EUROPA-TECHNICAL BOOK SERIES

for the Metalworking Trades

Ulrich Fischer Max Heinzler Friedrich Nher Heinz Paetzold

Roland Gomeringer Roland Kilgus Stefan Oesterle Andreas Stephan

Mechanical and
Metal Trades
Handbook
3rd English edition

Europa-No.: 1910X

VERLAGEUROPALEHRMITTEL Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG

Dsselberger Strae 23 42781 Haan-Gruiten Germany
 3

Preface
1Mathematics
The Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook is well-suited M
for shop reference, tooling, machine building, maintenance 928
and as a general book of knowledge. It is also useful for ed-
ucational purposes, especially in practical work or curricula
and continuing education programs.
Target Groups
Industrial and trade mechanics 2Physics
Tool & die makers P
Machinists 2950
Millwrights
Draftspersons
Technical Instructors
Apprentices in above trade areas
Practitioners in trades and industry 3Technical
Mechanical Engineering students Drawing TD
Notes for the user 51110
The contents of this book include tables and formulae in
eight chapters, including Tables of Contents, Subject Index
and Standards Index.
The tables contain the most important guidelines, designs,
types, dimensions and standard values for their subject 4Material
areas. Science MS
Units are not specified in the legends for the formulae if sev- 111200
eral units are possible. However, the calculation examples
for each formula use those units normally applied in practice.
The Table of Contents in the front of the book is expanded
further at the beginning of each chapter in form of a partial
Table of Contents. 5Machine
The Subject Index at the end of the book (pages 435444) is Elements ME
extensive. 201268
The Standards Index (pages 425434) lists all the current
standards and regulations cited in the book. In many cases
previous standards are also listed to ease the transition from
older, more familiar standards to new ones.
6Production
Changes in the 3rd edition
In the present edition, we have updated the cited standards
Engineering PE
and restructured, updated, enhanced or added the follow- 269366
ing chapters in line with new developments in engineering:
Fundamentals of technical PAL programming system
mathematics for NC turning and NC
Strength of materials milling
Plastics Steel types 7Automation and
Production management Material testing Information Tech- A
Forming Machining processes nology 367424
Welding Injection molding (new)
GRAFCET
Acknowledgement
Special thanks to Alexander Huter, Vocational Training
Specialist Tool and Die, Ontario, for his input into the 8
International Material
English translation of this book. His assistance has been Comparison Chart, S
extremely valuable.
Standards 425434
November 2012 Authors and publisher
4

Table of Contents

1 Mathematics (M) 9
1.1 Units of measurement 1.4 Lengths
SI base quantities and base units . . . . . . . . . 10 Division of lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Derived quantities and their units . . . . . . . . 11 Spring wire lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Non-SI units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Rough lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2 Formulas 1.5 Areas
Formula symbols, mathematical symbols . . 13 Angular areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Formulas, equations, graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Triangle, polygon, circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Transformation of formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Circular sector, circular segment . . . . . . . . . 24
Quantities and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Calculation with quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.6 Volume and surface area
Percentage and interest calculation . . . . . . 17 Cube, cylinder, pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
 Truncated pyramid, cone,
1.3 Angels and triangels Truncated cone, sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Types of angels, sum of angels in Volumes of composite solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
a triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.7 Mass
Theorem of intersecting lines, General calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Pythagorean theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Linear mass density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Functions of right triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Area mass density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Functions of oblique triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Centroids
Centroids of lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Centroids of plane areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2 Physics (P) 29
2.1 Motion 2.6 Strength of materials
Uniform and accelerated motion . . . . . . . . . 30 Load cases, types of loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Speeds on machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Material properties, stress limits . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2 Forces Strength calculation, safety factors . . . . . . 41
Representation, addition and resolution of Allowable stresses, modulus of
forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Types of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Tensile and compressive stress,
Torque and levers, torque in gear drives . . 34 surface pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Shear, bending and torsional stress . . . . . . 43
2.3 Work, power, efficiency Moments of area, section moduli . . . . . . . . 44
Mechanical work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Simple machines and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.7 Thermodynamics
Potential and kinetic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Temperature, linear expansion,
Power and efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4 Friction Quantity of heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Friction force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Heat flux, heat of combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Coefficients of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Net calorific values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Coefficients of rolling friction . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.8 Electricity
2.5 Pressure in liquids and gases Quantities and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Pressure, definition and types . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Ohms law, electrical resistance . . . . . . . . . 47
Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Current density, resistor circuit . . . . . . . . . . 48
Hydraulic power transmission . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Types of current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Pressure intensification, Electrical work and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
flow velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Changes of state in gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
 Table of Contents 5
3 Technical Drawing (TD)51
3.1 Graphs 3.6 Machine elements, representation
Cartesian coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Gear types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Graph types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Roller bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.2 Basic geometric constructions Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Lines and angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Retaining rings, springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Tangents, circular arcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.7 Object elements
Inscribed circles, ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Bosses, object edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Cycloids, involute curves, parabolas . . . . . 57 Thread runouts, thread undercuts . . . . . . 84
3.3 Elements of drawing Threads, screw joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Center holes, knurls, undercuts . . . . . . . . . 86
Preferred numbers, radii, scales . . . . . . . . 59 3.8 Welding and soldering
Drawing layout, bills of materials . . . . . . . . 60 Graphical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Line types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Dimensioning examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4 Representation 3.9 Surfaces
Projection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Hardness specifications in drawings . . . . 92
Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Form deviations, roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Sectional views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Surface testing, surface indications . . . . 94
Hatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.10 ISO tolerances and fits
3.5 Dimensioning drawings Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Dimensioning lines, dimension values . . . 71 Basic hole system, basic shaft system . . . 102
Dimensioning rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 General tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Elements of drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Roller bearing fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Tolerance specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Fit recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Types of dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Geometric tolerancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Simplified presentation in drawings . . . . . 78

