UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

THE EFFECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY

ON MATURE COCOA PLANT

IBROHEM YEEDUM

FP 1988 2
 THE EFF OF WATER AVAILABILITY

ON MA'IURE ax:DA PLAN!'

by

Ibrohem Yeedurn

A thesis subnitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science
in the 'aculty of Agriculture,
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia

April 1 988
 It ls hereby certified that we have rearl this thesis
entitled "The Effect of \vater AVRilahi lity to latlJre Cocoa Plant"
by Ibrohem Yeedum , and in our opinion it is satisfactory in
terms of scope, q ua l i ty , anci presentation as partia 1 fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural
Science

Vb-<A
r

-
. .. . . . . . . . . ,". ........:- . . . .... . .
SULAH1AN M. YASSIN, Ph.D.
Professor/Dean of Graduate Studies
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia
(Chairman Board of Examiners)

1D. SHARIF AHMAD, Ph. D.

Deputy Director General
(Development)
Malaysian Agricultural Research and
Development Institute (MARDI)
(External Examiner)

10IlD. R
Lecturer
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia
(Int e r na l Examiner)

-
--;
-, 1

RAJA H UHAMHA D RAJA HARlIN, Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Faculty of Agriculture
lIniversiti Pertanian Malaysia
(Internal Examiner/Supervisor)
 This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti
Pertanian Malaysia and was accepted as partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the Degree of Master of Agricultural
Science.

Da t e: .-R
tdP '41
. . . ':-:. . .:;: . . . j;,J. . .

:'. . . .
.i 1 J U L lSQ8 .

SIlLAIMAN M. YASSIN, Ph. D.

Professor and
Dean of Graduate Studies
 I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Associate Prof. Dr

Raja Muhammad Raja Harun my supervisor, for the interest and

guidance throughout the duration of this study. My sincere

thanks is also extended to the following persons and

institutions:

The South East Asia Ministry of Education Organization -

South East Asia Regional Centre for Graduate study and Research

in Agriculture (SEAMEO-SEARCA) for providing financial support.

The Faculty of Natural Resources, Prince of Songkla

University (PSU) with Prof. Sujin Jinayon and Dr Prasert

ChitapJng (former dean arrl present dean, respectively) for

allowing Ire to go on study leave.

Sima Darby Plantation Sdn . Bhd., for allowing Ire t o corrluct

the field experiment at Seafield Estate and to Mr. Peter Lim of

Ebor Research for his guidance in some part of the field

experiment.

Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my family; father, mother

and especially Sumsiyoh and Muneeroh (wife arrl daughter,

respectively) for their encouragement, patience and urrlerstanding

throughout the years.

ii
 TABLE OF a:Nl'fN1'S

Page

A........................................ ii

TABLE OF OOl'1I'El'1I'S....................................... iii

LIS!' OF TABLES.......................................... v

LIST OF FIGURES......................................... vii

ABSI'R.AC'r (Eng 1 i sh) ix

ABSrnAC'r (Ba.hasa f'.1alaysia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

CI-IA.?!'ER I Il'lIROOOcrION

CHAPI'ER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Importance of Water in Plant 5

Soil Water Availability 7

Soil Water Balance 8

Plant Water Balance

and Soil-Plant-Atmosphere COtinuum 9

Water Stress or Water Deficit 12

Flooding and Water Logging 14

Effects of Water Availability on Cocoa 16

Hydroperiodicity and
Yield Pattecns of Cocoa 17

Irrigation and Cocoa 26

iii
 Page
CHAPrER III PRELIMINARY S'IUDIES

Introduction............................ 29

Materials and Methods................... 31

Results and Discussion.................. 36

CHAPI'ER IV THE MAIN EXPERIMENT

Introduction............................ 50

Materials and Methods................... 50

Results................................. 66

Discussion.............................. 98

CHAPTER V GENERAL DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . 1 07

BABI..Icx:;R.APHY . 111

APPENDICES

A Method of Measuring Soil r-bisture

(Gravimetric Method)........................ 115

B The Formula for Fruit Set

Percentage calculation...................... 117

C The Technique to Obtain the Osmotic

Potential of Cocoa Leaves 1 18

D Supplemantary Data 119

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

Total Planted Area of Cocoa

by State as at 31 st December , 1 985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Simple Correlation Coefficients

among Cocoa Plant Parameters 38

3 Daily Soil Temperature at 5 an and 1 5 an

Depth under Plastic Mulching Conditions 42

4 So i l Water Retention Characteristics Curve

of Experimented Soil at 2 5-30 an Deep 47

5 Soil Properties at the F ield of Experiment 49

6 The Soil Water Status of Treatments 54

7 The Rainfall ( mm ) at Seafield Estate ,

Ebor division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8 Flowering and Flushing of the Treatments

