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    (International Encyclopedia of Unified Science. Foundations of The Unity of Science, 2, 2) Thomas S. Kuhn-The Structure of Scientific Revolutions-University of Chicago Press (1970) PDF

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    Antonis Kehribaris

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    INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA of UNIFIED SCIENCE The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Second Edition, Enlarged Thomas S. Kuhn sot é Sed Shed 6 International Encyclopedia of Unified Science Editorin-Chief Otto Neurath ‘Associate Editors Rudolf Cormop Charles Mortis Foundations of the Unity of Science (Volumes Ill ofthe Encyclopedia) Commitee of Organization Resour Cursar Cuanats Moms Paate Fran Grro Never Jomces Jomcns Lous oven ‘Advisory Commitee Nas Bom vow Mss Ecos Brox G. Maxnounr cur Ensure Nace, Jou Devs Arse Nass Froenco Exagens Hass Recmemact Hae Pee ‘An Rev Come LHe Berman Rosse, Warnmwan Kaswrrest —L. Stsay Sree ‘Vieron F. Linas ‘Aum Tessar Js Loxasmeence Enwas . Tone Wau M. Masorr Jose H, Wooo say 0-26-02 nd 0-28-45840 peperbond) ary of Congres Caog ard Number Tare International Encyclopedia of Unified Science Volume 2- Number 2 The Structure of Scientific Revolutions ‘Thomas S. Kuhn Contents: Prurace 1. Iermooucnon: A Rour Fon Histonv 1. Taz Rovre ro Nona, Scuce UL, Tue Nature oF Nomis, Scumce IV, Nonmeat. Scumice as Penzis-souvine Tue Pwonery oF Panapicass VI. Anowaty ano mie Evaicence oF Scunnic Dis- VII. Chusts ano rie Escznoance ov Scanernic THEORIES VII. Tar Resroxse 10 Css 1X, That Naren aso Necassry oF Scinerinic Revo X. Ravouirmons As Cuusces of Wort Vizw XL Taz Invest oF Revouroxs XIL Tar Resouvn0w oF Revouunoxs XIIL Process mimoccit Revousmions Posscurr—1969 age a Mt 160 m4 Preface The esay tn flows th it al pba ep on et orgy conceived lest iteen year ag. At tat Tine Twas agaduate stadent tn theoreti phys aad ‘wit ight ofthe end of my diseratin. A frtnate vob then sith an experimental college couse testing psi ‘lnc forthe nomslentt provided my fit exposze Co the Iistory of science, 'To my complete supa ha exposure t> ttl date scetie theory and practic adel underined Sle of my Beste conceptions about the nature of sence and {he reson fort apeil sucess “Those concepons were ones Thad previously dawn partly from scetii aning el snd pry rm 4 Iogatending vocational interest tthe phlosphy of scence. Somehow, Suter their pedagogic wlty an the abtat pau, Thos notions dl notat al the enterprise that historically spayed, Yet they were and are fundamental to many die usin a scence and tht flies ofverisntudeterlore seed thoroughly worth pursuing There wat drastic Shc tn my eater plans ast fam ply fo history of ct ence and then, gradually, from rave rightforrad hi tora robles back tothe more pibsphial cones that tad inal fede to tory. Expt for afew ate, this cay isthe nt of my pulsed works in wich these eanty concerns are dominant In some parti an attempt to expan to mye and fo friends how I happened tobe drawn fom ssc 10 ho inthe it age ‘Ny Bist opportunity to pursue depth some of the Kea et focth blow was provided by the yes a Jone Fellow of the Socety of ellos of Harvard Univers. Without that period of freedom the trast to new Bld of ty woud Eve been far more dificil and might not have been achieved. Past of my time fn those years was devote to bistory of cence ‘proper In paral T continued to study the writings of Ax. Yate Preface td Kad wd rt exch of Eade ay, Hage ean Nt cay Wer saree at gone ac nae ae OS Tena el eae tie coo nde ent Stl at ye a ie ups ls line {cy gringo pera Ses ce ire tacts tar San aerate ae he eae Paperny Stef yea fn thre ome, va set lo tng hast at das ey a cee Leen erste ortnortt ace a true soa cial We TEE Bs clyrene oy wk ra Pope smc ae waa Pe oe Tap tel Seoe eee aeoee ee Cer pep ar pede emt ee ee oe ne Wott peat ratte oO Scenes fee pacha cae