4 Materials Science (MS)111

4.1 Materials
Material characteristics of solids . . . . . . . 112
Material characteristics of liquids
and gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Periodic table of the elements . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.2 Steels, designation system
Definition and classification of steel . . . . . 116
Standardization of steel products . . . . . . . 117
Designation system for steels . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.3 Steels, steel types
Overwiew of steel products . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Unalloyed steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Case hardened steels, quenched &
tempered steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Nitriding steels, free cutting steels . . . . . . 131
Tool steels, stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Steels for bright steel products . . . . . . . . . 137
4.4 Steels, finished products
Sheet and strip metal, tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Linear mass density and area mass
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.5 Heat treatment
Iron-carbon phase diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Heat treatement of steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Hardening of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.6 Cast iron materials
Designation andmaterial codes . . . . . . . . .157
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Malleable cast iron, cast steel . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.7 Foundry technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.8 Light alloys
Overview of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Wrought aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Aluminum profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Magnesium and titanium alloys . . . . . . . . .171
4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
Overview and designation system . . . . . . . 172
Copper and refined zinc alloys . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.10 Other metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.11 Plastics
Overview and designation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Thermoset plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Thermoplastics, elastomers . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Plastics processing, testing of plastics . . 186
6 Table of Contents

4.12 Material testing 4.13 Corrosion, hazardous materials

Overview, tensile test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Rotary bending test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Hazardous materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Hardness test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

5 Machine Elements (ME)201

5.1 Threads 5.6 Pins and clevis pins
Types of threads, overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Metric ISO threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Grooved pins, grooved drive studs,
Other types of threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 clevis pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Thread tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
5.2 Bolts and screws Keys, gib-head keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Overview, designations, property classes 208 Feather keys, splined shaft joints . . . . . . . . 239
Hexagon head bolts & screws . . . . . . . . . .211 Metric tapers, morse tapers, steep tapers 240
Other bolts & screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Tool holding fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Screw joint calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 5.8 Other machine elements
Locking fasteners, bolt and screw drive Tension, compression and disc springs . 242
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221 Grub screws, thrust pads, knobs . . . . . . . .245
T-slots and accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.3 Countersinks Quick-release drilling fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Countersinks for countersunk head
screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 5.9 Drive elements
Counterbores for cap screws . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5.4 Nuts Transmission ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 5.10 Bearings
Designations, property classes . . . . . . . . . 226 Plain bearings, overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Hexagon nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Plain bearing bushings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Other nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Antifriction bearings, overview . . . . . . . . . 259
5.5 Washers Ball bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Overview, flat washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Roller bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Washers for HV bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Sealing elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Lubricating oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Lubricating greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

6 Production Engineering (PE)269

6.1 Quality management
Standards, terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Quality planning, quality testing . . . . . . . . . 272
Statistical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Statistical process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Quality management of processes . . . . . . 276
6.2 EC Machinery Directive
EC Machinery Directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
CE marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.3 Production organization
Overview; product breakdown
structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Work planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Cost accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
6.4 Maintenance, repair & overhaul (MRO)
Maintenance, inspection, repair,
improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
MRO concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Documentation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.5 Machining processes
Overview; forces and power . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Indexable inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Cooling lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Cuttin tool materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Grinding, honing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.6 Removal operations
Electric discharge machining . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Process parameters in EDM erosion . . . . 324
 Table of Contents
6.7 Separation by cutting
Cutting force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Cutting tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
6.8 Forming
Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Deep drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.9 Injection molding
Injection molding tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Shrinkage, cooling, batching . . . . . . . . . . . 341
7
6.10 Joining
Welding processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Weld preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Gas-shielded welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Beam cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Gas cylinders, identification . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Brazing, bonded joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
6.11 Workplace and environmental protection
Safety colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Warning signs, safety signs . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Sound and noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

7 Automation and Information Technology (A)367

7.1 Control engineering, basic terminology 7.5 Hydraulics, pneumatics
Basic terminology, code letters, symbols 368 Circuit symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Analog controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Proportional valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Discontinuous and digital controllers . . . . 371 Circuit diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Binary logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Pneumatic control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Numbering systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Electro-pneumatic control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Information processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Electro-hydraulic control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
7.2 Electrical circuits Hydraulic fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Circuit symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Pneumatic cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Designations in circuit plans . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Hydraulic pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Circuit diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 7.6 Handling and robot systems
Safety precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Coordinate systems and axes . . . . . . . . . . . 404
7.3 GRAFCET Robot designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Important basic terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Grippers, job safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Steps, transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 7.7 CNC technology
Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Coordinate axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Branchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Program structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
7.4 Programmable logical controllers PLC Tool offset and cutter compensation . . . . 409
PLC programming languages, overview . . 388 Program structure according to DIN . . . . . 410
Ladder diagram (LD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Program structure according to PAL . . . . . 412
Instruction list (IL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 PAL functions for lathes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
PLC programming languages, PAL cycles for lathes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 PAL functions for milling machines . . . . . . 417
Programming example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 PAL cycles for milling machines . . . . . . . . . 418

8 Material Chart, Standards (S) 425434

8.1 International material comparison 8.2 Index of cited standards and other
chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

