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CHAPTER FIVE
HEATING LOADS
5.1- INTRODUCTION
Calculating residential heating loads involves the estimation of the maximum (block) heat loss
of each room or space to be heated, and hence, the simultaneous maximum (block) heat loss for the
entire building, while maintaining a selected indoor air temperature during periods of design outdoor
weather conditions. Mainly, the heat loss components, as shown in Fig.(5.1), are:
1. The heat transferred from the indoor to the outdoor through the confining walls, glass, ceiling,
floor, or other surfaces. The concept of thermal resistance is applied to provide a satisfactory
estimation for the above mentioned components, where the calculations are done using tables that
list coefficients and other data required for typical situations. In HVAC work the term building
envelope refers to the walls, roofs, floors, and any fenestrations that enclose the building, through
which heat can transfer, as follows:
a) The walls and roofs, which are usually assembled of multi-layers of various materials.
b) The windows, which are often made of two or more layers of glass with air spaces between
them and usually have drapes or curtains.
c) The basements, in which floors and walls are in contact with the ground.
2. Infiltration losses or energy required to warm outdoor air leaking through cracks and crevices
around doors and windows, open doors and windows, and through porous building materials.
If the thermal conductivity, the heat transfer rate and area are constant, Eq.(5.1) can be written as:
A t t
q k t 2 t1 1 2 (5.2)
x x kA
A very useful form of Eq.(5.2) is:
q t1 t 2
1
(5.3)
R
Where:
R is the thermal resistance defined by:
R x kA (5.4)
The thermal resistance for a unit area of material is very commonly used in handbooks and in the
HVAC literature. Fig.(5.2) shows a wall constructed of three different materials. The heat transferred
by conduction is given by Eq.(5.4), the same value of heat is transferred through the different layers
as:
q qa qb qc (5.5)
t1 t 2 t 2 t 3 t 3 t 4 t1 t 4
q (5.6)
Ra Rb Rc Rt
Where Ra, Rb, and Rc are the thermal resistances for different materials of the composite wall shown
above, while Rt is the total of thermal resistance of it.
Generally:
t t t1 t n
q 1 n (5.7)
Rt xa xb xc xn
......
k a Aa kb Ab kc Ac k n An
For plane walls, the area is constant and above equation can be written as:
At1 t n
1
q (5.8)
Rt
xa xb xc x
Rt ...... n (5.9)
k a kb k c kn
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CHAPTER FIVE HEATING LOADS
Note: The values of thermal conductivity are given for a wide range of building material, see Table
(5.1), and insulating materials, see Table (5.2).
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CHAPTER FIVE HEATING LOADS
Where fi and fo are respectively the film coefficient for the inner and the outer surfaces of walls
and ceilings. Experiments revealed that the f value increases with the increase in the surface
roughness, air speed, and/or the temperature difference. Therefore, estimating its value is far too
difficult, and hence, the value of fi is estimated considering stationary air in the indoor, while its value
for the outdoor is estimated according to the season as:
fi =9.37 W/m2 C, For stationary air
fo =34.1 W/m2 C, For wind speed 24 km/h at winter
2
fo =22.7 W/m C, For wind speed 24 km/h at summer
Taking the thermal resistance for the two film layers of the composite wall, the total thermal
resistance becomes:
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1 xa xb xc x 1
Rt ...... n (5.12)
f i k a kb k c kn f o
Table (5.3) Film or surface conductance (f) for air film and air spaces
The thermal conductivity k (W/m C) is usually used for homogeneous materials. On the other
hand, a factor called the heat conductance C (W/m2 C) is utilised for non-homogeneous materials,
where the thermal resistance for those materials is estimated as:
1
Rc (5.14)
C
The values of thermal conductance for a wide range of construction materials are given in Table
(5.4) for the thickness indicated.
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Table (5.4) Thermal conductance (C) of some building materials and construction for the thickness
indicated
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Notes:
1- The values of overall heat transfer coefficient for a wide range of structures are given in Table
(5.5) for the thickness indicated and outside wind velocity of 24 km/hr.
2- More details about thermal properties of various building materials and structures are given
in Table (5.6) published by ASHRAE, which is quite useful for design purposes.
Table (5.5) Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) for structures with outside wind velocity of 24 km/hr
Example 5.1- A plane wall is made up of 20mm cement plaster, 24cm of brick having density of
(1920kg/m3), and 20mm perlite sand aggregate. If the outside temperature is 45C and the inside
temperature is 22C. Find: 1. Thermal resistance of the wall, 2. Heat transfer rate across the wall.
Solution-
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1
Ut =2 W/m2.C
Rt
Q=UA(to-ti)
q =Q/A=2(45-22)=46 W/m2 Ans.
Table 5.6- Typical Thermal Properties of Common Building and Insulating MaterialsDesign Valuesa
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Table 5.6- Typical Thermal Properties of Common Building and Insulating MaterialsDesign Valuesa (Continued)
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Table 5.6- Typical Thermal Properties of Common Building and Insulating MaterialsDesign Valuesa (Continued)
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Table 5.6- Typical Thermal Properties of Common Building and Insulating MaterialsDesign Valuesa (Continued)
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The internal surface temperature of any wall or roof is not equal to the room inside temperature.
The temperature of the room internal surface depends upon convection heat transfer conditions inside
the room, thermal insulation of the room, and the outdoor temperature and wind strength. If the
internal surface temperature of a wall or roof ts decreases below the room dew point tdp, the water
vapour will start to condense on that surface. This phenomenon causes damage to the wetted surface.
Sometimes, it is not an option to increase wall/roof thermal insulation, thus, it is necessary to reduce
either the indoor humidity or the air film thermal resistance through increasing the air speed over the
wall/roof surface in order to avoid such a problem.