During the Period of Experiment 76

9 Increase in Stem Cross-Sectional Area,

Leaf Area and Leaf Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

10 Leaf Nutrient status of Treatments 85

11 Pod Yield of Treatments During

the Period of Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

12 Yield Components in Period I 95

13 Yield Canponents in Period II 96

14 Simple Correlations Among Plant Parameters

of Cocoa , Planted at 2 . 5x2 . 5 m Spacing . . . . . . . .. . 1 18

15 Simple Correlations Among Plant Parameters

of Cocoa , Planted at 3 . 0x3 . 0 m Spacing . . . . . . . . . . 1 20

16 MJVA of F10w,ering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 21

17 Anova of Flushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 22

18 Relative Humidity and Temperature , at UPM....... 1 23

19 Cherelle Wilt in Period I....................... 124

v
TABLE Page

20 Pod S ize During Pod

Delopment Period ( Period I ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 25

21 Cherelle Wilt in Period III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 26

22 Pod Size During Pod

Development Period ( Period I I I ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 27

23 ANOVA of Pod yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 28

24 ANOVA of Pod Fresh Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 29

25 ANOVA of Number of Bean/Pod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30

26 ANOVA of Average Weight/Bean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 31

27 ANOVA of Fruit Set Percentage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 32

28 ANOYA of Bean yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 33

29 ANaVA of Increase in Stem Girth

Leaf Production and Leaf Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 34

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Hypothetical Sequence of Event

Associated with Flushing Rhythm
of Cocoa as Imuced by Hydropericrlic Stimulus 20

2 Details of Sub-Division in Recovery

of Lateral Root from Tree samples 35

3 Root Distribution of Cocoa Tree

at the Experimental Site 44

4 Diagram of Tensiometer am Dripper Position 45

5 Soil Moisture Characteristic Curve

of Soil at Experimental Field 48

6 Layout of the Field Experiment

at Seafield Estate . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

7 Diagram of Trenching am Plastic

Covering of Treatment S2 am S3 55

8 Monthly Raifal l During the Pericrl of Experiment

Compared to Four Y ear Average ( 1 982- 1 985 ) 67

9 Soil Water status of Treatments

During the Pericrl of Experiment 68

10 Soil Wetting Patterns of Irrigated Treatment

A : Horizontal Profile B : Vertical Profile 72

11 Soil Wetting Patterns of Treatment Soil Water

About 75 to 80 percent of Available Soil Water
A: Horizontal profile B : Vertical profile 73

12 Flowering and Flushing of Treatments

During the Pericrl of Experiment 75

13 Daily Change in
Leaf Water Potential of Treatments 80

14 Typical "Pressure-Volume Curves"

of Cocoa Leaves at Mid-Day 82

vii
FIGURE Page

15 The Cumulative Cherelle Wi lting Percentage

in Perioo I..................................... 87

16 Pod Size during the Pod Pevelopnent Stage

(Perioo I)...................................... 89

17 The Cumulative Cherelle Wilting Percentage

in Period III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

18 Pod Size During the P od Developnent Stage

( Perioo III) . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . ....... . .... .
. . . 91

viii
 An abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti
Pertanian Malaysia i n fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Agricultural Science

THE EFFEX.'TS OF WATER AVAILABILITY

ON MA'IURE ClXX)A PLANT

by

Ibrohem YeOOum

April 1 988

Supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr Raja Muhammad Raja Harun

Faculty Agriculture

In Malaysia cocoa is usually grown in areas where prolonged

drought is absent in Malaysia. In order to increase cocoa

acreages, it rray be necessary to exterrl cocoa planting to the

northern areas of the Peninsular Malaysia where prolonged dry

period occurs for several rronths in a year. A study is therefore

carried out to observe the effects of reduced water availability

on growth and productivity of mature cocoa .

The results of the experiments showed that flowering in

cocoa is rot dependent on soil water availability. Mild water

stress at 75 to 80 percent of available soil water for one month,

reduced leaf water potential, but not the yield of mature cocoa .
When the mild water stress was prolonged to two mnths, the

effect was similar to that exposed to 30 to 70 percent of

available soil water for shorter periods. Yields were reduced

through an increase in percentage cherelle wilt which comes about

from reduced photosynthate production. Water stressed condition

results in highly negative leaf water potential which brings

about stomatal closure and reduced photosynthesis.