Subject Index 435444

8

Standards and other Regulations

Standardization and standards terms
Standardization is the systematic achievement of uniformity of material and non-material objects, such as compo-
nents, calculation methods, process flows and services for the benefit of the general public.
Standards term Example Explanation
Standard DIN 7157 A standard is the published work of standardization, e.g. the selection of particular
fits in DIN 7157.
Part DIN 30910-2 Standards can comprise several parts associated with each other. The part num-
bers are appended to the main standard number with hyphens. DIN 30910-2
describes sintered materials for filters for example, whereas Part 3 and 4 deal with
sintered materials for bearings and formed parts.
Supplement DIN 743 A supplement contains information for a standard, however no additional specifi-
Suppl. 1 cations. The supplement DIN 743 Suppl. 1, for example, contains application
examples of load capacity calculations for shafts and axles described in DIN 743.
Draft EDIN 743 Draft standards are made available to the public for examination and comment-
(2008-10) ing. The planned new version of DIN 743 on load-bearing calculations of shafts
and axes, for example, has been published since October 2008 as Draft E DIN 743.
Preliminary DIN V 66304 A preliminary standard contains the results of standardization, which have not
standard (1991-04) been released as a standard because of certain provisos. DIN V 66304, for example,
discusses a format for exchange of standard part data for computer-aided design.
Issue date DIN 76-1 Date of publication which is made public in the DIN publication guide; this is the
(2004-06) date at which time the standard becomes valid. DIN 76-1, which sets undercuts
for metric ISO threads has been valid since June 2004 for example.

Types of standards and regulations (selection)

Type Abbreviation Explanation Purpose and contents
International ISO International Organization for Simplifies the international exchange of
Standards Standardization, Geneva (O and S goods and services, as well as cooperation
(ISO standards) are reversed in the abbreviation) in scientific, technical and economic areas.
European EN European Committee for Standardi- Technical harmonization and the associated
Standards zation (Comit Europen de reduction of trade barriers for the advance-
(EN standards) Normalisation), Brussels ment of the European market and the coa-
lescence of Europe.
German DIN Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V., National standardization facilitates rational-
Standards Berlin (German Institute for ization, quality assurance, environmental
(DIN standards) Standardization) protection and common understanding in
DIN EN European standard for which the economics, technology, science, manage-
German version has attained the ment and public relations.
status of a German standard.
DIN ISO German standard for which an inter-
national standard has been adopted
without change.
DIN EN ISO European standard for which an
international standard has been
adopted unchanged and the Ger-
man version has the status of a Ger-
man standard.
DIN VDE Printed publication of the VDE,
which has the status of a German
standard.
VDI Guidelines VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure e.V., These guidelines give an account of the cur-
Dsseldorf (Association of German rent state of the art in specific subject areas
Engineers) and contain, for example, concrete procedu-
ral guidelines for the performing calculations
VDE printed VDE Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker
or designing processes in mechanical or
publications e.V., Frankfurt (Association for
electrical engineering.
Electrical, Electronic & Information
Technologies)
DGQ DGQ Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Qualitt Recommendations in the area of quality
publications e.V., Frankfurt (German Society for technology.
Quality)
REFA sheets REFA Association for Work Design, Indus- Recommendations in the area of produc-
trial Organization and Corporate tion and work planning.
Development REFA e.V., Darmstadt
 Table of Contents 9

1Mathematics
1.1 Units of measurement
M
Unit
Quantity Symbol
Name Symbol SI base quantities and base units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Derived quantities and their units . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Lengths meter m
Non-SI units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Surface area 1.2 Formulas

p d2 Formula symbols, mathematical symbols . . . . . . 13 P
As = p d h + 2 Formulas, equations, graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4
Transformation of formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Lateral surface area Quantities and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Calculation with quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
AM = p d h
Percentage and interest calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.3 Angels and triangels TD

opposite side Types of angels, sum of angels in a triangle . . . . 18
sine =
hypotenuse
Theorem of intersecting lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
adjacent side
cosine = Functions of right triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
hypotenuse
opposite side Functions of oblique triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
tangent =
adjacent side

MS
1.4 Lengths
Division of lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Spring wire lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Rough lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1.5 Areas ME
Angular areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Triangle, polygon, circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Circular sector, circular segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.6 Volume and surface area

Cube, cylinder, pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 PE
Truncated pyramid, cone, truncated cone, sphere. . 26
Volumes of composite solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

kg 1.7 Mass
m' in m General calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1m Linear mass density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
A
Area mass density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
d

y 1.8 Centroids
S S2 Centroids of lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
S1 Centroids of plane areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
S
ys

xs
x
 10 1.1 Units of measurement

Units of measurement
M SI1) Base quantities and base units cf. DIN 1301-1 (2010-10), -2 (1978-02), -3 (1979-10)

Electric Thermo-
Base Amount of Luminous
Length Mass Time current dynamic
quantity substance intensity
temperature
Base kilo-
meter second ampere kelvin mole candela
units gram
Unit
m kg s A K mol cd
symbol
P 1)The units for measurement are defined in the International System of Units SI (Systme International dUnits). It
is based on the seven basic units (SI units), from which other units are derived.

Base quantities, derived quantities and their units

Unit Remarks
Quantity Relationship
Symbol Name Symbol Examples of application

Length, Area, Volume, Angle

TD
Length meter m 1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm 1 inch = 25.4 mm
= 1000 mm In aviation and nautical applications
1 mm = 1000 m the following applies:
1 km = 1000 m 1 international nautical mile = 1852 m
Area A, S square meter m2 1 m2 = 10000 cm2 Symbol S only for cross-sectional
= 1000000 mm2 areas
are a 1 a = 100 m2
hectare ha 1 ha = 100 a = 10000 m2 Are and hectare only for land
MS 100 ha = 1 km2
Volume V cubic meter m3 1 m3 = 1000 dm3
= 1000000 cm3
liter , L 1 = 1 L = 1 dm3 = 10 d = Mostly for fluids and gases
0.001 m3
1 m = 1 cm3
Plane a, b, g
radian rad 1 rad = 1 m/m = 57.2957 1 rad is the angle formed by the
angle = 180/p intersection of a circle around the
ME (angle)
degrees 1 = p rad =60*
center of 1 m radius with an arc of 1
180 m length.
In technical calculations instead of
minutes * 1* = 1/60 = 60+
a = 33 17* 27.6+, better use is a =
seconds + 1+ = 1*/60 = 1/3600 33.291.

