Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Instruction
Warsaw, 2015
Contents
1. The purpose and scope of the exercise
2. Related theoretical knowledge
2.1 Basic elements of electrical circuits;
2.2 DC circuits
2.3 AC circuits
2.4 Measuring instruments
2.5 The technical method for measuring electrical quantities (R,L,C,Z)
2.6 Exercises and questions
3. References
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1 The Purpose and Scope of the Exercise
An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is often carried
by moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and
electrons such as in a plasma.
The SI unit for measuring an electric current is the ampere (A), which is the flow of electric
charge across a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured using a
device called an ammeter
Q
I (1)
t
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced
by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of
the dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through
semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric charge
flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used
for direct current was galvanic current
Voltage or electric potential tension (denoted V or U and measured in units of electric
potential: volts, or joules per coulomb) is the electric energy charge difference of electric potential
energy transported between two points. Voltage is equal to the work done per unit of charge against
a static electric field to move the charge between two points. The SI unit of voltage is volt (V)
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Fig.1.Active elements
The active elements generate energy. Batteries, generators, operational amplifiers etc are active
elements. The passive elements cannot generate energy, they drop energy. Resistor, capacitor,
inductor etc are passive elements because they take energy from circuit.
Fig.2.Passive elements
CR CL RC
LR L RL C LC
R
Fig. 6. Actual passive elements: a) resistor, b) inductor, c) capacitor
a resistor or a capacitor can be treated as an ideal element, but every inductor has the feature
of both inductance L and resistance RL.
2.2 DC Circuits
In DC circuits, the relationship between the current, voltage and resistance may be resolved
with the aid of the following 3 Laws:
1. Ohm's Law, Ohm's law defines the relationship between voltage and current in an ideal
conductor. This relationship states that: The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal
conductor is proportional to the current through it.
U RI (8)
2. Kirchhoff's First Law (The Current Law) , states that the total current or charge
entering a node or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other
place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the node"
I 0 (9)
In other words, the algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal
zero.
3. Kirchhoff's Second Law (The Voltage Law), states that in any closed loop network,
the total voltage (or EMF) around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops
within the same loop. In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop
must be equal to zero.
E RI (10)
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Resistors can be connected in series; that is, the current flows through them one after another.
The circuit in Figure 7 shows three resistors connected in series, and the direction of current is
indicated by the arrow. Note since there is only one path for the current to travel, the current through
each of the resistors is the same.
R1 R2 R3
I
R2
I I2
A B
I3 R3
I R2
R3 E2, Rw2
All EMF and currents are positive with the clockwise direction, and negative with the opposite
direction. Therefore according to Kirchhoff's Second Law, the following equations can be obtained
based on Fig.9:
E1 E2 Rw1 R1 R2 Rw2 R3 I , (13)
Where:
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E E 1 E2 ; R I R w1 R1 R2 Rw 2 R3 I (14-15)
Then:
I
E . (16)
R
The branch circuit in Fig. 10 has 4 nodes (A, B, C and D) and 2 independent loops
I7
I6 E3 R3
A I3 D
I1
I4 II
R1
R4
I
E1 R5
E2 R2 I2
I8 I5
B C
1. Label the current and the current direction in each branch. Sometimes it's hard to tell which
direction is the correct for the current in a particular loop. That does NOT matter. Simply
pick a direction. If you guess wrong, you'll get a negative value. The value is correct, and
the negative sign means that the current direction is opposite to the way you guessed. You
should use the negative sign in your calculations, however.
2. Use Kirchhoffs First Law to write down current equations for each node that gives you a
different equation. For a circuit with two inner loops and two nodes, one current equation is
enough because both nodes give you the same equation.
3. Use Kirchhoffs second rule to write down loop equations for as many loops as it takes to
include each branch at least once. To write down a loop equation, you choose a starting
point, and then walk around the loop in one direction until you get back to the starting point.
As you cross batteries and resistors, write down each voltage change. Add these voltage
gains and losses up and set them equal to zero.
When you cross a battery from the - side to the + side, that's a positive change. Going the other
way gives you a drop in potential, so that's a negative change.
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When you cross a resistor in the same direction as the current, if that's also a drop in potential,
so it's a negative change in potential. Crossing a resistor in the opposite direction as the current gives
you a positive change in potential.
There are two different methods for analyzing circuits. The standard method in physics is the
branch current method which is described above. There is another method called the loop current
method.
2.3 AC Circuits
Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically. As a
result, the voltage level also reverses along with the current. One cycle of a wave is one complete
evolution of its shape until the point that it is ready to repeat itself. The period of a wave is the amount
of time it takes to complete one cycle (T). Frequency is the number of complete cycles that a wave
completes in a given amount of time. Usually its measured in Hertz (Hz), 1 Hz being equal to one
complete wave cycle per second.
