving motor (electric or hydraulic);
the drum or barrel;
the warp end;
the transmission gear;
the clutch; and
the brake.
10-671 The drum is used for handling wires while the warp end is used for handling
ropes. The two can be used together or separately and this is facilitated by the
clutch, which engages or disengages the required operating part. Once the
operation is completed and the vessel is safely moored, the brake secures wires
or ropes from becoming slack. Modern units however include a self-tensioning
control mechanism for the compensation of wire and rope length requirements
in tidal ports or during loading and discharging when the vessels draught
changes constantly.

Deck Machinery and Equipment Module 10
Figure 18.1

Module 10 Deck Machinery and Equipment
10-672 The driving motor is designed to provide both forward and reverse rotation and
has the ability to operate at various speeds for easier and faster handling of the
vessel.
10-673 Wires and ropes handled by winches need additional fittings in order to achieve
clear runs. These are bollards and fairleads, strategically positioned in various
parts of the deck, through which wires and ropes pass and their direction is
guided.
18.1.2 Windlass
10-674 A windlass is the device used for lowering and hoisting an anchor. It is very similar
in design to a winch although of course its size is bigger due to the weight of the
anchor(s) and chain(s).
10-675 Electrically or hydraulically driven, a modern windlass will provide facilities for
the handling of wires and ropes very much like an ordinary winch.
10-676 One windlass is normally used for both anchors in smaller vessels and two units
for larger vessels. The main windlasses are situated in the forecastle with an
additional unit placed in the poop deck. A typical unit is shown in Figure 18.2.
Like a winch, it consists of:
1. a driving motor;
2. the drum;
Figure 18.2
Windlass

3. the warp end;
4. the transmission gear;
5. the clutch;
6. the brake; and
7. the cable lifter, the part specifically designed to handle anchor chains.
10-677 The cable lifter has shaped snugs, which grip the anchor chain avoiding thus
any slip. Again, the role of the clutches is to enable the various parts of the unit
to work separately or together, while the anchor chain band brake enables the
fastening of the anchor at the required position. Immediately below the cable
lifter is the chain locker where the chain is collected when anchor is hoisted.
10-678 Motor provides forward and reverse rotation at variable speed for easier and
more efficient anchor handling operation.
10-679 In some ship designs, instead of windlass units such as the one shown in
Figure 18.2 on page 10-217, anchor capstans are used instead. These capstans
rotate vertically and usually only the cable lifter is on deck, with the driving motor
being safely located at the deck below, protected from the elements and adverse
weather.
18.2 CARGO HANDLING GEAR
18.2.1 Derricks
10-680 Derricks have dominated cargo handling operations until recently. Singularly
operating or in combination with other derricks (union purchase), derricks con-
sists of a Samson post, the derrick boom, the various wires and the winches
necessary to operate the assembly. A typical arrangement is shown in
Figure 18.3 on page 10-219.
10-681 Derrick lifting capacities vary from 4 or 5 tonnes, in common post war general
cargo vessels, to 15 or 30 tonnes in log/bulk carriers, to hundreds of tonnes in
heavy lifters. The rating of derricks is reduced substantially when in union
purchase rigging.
10-682 Wires are handled by winches, which in modern ships are electrically or
hydraulically driven. They provide forward and reverse operation, usually in
more than one speed, depending on loads and rigging. Winches have a drum end
for the hook wire and may have a warp end for the topping wire. The hook wire
is the one that lifts cargo up or down while the topping wire is the one that moves
the derrick itself up or down. Winches are again provided with brakes, for safety
in the case of a power failure, or for securing the derricks when not in operation.
10-683 Cargo winches suffer from continuous exposure to weather and sea and therefore
need regular and systematic maintenance. They should be protected, using
suitable covers, when not in use.

Figure 18.3
Derrick
18.2.2 Cranes
10-684 Although much more expensive, cranes are now the perfect fit on modern ships
as they offer a much more efficient and speedy handling of cargo. Cranes can
be of various lifting capacities and depending on the vessel layout can be
situated in the middle of the deck, between hatch covers or on one side of the
deck, able to reach along the total width of the vessel. There are various
designs available by different manufacturers, usually along the lines of
10-685 Cranes are easy to operate by one person and can be used for general cargo,
using hooks, or for bulk cargoes, using grabs. They can turn around in a full
circle, very much like shore cranes, with the help of the slewing motor working
on a turntable base. Cargo and jib lifting is achieved by means of the hoisting
and luffing motors. As is the case with all other deck equipment, motors can be
electric or hydraulic.
10-686 The need of proper and systematic maintenance is as important, if not more, to
that of derricks and their winches. Protective covers should be used as much as
possible.

Figure 18.4
Crane

18.3 HATCH COVERS
10-687 A vessels cargo hold can be one large open space capable of receiving bulk
cargoes (single deck, bulk) or can be divided in one or several floor levels for better
transportation of general cargoes, cars, agricultural products etc (tween or multi-
deck vessels). Cargo loading and discharging takes place from the top of the hold,
the hatch opening on the weather deck. In the case of multi-deck ships, there is a
similar hatch opening at every deck level, which when open permits cargo access
to the level below, all the way to the bottom of the hold, the tank top.
10-688 The weather deck hatch cover, when closed should hermetically seal and
protect the cargo from seawater intrusion. The tween or multi-deck covers
simply cover the hatch opening area and must be strong to receive the weight
of cargo loaded on their top.
18.3.1 Weather Deck Hatch Cover
10-689 The old system of weather deck hatch covers can be large pieces of suitable
steel structures (steel pontoons), manually put in position by the vessels gear
and usually covered by tarpaulins for additional protection. Steel pontoons have
replaced their predecessors, the wooden hatch covers. Opening or closing pon-
toon hatch covers is however a lengthy and dangerous operation.
10-690 The modern alternative to pontoons are batteries of steel covers, linked together
by means of chains, which can open and close very quickly and efficiently by
hydraulic means. The most popular design remains the MacGregor Hydraulic
Faulding type hatch covers ((as shown in Figure 18.5 on page 10-222, with
lift-away and rolling types gaining ground in particular ship designs.
(http://www.macgregor-group.com)
10-691 Steel covers have rollers and travel in a rail on the top of the hatch coaming,
when pulled by the chain. When they reach the end of the hatch coaming (fore
or aft of the hatch) they drop vertically and stack one against the other in the
provided area on deck. When closing the hatch, the chain pulls the steel covers
and one after the other, travel on top of the hatch opening, guided by the rollers
in the rails, until they position themselves to form a perfect cover. Water tightness
is achieved by means of a flexible rubber joint which exists around the hatch
coaming opening, where the steel cover sits and they are compressed by means
of manual or hydraulic cleats that lock the covers securely in place. Deck cargo
can be stored on top of the hatch covers according to design specifications.
18.3.2 Tween and Multi-Deck Hatch Cover
10-692 These hatches are closed when loading from bottom to top, to provide additional
loading floor space. Closing can be achieved by manually inserting large pieces of
steel floor, suitably tailored to fill the gap on level with the remaining tween/multi-
deck, using the vessels gear. Alternatively on modern vessels, closing is achieved
by means of hatch cover doors that fold or unfold, by means of hydraulic
mechanisms (Figure 18.6 on page 10-223). There are several designs of internal
hatch covers and related mechanisms, the common features being the upright
stacking of the covers as close to the bulkheads as possible, (or to the sides of the
hold), using hydraulic cylinders and local hydraulic power units and controls.

Figure 18.5

Figure 18.6

19. STEERING GEAR
LEARNING OUTCOMES
know the arrangement for a ships steering equipment; and
understand how it operates and the back up mechanisms.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
10-693 For centuries, ships had been steered by hand. As vessel size increased
however, the need for power steering became evident, leading to invention and
use of numerous steering devices and mechanisms, ranging from auxiliary
steering propellers to water jets and turning propellers. Steam played an impor-
tant role in the early days as means of powering steering.
10-694 Distance transmission of steering signals from the bridge to the rudder also
evolved from chains and gears to shafting and bevel wheels, until the late 1800s
when the hydraulic telemotor was first introduced by A Betts Brown.
10-695 Modern cargo vessels are steered by electrically driven hydraulic power sys-
tems operating directly on the steering gear or by purely electric direct steering.
Smaller craft use rotary hydraulic hand pumps on the bridge, which provide
direct hand steering, being connected to the rudder cylinder.
10-696 Various rules govern the design and operation of steering gear. Below are
extracts from the latest Lloyds Register Rules
Quote
Part 5, Chapter 19 Lloyds Register Rules July 2009

Steering Gear, Section 2, Performance
2.1 General
2.1.1 Unless the main steering gear comprises two or more identical power units,
in accordance with 2.1.4 or 8.1.1, every ship is to be provided with a main steering
gear and an auxiliary steering gear in accordance with the requirements of the
Rules. The main steering gear and the auxiliary steering gear is to be so arranged
that the failure of one of them will not render the other one inoperative.
2.1.2 The main steering gear and rudder stock is to be:
(a) Of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship at maximum ahead
service speed which shall be demonstrated in accordance with 7.2;

Module 10 Steering Gear
(b) Capable of putting the rudder over from 35 on one side to 35 on the other
side with the ship at its deepest seagoing draught and running ahead at
maximum ahead service speed and under the same conditions, from 35
on either side to 30 on the other side in not more than 28 seconds.
(c) Operated by power where necessary to meet the requirements of (b) and
in any case when the Rules excluding strengthening for navigation in ice,
require a rudder stock over 120 mm diameter in way of the tiller; and
(d) So designed that they will not be damaged at maximum astern speed;
however, this design requirement need not be proved by trials at maximum
astern speed and maximum rudder angle.
2.1.3 The auxiliary steering gear is to be:
(a) Of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship at navigable speed
and of being brought speedily into action in an emergency;
(b) Capable of putting the rudder over from 15 on one side to 15 on the other
side in not more than 60 seconds with the ship at its deepest sea-going
draught and running ahead at one half of the maximum ahead service
speed or 7 knots, whichever is the greater; and
(c) Operated by power where necessary to meet the requirements of (b) and
in any case when the Rules, excluding strengthening for navigation in ice,
require a rudder stock over 230 mm diameter in way of the tiller.
2.1.4 Where the main steering gear comprises two or more identical power
units, an auxiliary steering gear need not be fitted, provided that:
(a) In a passenger ship, the main steering gear is capable of operating the
rudder as required by 2.1.2(b) while any one of the power units is out of
operation;
(b) In a cargo ship, the main steering gear is capable of operating the rudder
as required by 2.1.2(b) while operating with all power units;
(c) The main steering gear is arranged so that after a single failure in its pip-
ing system or in one of the power units the defect can be isolated so that
steering capability can be maintained or speedily regained.
2.1.5 Main and auxiliary steering gear power units are to be:
(a) Arranged to re-start automatically when power is restored after power fail-
ure;
(b) Capable of being brought into operation from a position on the navigating
bridge. In the event of a power failure to any one of the steering gear
power units, an audible and visual alarm is to be given on the navigating
bridge;
(c) Arranged so that transfer between units can be readily effected.

