Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AND PRACTICE
GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The ore deposits being mined by open pit techniques today vary considerably in size,
shape, orientation and depth below surface. The initial surface topographies can vary
from mountain tops to valley floor. In spite of this there are a number of geometry based
design and planning considerations fundamental to them all.
The ore body is mined from top to the down in the series of horizontal layers of uniform
thickness called benches and after a sufficient floor area has been exposed, mining to the
next layer can begin. The process continues until the bottom bench elevation is reached
and the final pit outline achieved. To access different bench a road or ramp must be
created. The width and steepness of this road or ramp depends upon the type of
equipment to be accommodated. Stable slopes must be created and maintained during the
creation and operation of the pit.
BENCH HEIGHT: each bench has an upper and lower surface separated by a distance
H equal to the bench height. The bench height is determined by the size of mining
equipment and formation of the area.
The loose/soft rocks allows, bench height up to shovel reach.
In hard and very strong rock, bench height is usually 10-40 meters.
BENCH SLOPE: the bench slope or the bench face angle is the inclined plane of the
bench made an angle with the horizontal. Or the average angle that a face makes with the
horizontal. The exposed sub-vertical surfaces are known as bench faces. The bench faces
are described by the toe. The crest and he bench face angle . The bench face angle
can vary considerably with rock characteristics, face orientation and the blasting
practices. In most hard rock pits it varies from about 55O to 80O. A typical initial design
value might be 65O. This should be used with care as the bench face angle can have a
major effect on the overall slope angle.
BENCH FLOOR: The exposed bench lower surface is called as the bench floor.
BENCH WIDTH: The bench width is the distance between the crest and toe measured
along the upper surface.
In addition to leaving the safety benches berms (piles) of broken materials are often
constructed along the crest. These serve the function of forming a ditch between the berm
and the toe of the slope to catch falling rocks.
A safety berm is also left along the outer edge of the bench to prevent trucks and other
machines from backing over. It serves much the same function as a guard rail on bridges
and elevated highways. Normally the pile has a height greater than or equal to the tire
radius. The berm slope is taken to be about 35O, i.e. also called the angle of repose.
The steps which are followed when considering bench geometry are:
iii) The production requirements leads to a certain equipment set (fleet type and
size).
iv) Each equipment set has a certain optimum associated geometry.
v) Each piece of equipment in the set has an associated operating geometry.
vi) A range of suitable bench geometries results.
vii) Consequences regarding stripping ratios, operating v/s capital costs, slope
stability aspects etc are evaluated.
viii) The best of the various alternatives is selected.
In the past, when the rail bound equipments were being extensively used, great attention
was paid to bench geometry. Today highly mobile rubber tired/crawler mounted
equipments has reduced the detailed evaluation requirements some-what.
A vertical digging face must be established in the ore body before major production can
begin. Further more a ramp must be created to allow truck and loader access. A drop
cut is used to create the vertical breaking face and the ramp access at the same time.
To access the Ore body, the ramp shown in figure: 4 will be driven it has an 8% grade
and a width of 65 feet.
Although not generally the case, the walls will be assumed vertical. To reach the 40ft
desired depth, the ramp in horizontal projection will be 500ft in length.
The volume of access road or ramp volume is the volume of the waste rock mined in
excavating the ramp.
:. Ramp volume = Ramp width (Rw) Area of abc.
1
Rw horizontal H
2
1 H
Ramp volume (V) = Rw 100 H
2 g
1
Rw H 100 H
2 g
Example # 01:-
Determine the volume of Ore body by waste rock to develop access road at the
slope of 8%. Depth of cylindrical Ore body is 30 feet and diameter 500 ft, width of ramp
is 65 feet.
Data:
Slope = g = 8%
Depth = H = 30 feet
Diameter = d= 500 feet
Width of ramp = Rw = 65 feet
Solution:
as V = Volume of ramp
H2
and V = 50 Rw
g
(30) 2 x 65 2925000
V = 50 =
8 8
V = 365625 ft3 Ans
.