Solid angle steradian sr 1 sr = 1 m2/m2 An object whose extension measures

1 rad in one direction and perpendicu-
larly to this also 1 rad, covers a solid
angle of 1 sr.
PE
Mechanics
Mass m kilogram kg 1 kg = 1000 g Mass in the sense of a scale result or a
gram g 1 g = 1000 mg weight is a quantity of the type of mass
(unit kg).
megagram Mg
metric ton t 1 metric t = 1000 kg = 1 Mg
0.2 g = 1 ct Mass for precious stones in carat (ct).
A Linear mass m* kilogram kg/m 1 kg/m = 1 g/mm For calculating the mass of bars, pro-
density per meter files, pipes.

Area mass m+ kilogram kg/m2 1 kg/m2 = 0.1 g/cm2 To calculate the mass of sheet metal.
density per square
meter
Density r kilogram kg/m3 1000 kg/m3 = 1 metric t/m3 The density is a quantity independent
per cubic = 1 kg/dm3 of location.
S meter = 1 g/cm3
= 1 g/ml
= 1 mg/mm3
 1.1 Units of measurement 11

Units of measurement
Quantities and Units (continued) M
Sym- Unit Remarks
Quantity Relationship
bol Name Symbol Examples of application

Mechanics
Moment J kilogram x kg m2 The following applies for a The moment of inertia (2nd moment
of inertia, 2nd square homogenous body: of mass) is dependent upon the total
Moment of meter J = r r2 V mass of the body as well as its form
mass and the position of the axis of rotation.
P
Force F newton N
1 N = 1 kg 2
m = 1 J The force 1N effects a change in
s m velocity of 1 m/s in 1 s in a 1 kg mass.
Weight FG, G 1 MN = 103 kN = 1000000 N
Nm 2
1 N m = 1 kg 2m
Torque M newton x 1 N m is the moment that a force of
Bending mom. Mb meter s 1 N effects with a lever arm of 1 m.
Torsional T
mom.
Momentum p kilogram x kg m/s 1 kg m/s = 1 N s The momentum is the product of the
meter mass times velocity. It has the direc-
TD
per second tion of the velocity.
Pressure p pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 0.01 mbar Pressure refers to the force per unit
1 bar = 100000 N/m2 area. For gage pressure the symbol pg
Mechanical s, t newton N/mm2 = 10 N/cm2 = 105 Pa is used (DIN 1314).
stress per square 1 mbar = 1 hPa 1 bar = 14.5 psi (pounds per square
millimeter 1 N/mm2 = 10 bar = 1 MN/m2 inch )
= 1 MPa
1 daN/cm2 = 0.1 N/mm2 MS
Second I meter to the m4 1 m4 = 100000000 cm4 Previously: Geometrical moment of
moment of fourth power inertia
area centimeter cm4
to the fourth
power
Energy, Work, E, W joule J 1 J = 1 N m =1 W s Joule for all forms of energy, kW h
Quantity of = 1 kg m2/s2 preferred for electrical energy.
heat
ME
Power P watt W 1 W = 1 J/s =1 N m/s Power describes the work which is
Heat flux G = 1 V A = 1 m2 kg/s3 achieved within a specific time.

Time
Time, t seconds s 3 h means a time span (3 hrs.),
Time span, minutes min 1 min = 60 s 3h means a point in time (3 oclock).
Duration hours h 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s If points in time are written in mixed
day d 1 d = 24 h = 86400 s form, e. g. 3h24m10s, the symbol min
year a can be shortened to m. PE
Frequency f, v hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1/s 1 Hz 1 cycle in 1 second.

Rotational n 1 per second 1/s 1/s = 60/min = 60 min1 The number of revolutions per unit of
speed,
1/min = 1 min1 = 1 time gives the revolution frequency,
Rotational 1 per minute 1/min 60 s also called rpm.
frequency
Velocity v meters per m/s 1 m/s
= 60 m/min Nautical velocity in knots (kn):
= 3.6 km/h
second 1 kn = 1.852 km/h A
meters per m/min 1 m/min = 1 m
60 s miles per hour = 1 mile/h = 1mph
minute
1 mph = 1.60934 km/h
kilometers per km/h 1 km/h = 1 m
hour 3.6 s
Angular w 1 per second 1/s w=2pn For a rpm of n = 2/s the angular
velocity radians per rad/s velocity w = 4 p/s.
second
Acceleration a, g meters per m/s2 S
1 m/s2 = 1 m/s Symbol g only for acceleration due to
second 1s gravity.
squared g = 9.81 m/s2 10 m/s2
 12 1.1 Units of measurement

Units of measurement
M Quantities and units (continued)
Sym- Unit Sym- Remarks
Quantity Relationship
bol Name bol Examples of application

Electricity and Magnetism

Electric current I ampere A
The motion of an electrical charge is
Electromotive E volt V 1 V = 1 W/1 A = 1 J/C
force called current. The electromotive force
Electrical R ohm O 1 O = 1 V/1 A is equal to the potential difference be
P resistance tween two points in an electric field. The
Electrical reciprocal of the electrical resistance is
G siemens S 1 S = 1 A/1 V = 1/O
conductance called the electrical conductivity.
1
1
mm
2
mm2
Specific r ohm x O m 106 O m = 1 O mm2/m r=
r = inin
k
k m
m
resistance meter
1 m
Conductivity g, k siemens S/m k=
k = 1 in
in m
per meter r
r mm