Steering Gear Module 10
2.1.6 Where the steering gear is so arranged that more than one power or con-
trol system can be simultaneously operated, the risk of hydraulic locking caused
by a single failure is to be considered.
2.1.7 A means of communication is to be provided between the navigating

bridge and the steering gear compartment.
2.1.8 Steering gear, other than of the hydraulic type, will be accepted provided
the standards are considered equivalent to the requirements of this Section.
2.1.9 Manually operated gears are only acceptable when the operation does not
require an effort exceeding 16 kg under normal conditions.
Unquote
10-697 All modern vessels are equipped with an automatic helmsman, operating either as
an alternative to manual control or as the only controlling unit with a manual override,
in which case an independent electrical system for emergency purposes is required.
10-698 Steering gear systems can be divided into three main parts:
the control equipment;
the power unit; and
the mechanism of transmission of power to the rudder.
10-699 The control equipment transmits the message from the bridge, that the rudder
angle has been ordered to change to a new position and simultaneously it
activates the power unit and the transmission mechanism in response to the
order. The power unit provides the force for turning the rudder to the required
position whilst the transmission mechanism provides the means of achieving the
turning of the rudder to the new position. Control equipment can be hydraulic
(telemotors) or electrical. Power units can also be hydraulic (common) or
electrical (less common).
19.2 ELECTRIC STEERING GEAR
10-700 Electric steering gear are not common on commercial vessels. It might how-
ever be worth mentioning in passing the Ward-Leonard system as shown in
Figure 19.1
10-701 When the helm is turned on the bridge, the rheostat contact is moved and the
system comes out of balance. A voltage thus occurs in the exciter and its field
and in the generator field. The generator then produces power, which turns the
rudder motor and consequently the rudder itself, moving the position of the rud-
der rheostat to the same as the bridge rheostat, balancing the system in this new
position. Once balanced, the system comes to rest, stopping all current flow.
10-702 As with the Ward-Leonard system, a DC motor is coupled through gearing to the
rudder head. The motor is supplied by the ships main supply through contactor
starters. Reversing contacts on the starter permit port and starboard

Figure 19.1
Ward-Leonard System
movements. Motor operates at full speed until stopped by the control system
and therefore the accuracy of operation requires use of a braking system to
bring the rudder to a stop quickly at the desired position.

19.3 HYDRAULIC STEERING GEAR
19.3.1 Control
10-703 Control is achieved by means of a telemotor control system, which consists of a

transmitter, a receiver and the necessary piping and charging unit (Figure 19.2
on page 10-229). The transmitter is located on the bridge and the receiver is
mounted on the steering gear. The charging unit is located near the receiver.
The system is filled with non-freezing hydraulic fluid.
10-704 There are two rams in the transmitter, which move in opposite directions as the
wheel turns. This movement causes the fluid to flow down from one pipe and up
from the other. This flow reaches the receiver and forces the telemotor cylinders
to move. The cylinder unit has a spindle connected to a variable delivery pump,
which is activated and provides the force needed for the turning of the rudder
(the power unit). As the rudder turns, it alters the mechanism and stops the
pump when the rudder is in the desired position.
10-705 The charging unit consists of a tank, a pump and shut-off cocks. The purpose
of the charging unit is to ensure the continuous operating conditions under the
desired pressure, usually about 20 to 30 bar. After the loss of a ship due to failure
of pipework associated with the steering gear, it is now a requirement that ships
carry a fresh charge of oil stored in a separate header tank in the steering flat
and ready to use after an emergency repair at sea.
19.3.2 Power
10-706 Power is provided by means of a variable stroke and delivery pump. There are
several designs available, the main characteristic requirement being the ability
to supply oil from zero to maximum quantity, by means of altering the pump
stroke, as necessary for the steering of the vessel. Most common design is the
Hele-Shaw pump (Figure 19.3 on page 10-230), with a radial cylinder, which
whilst continually operating, can deliver different quantities of hydraulic fluid, in
response to the telemotors demands. This fluid is in turn supplied to the rudder
cylinders, causing the rudder to turn.
19.3.3 Transmission
10-707 Figure 19.4 on page 10-231 shows a typical arrangement of a rudder actuator
unit, in this case, the transmitter of the helm order to the rudder itself.
10-708 The main parts of this assembly are: the two cylinders (A) and (B) which engage
the tiller (C), itself keyed to the rudder stock (D). The variable delivery pump (E),
driven by an electric motor (F). The pump stroke push rod is pinned to the
central point (K) of the floating lever. One end of the floating lever is connected
to the telemotor receiver and moves in response to helm orders, while the other
end (G) is linked to and moves in response to the tiller movements thus forming
the hunting gear.

Figure 19.2
Telemotor Control System

Figure 19.3
Hele-Shaw Pump

Figure 19.4

20. ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
the basic terminology and units of measure that are related

to electrical systems; and
the different electrical systems and equipment used on ships.
20.1 INTRODUCTION
10-709 Electricity and its distribution, is a main component of the successful operation
of modern ships. In order to understand the complexity of electrical systems, it
is essential to examine the fundamental concepts and terminology of electrical the-
ory and then work towards the understanding of ship borne electrical applications.
It is in a way fortunate that on every modern vessel, electrical applications range
from crude electricity production to sophisticated electronic applications and
therefore this knowledge is essential.
10-710 Electricity transports energy. Electric current carries the electrical energy produced
by the generators to the electric motors and other electrical components, where the
energy is expended in doing work or performing other useful functions.
20.2 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
20.2.1 Electric Current
10-711 Defined as the flow of electric charge (electrons) through a conductor or a circuit
per increment of time. The SI unit of measurement of current is called the
ampere (amp) while current is commonly assigned to the symbol (I) or (i).
Current therefore specifies the rate at which electric charges are flowing or, in
other words, the amperage of a circuit is a measure of the number of charged
particles passing a point per second (like water passing through a pipe).
20.2.2 Electromotive Force (EMF)
10-712 Defined as the electric pressure that causes the flow of electric current. Like in
the case of water, there must be a pump to build up water pressure before water
will flow through a pipe. Electric pressure (E) is known as electromotive force

Module 10 Electricity and Electrical Equipment
(emf), potential difference, or voltage (V). Generators and batteries are the most
common sources of voltage. Increased voltage in a circuit increases the capac-
ity for current flow, just like increased pressure on water in a pipe increases
water flow.
20.2.3 Resistance (R)
10-713 An electrical circuits opposition to the flow of current through it. The unit of
measurement of resistance is the ohm ( ).
20.2.4 Conductor
10-714 All materials will conduct electricity, i.e. will permit electric current to flow
through them but at varying resistances. Some materials, like certain metals
(copper, aluminium, iron etc) offer little resistance to current flow and are therefore
called good conductors.
20.2.5 Insulator
10-715 Some materials offer a high resistance to current flow and are called insulators.
Examples are wood, paper, rubber, porcelain and plastics.
10-716 Electric circuits throughout a ship are made of copper wires covered with rubber
or some other good insulator. The wire offers little resistance to current flow and
thus acts as a conductor, while the insulation keeps the current from passing to
the steel structure of the vessel.
10-717 There are two important points to be remembered here: first and foremost is the
fact that insulation materials are generally organic substances and therefore
they gradually deteriorate with time. Secondly, the presence of humidity (and
heat) affects the insulation properties (the dielectric constant) through hydrother-
mal ageing in the case of most materials. It is therefore imperative that insula-
tion of electrical machines and cables is regularly measured using a standard
Megger type insulation tester and data such as temperature and humidity are
recorded. When measurements indicate that insulation resistance is approach-
ing dangerous values then replacement will become necessary.
20.2.6 Direct Current (DC)
10-718 When a current flow is unidirectional and of constant magnitude, it is called

direct current (DC). Batteries, for example, produce only direct current
(Figure 20.1).
20.2.7 Alternating Current (AC)
10-719 In an AC circuit, the magnitude and direction of current flow are periodically
changing. If these changes were plotted, they would describe a sine curve
(Figure 20.2). Starting from zero, the current builds up to a maximum in one

Electricity and Electrical Equipment Module 10
Figure 20.1
Direct Current
Figure 20.2
Alternating Current
direction, then falls back to zero and builds up to a maximum in the other direction,
and then returns to zero ready to start the sequence again. Each such current
sequence is called a cycle. The frequency of an AC circuit is the number of such
cycles per second. The unit of frequency measurement is the hertz (Hz) where
1 Hz 1 cycle/second. Domestic power supply in Europe is 50 Hz while in the
USA is 60 Hz.
20.3 OHMS LAW
10-720 Early last century, G S Ohm proved that a relationship exists between current,
voltage and resistance. This relationship became known as Ohms Law and is
stated as follows:
10-721 The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and
inversely proportional to the circuit resistance.

10-722 This fundamental law of electricity is expressed by the following equation:
V IR
where: V Voltage in Volts

I Current in Amps
R Resistance in ohms
10-723 By definition, Power (P) is the rate at which work is done. In an electrical circuit,
power is expressed as follows:
P I2R VI
where power has the unit of measurement called the watt (W).
20.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
10-724 M Faraday in 1831 showed that an electric current is induced in a conductor if

a bar magnet passes by the conductor. This happens because the motion of the
magnet relative to the conductor causes the magnets magnetic lines of flux to
be cut.
10-725 Performing the experiment of Figure 20.3, when the North Pole of the magnet
enters the coil, the galvanometer (G) registers a current in one direction. If the
magnet is then pulled back, the galvanometer will register a current in the oppo-
site direction. The production of voltage by electromagnetic induction therefore
requires a magnetic field, a conductor and relative motion of the two. Note that
the experiment can be performed in two different ways with identical results.
One way is by holding the conductor stationary while the magnetic field is
moved relative to it. The other way is by holding the magnetic field stationary and
moving the conductor relative to it.
10-726 The voltage developed in the conductor by electromagnetic induction is known

as an induced emf and the resulting current is called induced current. The
induced emf exists only so long as there is relative motion between the conductor
Figure 20.3
Electromagnetic Induction

and the magnetic field. There is a definite relationship between the direction of
flux, the direction of motion of the conductor and the direction of the induced
emf. When two of these directions are known, the third can be determined.
10-727 The magnitude of the induced current can be increased by increasing the
strength of the magnetic field, by increasing the velocity of the motion of
the magnetic field and the conductor relative to each other, or by positioning the
magnetic field and the conductor so that a greater number of magnetic lines of
flux are cut by the conductor. According to Lenzs law, "An induced current is
always in such a direction as to oppose the motion or change causing it". The
law provides a physical interpretation of the choice of sign indicating that the
induced emf and the change in flux have opposite signs.
10-728 Permanent magnets are not the only means by which a magnetic field can be
produced. In fact permanent magnets provide too small a magnetic field to
induce sufficient current for practical applications. The most common of magnetic
field generation is by using an electromagnet (Figure 20.4).
10-729 An electromagnet consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a ferrous metal core.
Direct current is passed through the wire and a magnetic field is produced. The
magnitude of the field (B) is determined by the number of turns of wire (N) and
the magnitude of the direct current (IDC):
B (constant) NIDC
10-730 The machine used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy is called
a generator. A generator comprises the essentials of Faradays Law:
a conductor;
a magnetic field; and
a relative motion.
Figure 20.4
Electromagnet

Figure 20.5
A Simple Generator
10-731 Figure 20.5 shows a generator in its simplest form. A magnet (either permanent or
an electromagnet), a coil of conducting wire that rotates between the distinct poles
of the magnet and brush contacts on the wire coil so that a connection can be
made between the coil and the external circuit. The generator is one of the most
useful and widely employed applications of magnetic induction. It results in the pro-
duction of electric power from mechanical sources provided by different prime
movers such as petrol and diesel engines and water, steam and gas turbines.
20.5 CURRENT GENERATORS
20.5.1 Alternating Current (AC) Generators
10-732 AC generators (or alternators) produce most of the electrical power used on
board vessels.
10-733 Regardless of size, all generators operate on the same basic principle: a magnetic
field cutting through conductors (or conductors passing through a
magnetic field). All generators have two distinct sets of conductors:
a group of conductors in which the output voltage is induced; and
a second group of conductors through which direct current is passed to

produce the electromagnetic field.
10-734 The conductors in which the output voltage is induced are called the armature
windings (armature). The conductors used to produce the electromagnetic field
are called the field windings (field).