Example # 02:-
Repeat example # 01 for Depth (H) = 40 ft and Ramp width (Rw) = 60 ft.
H2
Solution: - V = 50 Rw
g
(40) 2 x 60
V = 50
8
V = 600000 ft3 Ans
.
ii) Ramp in ore body (Fig. 5b)
.
iii) Ramp starting in waste and ending in ore (Fig. 5c)
When the drop cut has reached the desired grade, the cut is expanded laterally. Figure: 6
shows the steps. Initially Fig: 6.A; the operating space is very low/limited; therefore the
trucks must turn and stop at the top of the ramp and then back down the ramp towards the
loader. When the pit bottom has been expanded sufficiently as shown in fig: 6.B; the
truck can turn around on the pit bottom. Latter, as the working area becomes quite larger
as shown in fig. 6.C; several loaders can be used at the same time. The optimum face
length assigned to a machine varies with the size and type. It is of the range 200-500 feet.
Once access has been established the cut is winded until the entire bench/level has been
extended to the bench limits. There are three approaches which will be discussed here;
they are as follows:
1. Frontal Cuts
2. Parallel Cuts Drive by
3. Parallel Cuts Turn & Back
The first two apply where there is a great deal of working area available, for example at
the pit bottom. The mining of the more narrow benches on the sides of the pit is covered
under the third approach.
Figure: 6 A
Step I
Figure: 6 B
Step II
Figure: 6 C
Step III
FRONTAL CUTS:
The frontal cut is shown diagrammatically in figure 7.
The shovel faces the bench face and begins digging forward straight ahead and to the
side. A niche is cut in the bank wall. For the case shown, double spotting of the trucks is
used. The shovel first loads to the left and when the truck is full he proceeds to the other
truck on the right. The swing angle varies from 1100 (maximum) to an angle of 100
(minimum). The average swing angle is about 600; hence the loading operation is quite
effective. There must be room for trucks to position them around the shovel. The shovel
penetrates to the point that the face. It then moves parallel to itself and takes another
frontal cut as shown in fig: 7.1;
With a long face and sufficient bench width, more than one shovel can work the same
face, as shown in fig. 7.2.
The expansion of the pit at the upper levels is generally accomplished by using parallel
cuts. Due to space limitations there is only access to the ramp from one side of the shovel.
This means that the trucks approach the shovel from the rear. Then, they stop, turn, and
back into the load position.
Sometimes there is a room for double spotting of the trucks (fig: 9.1) but sometimes for
only single spotting as shown in figure 9.2.
The easiest way of demonstrating the principles involved is by way of an example: For
this, the following assumptions will be made:
The general arrangement of working bench (in x-sectional view) is shown in figure 10.
Figure 10:
.
Figure 10.1: Simplified representation of berm.
kl
The basic calculations (justifications) behind these calculations are presented as follows.
Step # 01:- Highest of the berm should be at least same as the radius of the
truck tire, i.e.; = 4 feet.
Step # 02:- The distance b/w the crept and centre line of the truck = Tc = 21:
Width of Berm = 8 feet.
Clearance distance b/w safety berm and the wheels of truck = 5 feet
and; the total width of truck = 16 feet.
Step # 03:- The distance b/w the centre line of the Shovel and centre line of the
truck is also called as Dumping radius denoted by B; B = 45.5
feet.
Step # 03b:- The Maximum duping height (A) is more than sufficient to clear
the truck;
A = 28 feet.
Step # 03c:- Distance b/w the centre line of Shovel and toe = G ;
G= 35.5 feet
Note: All the parameters and /or dimensions used above, depends upon the size of the
machinery which is used.
Note: This is applied to the width of the pile of broken material. Therefore, to allow for
swell and throw of the material during blasting. The design cut width should be less than
this value. Thus a value of 60 feet has been assumed.
CUT SEQUENCINGS:
After the initial geometry of the bench is completed; the mining of first bench is started as
shown in figure: 12.
The above figure shows that while performing the cut mining operation of bench # 01, the
overall slope angle was 01.