aya pia aos ieee Roden apne ahh Say oto pe hades cre easton ed eather teat ee I cto oes iy a i oe ae eg SRE cl gi a le oe gi seh Sai enue conte ge oe oy ae eee Fa Sent oe nee wet retaee mapas ich om apenas Ws en a Wl TS le rete teh Ba Ela It Some opal oa of Vow (Ctdpe Mas 6p TS Yuna Preface ‘senschaftlichen Tatsache (Basel, 1935), an essay that antic: ce ee ate imeem es mado ats gence eg eaten ty er a araour tracer me os ay potent Po atin Pinkrideanasgacersnste ie wollen asin mane Se meres Soutgnesiedeieht og ak STi eel Eigen omelet Si in ee aes fells wT can chet teristics ie ising Ruy sel iia non Een fru eb Shed wage iret soi sl te Tapp onsen ea tienes nubtrian pnctoascnd Fag Sa co me foe dar mmgiec sera ne SShpeT Tee rTP he pega fe os “The Bal stage in the development of this essay began with an invitation to spend the year 1558-50 at the Center for ‘Advanced Studies inthe Behavioral Sclences. Once again T was fable to give undivided attention to the problems dicussed ‘below. Even more important, spending the yer in a community Val No.2 wt Preface a ee ee Sareea eee a ae eter a ses So ears mato Hah oy des mae at eee ee eae arieet pero en ae on mt ty en emcee a dros etree ep tem Ree fare Tee ral eng The ne Eee eee re ee ee alten ees eae eee eee es eee eee arm es ae eee hd and ap aed a te oe emai agen te El lt hy le iy td ely a ees sedan Agee erm vey a nop eee Preface the perception ad evahston of fair dat, the schematic charter thi fst presentation need be no drawback, On the onary rads whose on sec he prepare them fr he Sor of verentton bere advocated may Bnd fhe esa form inh inte geste avd easier to srt, But ifs di vantages sells thse my os my stain at the ‘ey sat the sont of extension in both scope ad dept hat T Ipc ltimatly ocd ina fongerverin. Far more itor talevidene te valle than Ive fad space to explo below. Fortmoce that viene come fom the history of lg ts wll arf physical sence My decision to del here exci Shey witht ater wos ads partly to neeate this y's Whetene ad pany on pounds of present competence. Scion the vw of slg tobe developed ere gees he Detalles of umber of mewn of esearch, bth Eitoral and sociological For example manne in which tomas or vnatioy of expan attract the ineesing tention of 2 scentife community noes detailed sly, a8 des the emergence ofthe eis tht may Be induced by = peated fae To make an anomaly conform Or again f Tam Fgh that each sentfcevoltion alter the store pepo. the fhe amy hat expres ho tt hang of spective should fect the stuctore of posrevoltonary Teta snd cach publeans, One suc festa she the dtribution ofthe techni Hterture ete in he Footnotes to research reprts-ougt tobe tied a «pone Index theocourenc of rvoitions. “The ned for drastic condensation bas ab fore met for go discusion of «numberof major problems, My dstncton Ebeveen te pre-and te post padign periods inthe develop rent ofa scence ov ample much oo schematic Each of tho schools woe Competition charter the erie prod Inganed by something noche pra thee ae creme ‘anes, thogh Thnk thm are, ander which two paradigms in covst peel In he ne period. Mee pomesion of furdign not quite a sfigent crteron for the deveop- Trent ransiton dcosed in Sec I, More porta, ec eLlNe? Preface 3 in ocesional re asides, have ald nothing about the tok of tecnoloteal advance oof external social, econo, {nd ltllectal condos inthe development of ie slenes ‘One need, however, lok no Further than Copernic and the calendar to dzover tht external conitons tay help to tans: form a mere anomaly ito a oute of acute ers. The same trample would usta the way In which conditions outside {he sclenors may tnflence the range of alemativesavalable to {he man who sek to end ess by propoing one or aot revautonary reform Esplct consideration of ofecs Ihe {hese would ot, Ita, modify the man ess developed In this say, bat i would suey ad an analyte dimenio of fistrateinprtance forthe understanding of enti advace Final, aod perhaps