The internal surface temperature of a particular wall or roof can be easily computed if the
temperature difference between its internal and external sides is known. This can be done as follows:
At i t o
1 A
q t t (5.18.a)
Rt Rt
Also:
Ati t s
1 A
q t f (5.18.b)
Rf Rf
Where the internal surface temperature ts can be found by equating above equations as:
R f t f ti t s
(5.19)
Rt tt ti to
Example 5.2- A building wall consists of 20mm cement plaster, 15cm limestone concrete of density
(1920kg/m3), and 13mm lightweight aggregate gypsum plaster. If the outside temperature is -18C
and the inside temperature 24C DBT and 18C WBT, determine whether the moisture will condense
on that wall or not? If so, find the thickness of fiber glass (k =0.055 W/m C) required to prevent
condensation.
Solution:
From Table (5.6), we find that:
Cement plaster k1 =0.72 W/m C
Limestone concrete (1920kg/m3) k2 =1.14 W/m C
Lightweight aggregate gypsum plaster (13mm) C3 =17.7 W/m2 C
Fiber glass k =0.055 W/m C
1 x1 x2 1 1
Rt
f i k1 k 2 C3 f o
1 20 10 3 15 10 2 1 1
=0.352 m2 C/W
9.37 0.72 1.14 17 .7 34 .1
1 1
R fi 0.1067 m2 C/W
f i 9.37
R fi
ti t s 0.1067
24 t s
ts =11.27C
Rt ti t o 0.365 24 18
From the psychrometric chart, we find that the dew point for the inside condition is 14.8C.
As ts < tdp, the water vapour will condense on the inside surface of the wall.
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Rt new= 0.487 m2 C/W
Rt new= Rwall + Rins.
0.487=0.352+ Rins
Rins=0.135 m2 C/W
x
Rins ins.
kins.
xins=Rins kins=0.1350.055=7.425 mm of fiber glass is required to prevent condensation.
Example 5.3- An inside room faces an enclosed porch. The room wall adjacent to the porch is 6m
long by 2.5m height and includes a one glazed door 1m by 2m. Single glass, which has Uglass=6.3
W/m2 C, forms 80% of the total area of the door, which is made of 50mm wood having Rwood=0.22
m2.C/W based on 25mm wood thickness. The wall is built of 20mm gypsum plaster (kgypsum= 0.8
W/m2 C) on both sides and 12cm common brick (kbrick= 0.72 W/m2 C). Find: 1. Heat loss from the
door, 2. Heat loss from the wall. If:
Indoor condition: 22C DBT, 50% RH.
Outdoor condition: 4C DBT, 2C WBT.
Solution:
1. Heat loss from the door:
Uglass=6.3 W/m2 C
Rwood=0.22 m2 C/W for 25mm=xwood/kwood, thus;
kwood= xwood/Rwood = 0.025/0.22= 0.1136 W/m2.C
1 x 1
Rwood wood , where; fo=fi
f i k wood f o
1 50 10 3 1
0.653 m 2 . C / W
9.37 0.1136 9.37
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11
U wood
1.53 W / m 2 . C
Rwood 0.653
Qwood=Uwood Awood [0.5 (ti-to)]
=1.532[0.2(12)][0.5(22-4)] = 5.5 W
Qglass=Ug Ag (ti-to) 0.5
=6.3[0.8(12)][0.5(22-4)]=90.7 W
Qdoor total= Qglass+ Qdoor
=5.5+90.7=96.2 W
2. Heat loss from wall:
kgypsum= 0.8 W/m2 C
kbrick= 0.72 W/m2 C
1 x1 x2 1
Rwall , where; fo=fi
f i k1 k 2 f o
1 20 10 3 12 10 2 1
0.405 m 2 . C / W
9.37 0.8 0.72 9.37
1 1
U wall 2.468 W / m 2 . C
Rwall 0.405
Awall=(62.5)-(12)=13 m2
Qwall=Uwall Awall [0.5 (ti-to)]
=2.46813[0.5(22-4)]=289 W
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There are two ways to estimate the rate of air infiltrating as clarified in the sub-sections below.
5.5.1- AIR CHANGE METHOD
To estimate how many times that the air is replaced in a room as a result of infiltration, it should
be taken into consideration the structure of this room and its usage in addition to the climatic
conditions, wind speed, etc. So, knowing the volume of the room considered along with the number
of times of air change per hour, shown in Table (5.7), the infiltration rate can be estimated as:
V= ACH Room Volume (5.27)
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Wind Velocity (km/hr)
Type of Aperture Remarks 8 16 24 32 40
CHAPTER FIVE
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Average; non-weather-stripped. 650.3 1988.1 3623 5481 7432.24
Note: Calk is a substance used for filling in the gaps around the edge of something, e.g. windows.
Poorly-fitted 5017 12821 20439 28614 36975.4
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HEATING LOADS
CHAPTER FIVE HEATING LOADS
Example 5.4- An office includes (12) windows double hung 1.5m1m, (8) windows single hung
0.5m1m and 4 poorly fitting doors 2m1.5m. If there are 26 persons in this office and the infiltration
rate across windows is 1296L/hr.m while its value for the doors is 14,400L/hr.m, find the heating
loads due to both air infiltrating across windows and doors and ventilation air. Also, find the amount
of water vapour must be added to the air to maintain an indoor condition of 22C DBT and 50% RH
when the outdoor condition is 4C DBT and 2C WBT.
Solution:
Infiltration through windows:
1- Double hung: LC=No.[2(H+W)+H]= 12[2(1.5+1)+1]=72m
2. Simple hung: LC=No.[2(H+W)]=8[2(1+0.5)]=24m
LC t=72+24=96m
V=96 m1296=124416 L/hr =34.56 L/s
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Table (5.9)
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Table (5.9)
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