After the mining of bench # 01, the next bench (i.e.: Bench # 02) is mined, as shown in
fig. 13:
Fig: 13:- Cut mining from bench # 02
Where
= individual slope angle.
and 01 = overall slope angle (while mining Bench # 01) of pit.
0 2 = overall slope angle of pit (while mining bench # 02)
It is observed that; the overall slope angle 0 always keep varying as we will advance
the mining from the upper to the lower benches.
i.e.:- 01 02
Now consider the slope consisting of 5 such benches (shown in figure). The angle made
with the horizontal of the line connecting the lowest most toes to the upper most crests is
defined as the overall pit slope.
5x50 (Y)
overall tan 1 50.4O
4x35 5x50
tan75O
Height of each bench = y = 50 feet.
Horizontal distance = x = 35 feet
Distance under slope = x =?
Bench face angle = 750 =
:. tan y
x'
y 50 50
x' 13.4 '
tan tan75 3.732
Since we have 5 benches,
i.e.: - 5 slopes, X= (4*x) + (5*x).
X = (4 x 35) + (5 x 13.4) = 140 + 67 X = 207
Y = 5 x 50 Y = 250
:. Overall pit slope angle = overall
y 250
overall tan 1 tan 1
x 207
overall 50.4O
307
overall 39.2 O
It can be seen that the presence of the ramp n a give section has an enormous impact on
the overall slope angle.
IR1 IR 2 tan 1 y
x
Y 50 50 24 Y 124feet
50 25
X 2x35 2
O O
tan75 tan75
X 70 26.8 6.7 103.5
125
IR1 IR 2 tan 1 50.38
O
103.5
IR1 IR 2 50.4 O
The inter-ramp wall height is 125 ft for each segment. Generally the inter ramp wall
heights and angles for different slope segments would not be the same. From a slope
stability view point each inter-ramp segment would be examined separately.
overall tan 1 y
x
50
As; Y 250' , X 4x35 ' 5 O
'125'
tan75
X 140' 67' 125' X 332 feet
250
overall tan 1 36.98
O
332
The working bench is treated in the same way as a ramp in terms of interrupting the slope.
Therefore from following figure, two inter-ramp angles are shown:-
As; for the above inter ramp angles, the inter ramp heights are,
H1= 50 and H2 = 2
PLANNAR FAILURE
view of plannar
failure.
Fig. 20: Dimensions and forces in a rock slope with a potential failure plane.
As figure 20 shows the dimensions and forces in a rock slope with potential failure plane.
The Mohr-coulomb failure criterion has been used.
R = resisting force;
C = cohesion,
= friction angle.
Wcos= normal force
Wsin= driving force
A= Area of the failure plane.
Example # 01:-
The average planned slope angle i = 700, the orientation of the potential failure plane =
500 and the friction angle = 300. The thickness of he plane is 1ft; the cohesion is 1600
lb/ft3. The unit weight of the rock is 160 lb/ft3, and height of the wall is 100ft.
Sol:-
frictional force
S.F
Sliding force
Frictional force cA Wcos tan
Fig. 21 (a)
i 70, 50
A 70 0 50 0 A 20 0
C 50 0
B 180 0 A C 180 0 70 0
B 110 0
Fig. 21 (b)
1 2 sin A sin C
b
2 sin B (a)
1 2 sin B sin C
a
2 sin A (b)
1 2 sin A sin C
c
2 sin C (c)
H 100
sin B
as, b b
100 100
b 0
130.54feet
or sin50 0.766
F
1600 130.54 244323.05 0.577
291172.88
349838.4
F
291172.88
F 1.2
X 2 i 2 70 5050 30
X Slope angle function 2 400
or X 40
Y slope height function H/
Y 160 100 /1600
Y 10
S.F = 1.6
Example 02:
Determine the limiting pit slope angle (i) using the following data:
Cohesion = C 7800 kg m
3
iii.
Solution:
H 2.5 150 375
Y
c 7800 7.8
Y 48.07
From the slope design chart, at Y=48 and S.F = 1.0, X=18
X 2 i
:. We know that
18 2 i 5050 35 2 13i 750
Now, squaring both sides
Example 03:
Determine the height of slope using the following data.