2
mm2
Frequency f hertz Hz 1 Hz =1/s Frequency of public electric utility:
TD 1000 Hz = 1 kHz EU 50 Hz, USA/Canada 60 Hz
Electrical energy W joule J 1 J = 1 W s =1 N m In atomic and nuclear physics the unit
1 kW h = 3.6 MJ eV (electron volt) is used.
1 W h = 3.6 kJ
Phase j for alternating current: The angle between current and voltage
difference cosj = P in inductive or capacitive load.
UI
Elect. field strength E volts per meter V/m
MS Elect. charge Q coulomb C
F Q
1 C = 1 A 1 s; 1 A h = 3.6 kC E = , C = , Q = I t
Elect. capacitance C farad F 1 F = 1 C/V Q U
inductance L henry H 1 H = 1 V s/A

Power P watt W 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N m/s In electrical power engineering:

Effective power =1VA Apparent power S in V A

Sym- Unit Sym- Remarks

Quantity Relationship
bol Name bol Examples of application
ME Electricity and Magnetism
Thermo- T, Q kelvin K 0 K = 273.15C Kelvin (K) and degrees Celsius (C) are
dynamic used for temperatures and tempera-
temperature t, h degrees C 0C = 273.15 K ture differences.
Celsius Celsius 0C = 32F t = T T0; T0 = 273.15 K
temperature 0F = 17.77C degrees Fahrenheit (F): 1.8F = 1C
Quantity of Q joule J 1 J = 1 W s =1 N m 1 kcal 4.1868 kJ
heat 1 kW h = 3600000 J = 3,6 MJ
PE
Net calorific Hu joule per J/kg 1 MJ/kg = 1000000 J/kg Thermal energy released per kg fuel
value kilogram minus the heat of vaporization of the
Joule per J/m3 1 MJ/m3 = 1000000 J/m3 water vapor contained in the exhaust
cubic meter gases.

Non-SI units
Length Area Volume Mass Energy, Power

1 inch (in) = 25.4 mm 1 sq.in = 6.452 cm2 1 cu.in = 16.39 cm3 1 oz = 28.35 g 1 PSh = 0.735 kWh
A
1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 m 1 sq.ft = 9.29 dm2 1 cu.ft = 28.32 dm3 1 lb = 453.6 g 1 PS = 735 W
1 sq.yd = 0.8361 m2 1 cu.yd = 764.6 dm3 1 t = 1000 kg 1 kcal = 4186.8 Ws
1 yard
(yd) = 0.9144 m 1 acre = 4046.856 1 gallon 1 short 1 kcal = 1.166 Wh
m2 1 (US) = 3.785 ton = 907.2 kg
1 nautical 1 kpm/s = 9.807 W
mile = 1.852 km Pressure 1 gallon 1 Karat = 0.2 g
1 (UK) = 4.546 1 Btu = 1055 Ws
1 mile = 1.6093 km 1 bar = 14.5 1 pound/in3 = 27.68
pound/in2 1 barrel = 158.8 g/cm3 1 hp = 745.7 W
S
1 N/mm2 =  45.038
1
pound/in2
 1.2 Formulas 13

Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols

Formula symbols cf. DIN 1304-1 (1994-03)
M
Formula Formula Formula
Meaning Meaning Meaning
symbol symbol symbol
Length, Area, Volume, Angle
Length r, R Radius a, b, g Planar angle
w Width d, D Diameter W Solid angle
h Height A, S Area, Cross-sectional area l Wave length
s Linear distance V Volume
Mechanics P
m Mass F Force G Shear modulus
m* Linear mass density FW, W Gravitational force, Weight , f Coefficient of friction
m+ Area mass density M Torque W Section modulus
r Density T Torsional moment I Second moment of an area
J Moment of inertia M b Bending moment W,E Work, Energy
p Pressure s Normal stress Wp, Ep Potential energy
pabs Absolute pressure t Shear stress Wk, E k Kinetic energy
pamb Ambient pressure e Normal strain P Power
pg Gage pressure E Modulus of elasticity n Efficiency TD
Time
t Time, Duration f, v Frequency a Acceleration
T Cycle duration v, u Velocity g Gravitational acceleration
n Revolution frequency, w Angular velocity a Angular acceleration

Speed Q, V, qv Volumetric flow rate
Electricity
Q Electric charge, Quantity of
electricity
L Inductance X Reactance MS
R Resistance Z Impedance
E Electromotive force
r Specific resistance j Phase difference
C Capacitance
g, k Electrical conductivity N Number of turns
I Electric current
Heat

T, Q Thermodynamic
Q Heat, Quantity of heat G, Q Heat flow
temperature
l Thermal conductivity a Thermal diffusivity
DT, Dt, Dh Temperature difference
a Heat transition coefficient c Specific heat
t, h Celsius temperature
a , a Coefficient of l inear
k Heat transmission Hnet Net calorific value ME
expansion coefficient

Light, Electromagnetic radiation

E Illuminance f Focal length I Luminous intensity
n Refractive index Q, W Radiant energy
Acoustics
p Acoustic pressure LP Acoustic pressure level N Loudness
c Acoustic velocity I Sound intensity LN Loudness level PE
Mathematical symbols  cf. DIN1302 (1999-12)
Math. Math. Math.
Spoken Spoken Spoken
symbol symbol symbol
approx. equals, around, , proportional
a n a to the n-th power, the n-th
log logarithm (general)
about
power of a lg common logarithm
equivalent to 03
and so on, etc. n square root of ln natural logarithm
6 infinity 03 n-th root of e Euler number (e = 2.718281)
A
= equal to x absolute value of x sin sine
not equal to o perpendicular to cos cosine