Figure 20.6
Revolving-Armature AC Generator
10-735 For voltage to be induced there must be motion of the armature and the field
relative to each other. To provide this motion, generators are constructed of two
major mechanical assemblies: the stator and the rotor. The stator is the stationary
housing of the generator and the rotor rotates inside the stator. The rotor is
driven by a prime mover (a diesel engine for example) and therefore relative
motion between the stator and the rotor is produced.
10-736 There are two variations in the construction of AC generators, the only difference
being the way by which the armature and the field are arranged with respect to
the stator and rotor.
1. Revolving Armature AC Generators
The stator provides a stationary electromagnetic field and the rotor acts as
the armature revolving in the field. The current is transferred out of the
rotor through sliding contacts (slip rings and brushes) as shown in
Figure 20.6. This type of generator is not used very often because of the
requirement to transmit the output power through sliding contacts, which
are subject to sparking and frictional wear, limiting this design to low power
low voltage applications.
2. Revolving Field AC Generators
This is the most common type of generator, with a small direct current,
from a separate generator the exciter passing through the field winding of
the rotor (by means of brushes) to produce an electromagnetic field of fixed
polarity on the rotor. The magnetic lines of flux from this rotating magnetic
field extend outwards from the rotor and cut the armature windings

Figure 20.7
Revolving Field AC Generator
mounted in the surrounding stator. As the rotor turns an alternating current

is induced in the armature, because magnetic fields of alternating polarity
move through the armature winding (Figure 20.7). Output power is eas-
ily taken from the stationary winding connected through fixed terminals.
Slip rings and brushes are used on the rotor to supply the small amounts
of direct current to the field because of the fields low power level.
In order to maintain a constant 50 Hz output frequency from a revolving

field generator, the speed of rotation must be kept constant. A constant
speed governor is used on the prime mover to maintain the rpm of the
rotor (thus the field) at a constant-speed. Voltage output by a constant
speed AC generator can be regulated by controlling the strength of the
rotating electromagnetic field via the exciter, which may be varied by
changing the direct current flow through the field windings. The voltage, in
a revolving field AC generator, is thus regulated by varying the field current
(IDC), allowing a relatively large voltage to be controlled by a much smaller
direct current.
10-737 Generators provide the electrical power needed on board a vessel. Generators
are usually driven by diesel engines although other prime movers are occasionally
used such as the propeller shaft (shaft generators). In order to achieve maximum
output from a given mechanical power, multiple windings are used, the most
common being three arranged with a phase separation of 120, to produce
a three-phase supply as shown in Figure 20.8. Each of the outputs can be
used in single-phase supplies or jointly for three-phase supplies via suitable
connections.

Figure 20.8
Three-Phase Alternator Output
10-738 The power consumed is the product of voltage, current and power factor. The
power factor describes the combined effect of the various load requirements at
any time. Loads can be inductive (motors) or resistance (lights, heating), which
combined produce lagging or leading power factors with a value of less than
one. Loads when applied on AC generators result in a voltage drop, which
can be considerable in the case of lagging power factors. The exciter, whose
task is to maintain output voltage, must therefore adapt to changes both in
current and power factor. This control is exercised by an Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR).
20.5.2 Direct Current Generators
10-739 Direct current generators have a large number of conductors, which rotate in a
magnetic field. The conductors themselves are coils and as rotation takes
place the two sides of several coils pass through the field at the same time gen-
erating current. The magnetic poles of a DC generator are magnetised iron
cores with windings. The residual magnetism of the cores is essential for the
initiation of current production. As the operation commences the small initial
current produced passes through the windings of the poles, increasing the field
and thus the current output. Current is collected at the terminals of the field
windings.
20.6 TRANSFORMERS, RECTIFIERS AND THYRISTORS
10-740 The two most common electrical devices found on board a vessel are
transformers and rectifiers. They can be briefly described as follows:
Transformers
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit

to another by electromagnetic induction, without changing the frequency
but changing its voltage and current. A step-up transformer delivers a
higher voltage than the one received while a step down transformer deliv-
ers a lower voltage than the one received. Transformers do not change

Figure 20.9
Simple Single-Phase Transformer
the electrical energy in the circuit and therefore an increase in voltage

results in a decrease in amperage and vice versa.
Figure 20.9 shows a simple transformer. It consists of two windings, elec-

trically insulated from each other and fixed on the opposite sides of a fer-
romagnetic frame, which is called the core. The prime winding is the one
that receives the energy from an AC source and the secondary winding is
the one that delivers the energy to the load. In a step-up transformer, the
primary winding has fewer turns than the secondary while the opposite
applies to a step down transformer.
Transformers have no moving parts. The secondary winding acts as a

conductor and the current flow through the primary winding acts as the
magnetic field. The missing element from the electromagnetic principle,
the relative motion, is achieved through the continuous change of the
alternating current which constantly reverses the magnetic flux as it moves
from zero to a positive maximum and then back to zero and to a negative
maximum. The absence of this motion element excludes the use of
transformers in direct current circuits.
Rectifiers
A rectifier (or a diode) converts alternating current to direct current. The

basic concept revolves around its ability to present very small resistance
to current flow in one direction (from zero to positive maximum and back
to zero) and very large resistance to current flow in the opposite direction
(from zero to negative maximum and back to zero). The sinus shape curve
of alternating current is thus discontinued and the output current becomes
continuous.

Thyristors
Thyristors are solid state controlled rectifiers and like diodes only conduct
electricity in one direction. They block current when they are reverse
biased and will only conduct when forward biased after a gate signal is
applied. The forward current must fall below a threshold value before con-
duction ceases. Thyristors bridges control rectification which in turn is
used to control DC motor speeds or as frequency converters for induction
motor control. Such converters will simply convert fixed frequency 3-phase
mains into variable frequency, driving induction motors at variable speeds,
with over a 10:1 speed range. Most motor controllers use a DC link con-
verter arrangement with the incoming 3-phase supply rectified to DC which
is then inverted to variable frequency 3-phase. This system of speed con-
trol is used for propulsion motors since modern thyristors can switch
power on the scale of megawatts. As a consequence thyristor valves have
become the heart of high-voltage direct current (HVDC) conversion.
20.7 CURRENT SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
20.7.1 Basic Terms
Fuse
10-741 An electrical protective safety device containing a fusible metal wire, which
melts when the current flowing through it exceeds a predetermined amount. A
13 amp plug fuse, for example, will burn when a current in excess of that value
tries to flow through it and will interrupt the supply of electricity to the connected
electrical appliance.
Circuit Breaker
10-742 A device, like a fuse, that opens or breaks the electrical circuit when the current
flowing through it exceeds a predetermined amount. Unlike fuses that melt and
therefore have to be replaced, circuit breakers may be reset either manually or
electrically.
Switchboard
10-743 A metal box, which contains electrical instruments and devices required for the
control of the production and distribution of electricity. The main switchboard
contains the bus-bars, the large conductors that carry the electricity produced by
the generators to the circuit distribution breakers.
Automatic Bus Transfer (ABT)
10-744 An electrical device that can sense the loss of power from a normal source and,
if power is available from an alternate source, automatically connects to that
source very quickly. A manual bus transfer (MBT) will perform the same task
manually.

Figure 20.10
AC Distribution System
20.7.2 Alternating Current Supply and Distribution
10-745 AC is supplied by three-phase generators (alternators) arranged in a way that

can be paralleled when requirements exceed a single generators capacity. This
exercise requires a certain amount of instrumentation, which is normally located
on the main switchboard. Voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, frequency meters
and synchronising devices are necessary during the paralleling operation, which
requires that the voltage output from both machines are identical and in phase,
before connection is permitted.
10-746 AC distribution is provided by the main switchboard, which receives electrical

power from the generators (Figure 20.10). The usual supply is 440 V, which is
also used to power larger auxiliary machinery. Smaller equipment usually
requires lower voltage, supplied via step down transformers. Wiring can vary
from the more common insulated neutral to the less popular earthed neutral
systems. The system will include fuses and circuit breakers.
20.7.3 Direct Current Supply and Distribution
10-747 DC is supplied, on board, by one or more direct current generators, operating in

parallel. Protective devices are provided on each generator to safeguard against
low voltage, reverse currents etc.
10-748 Direct current is distributed via a switchboard, which contains the necessary
circuit breakers and instrumentation for the control of voltage and current. These
instruments provide the necessary information in the case of paralleling two
generators and sharing the load. Before the two are connected together they
must be producing exactly the same voltage.

20.8 ELECTRIC MOTORS
20.8.1 Direct Current Motors
10-749 Direct current motors operate on exactly the same electromagnetic induction
principle as generators do. In this case, an electromagnetic field is provided,
which produces motion.
10-750 Various designs of direct current motors can provide products with different
characteristics. A shunt motor for example is designed for constant-speed
variable-load applications. Alternatively, a series motor is designed to reduce its
speed if load is increased.
10-751 Direct current motors can be adjusted for speed by changing the voltage supplied
and can be reversed easily by reversing the polarity of the current supplied.
10-752 Motor starters are used to protect damage to the armature when a motor is
switched on. The starter first supplies a smaller quantity of current in the begin-
ning, which is progressively increased as the motor speeds up.
20.8.2 Alternating Current Motors
10-753 Alternating current motors differ in design as the current supplied changes polarity
all the time and therefore the magnetic field produced also changes accordingly.
A different winding of the stator however permits the rotor to follow the changes
in the magnetic field polarity and thus generate continuous motion.
10-754 Alternating current motors are designed for fixed speed operation irrespective
of load. Fixed speed values can change by changing poles. The speed of an
induction motor is proportional to frequency divided by the number of pairs of
poles. Variable speeds can be achieved by electronic methods (by changing
input frequency), if speed control is needed.
10-755 Alternating motors start at about two times the full load torque but draw a starting
current of about six times the normal full load current. The starting of AC motors
is therefore a problem, if the distribution system cannot accept the direct on-line
starting current requirements. The most common way around this problem is a
star-delta start connection, which permits a change of connection to the stator
winding from a star connection on starting to a delta connection from when the
motor has achieved a certain speed. The star connection results in about half of
the line voltage being applied with a consequent reduction in starting current and
starting torque. A rapid change over to delta connection is required at about 75%
of full load speed. This can be done manually using a two-step switch or in the
case of large motors, by auto-transformer starters.
20.9 VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL ACTION / BATTERIES
10-756 Chemical energy is transformed to electrical energy within the cells of a battery.
There are two categories of batteries:

Primary batteries that can produce current immediately on assembly and

are disposed of at the end of their use, and
Secondary batteries that must be charged before use and can be

recharged for further uses.
Equally, there are two types of batteries:
dry-cell; and
wet-cell.
10-757 Typical examples of dry-cell batteries are zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline bat-
teries. Other portable rechargeable batteries include nickel-cadmium (NiCd),
nickel-zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells.
10-758 Typical examples of wet-cell batteries are lead-acid batteries as used in cars.
Because of the liquid content, these batteries have to be kept upright in order to
avoid spillage. An improved type of liquid electrolyte battery is the sealed valve
regulated lead acid (VRLA) battery, popular in the automotive industry as a
replacement for the lead-acid wet cell. A gel-type battery is a VRLA battery with
a jellified electrolyte. The sulphuric acid is mixed with silica fume, which makes
the resulting mass gel-like and almost solid. These batteries do not need to be
kept upright and in addition, virtually eliminate the electrolyte evaporation.
10-759 Batteries store electrical energy and will deliver it when requested. There are
re-chargeable and non-rechargeable dry batteries, while all wet-cell are
rechargeable. Recharging is achieved by forcing an electric current through it in
the direction opposite to that of discharge.
10-760 The most common wet-cell storage battery in use is the lead-acid battery, having
an emf of 2.2 volts per cell. In the fully charged state, the positive plates are lead
peroxide and the negative plates are lead immersed in a diluted sulphuric
acid electrolyte. Figure 20.11 shows a typical wet-cell battery.
10-761 When a circuit is formed, the chemical action between the ionised electrolyte
and dissimilar metal plates converts chemical energy to electrical energy. As the
storage battery discharges, the sulphuric acid is depleted by being gradually
converted to water, and both positive and negative plates are converted to lead
sulphate. This chemical reaction is represented by the following equation, the
reversibility of which depends on the addition of electrical energy during
the charging cycle.
Discharging
Pb PbO2 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 2H2O
Charging
10-762 An alternative type of battery commonly found on ships is the alkaline battery,
which uses nickel hydroxide as positive plate and a cadmium and iron negative
plate immersed in a solution of potassium hydroxide. The chemical principle is
the same as in the lead-acid batteries and the choice between the two is a function
of size, life and cost.