Slope angle i 65
0
i.
Cohesion c 7800 kg m
2
iv.
Sol:
X 2 i 2 65 5050 35
2
15 15 2 255 2 15
X 30 0
By using the graph of slope design chart for plane failure including various safety
factors
Y c 16 7800
H 49.92m
2.5
H 49.92m
CIRCULAR FAILURE
Fig. 22 (a):
As we know that;
M 0
Mw Mc 0.; Mw w d
Example:
A cutting in saturated clay inclined at a slope of 1 vertical and 1.5 horizontal and has a
vertical height of 10.0 m. the bulk unit weight of soil is 18.5 KN/m3 and its un-drained
cohesion is 40 KN/m2. Determine the safety factor against immediate shear failure along
the slip circle as shown in figure.
Soln:
1 vertical Slope
1.5 horizontal Slope
18.5 KN m 3
C 40 KN m 2
Figure 23
5m
1 Tan 1
16.7m
1 16.7 0
According to Pythagoras theorem,
R 303.9
R 17.43m
1 ?; since given slope of cutting plane ad is 1 vertical and 1.5 horizontal;
1
1 Tan 1
1.5
Thus, 1 33,7
0
90 0 1 1
90 0 33.7 0 16.7 0 39.6 0
39.6 0
6.7
cos 2
17.43
2 cos 1 0.384
2 67.4 0
3 180 0 90 0 67.4
3 22.6
17.43
3 180 1 2 180 0 33.7 0 22.6 0
0
0
3 180 56.3 3 123.71
0
0
as 90 1 1 90 0 33.7 0 16.7 0
0
84.10
180 0 180 0 84.10 39.6
180 0 123.7 0
56.3 0
1 sin sin
aod 1 R2
Area of 2 sin
1
1
17.43
2
sin 84.10 sin 39.6 0
2 sin 56.3 0
1 115.85m 2
In order to find the area of bcd , we must know any one side of bcd . Lets find DB
for sake of ease.
OD R
DB R OD and
sin sin
OD
Rsin 17.43 sin 39.6 0
13.36m
sin sin 56.3 0
DB 17.43 13.36 DB 4.07m
sin 2 sin 3
4.07
1
2
2
2 sin 1
2 4.77m 2
Now area of polygon oabc=Ap
Ap 120.62m 2
1
aoc R 2
180
0
(as) Area of sector 2
As
1
17.43 84.10
180
0
2
As 222.86m 2
S.F
40 17.43 80.10
2
180
0
1891.44 6.54
S.F 1.44
STRIPPING RATIO
Figure 24 (a)
Vm = Vol. of mining
Vc = Vol. of cone
VT = Vol. of truncated portion
:. Vm = Vc- VT
Fig. 24 (b)
As we know that;
1 2
r h
Vol: of cone= 3
Vo= r h (1)
2
Vc R 2 Hc r 2 h h
1 1
3 3
or Vc R 2 h tan
1
(3)
3
:. Mined Vol: Vm VC VT
1 1
Vm r 2 H c r 2 h (4)
3 3
Vol: of waste:
Vw Vm V0
2
Where, Vol: of Ore V0 r h
:. Vol: of waste
Vw Vm V0 (5)
SR Vol : of waste m3
3
:. Stripping Ratio
Vol : of ore. m
Vw Ww
SR (6) SR
V0 or W0
Example:
A cylindrical ore body with radius of 50m and Depth of 250m is to be excavated by
developing a cone. Slopes of the sides of the cone with the horizontal are 550. Unit
weight of the ore is 3.1 tons/m3 and that of the waste rock is 2.6 tons/m3.determine the
stripping ratio (SR).