most important of al, iitatons of space have drastically fected my treatment ofthe phlsoph- {Et impleatons of tis easy’ hisoreslly orentel view of science Cleary, hee are such implications, and T have tied tnt to polt ont and to document the maln ones. Bat a doing 0 I bave uealy refrained from detailed discussion of the ‘arlous postions taken by contemporary phiosophers on the Corresponding sis, Where Ihave indicted skp Ib snore ften been directed toa pilcspbial ste than to try one of ts fully artelated express As rei, sme of those who know and work win one of Gos articulited post tine may fel that Ihave mised ther pot thik they ll be wrong, Dut this say nt eleulate to convince them. To stomp hat would ave required farlonger and ver diferent tort book "The autobiographical fragments with which this preface nr pee aT. HT opera eae ‘dsp tah. 08 071 lb ele of eral Weta som tal ae shee wee enipce ae uc acai Ace tare cent, Ga Bp BEL 28, “Tope Pree fy the Wow of Sut Career Bastin Fey i es i oat od i Cad Curd Engin La 106) b= fs eare,only ihrpt ‘th les ds they tn ocean ke Veh Ne.2 Pretoce opens wil eye to acknowledge what I can recognize of my stain dt bs othe work of cols ant he in the tt hae helped ie fom tomy thong The emaader titht debe salliy change by atm nthe page it fallow. Nobig sd shove or brow, however, wel ore than Maat te munberand ature of my sna obligations te tnay Inia whote uggton Std ers hae at oe {inv or another sind aad Geta my itll doveop tment Too uch tie as led since the Ken a they Tegan totale sap; alto al one who may propery Bnd tte slg of thee inden Ins per woul Bo sot eo- tren wth tof yoda cquintanes Under the ckoutanee ton sti mya oe few mor Sg int nner tat even fay emery wil ever etiely Ts James B. Conant, then president of Harvard Univer sty, wh Bt atone toe ory of scene and th Inne the tansonmaton in ny conception ofthe are of ‘sent svanc, versace tet pacer ge, be has boon vernon, sd tne-inchig the tne ‘Sued to ead snd get ingrtantchangs ine deat of iy manure: Leonard. Nath, with who fr Be yea (Sight te Motel edated cose Wat De, Coat had Stated wan even nore aie clare Gurig the yen ‘thon yee it bya ttake shape nde has Ben sch Ile uring th tr sage of ht development Fons iy however ster my depare from Cambie, hs place a ate sng ned se waa yy Beil Collage, Staney Cavell That Cavell phllwoper aay ‘Sncee wl cic tnd etn soe have ech om Slings 10 courant fo my owe kas beat contat Source of timation std enouragement ome. He, fre Tove the ely pron wth who hve eer born able He my ‘ng tc Ts ade of te ERicton ates om ubertanding that has ened to frit the ay throug und sve are Etneed wile propery ny St amr Yabo? a Preface ee fries min Thy 1 hk eee sang ec alk Fed of ely Et Tepe pa ere ete aero on Hse he rote gti en See) eee ee apatite tlt on seh Aa et seep ie mtn organ, Thy hs at sotalol wh poet een wa ay TSK onze, Conn Volto? |. Introduction: A Role for History History, i vowed a epost for more than aneate or cduonlgy, could produces dective tanfomaton fn he tinge ef cicce by wich we are now pone. Tat nage Ins footy bes dawn, sen by st emo Wyte the sty of Gide entcaciremcnts at hese are ford in th ssa, mee feenly the eos {fom whch each nev cet gecrton lta to practic fa te Inn, bower he nl ch ke pee td pedagger eonrp of snc dawn fom thm is no tore Bt he eerie tat pede them han sn Image cational core Gow ro tri roche ort Iogage tx. Ths ey stems to show tat we ave been ‘lle by ten a fndaestal ways Ivanhoe Shite dierent conept of tenes hat ex emerge fs the onal record of te resach att ol venom hry bwever, hat now catcept wil tbe forhomingf hitraal St ono oe sought an ea fio mainly to anower questions ped by ue wohitoral Sereiype dam from ence tte The tet have, for cage fen sera wo py that the content of tence Signe cxomplifled by the shiertions ey, and thant Ahab in ei pages. Alor at reply, the ame books ive be read taping hatte ar sip he tested by the manipulative ecnigues no in