1
f (22)
T
The most common AC waveform is a sine (or sinusoidal) waveform (See fig.11).
i
I m
T/2 t
0 2 t
i
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1
T
2
2 2
I r
T i ( t ) dt
0
- for AC current in sine wave: I r
I m 0,637 I m (26)
The relations between the maximum, average and RMS value can be expressed by different
coefficients. The ratio of the maximum to RMS value is called the crest factor
Im
ks (27)
I
The RMS to the average value is called the aspect ratio:
I
kk (28)
I r
The above terms are also used for describing voltage quantity.
The following laws can be used to calculating AC circuits:
1. Ohm's Law in AC circuits can be described as:
U Z I (29)
U, I - the instantaneous RMS value of voltage and current; Z - the instantaneous impedance
This is the AC analog of Ohm's Law for DC circuits. It looks similar to Ohm's Law for DC
circuits, but now the phases of I, U, and Z must be taken into account. Since they have both a
magnitude and a phase, then it is clear that U, I, and Z are all vectors. In addition, I and U can be time
dependent (in general Z is not) and so U and I may be better represented as U and I, and Equation 29
is better written as
U Z I (30)
Where: U, I - the complex RMS value of voltage and current; Z - the complex impedance
The total of resistances and reactance in a circuit or a branch is called the impedance Z.
Impedance in AC circuits is the equivalent resistance in DC circuits. The method of its determination
for different cases is presented in Table 1.
2. Kirchhoff's First Law for AC circuits: "The algebraic sum of currents in a network of
conductors meeting at a point is zero"
n (31)
i
k 1
k 0
Using complex numbers to reflect the vector nature of circuit parameters results in the
following formulation of Kirchhoff's First law for AC circuits:
n (32)
I
k 1
k 0
u Rk u Lk
k 1
u Ck e k
k 1
(33)
Where: uRk, uLk, uCk - instantaneous values of voltage drops respectively on resistance,
inductive reactance and capacitive reactance in the kth loop.
Using complex numbers to reflect the vector nature of circuit parameters results in the
following formulation of Kirchhoff's Second law for AC circuits:
n n
U
k 1
Rk U Lk U Ck E k
k 1
(34)
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n
1 n
Or: Rk jLk j
k 1 C k
I k E k (35)
k 1
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Table 1. Complex impedance and diagrams of elements R, L, C and their combinations
Elemnet(s) Circuit diagram Complex impedance Impedance module Phasor diagram Timing diagram
Resistor R
ZR
ZR 0
Coil L
Z jL Z XL
jX L
2
Capacitor C 1
Z j Z XC
C
jX C
2
11
Series RL
Circuit Z R jL Z R 2 X L2
X L L XL
arc tg
R
Series RC
Circuit Z R jX C Z R 2 X C2
1 XC
XC arc tg
C R
G BL G 2 B L2
Parallel RL Z j Z
Circuit Y2 Y2 Y2
1 1 B
G ; BL arc tg L
R L G
Y G jBL
G BC G 2 B C2
Parallel RC Z j Z
Circuit Y2 Y2 Y2
1 BC
G ; BC C arc tg
R G
Y G jBC
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2.4 Measuring instruments
A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an electrical quantity in a form
readable by a human being. Usually this "readable form" is visual: motion of a pointer on a scale, a
series of lights arranged to form a "bargraph," or some sort of display composed of numerical figures.
In the analysis and testing of circuits, there are meters designed to accurately measure the basic
quantities of voltage, current, and resistance.
Most modern meters are "digital" in design, meaning that their readable display is in the form
of numerical digits. Older designs of meters are mechanical in nature, using some kind of pointer
device to show quantity of measurement. In either case, the principles applied in adapting a display
unit to the measurement of (relatively) large quantities of voltage, current, or resistance are the same.
The display mechanism of a meter is often referred to as a movement, borrowing from its
mechanical nature to move a pointer along a scale so that a measured value may be read. Most
mechanical movements are based on the principle of electromagnetism: that electric current through
a conductor produces a magnetic field perpendicular to the axis of electron flow. The greater the
electric current, the stronger the magnetic field produced. If the magnetic field formed by the
conductor is allowed to interact with another magnetic field, a physical force will be generated
between the two sources of fields. If one of these sources is free to move with respect to the other, it
will do so as current is conducted through the wire, the motion (usually against the resistance of a
spring) being proportional to strength of current.
The absolute error (error) is the difference between the value Ww indicated by the meter
and the real value W r of the measured quantity
Ww Wr (36)
The absolute error can be either positive or negative.
The ratio of the absolute error to the nominal value of the measuring range is called the relative
error.