Figure 20.11
Wet-Cell Battery
10-763 Batteries produce direct current. The capacity of batteries is measured in

ampere-hours (amphr). The capacity is equal to the product of the current (in
amps) and the time (in hours) during which the battery supplies this current to a
given load. The capacity depends on many factors such as:
(a) the area of the plates in contact with the electrolyte;
(b) the quantity and specific gravity of the electrolyte;
(c) the general condition of the battery; and
(d) the final limiting voltage.
10-764 Batteries must be fully charged and operational in the case of an emergency
need. There are three methods of charging:
(a) constant current;
(b) constant voltage; and
(c) trickle charging.
10-765 Trickle charging maintains the battery fully charged all the time and is achieved
by the supply of a low current to the battery at all times. The state of charge of
a battery can be measured by using a hydrometer, a device designed to measure
the specific gravity of liquids, in this case of the electrolyte. As part of battery
maintenance, the level of the electrolyte should be checked and restored, using
de-ionised water. Batteries should be kept clean and poles should be protected
from corrosion.

20.10 EMERGENCY GENERATOR
10-766 Emergency electricity supply is required, in the case of main generator failure,
for the supply of essential services such as emergency pumps, steering gear,
alarms, navigational lights, emergency lights, communication and fire fighting
equipment and so on.
10-767 This is provided by an emergency generator set, located away from the engine
room, with its own separate switchboard and usually fitted with an automatic
start-up system, when the main power voltage drops.
20.11 NAVIGATIONAL LIGHTS
10-768 Because of the importance of the navigational lights for the safety of the vessel,
special electrical provisions are made. The navigational lights switchboard is
separate and able to be immediately connected to an emergency power supply
such as the batteries and/or the emergency generator via a change over switch.
A typical circuit is shown in Figure 20.12.
10-769 The circuit includes two parallel supply lines activated through double pole
switches, in the case of wiring or failure from switchboard to light connection.
20.12 INSULATION
10-770 Good insulation is essential for the correct and safe operation of electrical equip-
ment.
Figure 20.12
Navigation Lights Circuit

10-771 Insulating materials are classified according to the maximum temperature for
which they can be used safely. Marine equipment normally use Class A (55 C),
Class E (70 C) and Class B (80 C).
10-772 Insulation properties might change with time or external conditions. It is therefore
important that insulation resistance is measured regularly and if necessary
corrective actions are taken. Dirt can reduce insulation resistance and cause
leakage of current (known as tracking) and it is essential that equipment must
be maintained clean.
10-773 A device commonly known as a Megger Tester is used for the measurement of
insulation resistance. The readings give an indication of the insulations integrity.
20.13 ELECTRICAL SAFETY
10-774 The human body conducts electricity particularly when the skin is wet as a result
of humidity, perspiration etc. The effect of a severe electric shock can be a cardiac
arrest, which unless it is dealt with immediately will lead to death. A person
suffering from an electric shock must first be removed from contact with
electricity either by cutting off power supply or by physical removal away from
the source. The second should be done with great care and by using insulated
means to pull the person away.
10-775 It is essential that all electric circuits, installations and equipment are treated as
potentially dangerous and are isolated, breakers locked and the circuit tested
before work on it commences. Insulated tools should be used and the general
precautions for working with electricity should always be observed.

21. BRIDGE CONTROLS AND EMERGENCY
SYSTEMS
LEARNING OUTCOME
the general outline of the different control systems found

on ships.
21.1 INTRODUCTION
10-776 The existence of so much working equipment and systems on board, and the
need for continuous monitoring and adjustment of their performance, creates in
turn the need for an automatic system for gathering and analysing the vital
information required. The concept of total control has thus developed on
board, not only for the purpose of dealing with emergencies, but indeed for
improving efficiency of operation and for providing necessary records of machin-
ery operation and behaviour, for maintenance and overhauling purposes.
10-777 The evolution of electronic instrumentation and information processing device

enables the provision on board modern ships of integrated control systems,
capable of combining all available data previously monitored separately. Data
from the bridge system, the cargo control system, the machinery control system
and the ship management system are gathered together, analysed and remedial
action, if necessary, is taken automatically or manually. The data recorded can
be stored in electronic form and transmitted back ashore, via satellite communi-
cation systems, for further analysis by shore-based staff.
10-778 The control centre on board does not have to be the bridge. A computer
network can receive and distribute information in any way possible and there-
fore the modern control centre can be anywhere aboard or ashore. Without
underestimating the human element, such control systems permit double
checking routines and thus eliminate errors of judgment or negligence, them-
selves responsible for the majority of marine casualties. Improvements in this
direction ultimately favour safety of life, ship and cargo, not to mention the
equally important beneficial effect to the environment.
10-779 Automation also means financial savings from vessels operation.
21.2 UNATTENDED MACHINERY SPACES (UMS)
10-780 Reliability of modern equipment and control systems permits machinery spaces
to be left unattended for long periods of time. This in effect means that through

Bridge Controls and Emergency Systems Module 10
this form of automation, watch-keeping and engine crew needs are reduced and
therefore vessels operating costs are also reduced.
10-781 For a vessel to be classed as UMS, certain key requirements must be met:
(a) Machinery Control Room
The vessel must have a central machinery control room, from where all
main and auxiliary machinery and equipment can be operated.
(b) Bridge Control
Main machinery must be capable of being operated from the bridge with
sufficient controls and instrumentation providing essential information on
operating conditions.
(c) Emergency Power
Automation of a stand-by or the emergency power generators start-up

should be provided, for the case of sudden loss of power, for providing
electricity to navigational lights, instruments etc.
(d) Alarm System
The alarm system must cover in every respect all equipment and be able
to trigger warnings in the engine room, the machinery control room, the
bridge and the accommodation areas. It should be noted that there could
be as many as 15,000 alarms on the latest modern cruise ships.
(e) Fire Protection System
A fire detection and alarm system is necessary for the whole of the engine
room and machinery spaces, with reliable detection devices and rapid
response characteristics. A fire control point outside the engine room must
be provided, from where all emergency equipment can be operated.
21.3 BRIDGE CONTROLS
10-782 The principal control systems on the bridge are:
(a) Steering Control
Steering is controlled from the bridge, either manually or via the autopilot. A
typical automatic steering system is shown in Figure 21.1 on page 10-251.
When change of course is desired, the signal will pass from the autopilot
(controller) or the helm, via the telemotor system, to the amplifier, which
will feed oil to the steering gear and turn the rudder. Once it has reached
the desired position, the feed back oil pressure from the rudder will
balance with that of the amplifier and rudder movement will stop. When a
vessel is sailing, its course can change by the forces of the winds and the
sea. The ships compass continually feeds the autopilot with information
on the ships actual course. If this differs from the desired course, the

Module 10 Bridge Controls and Emergency Systems
Figure 21.1

Figure 21.2

autopilot will signal, via the telemotors, the amplifier to turn the rudder and
thus adjust the course.
(b) Controllable Pitch Propeller Control
Controllable pitch propellers are controlled from the bridge by systems

such as the one shown in Figure 21.2 on page 10-252.
Engine speed and propeller pitch are controlled by a combinator, i.e. a

single lever on the bridge console. The signal from the bridge is transmit-
ted, via the selector, to the propeller actuator and the governor, the first
being responsible for adjusting the pitch angle and the second, the engine
speed. A separate unit, the load control unit, is incorporated in the system
and its task is to ensure a constant load on the engine as sea conditions
change. It reads the fuel pump setting and the engine speed and signals
adjustment of propeller pitch thus constant load is achieved. Readings of
engine speed and propeller pitch will be signalled to instruments both in
the machine control room and the bridge.
A significant advantage of a controllable pitch propeller arrangement arises

from the fact that during normal operation the engine and shaft turn at a
constant speed. This in turn invites the incorporation of a shaft driven elec-
tricity generator (otherwise known as a Power Take Off (PTO) alternator)
which, in many instances, can supply an adequate supply of electricity for
the vessels needs while at sea, with significant cost savings in diesel fuel
and main / auxiliary generator operating costs and maintenance.
(c) Main Engine Control
A simple bridge control system for a slow-speed main engine is shown in

Engine can be controlled from either the machinery room control or the
bridge control via a timing-programming unit. This unit also processes
the safety checks and will automatically take corrective action if necessary
by, for example, cutting off the main engine, if a fault has occurred. When
starting the engine from the bridge, the approved signal will then be
transmitted to the engines camshaft positioning mechanism to ensure
correct direction. The signal will then be transmitted to a device, which will
arrange the supply of starting air. Another signal will instruct the governor
to supply fuel to the pistons and, once the engine starts, starting air will be
cut off automatically. Engine speed, as controlled by the governor and set
by the controls on the bridge, will be recorded and fed to speedometers on
the bridge and the machinery control room.
(d) Navigational Equipment Control
A bridge is equipped with vital equipment such as an ARPA system

(Automatic Radar Plotting Aid), an autopilot, a gyro, an electronic chart
system, an echo sounder etc, all of which provide essential navigational
information. Electronic information gathered from these instruments can
be fed to the integrated control system of the vessel and be processed and
recorded, in connection with information received from the other systems
(machinery control, cargo control etc).