== is parallel to
def is equal to by definition tan tangent
< less than parallel in the same direction cot cotangent


less than or equal to parallel in the opposite direction (), [], {} parentheses, brackets
> greater than @ angle open and closed
greater than or equal to triangle p pi (circle constant =
+ plus 9 congruent to 3.14159)
minus Dx delta x (difference between AB line segment AB
times, multiplied by two values)
AB arc AB
S
, /, :, over, divided by, per, to % percent, of a hundred
a*, a+ a prime, a double prime
S sigma (summation) per mil, of a thousand
a1, a2 a sub 1, a sub 2
 14 1.2 Formulas

Formulas, Equations, Graphs

M Formulas
In most cases, the calculation of physical quantities is done with the help of formulas.
They consist of:
Formula symbols, e.g. vc for cutting velocity, d for diameter, n for speed
Operators (calculation rules), e.g. for multiplication, + for addition, for subtraction
Formula for
and (fraction line) for division
cutting velocity
Constants, e.g. p (pi) = 3.14159
Numbers, e.g. 10, 15 vc = p d n
P The formula symbols (page 13) are wildcards for quantities. When solving m
athematical
problems, the known quantities with their units are filled in the formulas. Before or
during the calculation process, the units are converted in a way that
the calculation becomes feasible or
the result comprises the required unit.
Most quantities and units are standardized (page 10).
The result is always a numerical value accompanied by a unit, e.g. 4.5 m, 15 s

Example:
TD
What is the cutting velocity vc in m/min for d = 200 mm and n = 630/min?
1 1m 1 m
vc = p d n = p 200 mm 630 = p 200 mm 630 = 395.84
min 1000 mm min min

Numerical value equations

Numerical value equations or numerical equations are formulas in which the typical Numerical value
MS conversions of units have already been integrated. The following should be noted when equation for torque
using equations:
The numerical values of the individual quantities may only be used in combination with M = 9550 P
the designated unit. n
The units are not carried along in the calculation.
The unit of the quantity to be obtained is predetermined.
Example: Designated unit
Designation Unit
What is the torque M of an electrical motor with a driving power of P = 15 kW and a
ME speed of n = 750/min? M Torque Nm
9550 P 9550 15 P Power kW
M= = N m = 191 N m
n 750 n Speed 1/min

Equations and graphs

In functional equations, y is the function of x, with x as an independent and y as a Assigned function
dependent variable. The number pairs (x, y) of a value table form a graph in the x-y
system of coordinates. y = f(x)
PE
1st example:
example: y = 0.5 x + 1
3 Linear function
y = 0.5x+1
x 2 0 2 3
2
y 0 1 2 2.5 y=mx+b
m = 0.5
y

1
b =1 2nd example:
Cost function and revenue function
2 1 1 2 3 Ct = 60 $/piece Q + 200000 $ Examples:
A 1 x R = 110 $/piece Q Cost function
Q 0 4000 6000
800 000 Ct 200000 440000 560000 Ct = CV Q + Cf
$ break-even revenue fit
point (BEP) pro R 0 440000 660000
600 000
costs or revenue

total Revenue function

400 000 costs Ct total costs dependent variable
variable costs Q quantity independent variable R = R/piece Q
200 000 s
los fixed costs Cf fixed costs y coordinate section
S 0 Cv variable costs gradient of the
0 2000 4000 pieces 6000 function
quantity R revenue dependent variable
 1.2 Formulas 15

Transformation of formulas
Transformation of formulas M
Formulas and numerical equations are transformed so that the quantity to be obtained
stands alone on the left side of the equation. The value of the left side and right side of Formula
the formula must not change during the transformation. The following rule applies to all
steps of the formula transformation. P = F s
t
Changes applied to the Changes applied to the left side right side
= of the = of the
left formula side right formula side
formula formula
To be able to trace each step of the transformation, it is useful to mark it to the right next
P
to the formula:
t both sides of the formula are multiplied by t.
: F both sides of the formula are divided by F.

Transformations of sums

Example: formula L = 1 + 2, transformation to find 2 TD

1 L = 1 + 2 1 subtract 1 3 L 1 = 2 invert both sides

2 L 1 = 1+ 2 1 perform 4 2 = L 1 transformed
subtraction formula

Transformations of products
MS
Example: formula A = b, transformation to find

1 A = b : b divide by b 3 A= invert both sides

b

2 A= b cancel b 4 =A transformed
b b b formula
ME
Transformations of fractions

Example: formula n = , transformation to find s
1 + s

1 n= (1 + s) multiply by (1 + s) 4 n 1 n 1 + n s = n 1 : n subtract
1 + s divide by n

cancel (1 + s) on the
PE
2 n (1 + s) = (1 + s) right side 5 s n = n 1 cancel n
(1 + s) solve the term in n n
brackets

3 n 1 + n s = n 1 subtract n 1 6 s = n 1 transformed
n formula

Transformations of roots
Example: formula c = 122222
a2 + b22, transformation to find a
A

a2 + b2
1 c = 122222 ()2 square equation 4 a2 = c2 b2 12 extract the root

subtract b2 a22 = 12 2 b2 simplify the

2 c2 = a2 + b2 b2 5 12 c22 222 expression
S
3 c2 b2 = a2 + b2 b2 subtract, a = 122 b2
c22 transformed
invert both sides
6 222 formula
 16 1.2 Formulas

Quantities and units

M Numerical values and units
Physical quantities, e.g. 125 mm, consist of a
Physical quantity
numerical value, which is determined by measurement or calculation, and a
10 mm unit, e.g. m, kg
Units are standardized in accordance with DIN 1301-1 (page 10).
Numerical Unit
value Very large or very small numerical values may be represented in a simplified way
as decimal multiples or factors with the help of prefixes, e.g. 0.004 mm = 4 m.