It can therefore be concluded that under conditions of

reduced water availability, irrigation is necessary to maintain

sufficient water supply to maintain plant growth and productivity

of the cocoa plant at the optimum level. Irrigation however has

to be managed to prevent over supply of water which also is

deleterious to plant growth and productivity

.x
 Abstrak tesis yang di kemukakan kepada Senat Universiti
Pertanian Malaysia sebagai memenuhi sebahagian daripada syarat
syarat untuk mendapatkan ijazah Master Sains Pertanian.

KESAN PARAS A I R TERHADAP

TANAMAN KOKO MATANG

Oleh

Ibrohem Yeedum

April 1 988

Peyelia Prof . Madya Dr . Raja Muhammad Raja Harun

Fakulti Pertanian

Koko ialah satu jenis tanama.n tanah rendah yang ditanam di

kawasan tidak mengalami kemarau di Malaysia. Untuk meningkatkan

luas kawasan pengeluarannya , koko mungkin perlu ditanam di

kawasan utara Semananjung Malaysia yang mengalami musim kemarau

selarna beberapa bulan pada tiap-tiap tahun. Satu kajian untuk

menentukan kesan keadaan kemarau kea tas tumbesaran dan

pengeluaran koko telah dijalankan.

Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa pembungaan tidak dipengaruhi

oleh keadaan tahap kelembapan tanah . Kekurangan tahap kelembapan

tanah ke paras 70-80 % memberi kesan kepada karrlungan air dalam

daun , tetapi tidak mempengaruhi hasH koko , dibandingkan dengan

rawatan kawalan . Apabi la keadaan kekurangan lembapan sederhana

di teruskan selarna dua bulan , kesan yang terdapat adalah sarna

seperti kesan kekurangan lembapan ke tahap 30-40 % dalam masa

yang singkat/pendek. Kekurangan hasil disebabkan oleh

peningkatan peratus " cherel le" layu akibat daripada kekurangan

daya pengeluaran fotosintate . Kekurangan lembapan juga

menurunkan potensi air dalam daun kepada tahap yang rendah.

Keadaan ini menyebabkan penutupan stomata dan menghadkan

pengeluaran fotosintate.

Sebagai nnnusan , pengairan adalah mustahak bagi keadaan yang

berkurangan air supaya bekalan air mencukupi untuk menampung

tumbesaran dan daya pengeluaran ke paras optima. Pengairan

mestilah diurus supaya tidak berlebihan kerana ini boleh

menjejaskan daya pengeluaran tanaman koko.

xii
 CHAPl'ER I

INl'RODUCl'ION

Water availability which is related to soil properties , is

common ly considered as one of the most important factors in

controlling plant growth and yield . Either too little water or

too much water causes a water stressed condition which is a

serious problem that limits plant development and yield.

Generally, when assessing the suitabi lity of a region for growing

a given crop , special attention is always given to its rainfa ll

pattern.

The effect of water stress on perennial crops such as rubber ,

oi l palm and coconut is inf luenced by cl imatic factors such as

the intensity and duration of dry seasons . Compared to other

tree crops the cocoa plant appears to be more sensitive to

changes in the environment , particularly water availabi lity.

Alvim ( 1 978 ) asserts that when rainfa ll exceeds 2, 500 to 3,000

mm/year , cocoa yield will be reduced due to water-logged soil for

part of the year and incidence of black pod disease caused by

Phytopthora palmivora . In places where rainfall is less than

1, 200 mm/year , cocoa can be grown successfully if proper

1
 2

irrigation faci lity is provided . Alvim ( 1981 ) further added that

yield variabi lity fran year to year is more affected by rainfal l

distribution than by any other clima tic factors . Nieuwolt et al

( 1 982 ) also suggests that the sui table area for cocoa grCMing

should have a dry season not more than one month in a year.