Figure 21.3

21.4 DIESEL MACHINERY CONTROLS
10-783 The basic control systems required for the safe operation of diesel engines
require the monitoring and control of cooling water and oil temperatures. Only
the main systems are covered by this paragraph, which include the lubricating
oil cooling system, the fuel valve water cooling system and the jacket water
cooling system.
21.4.1 Lubricating Oil Cooling System
10-784 As shown in Figure 21.4, a local controller accepts the temperature reading
directly and provides a signal, via a solenoid, to the control valve regulating the
seawater flow through the cooler. The system can be operated both automatically
and manually, in direct connection with the machinery control room.
21.4.2 Fuel Valve Water Cooling System
10-785 Older designs included Fuel Valve Water Cooling Systems. The system employs
a split range valve actuator that can effect cooling under normal operation or,
during start-up, provide the heating necessary to bring the engine up to desired
temperature.
Figure 21.4
Lubricating Oil Cooling System

Figure 21.5
Jacket Water Cooling System Outlet Temperature Control
21.4.3 Jacket Water Cooling System
10-786 Figure 21.5 shows a typical arrangement of a jacket water cooling system. During
normal operation at sea, one controller is sufficient to perform the duties. In har-
bour manoeuvring however, a single unit is not able to cope with the systems
thermal inertia and a slave system is used. Temperature readings from the
engine are constantly fed to the controller, which resets the desired value of the
cooler outlet temperature slave controller.

21.5 ELECTRICAL SUPPLY CONTROLS
10-787 Electrical supply control system ensures the continuous supply of power to meet
the varying load demands.
10-788 Demand is measured at all times and depending on its volume, generators are
started up, synchronised and loaded on the system and load is shared between
them. When demand drops, the control system will automatically unload, stop
and return to standby the extra generators. While in operation, the control
system performs safety and operation tests on power supplied and on the
operating equipment and will trigger corrective action and/or alarms, as the case
may be. If for example, a generator fails to start, the control system will trip-off
non-essential loads and trigger an alarm. If finally the power system fails alto-
gether, it will automatically start the emergency generator supplying the vital
service needs.

22. SAFETY AND OPERATION OF
DIESEL ENGINES
LEARNING OUTCOME
the more severe problems that may occur during the

operation of marine diesel engines.
22.1 INTRODUCTION
10-789 Main propulsion engines of merchant ships are expected to run uninterruptedly
for days or weeks. It is therefore imperative that routine procedures are followed
closely by all members of crew and that the operating parameters together with
deviations or faults are entered in the engine log book. These records will
help establish the true history of the engine and will assist enormously in both
routine maintenance and special repair requirements. Records prove vital in
the case of manufacturer guarantee and/or machinery claims. Both crew and
surveyors must be familiar with these procedures, the latter in particular when
preparing or investigating machinery claims.
22.2 NORMAL OPERATING PROCEDURES
10-790 Common operating procedures for the main engine include the preparation for
starting the engine, and when the vessel is not fitted with controllable pitch pro-
peller or reversing gearboxes, the reversing of the main engine. For all practical
purposes, these procedures are common to both slow and medium-speed
engines.
10-791 All these procedures are described in a general sense and reference should
always be made to the engine manufacturers operating manual and instructions.
Preparing to Start Main Engine (Standby)
1. Engines need to be warmed-up before starting. This allows the various parts
to expand evenly and in relation to each other. Warm water has to be
circulated via the engine cooling system until the specified temperature is
reached. Warming up procedure can take considerable time particularly if
the engine has remained idle for long periods in adverse weather conditions.
2. Filters, fuel and lubricating oil tanks, valves and drains must be checked
and confirmed to be in working orderand any water should be drained from
the service tanks.

Module 10 Safety and Operation of Diesel Engines
3. Cooling water pumps and lubricating oil pumps must be started and
confirmed to be in good operating order, by checking the flow through
return pipes, and/or circulating pressures in the system.
4. Control and alarm systems must be checked and confirmed to be in good

working order.
5. As water might have accumulated in the cylinders, it is necessary to turn

the engine a few times to make sure that it escapes through the indicator
cocks.
6. Fuel tanks must be brought to operating temperature and fuel system

must be pre-heated by introducing warm fuel through it Fuel tanks contain
heating coils for the purpose of raising the temperature to the point where
the viscosity will allow it to be handled easily by the fuel transfer pumps.
This applies to heavy fuel as well as some grades of distillate fuels which
have low cloud points. As fuel is pumped into the fuel system it will be
further heated to the desired temperature in order to avoid the risk of
clogging the fuel injectors. Particular attention should be paid when the
engine is switched from diesel to heavy fuel or any combination thereof.
7. Auxiliary scavenge blowers started (where fitted).
8. Air-starting system tested.
9. Control air checked and up to pressure.
10. On slow-speed, two-stroke engines, the CYLINDER LO pumps should be

operated by hand.
11. The main engine should be turned, on air with the fuel shut off and the
indicator cocks open.
12. Shut indicator cocks.
Starting Main Engine
1. Telegraph direction handle is moved to ahead or astern position. This will

direct the camshaft in the correct corresponding position of operation of
valves and fuel injection for the desired ahead or astern movement of the
vessel.
2. Manoeuvring handle is moved to start, enabling the admission of starting

air to the cylinders.
3. Engine will start to turn gradually reaching the firing speed. Starting airflow
is stopped.
4. Fuel enters the cylinders and engine starts.
Reversing Main Engine
1. Auxiliary scavenge blowers start (if fitted).

Safety and Operation of Diesel Engines Module 10
2. Fuel supply is shut off, for engine to stop.
3. Telegraph direction handle moved to opposite position (ahd/astern).
4. Starting air admitted to cylinders.
5. At firing speed fuel admitted and starting airflow stopped.
Note: In the rare case of an emergency when engine has to be stopped

from full speed, in addition to cutting off fuel supply, starting air is
introduced in a braking sequence to slow the engine down.
22.3 WATCHKEEPING DUTIES
10-792 When the main engine is running at sea, a number of items must be checked
and recorded continually. The following list is an indicative outline and therefore
by no means complete. Every engine room is provided with a complete checklist
and special forms of reporting, in line with ISM certification requirements:
Check and record pressures and temperatures. Deviations from normal

operating levels must be reconfirmed and rechecked.
Check and record main engine speed, turbocharger speed, scavenge air
temperature and pressure and cylinder exhaust gas temperature. These
parameters vary according to vessels loading conditions and reference to
manufacturers data is necessary to ascertain the good working order at a
given situation.
Check level in all service tanks (fuel, lubricating oil etc).
Measure and record fuel and lubricant consumption.
Check level of water in jacket water cooling tank.
Check pressure of cooling water and lubricating oil systems. If either drops
too low, engine must be stopped (alarm will be triggered).
Check temperatures of cooling water and lubricating oil systems. If it is found

to be too high adjust by regulating an increased flow. If still unable to reach
normal levels, engine must be stopped.(This system is also alarm fitted).
Check scavenge air temperature and make sure it remains above

atmospheric air condensation temperature, to avoid water formation in
cylinders or exhaust trunking.
Check and adjust feed of lubricating oil to cylinders.
Check all lines (fuel, lubricating oil and water for leakages).
Check leakage of oil of piston rod glands.
Drain sludge from fuel filters and purifiers. Ensure correct temperature of
fuel in fuel tank for correct viscosity.

Check cooling water vents, permitting air to escape from system.
Attend to fuel and lubricating oil filters. If manual turn and drain sludge.
Check starting air compressor coolers pressure and temperature.
Check centrifuge operation and sample oil.
Drain water from starting air cylinders.
Check oil level in main engine.
Check crankcase external temperature.
Check oil levels in all engine room equipment.
Check starting air feeds to cylinders for rises in temperature.
Check all cooling water systems for contamination from fuel or oil.
Check all the bilges for any unexplained liquids.
Check engine room for adverse noises.
22.4 SAFETY DEVICES
10-793 Every large marine diesel engine is fitted with certain safety devices as listed
below:
1. Relief valve fitted to the combustion chamber to protect against excessive

increase in combustion pressure.
2. Relief valves fitted to the crankcase to act as safety valves, should oil
vapour ignite due, for instance, to a hot bearing.
3. Relief valves fitted to scavenge spaces to protect the chamber against

high-pressure.
4. Relief valves for fuel pumps and fuel systems to prevent high-pressure
lines from bursting.
5. Relief valves for starting air system to prevent excessive pressure, and
flame traps or bursting discs at each starting air valve.
6. Interlocks fitted to turning gear to ensure that the engine cannot be started
whilst the turning gear is engaged.
7. Automatic shut down of the engine due to low-pressure in the lubricating

or cooling systems.
8. Automatic shut down of the engine due to high or low temperature in

various systems.

9. Shut down of the engine from the bridge, should communications with the
engine room fail when the vessel is in hazardous position.
10. Over-speed trip which cuts the fuel supply to the engine, should the main
governor fail and the engine speed increases.
11. Oil mist detector fitted in the crankcase to give warning of hot running parts
and the possibility of a crankcase explosion.
12. A temperature probe system fitted to bearings to sound an alarm at

excessive temperatures.
13. A temperature probe system fitted in the scavenge air space to indicate
scavenge fires.
22.5 COMMON PROBLEMS / DANGERS
10-794 Critical situations might arise in the engine room, usually as a result of poor
maintenance capable of leading to accidents and/or serious machinery failures.
Safety reasons dictate that engineers should be aware of these dangers so that
they can focus their attention and plan their operating and maintenance work
accordingly. The main potential problems and dangers are described in the
following paragraphs.
22.5.1 Scavenge Fires
10-795 Scavenge fires are caused by the ignition of unburned fuel or lubricating oil that
has entered the scavenge space under pressure from the cylinder. Scavenge
fires are detected by increased exhaust and scavenge temperatures, loss of
power, turbocharger surging and by appearance of smoke in scavenge drains.
Once fire is detected, engine must be slowed down and observed. If the fire
continues engine should be stopped altogether and cooled continually to avoid
overheating and seizure. Extinguishing medium should be fed to the scavenge
trunking and external cooling is also advisable. Good maintenance and correct
engine timing are key parameters in avoiding such fires.
10-796 For any fire to occur there is a need of a fuel, air and an ignition source to be
present. Air will always be present in the scavenge areas and the risk of an igni-
tion sources arises when there is a blow past the piston or local heating due to
seizure or metal overheating. It must therefore be made certain that fuel is never
present in the scavenge area.
10-797 Avoiding presence of fuel means that scavenge areas must always be clean and
free from oil deposits. Engine designs play their part in this with particular
emphasis on the pressure of the exhaust gases still in the cylinder at the open-
ing of the scavenge ports. To avoid fouling of the scavenge spaces combustion
must be carried out as cleanly as possible, that the fuel timing is good, fuel is
properly atomised, air/fuel ratio is correct and so on. Equally, the lubrication of
the piston ring pack should be controlled to prevent build up of lubricating oil in
the scavenge areas. The liner/ring interface should be in good condition and
rings and liners should be renewed at appropriate intervals. Furthermore, if air

filters are blocked, there is always the possibility that oil may pass over with the
scavenge air from the turbochargers. Dust brought in with air may also become
a fuel, if it finds its way in the scavenge spaces.
22.5.2 Starting Air System Explosions
10-798 Starting air system explosions can be traced to leaks of air-cylinder non-return
valves, while the engine is running. The accumulation of oil in the system and
the addition of fuel through the leaking valve might provide the necessary
combustible material and cause the explosion. Regular testing and maintenance
of the valves is therefore essential. The isolating valves between the engine and
the air receivers should be shut when the engine is running to minimise the risk
of hot gases entering the receiver.
In Chapter 15 we have discussed the starting air systems including compressors