P
Decimal multiples or factors of units cf. DIN1301-1 (2004-10)
Prefix Power Mathematical
Examples
Symbol Name of ten designation
T tera 1012 trillion 12000000000000 N = 12 1012 N = 12 TN (teranewtons)
G giga 109 billion 45000000000 W = 45 109 W = 45 GW (gigawatts)
M mega 106 million 8500000 V = 8.5 106 V = 8.5 MV (megavolts)
k kilo 103 thousand 12600 W = 12.6 103 W = 12.6 kW (kilowatts)
TD
h hecto 102 hundred 500 = 5 102 = 5 h (hectoliters)
da deca 101 ten 32 m = 3.2 101 m = 3.2 dam (decameters)
100 one 1.5 m = 1.5 100 m
d deci 101 tenth 0.5 = 5 101 = 5 d (deciliters)
c centi 102 hundredth 0.25 m = 25 102 m = 25 cm (centimeters)
m milli 103 thousandth 0.375 A = 375 103 A = 375 mA (milliamperes)
micro 106 millionth 0.000052 m = 52 106 m = 52 m (micrometers)
MS n nano 109 billionth 0.000000075 m = 75 109 m = 75 nm (nanometers)
p pico 1012 trillionth 0.000000000006 F = 6 1012 F = 6 pF (picofarads)

Conversion of units
Calculations with physical units are only possible if these units refer to the same base in this calculation. When
s olving mathematical problems, units often must be converted to basic units, e. g. mm to m, s to h, mm2 to m2. This
is done with the help of conversion factors that represent the value 1 (coherent units).
ME
Conversion factors for units (excerpt)
Quantity Conversion factors, e. g. Quantity Conversion factors, e. g.

Length 1 = 10 mm = 1000 mm = 1m = 1 km Time 1 = 60 min = 3600 s = 60 s = 1 min

1 cm 1m 1000 mm 1000 m 1h 1h 1 min 60 s
2 2
Area 1 = 100 mm = 100 cm = Angle 1 = 60 = 60 = 3600 = 1
1 cm2 1 dm2 1 1 1 60 s
PE 3 3
Volume 1 = 1000 mm = 1000 cm = Inch 1 inch = 25.4 mm; 1 mm = 1 inches
1 cm3 1 dm3 25.4

1st example:
Convert volume V = 3416 mm3 to cm3.
Volume V is multiplied by a conversion factor. Its numerator has the unit cm3 and its denominator the unit
mm3.
A 1 cm3 3416 mm3 3416 cm3
V = 3416 mm3 = = = 3.416 cm3
1000 mm3 1000

2nd example:
The angle size specification a = 4216 is to be expressed in degrees ().
The partial angle 16 must be converted to degrees (). The value is multiplied by a conversion factor, the
numerator of which has the unit degree () and the denominator the unit minute ().
S 1 16 1
a = 42 + 16 = 42 + = 42 + 0.267 = 42.267
60 60
 1.2 Formulas 17

Calculation with quantities, Percentage and interest calculation

Calculation with quantities M
Physical quantities are mathematically treated as products. Rules for raising
Adding and subtracting to powers
a base
Numerical values that have the same unit are added or subtracted and the unit is
carried over to the result. m, n exponents

Example:
L = 1 + 2 3 mit 1 = 124 mm, 2 = 18 mm, 3 = 44 mm; L = ? Multiplying P
powers
L = 124 mm + 18 mm 44 mm = (124 + 18 44) mm = 98 mm
a2 a3 = a2+3
Multiplying and dividing
The numerical values and the units correspond to the factors of products.
Dividing
Example: powers
F1 1 = F2 2 mit F1 = 180 N, 1 = 75 mm, 2 = 105 mm; F2 = ?
a2 TD
F1 1 180 N 75 mm N mm = a23
F2 = = = 128.57 = 128.57 N a3
2 105 mm mm

Multiplying and dividing powers Special cases

Powers that have the same base are multiplied or divided by adding or subtracting
their exponents. 1
a2 =
a2
Example: MS
A a2 with A = 15 cm2, a = 7.5 cm, e = 2.4 cm; W = ? a1 = a a0 = 1
W=
e
15 cm2 (7.5 cm)2 = 15 56.25 cm2+2 = 351.56 cm41 = 351.56 cm3
W=
2.4 cm 2.4 cm1

Percentage calculation
The percentage rate indicates the part of the base value in hundredths. Percent value ME
The base value is the value from which the percentage is to be calculated.
B P
The percent value is the amount representing the percentage of the base value. Pv = v r
Prpercentage rate, in percentPvpercent valueBv base value 100 %
Example:
Weight of raw part: 250 kg (base value); material loss of 2% (percentage
rate); material loss in kg = ? (percent value)

Pv =
B v Pr 250 kg 2 %
= = 5 kg PE
100 % 100 %

Interest calculation
P principle I interest t period in days, Interest
A amount accumulated r interest rate per year interest period
Prt
I =
1st Example: 100% 360
%
A
P = $ 2800.00; r = 6 ; t = 1/ 2 a; I = ?
a
% interest year (1 a) = 360 days (360 d)
1
P = $$ 2800.00;
2800.00 r6 =a 6 0.5
% ; t = 1/ 2 a; I = ?
a a
I = %
= $ 84.00 360 d = 12 months
100%
$ 2800.00 6 a 0.5 a
I = % = $ 84.00
1 interest month = 30 days
nd = $ 4800.00;
2 P Example: 100% r = 5.1 ; t = 50 d; I = ?
a
P = $$ 4800.00; =5 %.1 % ; t = 50 d; I = ?
4800.00 r5.1 50 d
a a
I = %d
= $ 34.00
I =
$ 4800.00
100% 5.1360a a
50 d
= $ 34.00
S
d
100% 360
a
 18 1.3 Angels and Triangels

Types of angles, Theorem of intersecting lines, Angles in a triangle, Pythagorean theorem