GrCMth and development of cocoa in relation to water

availability has been studied by many researchers, such as A lvim

and A lvim ( 1975 ) ; Hutcheon ( 1975 ) ; Sale ( 1970 ) ; Boyer ( 1973,

1974 ) and Jadin et al ( 1976 ) . These studies mainly emphasized on

grCMth and development of the cocoa plant in re lation to the

agroclimatic factors, particularly the rainfa l l patterns . Only

few studies have, however, reported on the relationship of soil

water availability to yield patterns and factors such as

f lCMering, pod deve lopment and cherel les wi lt ( Hutcheon et al,

1973; Jadin et aI, 1978 and Lim et al, 1986 ) . The optimum soi l

water availabi lity for each yield pattern has not been ful l y

determined . A lvim and Alvim ( 1978 ) pu t the necessity of such

information in the following way :

"It is necessary to recognise that more experimenta l

information is needed to demonstrate the hydro
periodicity hypothesis and therefore to define the most
suitable water regimes for cocoa growth and yield. The
absence of clear cut evidence sti ll prevails, primari ly
due to the difficulties found in applying different
water regimes to mature cocoa plants . Juvenile plants
cannot be used because they flush at a more or less
fixed interval of approximately two months and usually
do not shCM any synchronism among themselves with
regard to their growth periodicity"
 3

In Malaysia , a simi lar view was expressed by Neiuwolt (1 982)

who noted that relatively little local research has been carried

out on the optimum water requirement for cocoa and most

information regarding to the climatic needs for cocoa are

obtained from abroad , especial ly South America and A frica.

Certainly those information can be used as a guide but may not be

direct ly relevant to the conditions in Ma laysia .

The distribution of cocoa plantation areas i n Malaysia is

shown in Table 1 . As was also pointed out by Nieuwolt (1 982) the

limi ted acreage of cocoa in Kedah/Perlis , Penang and Kelantan is

attributed to the discouraging yield caused by the long dry

periods in these states. In some parts of Terengganu good yield

is limited not only by a long dry period but also by f lash-floods

and serious wind damage during northeast monsoon season .

Clearly from these observations it can be seen that water

avai labi lity plays an important role in production. The extent

of this role in relation to p lant development , f lowering and

production under the local conditions need to be quantified and

understood.
 4

TABLE 1

TOTAL PLANTED AREA BY STATE

AS AT 31 ST DECEMBER, 1985

= = = = = == = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

State Area ( ha )

Johore 11, 8 16
Kedah/Perlis 804
Kelantan 308
Negri Sembi ian 990
Pahang 13, 372
Penang 304
Perak 27, 059
Saooh 135, 114
Sarawak 15, 670
Selangor 23, 394
Terengganu 1, 620

Total 232, 149

------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------

from : Ma laysia Agricultura l Directory and Index, 1986

With the above in mind this project was initiated using

mature p lants with the fol lowing objectives :

1. To study the physio logical responses and adaptibi lity of

mature cocoa trees to different levels of water

availability under the field conditions.

2. To study the yield patterns of cocoa a s affected b y the

different levels of water availability .

3. To study the effects of the length of dry period on

flowering and subsequent yield in cocoa .

 0IAPl'ER II

RE.VIEW OF LITERA'IURE

THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN PLANT

Water is the main constituent of plant tissues, making about

50 percent of fresh weight of woody plants and as high as 80 to

90 percent of fresh weight of herbaceous plants (Kramer, 1 983 )

It is an important component of protoplasm where plant chemical

reactions take place . As most of the plant chemical reactions

are related to wa ter, water is therefore necessary for plant

growth and developnent . The importance of water in plants can be

summarized by listing its important functions under four general

head ings (Kramer, 1983):

Consti tuent

Water is an important constitutuent of plant tissues playing

as important a role as that of the protein and lipid molecules .

The reduction of water content below some critical level will be

accompanied by changes in cell structure and ultimately death of

the plant tissue .

5
 6

Solvent

Water is known to be a good solvent for gases, minerals and

other solutes. Because of this property, mineral ions contained

in the soil solution can be taken up by the plant roots. Gardner

(1985) describes that the primary process of mineral

translocation from the soil to plant is by the mass flow by

water.

Reactant

Water is the reactant or substrate in nany important

processes including photosynthesis and hydrolytic processe such

as the amylase mediated hydrolysis of starch to sugar in

germinating seed.

Maintenance of Turgidity

Turgor is an important factor in the opening of stcmata and

rrovement of leaves, flCMer petals and various s peciali z ed plant

structures. Turgidity is essential for cell enlargement in order

to increase cell si ze for cell divi s i on.

The water relations of plants is dominated by cell water

relations because rrost of the water occurs in cell, chiefly in

the vacuoles. Thus the best measure of the energy status in

plants is the water potential ('-P). Water potential ("+') is

defined as a free energy of water and of any system ia the

arrount by which chemical potential is reduced compared to that of

 7

pure water (Kramer, 1983). Generally, the water potential value

is the result of solute potential, pressure potential, matric

potential of that system.