Data: h tan
50m h 50tan55
h 250m h 71.4m
ore 3.1 tons m 3 H C h h 250 71.4
H C 321.4m
wast 2.6tons/m3
H C RTan
Solution
HC
R
1 Tan55 0
VC R 2 H c
3 R 321.4
Tan55 0
VC 17044879.24m 3
R 225.04m
1
VT 2 h
3
VT 186924.76m 3
Vm VC VT 17044879.24 186924.76
Vm 16857954.48m 3
Vore 2 h 50 2 250 VO 1963495.4m 3
VW Vm VO 16857954.48 1963495.4
VW 14894459.08m 3
PIT LIMITS
The minable material becomes that lying
within the pit boundaries. A vertical section
taken through such a pit is shown in figure
A:
With an increase in price, the pit would expand in size assuming all other factors
remained constant.
The pit existing at the end of mining is called the final pit or the ultimate pit. In b/w
the birth and death of an open pit mine, there are a series of intermediate pits. This
includes a series of procedures based upon:
Hand Methods,
Computer Methods, and
Computer assisted hand methods
The above mentioned methods are used for developing the pit limits. Within the pit
materials of differing values are found. Economics criteria are applied to assign
destination for these materials based on their value (i.e. mill, waste dump, loach dump,
stock pile etc). Once the pit limits have been determined and rules established for
classifying the in pit materials, then the ore reserves (tonnage and grade) can be
calculated.
Cut-off Grade:-
The grade at which the mineral resources cant longer be processed at a profit.
Example:
Determine the pit limits of an open pit mine as shown in figure: setting price of 1m3 of
Ore is US$ 1.9 and mining cost of 1m3 of waste is US$ 1.0.
Sol:
For Strip # 01:-
Vo 1 5 1.25 1
1
Vw 1 6.364 1.25 1 1.25 1.25
2
Vol: of waste (Strip 1) Vw 1 8.74m
3
Vw 1
Ins (S.R) S.R 1.4
Vo 1 Ins
Vol. of waste, Vw 2 6.614 1.25 1 1 1.25 2
2
Vw 2 10.3m 3
For Strip# 03
Vo 3 6.25m 3
Vw 3 8.864 1.25 1 1 1.25
2
2
Vw 3 11.86m 3
S.R ins 11.86 S.R ins 1.9
6.25
As can be seen that the net value changes from (+) to (-) as the pit is expanded, sometimes the N. V
become zero, so that this pit position is termed as Break-even, which is the location of final pit wall.
w
1
9.9 9.9
2
49m 2 thickness 1
overall vol : of waste 49m 3
& overall vol : of ore 9.9 5 1 1 5 5 1
2
49.5 12.5 1m
overall vol : of ore 62m 3
overall strippigratio Vw 49 0.79 0.8
Vo 62
overall value of ore 62 1.9 117.8 US dollars
overall mining cost of waste 49 1 49.00 US dollars
N - value (overall) 117.8 - 49.00
N.V 68.8 US dollars
Example
Copper ore is milled to produce a copper concentrate. This mill concentrate is slipped and
transported to a smatter and the resulting blister copper is eventually refined.
In this example, the following data will be assumed.
Mill recovery rate = 80%
Mill concentrate grade = 20%
Smelting loss = 10 lbs/st of concentrate
Refining loss = 5 lbs/st of blister copper.
The ore is containing 0.55%, All the costs and revenues will be calculated in terms of 1
ton of ore. Note that ore short ton= 2000 lbs.
Solution:-
Step # 01:- Complete the amount of saleable copper (lb/s per st of ore)
n
gi
di
i 1
i di
n
i 1
Where,
gi= given grade of ore at a point.
g= estimated grade of ore.
di= distance b/w known point and point of estimation.
Example:
Calculate the estimated grade of ore at point C, using inverse distance technique.
Known grades of an ore at points C1-C6 ore shown in fig: [in brackets]
Sol:
First lets estimate the value of distances d1, d2...d6 by using Pythogonas theorem.