and the following safety regulations are repeated as extracted from Lloyds
Rules Part 5, Chapter 2, July 2009
Quote
8.2 Air compressors
8.2.1 Two or more air compressors are to be fitted having a total capacity,
together with a topping-up compressor where fitted, capable of charging the air
receivers within 1 hour from atmospheric pressure, to the pressure sufficient for
the number of starts required by 8.3. At least one of the air compressors is to be
independent of the main propulsion unit and the capacity of the main air com-
pressors is to be approximately equally divided between them. The capacity of
an emergency compressor which may be installed to satisfy the requirements of
8.1 is to be ignored.
8.2.2 The compressors are to be so designed that the temperature of the air dis-
charged to the starting air receivers will not substantially exceed 93C in serv-
ice. A small fusible plug or an alarm device operating at 121C is to be provided
on each compressor to give warning of excessive air temperature. The emer-
gency air compressor is excepted from these requirements.
8.2.3 Each compressor is to be fitted with a safety valve so proportioned and

adjusted that the accumulation with the outlet valve closed will not exceed 10
per cent of the maximum working pressure. The casings of the cooling water
spaces are to be fitted with a safety valve or bursting disc so that ample relief
will be provided in the event of the bursting of an air cooler tube. It is recom-
mended that compressors be cooled by fresh water.
Unquote
22.5.3 Crankcase Explosions
10-799 The volume of air in the crankcase space contains oil vapours and droplets
which can become the fuel to an explosion, if an ignition cause is introduced.
A bearing or a piston gland overheating can create a hot spot and provide the

cause of ignition. Good maintenance, good quality and clean lubricating oil
again play a major preventive role. Crankcases are provided with explosion
relief valves, which prevent the escalation of a minor incident to a major disas-
ter. Such valves are fitted to all engines and must be periodically tested.
22.5.4 Cylinder Explosions
10-800 Explosion relief valves are provided on all cylinders and should be regularly
maintained. The role of the valve is to release excessive pressure build-up in
the cylinder. Such high-pressures are commonly caused by injector leakages,
explosive fuel ignition due to low engine speed, wrong fuel pump setting and
so on.
22.5.5 Black Smoke in Exhaust
10-801 Black smoke indicates poor combustion. In turn, poor combustion might be
taking place in one or more cylinders which must be identified (by shutting
off one by one and checking the effects) and corrected by testing and
repairing this units fuel system, as this can commonly be caused by faulty
fuel injectors.
10-802 If all cylinders produce poor combustion results, the problem might be the fuel
used or the insufficient provision of air caused usually by turbocharger faults or
blockage of air supply passages.
22.5.6 Turbocharger Surging
10-803 Surging is usually caused by fouling of the turbocharger and can be detected by
excessive noise. Reduction of air supplied to cylinders can cause poor com-
bustion and slowing down of the engine. At first opportunity, turbocharger must
be opened and cleaned, together with scavenge ducts and ports.
10-804 Surging can also be engine initiated. The turbocharger supply should be
matched to the engines air consumption rate and pressure across the whole
operating range. In the stable zone the engine receives air at a pressure and
quantity matching its needs for its given speed. If however the engine suddenly
slows down due to rough weather and the turbocharger continues to deliver air
at a pressure higher than what is needed for the given speed, surging will occur
and the condition will be described as operating in the zone of unstable delivery
or surging.
22.5.7 Engine and Shaft Vibration
10-805 This is usually caused by resonance, a phenomenon applicable to all natural

systems. It means that conditions have been reached that relate to the engines
natural frequency, caused by the frequency of peak torques, as the engine turns.
Manufacturers specify these conditions, calling them critical speeds, and engine
operation at such speeds should be avoided as they can cause excessive
damage to the engine and the propeller shaft.

22.5.8 Crankcase Noise
10-806 Sudden crankcase noises usually indicate the breakage of some part, which in
itself might cause overheating. In such cases the engine must be stopped or
slowed down until proper attention can be given in the next port.
22.5.9 Changes in Oil Levels
10-807 There are a number of causes associated with changes in oil level. If level is up,
there is most likely leakage of cooling water into the sump tank. Such leakages
can occur from various points and are not always that easy to repair. They could
be from seal rings and glands of cylinder jackets, pistons etc.
10-808 Drop of level can be the result of a leakage, blockage and/or of excess oil
consumption. External leakages from pumps, valves, purifiers and pipes are
relatively easy to detect. Blockage of oil drains or pipes can also lead to oil level
rises in the sump tank.
10-809 Excessive consumption arises from the wear of piston oil rings. It can usually be
detected from the rising temperatures of exhaust gases.
22.5.10 Exhaust Gas Valve Leakage
10-810 Exhaust gas valve leakages can be detected by high temperature of exhaust
gas and by presence of smoke and noise. Once the problem starts it will grad-
ually deteriorate and can affect other parts of the engine, such as the tur-
bochargers. The best solution will be to shut off the particular cylinder until repair
becomes possible. Regular maintenance of valves and seals will reduce the
problem considerably.

23. MAINTENANCE OF SHIPS MACHINERY
LEARNING OUTCOME
After successfully completing this chapter you will know:
the basic requirements for planned maintenance on ships

with diesel propulsion.
23.1 MAINTENANCE OF DIESEL ENGINES
23.1.1 Introduction
10-811 Engine manufacturers expend a lot of effort in preparation of maintenance

manuals, explaining their engines and how to maintain them. These instructions
must always be followed carefully and continuous reference should be made to
the relevant manuals.
10-812 It is important to keep a detailed record of maintenance work performed and

spare parts used as this will provide an overall view on the history of the engine
and will further provide useful knowledge for future repair or maintenance work.
10- 813 Maintenance work on diesel engines falls into three broad categories:
(a) Work on components, which require servicing at relatively short intervals,

in order to be kept clean and in good working order. Such items include
fuel injectors, exhaust valves (if heavy fuel is used), lubricating and fuel oil
filters etc.
(b) Work on components that need servicing or replacing at less frequent

intervals, such as inspection and cleaning of combustion chamber (by
removing cylinder head), reconditioning of valves, cleaning of turbochargers,
cams and valve gear etc.
(c) Work on parts that may deteriorate or wear but take many years before
replacements are needed.
10-814 Classification societies require a complete survey of the hull and machinery to
be carried out every four plus one (41) or five (5) years. This is a convenient
time to withdraw pistons, to inspect thoroughly the crankshaft, the connecting
rods and their bearings and to renew such wearing parts as piston rings and
bearing shells if necessary.
10-815 The above apply equally to main diesel engines and auxiliary diesel machinery.

Module 10 Maintenance of Ships Machinery
23.1.2 General Safety Precautions
10-816 There are certain basic rules to be followed when overhauling or repairing the
engine and, according to Slow-Speed Diesel Engines by S H Henshall and
G G Jackson, these are:
1. Close the starting air valves on the air storage tanks and open all drain
valves on the air manifold.
2. Ensure that the turning gear is engaged and secure the operating lever
before entering the crankcase and carrying out work on any running
(moving) gear parts.
3. Before turning the engine by means of a turning gear make sure that
there are no obstructions in way of running gear and that the indicator
cocks are open and stay open as long as any overhauling work is being
carried out.
4. Ensure that the cover provided is placed over the open cylinder when a
piston has been removed.
5. Always use adequate (weighted) lifting gear and check its condition before
use. Periodically check the brake in the electric crane.
6. Stand clear of any parts during lifting by crane.
7. Ensure that power and light cables are kept free and not trapped in doors
or under loads.
8. Ensure that all ladders and walk ways are free of oil, grease and loose
nuts, bolts, lifting equipment etc.
9. Make sure that fire extinguishers are always topped up and ready for use.
10. Never use an unguarded light to inspect an air vessel, fuel tank, lubricating
oil tanks, air pipe, fuel pipe, crank-chamber, or any part of engine whatsoever.
11. If the engine has been stopped on account of overheating, then appropriate
action must be taken, as per manufacturers specifications.
12. If CO2 or any other method of extinguishing has been used in the
crankcase or scavenge space, then these must be very thoroughly vented
before anyone is allowed to walk inside
23.1.3 Overhauling and Servicing
10-817 The following guidelines have been extracted from Slow-Speed Diesel Engines
by S H Henshall and G G Jackson:
1. Every piece of machinery must be overhauled and cleaned at regular

intervals so that it is constantly in good running order. All engine builders
supply guidance and advice as to the intervals at which servicing should

Maintenance of Ships Machinery Module 10
be carried out; this depends to a great extent on the power loading of the
engine.
2. Classification societies have their own rules regarding major service and
continuous service and adherence to these rules is vital.
3. One of the factors which determines the frequency of overhaul is the load
at which the engine operates in service as well as the grade of fuel and
lubricating oil used.
4. Before starting any overhauling it is important to check that the proper tools
are available and that they are in good working order. The use of wrong or
worn tools can cause damage, loss of valuable time and injury to personnel.
Ensure that the starting air is off and that the turning gear is engaged.
5. The instruction manual must be available to and thoroughly read by all

engine room personnel involved in maintenance and the recommended
procedures should be followed.
6. Before shutting down the lubricating oil pumps check that the oil is flowing
freely from the crosshead and other bearings; any interruption of flow may
mean that the bearing metal is squeezed. Open up crankcase for full
running gear and crankcase inspection. A sample of the lubricating oil
should be taken and sent to the suppliers for analysis.
7. Examine all lubricating oil and fuel oil filter elements for signs of damage.
8. Drain cocks on turbochargers to be opened. Inspection covers opened up

and turbine wheels and nozzles examined for deposits. If records show
that the airflow is reduced, then the protection grids must be opened up
and cleaned.
9. Clean scavenge air receiver and all scavenge drain connections. Turn the
engine and examine piston rods and the piston rings through the
scavenge ports, check rings for freedom of movement and whether intact.
During this inspection, cooling water and/or oil should be circulated for
leakage examination.
10. If required bridge gauge readings of main bearing and crankshaft deflections
may be taken. These records should be taken when the ship is afloat.
11. All bolts and nuts in the crankcase to be checked for tightness and locking
plates examined. Main engine holding down bolts and main tie bolts to be
checked for tightness. All main nuts to be tightened to recommended
torque values.
12. When chains are fitted for camshaft drive, the tension to be checked
and guide bars and bearings examined, sprocket wheels to be examined
for wear.
13. The control mechanism should be checked for movement and the pistons
of pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders operated by hand to ensure freedom,

ball ends and bearings examined and greased. On completion of this

work, the whole of the control system to be checked for proper functioning.
14. Lubricating oil drain tanks should be pumped out and cleaned of all sludge
and gritty material. Prior to carrying out this work, the dirty lubricating oil
tank should also be examined and cleaned if necessary.
15. Check the operation of cylinder starting air valves, the master valve and
other ancillary equipment; lubricate as necessary. Check starting air pipe
couplings and joints. Air leaks in control systems are not always obvious
and should be given extra care; loose couplings can cause starting failures.
16. Operate cylinder lubricators by hand to ensure that the whole system has
been primed and is functional; check that pipes, couplings and valves do
not leak.
17. Relief valves, including those fitted on the crankcase, to be checked and
overhauled as necessary.
18. Ensure that oil-changes for the governor and other ancillary equipment are
carried out at the appropriate time.
19. All dismantling work should be carried out with the greatest care; all parts
should be examined and cleaned as they are being removed. Seal all
openings against the ingress of dirt by means of sheet jointing or wooden
blocks. Do not use rags for this purpose.
20. Do not use cotton waste for cleaning engine parts.
21. Take great care to protect bearing surfaces, screw threads etc from
damage and dirt.
22. If any component is filed or scraped, make sure that all residues are
removed and that adjacent parts have been covered before work is
commenced.
23. All components overhauled during maintenance work must be checked for
correct functioning before being put into operation in the engine. Pipes
must be pressure-tested for possible leaks.
24. The clearance of all essential parts is to be checked against the makers
instruction manuals. Parts outside prescribed limits are to be replaced
from the spare gear or re-adjusted to give the correct clearance.
25. Replaced parts should, if possible, be repaired and put into spare gear stock.
If this is not possible, the parts should be re-ordered to maintain an adequate
level of spares, similar to that when the engine was commissioned.
26. All spare parts should be examined at regular intervals and protective
coatings be renewed as necessary to prevent corrosion or other damage.
27. Synthetic rubber seals should be stored flat in a closed box and kept in as
cool a place as possible.