ater ing tesiboak data, togaber with the loge operons em: Bled when elting the data tthe tena thee Frscalztions The omit hs been omcept of sence wih FPolatd iplcaon about inate sd development i mene the contain of ats, hor, od maths colleen cen tents, he seit ae the ten who, eetuly or mt, have vento cntbte on rant’ ele ‘Set to at prelrconnltinSsentie deve b- ‘ome the pesrcal process by which ewe ems have een vattsne 1 The Structure of Scontie Revolutions ade, singly and in combination, to the ever rowing tackle that conttes sent tecnigee and Knowledge, Ad history tf since Becomes the dciplne that cronies both these fuctetve Increments and the obtacles tat have ied thet aocunulaton. Conerned with slate development, the Noten the appears to have two msn tak, Ont one band, Hest detrnbie by what man sod at what pola in tne cack contemporary seni fact, law, and theory was covered or invented. On the other, he must describe aod expan the cone res of ever, 25 Ca superstition tat have nbd the rove rape accion of the convents of te modern ‘Sine ft Heche barbed heen tome ails Tn recent year, however, a fw Ritrans of sien bave ‘been finding tore und more ait to fll the fonetions {Bat the cobept of developmen-by accumulation sgn fo them. As clon f mn eremefl proce, they cover that adtonlreearoh mak ardent ease, fo answer {Qustons Ike: When was onggen discovered? Wh Bist con: hived of energy conservation? Increasingly afew of them su per at thee tre singly the wrong sors of gusto ak Perhaps slence dos not develop bythe accumulation of ad vidual ducoverte and invention, Sinultaneoly, these same Icterans confront growing dcales in estguthing the "ctelie” eomponen’ ef pst observation and eli rom what thet, predcesors had feadly beled “enor and “perth tion” The more carefully they study, suy, Aristotelian dyoamiss, bilgi chemisty, or eno thetmodyoarie, the more ce [Et they feel Ut ose once current views of nature were ar 8 ttle nether les siete nor more the prt of man {alonynosy than hoe caren today I those ot f-dte be: lets te tobe called myths then myths ean be produced bythe fame sorts of methods un held for the sume sorts of reasons {hat now lead to siete knowledge fon the oer baad, thay are tobe called cence, then sence has fnhoded Boles af bce quite incompatible wth the ones we had today. ven these alcrativs the htoran must ehoove the ler Out voin.ne? 2 Iotroduction: A Roe for History date theories are notin priniple unsientifle because they have Iacendisatded, That choice, however, makes it dificult to see scientife development as a proces of acereton. The same his torical research that displays the dificltes in isolating indi doa! inventions and discoveries gives ground for profound doubts about the cumulative proces Uough which these ind ‘vidual contributions to science were thought to have been com- pounded, ‘The reslt ofall these doubts and dificulties is a historio- graphic revolution In the study of scence, though one that is Ail io is early stages. Gradually, end often without entiely teallzing they are doing so, historian of sience have begun to tak new sorts of questions and to trace diferent, and often less than cumulative, developmental lines forthe sciences. Rather ‘than seeking the permanent contributions ofan older sience to ‘ur prevent vantage, thy attempt to display the historical in- ‘eget ofthat scence in te own tine. They ask, for example, tot about the relation of Galleos views to those of modern ‘sclence, but rather about the relationship between his views and those of his group, Le, his teachers, coutemporares, and imme- diate sucoesors in the scences. Furthermore, they insist upon saying the opinions ofthat group and other simular ones fom the viewpaint-usally very diferent from that of modern se fence=that gives those opinions the maximum intel eoberence land th clovest posible ft to nature. Seen through the works that result, works perhaps best exemplified in dhe writings of ‘Alexandee Koy, science doer not seem altogether the sane faterprise asthe one discussed by writes in the older historo- tape tradition. By implication, at least, these historial ftudies sggest the posiblity of a new image of seience, This ‘say ams to delineste that image by making explicit some of the new historiography’s implications ‘What aspects of science will emerge to prominence fo the course ofthis ellort? Fist, atleast in order of presentation, s the insullciency of methodological drctves, by themselves, to dicate a unigue substantive couelusion to many sorts of seen: {fe questions Instructed to examine electrical or chemical phe- Vol No.2 3 The Structure of Scone Revootons semen, the man who ignorant ofthese lds ot who knows Atha so be scent nay legtinately rseh anyone of Ihmber of Tacompatble conus, Among tose egnte lt, the parle conclusions he does ave a re Probably determined by hk pr expen in other els, by {be accents of hs vestigation, tnd by his own lava tnakeup. What ells sbovt the tars, for example, does he Ting fo the sty of chemist or eect? Which of the tan cocerble periments leven fo the new Bld dos be ‘let opnor sArd iat apects of th complex pen eon ta then vests srk hin Se partly rlret fo an tlucdton ofthe nature of chal change or of elect Sinity? Forth india, st as, and sometimes forthe {ckntlic community a well answers io questions ike hee re sitnesntl determinants of sont evelopment, We sal tots, for example, Section It thatthe ery deveopestl ages of met snes have bon carecerocd by ceotieal Crmpttin ess er ti oe sa ch lly derived frm, andl row compat wit the die eer of scent ebvervation and method. What diferentiatd these ystiur school was not ono nee ure of thon they were ll “scentie™but what we shal come tell hi inconmensrabe way of sein the world and of pactcng fence int Observation and eaperene ean and mest dst cally est the range of adm seni i, bo there ‘ox he no scene But they cannot alone determine «pa tear Body of soch bale. A aparentyarbitary eke, onpoundel of penonal an hiss! acident alma 4 fermativ ngelet ofthe bells essed by given en. te communty ate given tine “That coment of aivarines does ot, however, indete that any centbe pop could pst i esde without sme set of recived elf Nor does ake ls consequential he par tela eontlition to whch the group ata even tne in fect commited. Efetive research scarey gis Beloe + ‘sete commty thnks i hat acqied fret answers to “qertionlike the flowing, Wht ae the fendamental este Yalan? 4 Introduction: A Roe for History cf which the univers composed? How do these Interact with tach other and with the sens? What questions ay legit: {yb asked about such entities and what techniques employed th seckingsolations? At latin the mature scence, anoers {or fll substtes for answer) to questions like there are Sly embeded in the elation nation that prepare ad Tene the stent for pofersional practice cates hat cations both igoous dnd ig hee answers comet exet 3 dep hold onthe sent mind That they can doo does mach to count both forthe pecliareiency ofthe normal e- search activity and for the erection nw procera ay gfe tine. When examining nora scence in Sctions 1, fod V, we shall want fly to describe that reerch a 4 Fenious and devoted attempt to fee nate Int the Go ceplval bores supplied by profesional education, Simela- ‘ously, we shall wonder whether seach could proceed with- out such bes, watever the clement of eben fn thelr Historie rigs and, occasionally fn thar subsequent develop- Yet that clement of abitarnes present and to as an Impontan cfect on scentife development, one which wil be {cine in ea nS Vi, nV: Nowa ce, the act in which most sles ievtably spend alk ino all their tine, predicated onthe assumption that the Siete conmnity rows wht the word the Moch of the fonts of the enterprise dees fom the community willing. tar to defend that ssumptin, if necey a cosdeabe ‘os Nomal cence fr example often speties fundamental toveltes