As we know that;
g1 g 2 g 6
d d d
1 2 6
g
1 1 6
d d d
1 2 6
Using this technique, the grade of ore is found, by using following equations.
n
gi
di
i 1
2
g n
1
di
i 1
2
Using the data of previous example; calculate the grade of ore by squared weighting
technique.
d 1 282.84m - - - - - - - - - - d 1 79998.4656m 2
2
d 2 316.23m - - - - - - - - - - d 2 100001.4129m 2
2
d 3 223.6m - - - - - - - - - - d 3 49996.96m 2
2
d 4 282.84m - - - - - - - - - - d 4 79998.4656m 2
2
d 5 223.6m - - - - - - - - - - d 5 49996.96m 2
2
d 6 316.23m - - - - - - - - - - d 6 100001.4129m 2
2
g1 g2
g 5 2 g 6 2
d 2 d d d
5 6
2
1 2
g
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
d 1 d 2 d d
5 6
3.5885 10 5
g
8.5003 10 5
g 0.422%
A1
1
x 2 x 1 y 2 y1
Area of 2
A 2
1
x 3 x 2 y 2 y 3
Area of 2
A 3
1
x 3 x 1 y1 y 3
Area of 2
Area of A Area of abcd - A1 A 2 A 3
x 3 x 1 y 2 y1
x 3 x 1 y 2 y 3 x 3 x 2 y 2 y 3 1
1
2
x 3 x 1 y1 y 3
Example:
Calculate the above of A by using ore reserve estimation:
Let
x 1 1100m, y1 1200m
x 2 1500m, y 2 1200m
x 3 1100m, y 3 800m From given table.
And we know that;
1 x 3 x 1 y 2 y 3 x 3 x 2
A x 3 x 1 y 2 y 3
2 y 2 y 3 x 3 x 1 y1 y 3
0
1
0 16000 0
2
1
160000
2
A 80,000m 2
OR
1
A bh
2
1
400 400
2
1 160000
2
A 80,000m 2
Example:
Calculate the ore reserves in area, as shown in following figure. Density of the ore is
given as 2.5 tons/m3
Solution:-
As we know that:
A Area of abcd - A1 A 2 A 3
500 700 1 700 200 1 400 300 1 500 300
2 2 2
350000 205000
A 145000m 2
C1 C 2 C 3
Average thickness of ore = 3
3 5 4 12
t av: 4m
2 3
t av: 4m
A t av:
Vol: of ore in Triangular area=
Vol. of ore = 1450004m
Vol. of ore = 580000m3.
;. Ore reserves = 5800002.5
Ore reserves = 1450000
tigi
i 1
n
- - - - - - - (1)
t av:
0.6 0.59 1.4 0.48 1.4 0.6 1.4 0.56 1.3 0.32
0.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3
3.066
t av:
6.1
t av: 0.503m
Calculate the reserves of ore shown in above fig: having a density of 1.35 tons/m3 by
using the weight age average thickness, when; t1=40m, t2=60m, t3=50m
Solution: the weight age average thickness is calculated as:
t 1 1 t 2 2 t 3 3
tw 60 (1)
3
from above fig :
800 300
tan 1 tan 2.5
1
400 200
68.2 0
500 300
1 tan 1 tan 0.5
1
600 400
1 26.56 0
800 500
2 tan 1 tan 1.5
1
600 400
2 56.31 0
Example:
In a level terrain, determine the max height of high wall that dragline can strip without re-
handling, using the following data:
Dumping radius =(Rd)= 47m,
Outside diameter of tub = (Et) = 11m,
Spoil angle of repose ( ) =370
High wall angle = ( ) = 8740
Pit width =(w) = 15m
Sean thickness = (T) = 1.22 m
Swelling factor = (Ps) = 30 %
Solution:
As we know that
Rd = Re + So
.: Re = Rd So -------> 1 and So = 0.75 Et.
Re = 47 (0.75 Et)
Re = 47 (0.75 11)
Re = 47 8.25
Re = 38.75 m
Ps W
Re Hcot cot H1 tan T
100 4
30 15 0
38.75 Hcot740 cot37 0 H1 tan37 1.22
100 4
0.287H 1.3271.3H 2.825 1.22
0.287H 1.7251H 3.748 1.619
38.75 2.0121H 2.13
2.012H 38.75 2.13
36.62
H
2.012
H 18.2