28. After completion of the overhauling, the engine must be thoroughly

cleaned using cloths and not cotton waste.
29. All tools must be assembled, cleaned and checked and replaced in their
proper position. Damaged tools must be replaced.
23.2 DEVELOPMENT OF A MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
10-818 When developing a planned maintenance system, the classification societies

requirements must be taken into consideration with particular emphasis on the
periodic inspections. In addition, flag or port state control requirements and
other international regulations must be considered together with the require-
ments of the shipowners.
Class Periodic Inspections
Annual (one year), intermediate (2.5 years) and renewal (five years)
surveys for hull and machinery installations and equipment.
Surveys for boilers (2.5 years).
Surveys for radio communication (one year).
Surveys of safety equipment (two years).
Annual (one year), intermediate (2.5 years) and renewal (five years)
surveys for safety construction, pollution prevention, noxious liquid
substances and chemical and gas code.
Annual (one year) and renewal (five years) surveys for opening and
closing appliances and load line marks.
Survey/dismantling of keyed propellers (five years).
Optional
Continuous Surveys
Continuous hull surveys.
Continuous machinery surveys
10-819 Traditional classification rules require the survey of vessels hull and machinery
every four years. This is known as the special survey and has been the practice
since the early days of shipping. As an alternative, it is now possible to apply a
continuous survey system, whereby surveys are divided in separate items and
are inspected and credited at different times during a five-year period. In the
case of certain machinery items, these can be passed by the chief engineer
without the presence of a class surveyor and obviously at a time and place to
the vessels convenience. If a fixed maintenance schedule is used in machinery
maintenance, that system may replace the continuous machinery survey and
reduce the class survey to a simple annual survey.

23.3 PLANNING MAINTENANCE
INTRODUCTION
10-820 The total cost of any piece of working equipment or machinery consists of two
basic elements: the initial acquisition cost (purchase price, delivery costs, instal-
lation and start-up costs) and the maintenance cost (monitoring, testing, inspec-
tions, planned and emergency repairs, spare parts etc).
10-821 In order to understand how machinery failure may occur, it is important at this
early stage to introduce the concept of a product reliability cycle, a statistical
exercise of tabulating and presenting graphically (see Figure 23.1) the number
of failures against time in a population of identical products.
Figure 23.1
Product reliability cycle
10-822 The reliability of every engineering product or system can be statistically defined
using this reliability cycle, which is divided in three distinct periods. The first
period is the early stage of the products life, when it is new and the chances of
failure are high due to manufacturing shortfalls, material defects or assembly and
installation errors. Quality controls in modern production systems aim towards
eliminating, as far as possible, these infant stage breakdowns and reject defec-
tive products before they reach the customers. In shipping reality however such
products can be relatively complicated structures, or indeed the outcome of com-
plex operations (such as drydocking works) where total elimination of errors is
technically and statistically inconceivable. The value of manufacturers war-
ranties offered on engineering products is essentially there in order to comfort the
customer against problems that might arise during this early stage.
10-823 The end of the early failure period marks the beginning of the useful life of the
product. This is the period during which the teething problems have been
resolved and therefore reliability increases as failures decrease. The duration of
the useful life is the most important economic parameter describing the product
as it will tell the user how long it is going to last before substitution becomes

necessary. In a population of identical products, the useful life will be defined as

the average of the useful life of the products measured. For example, a manu-
facturers statement that the life of an engine was 20,000 hours means that out
of the engines tested it became evident that the average life was 20,000 hours.
10-824 As the product gets older, its useful life expires and it enters its last period of
existence marked by higher chances of failure due to ageing or wearing out until
its final death.
10-825 A good example to illustrate product life cycles is an ordinary house light bulb. If
you think of a brand new office building where hundreds of new light bulbs are
switched on, on the very first day of occupancy, you will understand why an
increased number of bulbs will burn out during the first week or so (the badly
made ones). As the first week passes (the early failure period) the bulbs that
have survived the teething problems will carry on providing light for months.
Then, all of a sudden they will start to burn out quite regularly one after the other
until finally, all lights are off.
10-826 Reliability means the chances of the equipment or machinery, or our bulbs in this
example, working properly. Failure means the chances of it breaking down or
failing. The two concepts are complementary meaning that their sum equals to
one (60% chance of working means 40% chance of failing, and whichever way
expressed it conveys the same message).
10-827 Machinery or equipment, which consist of many working parts, and which are
subject to regular maintenance are even more complex systems. The failure of
the total unit can be caused by failure of one (or more) of its working parts/com-
ponents over time. Without getting into complicated mathematics, by measuring
the individual failure characteristics (the useful life) of each working part of an
engineering assembly and through understanding of the contribution of the fail-
ure of each component towards the total failure of the assembly, we can under-
stand and measure the assemblys chances of survival or failure as a function
of time. We can therefore also understand and measure mean down time (MDT)
as the ratio between the total time the equipment is out of order, over the total
number of failures. Total working time would therefore be the total time elapsed
since installation, minus the total time that it is out of order. We can also statis-
tically measure the mean time between failures, a key piece of information guid-
ing us on the frequency of maintenance, as the true sense of maintenance is the
servicing of the equipment at the correct time intervals, prior to the occurrence
of failures.
23.4 MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES
10-828 Our individual knowledge and understanding of the equipment on board the ves-
sel together with the supporting data supplied by their manufacturers, other
users, classification societies etc enables the development of a maintenance
strategy. A maintenance strategy is a policy, an assembly of specific plans and
objectives on how the question of maintenance of each and every piece of
equipment on the vessel should be dealt with.
10-829 Broadly speaking, there are four alternative approaches to a maintenance strategy:

23.4.1 Breakdown or Unscheduled Maintenance Strategy
10-830 This is the simplest strategy. Machinery and equipment are repaired only after
they have failed. The cost of maintenance, under this approach, is the sum of
the cost of repairs plus the cost of failure (including all consequential costs such
as, for example, the vessel going off-hire as a result of the failure of the main
engine). Cost of failure therefore involves all the consequences of loss of time.
In this case, mean down time (MDT) includes:
(a) Time lost in realising the existence of the failure.
(b) Time lost in identifying and isolating (accessing) the equipment that has
failed.
(c) Time spent to detect the damage.
(d) Time spent in obtaining spares, personnel, tools etc.
(e) Time of repair or replacement.
(f) Testing time.
Under this strategy, mean down time is clearly longer than the mean time to
repair (MTTR), which would only include time spent on items (b), (c), (e) and (f)
from the above list.
23.4.2 Preventive or Planned Maintenance Strategy
10-831 Under this strategy, maintenance takes place in scheduled time intervals known
as Maintenance or Service Intervals expressed as TM (in units of time). The fre-
quency of maintenance can thus be expressed as m = 1/TM.
10-832 The total cost of preventive maintenance during the life of the equipment can be
broken down into the following components:
The total number of maintenance/service operations during the life of the

equipment will be T * m, where T is the total life of the equipment.
The mean maintenance time (MMT) includes time for isolating, repairing
and testing.
Total time out of operation is m * T * MMT measured in hours.
CM is the average cost of materials for preventive maintenance/service.
CPP is the average cost arising from the equipments non -, or reduced
operation.
CL is the average cost of labour per hour.
10-833 We can therefore calculate the total cost of servicing as:
[CM * m * T + CL * m * T * (MMT)]

and the total cost of preventive maintenance as:
[CM + (CL + CPP) * (MMT)] * m * T
23.4.3 Planned Inspection/Unscheduled Maintenance Strategy
10-834 This strategy involves regular and planned inspection of the equipment while
maintenance is decided and scheduled based on the results of such inspec-
tions. This is a widely applicable approach as inspection cycles tend to coincide
with classification society requirements and therefore are seen as a practical
and economical approach to the subject. Clearly, equipment with time between
failures estimated to be more frequent than say an annual survey, must be
inspected in cycles designed to prevent the chances of breakdown. The mathe-
matical analysis of maintenance costs can be quite complicated, particularly
when measuring cost and frequency of downtime, taking into consideration the
fact that repairs are usually aimed to fall on drydocking cycles.
10-835 Routine testing is necessary, particularly in equipment or systems that do not

operate continually but are expected to perform tasks during an emergency.
Such equipment would include emergency generators, fire pumps, lifeboat
engines and alarm systems.
23.4.4 Condition based or Predictive Maintenance Strategy
10-836 This strategy is based on monitoring the condition of operation of the equipment
and systems and requires the use of diagnostic methods. Parameters indicating
the condition of the equipment are identified and continually monitored and devi-
ations from desired operating conditions will trigger predictions on failure and
therefore decisions on maintenance.
10-837 The simpler methods of detection employ human senses:
vision (e.g. detection of leakage);
touching (e.g. overheating);
smell (e.g. burning); and
hearing (e.g. noise in operation). Although in this case the information

received is subjective, its value however remains intact.
10-838 There are of course other methods of monitoring and measuring parameters,
which yield quantitative and objective information:
measurements of temperature;
measurements of pressure;
measurement of differential pressure;
measurement of level;

measurement of electrical parameters;
measurement of vibration;
ultrasonic measurements;
oil analysis;
ferrography;
thermography;
optical systems;
etc.
10-839 It becomes evident from the above that the selection of a maintenance strategy
will be a combination of methods, taking safety into consideration and the fact
that the use of only one method, such as preventive maintenance, will probably
not be the most economical solution.
23.5 PLANNED MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
10-840 Every planned maintenance system consists of:
(a) List of equipment/systems that are included in the planned maintenance

system (inventory).
(b) Maintenance schedule (time intervals between maintenance).
(c) Maintenance instruction (procedures for maintenance).
(d) Maintenance documentation and history (methods of reporting).
(e) Reference documentation for measurement and performance results for

trend investigations.
10-841 We can now turn to each of the above components of the planned maintenance
system for further study:
23.5.1 Inventory
10-842 The selection of machinery and systems that are part of the planned maintenance
programme is largely dependent on the type of vessel in question. All critical and
essential equipment and systems related to the ISM Code and to SOLAS should
be covered, which generally include those related to:
Safety at sea
Human injury
Environmental pollution

Damage to property
10-843 It is therefore common for a planned maintenance programme to include among

others:
Hull and structural steel work
Life-saving appliances
Fire fighting equipment
Anti-pollution equipment
Navigational and communications equipment
Steering gear
Anchoring and mooring equipment
Main engine
Diesel generators
Auxiliary machinery
Pipelines and valves
Cargo pumps
Lifting appliances
Inert gas system
Detection and monitoring systems (fire, gas, automation)
Bilge/ballast system and separators
Waste disposal and sewage system
Alarms and emergency shut downs
10-844 In the case of equipment not covered by the above list and whose failure does
not put at risk safety or the environment, it is always advisable to investigate
whether their inclusion in the inventory will be cost-effective. The parameters to
be taken into consideration should include:
loss of hire in the case of their failure;
cost of parts and repairs; and
reduction in performance standards.
10-845 A clear coding system for machinery and parts is highly recommended for
efficient maintenance and repair management.