M Types of angles
g straight line Corresponding angles
g1, g2 parallel straight lines
a=b
a, b corresponding angles
g2 b, d opposite angles Opposite angles

a, d alternate angles b=d

a, g adjacent angles
Alternate angles
P

g1 If two parallels are intersected by a straight line, there a=d

are geometrical interrelationships between the resulting
Adjacent angles
g angles.
a + g = 180

Theorem of intersecting lines

TD tto outer torsional stress If two intersecting lines are intercepted by a pair of Theorem of
tti inner torsional stress parallels, the resulting segments form equal ratios. intersecting lines

a2 d
a1 b1 2
a1 = =
Example: a2 b2 D
to 2
D = 40 mm, d = 30 mm,
ti tta = 135 N/mm2; tti = ?
MS tti d t d
= tti = to
a1 a2 b1 b2
= =
b2
b1
D
d

tto D D b1 b2 d D
135 N/mm2 30 mm
= = 101. 25 N/mm2
40 mm

Sum of angles in a triangle

a, b, c sides of the triangle Sum of angles in
ME a, b, g angles in the triangle a triangle

b a a + b + g = 180
Example:

a = 21, b = 95, g = ? In every triangle, the

c sum of the interior
g = 180 a b = 180 21 95 = 64
angles equals 180.

Pythagorean theorem
PE
In a right triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal Length of the
to the sum of the squares on the sides meeting the right hypotenuse
a 2 angle.
b2 a side c2 = a2 + b2
bc a b side
c hypotenuse
1st example: Square on the
c2 hypotenuse
A c = 35 mm; a = 21 mm; b = ?
b = c 2 a 2 = (35 mm)2 (21 mm)2 = 28 mm c = a2 + b2
2nd example:
CNC programm with R = 50 mm and I = 25 mm.
Length of the sides
K=?
P2 meeting the right angle
G0 c2 = a2 + b2
3 R2 = I 2 + K 2 a = c 2 b2
S R K P1 X
I Z K = R 2 I 2 = 502 mm2 252 mm2
K = 43.3 mm b = c 2 a2
 1.3 Angels and Triangels 19

Functions of triangles
Functions of right triangles (trigonometric functions) M
c hypotenuse (longest side) Trigonometric functions
c hypotenuse a a, b sides, opposite side
adjacent b is the adjacent side of a sine =
hypotenuse
side of a is the opposite side of a
a, b, g angles in the triangle, g = 90 adjacent side
b adjacent side of cosine =
hypotenuse
sin notation of sine
c hypotenuse a cos notation of cosine opposite side
tangent =
adjacent tan notation of tangent adjacent side P
side of sina sine of angle a
b opposite side of Relations applying to angle a:
1st example
sina = a cosa = b tana = a
c c b
L3 = 140mm L1 = 150 mm, L2 = 30 mm, L3 = 140 mm;
angle a = ?
L1 + L2 180 mm Relations applying to angle b:
tan a = = = 1. 286 TD
L3 140 mm sinb = b cosb = a tanb = b
L1 = 150 mm

c c a
Angle a = 52
L

The calculation of an angle in

2nd example degrees () or as a circular

L1 = 150 mm, L2 = 30 mm, a = 52; measure (rad) is done with the

help of inverse trigonometric
L2= 30 mm

Length of the shock absorber L = ?

functions, e. g. arcsine.
L1 + L2 180 mm
F L= = = 228.42 mm MS
sin a sin 52

Functions of oblique triangles (law of sines, law of cosines)

According to the law of sines, the ratios of Law of sines
the sides correspond to the sine of their
b a opposite angles in the triangle. If one side a : b : c = sina : sinb : sing
and two angles are known, the other values

a = b = c

can be calculated with the help of this

sina sinb sing ME
c function.
Side a opposite angle sina
Side b opposite angle sinb
Hypothenuse c opposite angle sing There are many transformation
options:

Example: a = b sina = c sina

sinb sing
F = 800 N, a = 40, b = 38; Fz = ?, Fd = ?
b = a sinb = c sinb PE
40}

Fd The forces are calculated with the help sina sing

Fz of the forces diagram.
c = a sing = b sing
12}

F F F sin b sina sinb

= z Fz =
sin a sin b sin a
F Fz =
800 N sin38
= 766.24 N
sin 40 Law of cosines

Diagram of forces F F
= d Fd =
F sin g a2 = b2 + c2 2 b c cosa A
sin a sin g sin a b2 = a2 + c2 2 a c cosb
F c2 = a2 + b2 2 a b cosg
800 N sin102
Fd = = 1217.38 N
=38 sin 40
}
The calculation of an angle in degrees () Transformation, e. g.
2}

or as a circular measure (rad) is done with

10

2 2 2
cosa = b + c a
=
=

Fd the help of inverse trigonometric functions, 2bc

40

e. g. arcsine.
12}

Fz S
}
 20 1.4 Lengths

Division of lengths, Arc length, Composite length

M Sub-dividing lengths
Edge distance = spacing total length n number of holes Spacing
p spacing
   
Example:

P 

Edge distance ) spacing total length n number of holes Spacing

p spacing a, b edge distances
   
Example:

TD
 


Subdividing into pieces bar length s saw cutting width Number of pieces
z number of pieces r remaining length
 s piece length
MS 
Example:

Remaining length

r = z (s + s)
  

ME Arc length
Example: Torsion spring a arc length a angle at center Arc length
r radius d diameter


 Example:
 

PE

Composite length
D outside diameter d inside diameter
dm mean diameter t thickness
1, 2 section lengths L composite length
A  a angle at center

Example (composite length, picture left):

 Composite length
D = 360 mm; t = 5 mm; a = 270; 2 = 70 mm;
dm = ?; L = ? L = 1 + 2 +






S