beens they are necessary sversive ofits bake commitments, Nevertheless, Tong at thre commitment re tan an clement of the abitary, the ery nitare of normal = search ensures that novelty sll not be sppresed for very long Sometines a nonnal roblen one hat ght to be ve Ae by Known rules and procedure res the eterated on- Stig ofthe ablest members ofthe group win whose com Drtence it falls. On ater oceaons&plece of equfpment de- Signed and contracted forthe purpose of normal earch fats Vout 5 The Structure of Scent Revolotions to perform in the anticipated manner, revealing an anomaly that cannot, despite repeated effort, be aligned with profes. sional expectation. In these and other ways besides, normal Seience repeatedly goes astray. And when it oes—when, that, the profession ean no longer evade anomalies that subvert the ‘eustng tradition ofsclentifepractice—then begin the extaordl- ‘nary investigations tha lead the profession at last to anew st ‘of commitments, a new basis forthe practice of science. The ‘extraordinary episodes in which that shift of professional com: ‘mitment occurs are the ones known in this esay as sientic revolutions. They ate the wadition shattering complements to the tadition-bound activity of normal science “The most obvious examples of scientific revolutions are those {famous episodes in seen development that have often een labeled revolutions before, Therefore, in Sections TX and X, where the nature of seintife revolutions is st directly sort rized, we shal deal repeatedly wih the major turning points in Selene development essoeated with the names of Copernicus, Newton, Lavoisier, and Einstein, More clearly than most other episodes in the history of atleast the physical siences, these Aiplay what all scientific revolutions ste about. Each of them necessitated the communis rejection of one tme-honored Selentiie theory in favor of another incompatible with it: Each produced a consequent shi nthe problems availble fr scien: file scrutiny and in the standards by which the profession de termined what should count as an admissible problem or as @ legitimate problem-solution. And each transformed the seen tke imagination in ways that we shall ultimately need to de- scribe as transformation of the work within which sienifc ‘work was done, Such changes, together with the controversies that almost always accompany them, are the deflang character: [als of sent evolutions, ‘These characteristics emerge with particular clarity from a study of, sy, the Newtonian or the chemical revolution. Its, however, fundamental thss ofthis esay that they ean also De retoved from the study of many other episodes that were not 20 obviously revolutionary. For the far smaller professional Vette? ‘ Introduction A Role for Misory aqoup afcted by them, Maxwells equations were as revala- Ulnar as Elnstel', and they were rested sceordingly. The Invention of eter new tones regularly, and appropriately, {reste ane exponen of he pecs we Ses of spec competence they impinge: For these men tw tery npc change athe er goverming the prior roe of normal scence. evtably, therefore eet Spon uch lente wok hey hav aendy sccessflly completed. “Tate why anew teary, however pei ange of applic tion, seldom or never just an increment to what i ieady own. Te asnation requires the resotrcton of pir theory andthe reevaluation of pir fat a ntsc Fever Iutoary process that seldom completed by a singe man and ‘ever ovemight, No wonder historane have had diay tn ting precy thi extended proces tat tee vocabulary in. pals hem to vw at an wot even. "Nor are new inventions of theory the only slentie events that have revolitonaryInpect open the spealits tn hone domain they occur, ‘The committe that govern normals ence spc sot only what sort of enties te universe does contain, bt so, by implication, thse that it does note a tows, ough the pot wil eqie extended dscuson, hat &

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