23.5.2 Maintenance Schedule
10-846 The frequency of inspections, testing and maintenance must be specified in the
planned maintenance programme, taking into account the classification
societys requirements and the equipment manufacturers recommendations.
Other factors that can affect the frequency of maintenance can be:
the quality of spare parts (use of reconditioned parts);
the quality of repairs;
the general condition of the electrical and mechanical installation;
vessels employment conditions and requirements and trading areas;
number of separate testing or maintenance tasks per equipment;
the relation between real time and the time of operation of an equipment
and its back-up systems.
10-847 An example of a maintenance cycle for a particular piece of machinery, taking

into consideration the drydockings at year 2.5 and 5, would be:
Inspection/Tests
Minor overhaul 15 months
Inspection/Tests
Major overhaul 30 months
Inspection/Tests
Minor overhaul 45 months
Inspection/Tests
Major overhaul survey 60 months
23.5.3 Maintenance Instructions
10-848 Every set of inspection and maintenance instructions should be clearly specified
in the form of job cards or tasks sheets and the routines should be followed in
the sequence and degree of detail described. Results should be reported in a
set format and will become part of the maintenance documentation.
23.5.4 Maintenance Documentation and History
10-849 Inspection and maintenance results as derived from the previous paragraph, in
the set format, are kept and form part of the maintenance documentation and
the maintenance history. Clearly, records facilitate future repair work and provide
the basis of knowledge for the equipments analysis of historic performance.

23.5.5 Reference Documentation
10-850 Reference documentation is necessary for recording the measurement and

performance results of machinery and for the purpose of analysing and investi-
gating trends. In essence, it means that performance is tested and measured at
regular time intervals and results are recorded and analysed. Conclusions on
wear and tear can, for example, be drawn on the condition of an engine or its
key components and useful knowledge can be derived on equipment life and
maintenance needs.

RECOMMENDED READING
List of books used in producing this text and recommended for further reading:
D H Beattie, W M Somerville: Ships Gear: a review of Deck Machinery

(Marine Engineering Practice, Volume 2, Part 16, 1978, Institute of Marine
Engineers), ISBN 0 9009776 78 0
D A Blank, A E Bock and D J Richardson: Introduction to Naval Engineering

(2nd edn, 1985, Annapolis Naval Institute), ISBN 0 419 13900 1
R Coats: Marine Steam Turbines (Marine Engineering Practice, Volume 1,

Part 8, 1996, Institute of Marine Engineers), ISBN 0 900976 41 1
J Cowley: The Running and Maintenance of Marine Machinery (Institute of

Marine Engineers), ISBN 0 907206 42 5
D J Eyres: Ship Construction (4th edn, 1994, Butterworth-Heinemann),

ISBN 0 7506 1842 3
G T H Flanagan: Feed Water Systems and Treatment (Revised 1st edn,

1983, Marine Engineering Series, Butterworth-Heinemann), ISBN 0 7506
0368 2
GT H Flanagan, Marine Boilers, Third Edition, 1990, Butterworth-

Heinemann, ISBN 07506 1821 3
D A Gillespie, K W M Cockburn, et al: Prime Movers for Generation

of Electricity (B) Medium-Speed Diesel Generating Sets (Marine
Engineering Practice, Volume 1, Part 2, 1974, Institute of Marine Engineers),
ISBN 0 900976 13 6
D T Hall, Practical Marine Electrical Knowledge, 2nd Edition, Witherbys

Publishing, 1999, ISBN: 1 85609 182 1
S H Henshall and G G Jackson: Slow-Speed Diesel Engines (Marine

Engineering Practice, Volume 2, Part 17, 1978, Institute of Marine
S H Henshall: Marine Medium-Speed Diesel Engines (Marine

Engineering Practice, Volume 1, Part 3, 1973, Institute of Marine Engineers),
ISBN 0 900976 09 8
C M Joy: Hydraulic Power Transmission in Marine Machinery (Marine

C Lee-Jones: A Practical Guide to Marine Fuel Oil Handling (Marine


Recommended Reading Module 10
T J MacGinley: Steel Structures Practical Design Guide (2nd edn, 1998,

E&FN Spon), ISBN 0 419 17930 5
H D McGeorge: Marine Auxiliary Machinery (7th edn, 1995, Butterworth-

Heinemann), ISBN 0 7506 4398 6
H D McGeorge: Marine Electrical Equipment and Practice (2nd edn,

1993, Marine Engineering Series, Butterworth-Heinemann), ISBN
0 7506 1647 4
H D McGeorge: General Engineering Knowledge (3rd edn, 1991, Marine

Engineering Series, Butterworth-Heinemann), ISBN 0 7506 0006 3
G H F Nayler: Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering (4th edn, 1996,

Butterworth-Heinemann), ISBN 1 56091 754 7
A Norris: Operation of Machinery in Motorships: Main Diesels, Boilers and

Auxiliary Plant (Marine Engineering Practice, Volume 2, Part 18, 1981,
Institute of Marine Engineers), ISBN 0 900976 14 2
A Norris: Operation of Machinery in Ships: Steam Turbines, Boilers and

Auxiliary Plant (Marine Engineering Practice, Volume 2, Part 15, 1978,
Institute of Marine Engineers), ISBN 0 900976 80 2
D A Taylor: Introduction to Marine Engineering (Revised 2nd edn, 1996,

D A Taylor: Merchant Ship Construction (4th edn, 1998, Institute of Marine

A J Wharton: Diesel Engines (3rd edn, 1991, Marine Engineering Series,

D Woodyard: Pounders Marine Diesel Engines (7th edn, 1998,

Butterworth-Heinemann), ISBN 0 7506 2583 X
D A Taylor, A D T Tang, Merchant Ship Naval Architecture, The Institute of

Marine Engineers, Science and Technology, 2006, ISBN 1 902536 56 8
H K Woud, D Stapersma, Design of Propulsion and Electrical Power

Generation Systems, The Institute of Marine Engineers, Science and
Technology, 2002/3, ISBN 1 902536 47 9

CONVERSION OF UNITS
SI UNITS
Mass = kilogramme (kg)
Time = second (sec)
Force = newton (N)
Length = metre (m)
Pressure = newton/sq metre (N/m2)
Temperature = degree Celsius ( C)
Thermodynamic temeperature = Kelvin (K)

Electric current = ampere (A)
Amount of substance = mole (mol)
Luminus intensity = candela (cd)
CONVERSIONS
1 inch 25.4 mm 0.025 m
1 foot 0.3048 m
1 square foot 0.093 m2
1 cubic foot 0.028 m3
1 pound mass (lb) 0.453 kg
1 UK ton (mass) 2,240 lb 1,016 kg
1 short ton (mass) 2,000 lb 907 kg
1 tonne (mass) 1,000 kg
1 pound force (lbf) 4.45 N
1 ton force (tonF) 9.96 kN
0.001 in 0.025 mm
1 lbf/in2 6895 N/m2 6.895 kN/m2
1 kg/cm2 1 kp/cm2 102 kN/m2
1 atmos 14.7 lbf/in2 (PSI) 101.35 kN/m2 760 mm Hg
1 bar 14.5 lbf/in2 100 kN/m2

Conversion of Units Module 10
C (F 32) 5/9
1 HP 0.746 kW
1 ppm 1 gm dissolved solids/1,000,000 gm pure water
1 thirty-second 5 oz dissolved solids/160 oz pure water
1 ml/litre dissolved oxygen 1.5 ppm of dissolved oxygen

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. How can impure boiler water damage boilers, evaporators etc, and what
can be done to avoid such undesired consequences?
2. What are the benefits from incorporating turbochargers in 2-stroke slow-

speed engines, and what are the potential safety hazards arising from
their operation?
3. Why are gas turbines (diesel electric propulsion) becoming popular in

modern cruise ships?
4. What are the main properties of fuel oil that affect the performance of
marine engines and which chemical properties have an effect on the
environment?
5. Scavenge fires can they be avoided and how?
6. Why have variable pitch propellers revolutionised ship propulsion?
7. How important is the use of refrigeration systems onboard ships, and how
can their failure affect the vessels operation and the environment?
8. If you were designing a modern vessel, what emergency electrical power

supply system would you incorporate and why?
9. What are the main safety risks associated with the operation of the starting
air compressors and system onboard a vessel?
10. Describe the different pump designs and indicate applications in which
each different design is better suited.
For candidates taking the Diploma option, a Tutor-Marked Assignment must be

completed for each core module. There is a minimum pass mark for each assign-
ment and candidates will be expected to reach this minimum standard. Collectively,
the assignments represent a possible one third of the candidates final mark.
On the cover page of your assignment, could you please include

the following information:
Your Name
Course Name Marine Surveying
Course Code FLP2266

Tutor-Marked Assignment Module 10
To speed the processing of assignments, please return your typed assignment

by post, fax or email directly to the TMA Administrator:
Post: Mrs Parmjit Gill

TMA Administrator
The School of Maritime Operations and Logistics
North West Kent College
Lower Higham Road
Gravesend
Kent
DA12 2JJ
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1322 629684
Fax: +44 (0)1322 629687
Email: mol@nwkcollege.ac.uk
Remember to keep a copy of your completed assignment in case of loss in

the post. Please also state if you would like confirmation of receipt of your
assignment. If so, you must include your email address, as confirmation by post
or fax is not possible.
Emailing assignments will only be accepted if they are sent as attachments to

the email message.
You should attempt to complete each assignment within four weeks of receipt
of the module.

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DIPLOMA IN

1. INTRODUCTION TO MARINE ENGINEERING 7

4. SLOW, MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED ENGINES 33

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

5. DIESEL ENGINE PARTS 47

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

6. OTHER MAIN MEANS OF PROPULSION 73

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266) 10-1

7.5 Turning Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

9. FEED SYSTEMS 113

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

10. PIPING SYSTEMS AND PUMPS 124

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124

11. GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEMS 141

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141

12. FUELS AND FUEL SYSTEMS 150

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150

10-2 Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266)

12.3 Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154

13. LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATING SYSTEMS 172

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172

14. COOLING SYSTEMS 178

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178

15. STARTING AIR SYSTEMS 186

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186

16. SHAFTING AND PROPELLERS 196

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196

Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266) 10-3

17. REFRIGERATION, AIR-CONDITIONING AND VENTILATION 206

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206

18. DECK MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 215

18.1 Mooring Winches and Anchor Handling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215

19. STEERING GEAR 224

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224

20. ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 232

20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

21. BRIDGE CONTROL AND EMERGENCY SYSTEMS 249

21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249

10-4 Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266)

22. SAFETY AND OPERATION OF DIESEL ENGINES 258

22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258

23. MAINTENANCE OF SHIPS MACHINERY 266

23.1 Maintenance of Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266

RECOMMENDED READING 279

CONVERSION OF UNITS 281

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 283

For candidates taking the Diploma option, your Tutor-Marked

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Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266) 10-5

10-6 Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266)

Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266) 10-7

After successfully completing this chapter, you will:

10-010 Reference is sometimes made to overall dimensions and moulded

10-8 Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266)

10-012 Refers to any dimension along the length of a vessel.

Forward Perpendicular (FP)

After Perpendicular (AP)

Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP)

Length Overall (LOA)

Length on Load Waterline (LWL)

Diploma in Marine Surveying 2012 / 2013 (FLP2266) 10-9