Any condition that affects plant water status leads directly

to changes in the plant which alters the physiological

environment of the crops, and these changes may subsequently

affect the physiology of the crop which is reviewed in the

following sections.

SOIL WATER AVAILABILITY

The main source of water for plants is soil water. Water

from rainfall or precip i tation is collected by the soil, stored

and released to the plant for its growth and development. Water

that can be taken up by plant from the soil is defined as

"available water" of the soil. Generally, the available water

range is the soil water content between field capacity (Fe) and
1
permanent wilting point (PWP ) or between -0.33 and -15 bar in
'
terms of soil suction . Soil water content exceeding FC and below

PWP is defined as an unavailable water .

Soil water available range is determined by the texture and

structure of the soi 1. Clay soils have SlPall pores and a lot of

pore volume while sandy soils contain large pores but small pore

volume . Thus, clay soils have higher water holding capacity

1 0 bar = 1MPa
 8

than tha t of sandy soils . In other words, clay soils have a

wider water available range than sandy soils .

When the soil is at PC, all of its pores are full of water,

and is supposed to be at the maximum water holding capa.city

because the water above the PC is drained down by gravity, also

known as deep percolation . Initial water uptake by the plant i s

water from the large pores and when these get depleted the

absorption of water occurs from smaller pores . This be comes

relatively more and more difficult because of the increas ing

surface tension and soil pa.rticle attractive forces. Thus as the

soil gets drier it will get progressively difficult for the

plants to extract water from the soil . At PWP the plant can no

longer extract any water from soil and the plant wilts and may

not recover even if water availability is resumed .

SOIL WATER BALANCE

Rainfall intercepted by the soil surface infiltrates and is

distributed through the soil volume. If the rainfall is greater

than the infiltration rate, water loss by surface run off will

occur . Deep percolation and evapotranspiration are also the

other processes of water loss from the root zone . A mathematical

model of soil water balance as given by Kramer (1 983) is as

follONs:

W = p - (0 + U + E)

Where W '" change in soil water storage (initial water

content minus the final soil water content)

 9

P = precipitation

o = run off

U = deep percolation beyond the root zone

E = evapotranspiration

PLANI' WATER BALANCE AND SOIL-PLANT-ATMJSPHERE Q)NTINUUM

The main source of plant water is the water absorbed from

the root zone. Water is also absorbed through lenticels and leaf

scars on stems; however, such pathways are of little importance

as the water absorbed through them consti tutes very small portion

of the total amount of water absorbed by the plant. Water

absorbtion through lenticels and scars occurs only during the

wetting fran precip i tation and/or water application (Kramer,

1983). Thus water absorbtion through leaf and stem seems to be

important in mineral and pesticide studies . It is of l ittle

s ignificance in plant-water relationship study .

In soil-plant water relation study, the water status of soil

and plant are preferably explained in terms of water potential

( 0/). Water will be moved fran regions of high water potential to

regions of low wa ter potential, along the water potential

gradient. Water is absorbed by plants fran the soil as a result

of water potential gradient between root and soil and is then

translocated fran the root epidermis to the xylem vessel and

leaves. Some amount of plant-water is used to maintain the plant

cell water status and hie-chemical processes, such as

 10

photosynthesis and respiration and some amount of water is lost

by transpiration through the stanatal pores. Water movement from

soil to p lant and from p lant to atmosphere can be explained in

tenns of "water [X)tentia l gradient".

In soil-p lant-atmosphere system, the is highest in soi l

and decreasing from root to the leaf, being minimum in the

abrosphere. This potentia l gradient resul ts in the transport of

water from soil to plant and subsequently lost through the leaf

into the atmosphere. This concept, known as "soil-p lant-

atmosphere continuum (SPAC ) ", provides a theoretical basis for a

general approach to the water relation of plant-environment

interactions. Kaufmann and Hal l ( 1974 ) cited that under steady

state conditions the flux of water through any part of continuum

may be expressed as a driving force or water [X)tentia l gradient

divided by a resistance since the flow through each segment is

equa l . Mathematical ly, this expression can be written by Van den

Honet equation as fol lows:

Flux = soil - ",root = '- root - 't'leaf = e leaf - e air

r soil to root r root to leaf r leaf+r air

Where "\.v" is water potentia l, "e" is vapour pressure and

"r" is resistance to flow. According to this concept, it can be

sUITlnari zed that :