W Wr
w (37)
Wmax Wmax
The accuracy of a meter is the degree of closeness of the measurement of a quantity to that
quantity's actual (real) value. It's determined by the largest permissible relative error of the meter
max , which is also called the error band of a meter. The accuracy is expressed in percentage ratio of
the largest absolute error max in the measurement range to the rated (nominal) value Wmax .
max
max % 100% (38)
Wmax
The error band is used to classify different accuracy rate of measurements: 0.1; 0.2; 0.5; 1;
1.5; 2.5; 5. For example, for a meter with accuracy rate 0.1, it means the maximum error max is
0.1% etc. The accuracy class is the characteristic of the meter, but cannot directly determine the
accuracy of the measurements made in the meter.
The relative deviation error p of measurements caused by the deviation of a meter can be
described by:
W
p max (39)
Wr Wr
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This formula indicates that the smaller the value measured in relation to the measuring range,
the greater the measurement error resulting from this lower accuracy, as the most accurate indication
shall be above 2/3 scale.
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Where: Rwe - the equivalent resistance of the galvanometer, Id - the permissible current flowing into
the galvanometer, Ip - measured current, Rb - the shunt resistor, Ib - the shunt current
The shunt resistance is determined by the relation: Rb = Rwe , Where n = Ip/Id (43)
n1
Voltmeter
When an electromagnetic meter is connected in parallel to the measuring circuit, it is used to
measure DC voltage. A simplest voltmeter is only a galvanometer with limited range. In order to
increase the measuring range of a voltmeter, its necessary to increase its resistance an additional
resistor should be connected to the galvanometer in serials. The scheme of a voltmeter connected
with an additional resistor in serials is shown in Fig.13.
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Fig.14. the method of connecting the voltage Fig.15. the method of connecting the voltage
transformer transformer; 1 - primary winding
- -
Fig.16. layout of measuring resistance in DC current circuit
The layout shown in Fig.16a is used to measure very small resistance that is when RV RX .
In this case the resistance can be calculated based on the equation:
UV
RX (47)
IA
Where UV i IA are read from voltmeter and ammeter. The calculation value RX in this way includes
some error resulting from the ignored current IV flowing through the voltmeter. The error is always
negative, which means the calculated resistance is always less than the real value.
The calculated resistance can be corrected based on following equations:
UV U UV U V2
R X' V ; R X' pV ; pV (48-50)
I A IV IR IA I A RV I A U V
Where: pV means the correction factor to reflect the current flowing through the voltmeter
The layout shown in Fig.16b is used to measure big resistance, which means when R A R X
. In this case the resistance can be calculated based on the equation 47. The calculation value RX in
this way includes some error resulting from the ignored voltage drop across the ammeter. The
calculated resistance can be corrected based on following equations:
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UV U A U
R X' ; R X' V p A ; p A RA (51-53)
IA IA
Where: pA means the correction factor to reflect the voltage drop across the ammeter.
~U V Z ~U V Z
By measuring U, I and P, based on the relations of three quantities, the inductance of the
inductor is determined as following:
1
L= Z 2 RL
2
(56)
2f
U U
Where: the impedance of the inductor Z = ; the resistance of the inductor RL = Z cos = cos.
I I
P U P P
Here: cos = , to: RL = = 2 (57)
UI I UI I
Finally: L= 1 U 2 P2 [H] (58)
4
2f I2 I
The calculation should take the technical frequency f = 50Hz.
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The resistance RL of the inductor can also be measured in DC circuit by the method described
in 2.5.1. However, because the coil (inductor) is winded on a ferromagnetic core (nonlinear
coefficient - depending on the electric current), the method shown in Fig. 17 is used here.
15 V
5
I2 I3 I4
R2 25 V 15 V 40
R1
R3
10 V
U 30 I I5
6
R4
R5 20 V
I1
Fig.20 Layout of elements R,
Fig.18 Layout of resistors Fig.19 Layout of combined X connection
connection elements
Exercise 1
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 18, analysing the
connections of resistors and using appropriate characteristic of different connections: parallel and
series, R1 = 40, R2 = 5 R3 = 10, R4 = 4, R5 = 6. If U = 80V, please calculate the current.
Exercise 2
Calculate the currents (I1, I2I6) in the circuit shown in Fig.19 by using the branch-current
method.
Exercise 3
The voltage waveform is u2(t)=100sin(t+20o) in the circuit shown in Fig.20. If R1 = 6, R2
= 6 X1 = 10, X2 = 8, X3 = 7, please calculate and determine the supplied voltage u
Questions:
1. What's the passive and active elements in electric circuits?
2. What's the difference of ideal and actual passive elements? In practice, which passive elements
can be treated as ideal, which cannot?
3. What's the technical method of measuring resistance?
4. What's the technical method of measuring capacitance?
5. What's the technical method of measuring inductance?
6. What's the difference of magnetoelectric and electromagnetic meters?
7. How to construct an ammeter by galvanometer?
8. How to construct a voltmeter by galvanometer?
9. What's RMS and average value in AC circuit? Usually which value we measure in AC circuit?
10. How to extend the measuring range of electromagnetic meters in AC circuit?
3 Reference
1) The instruction of Polish version " Pomiary podstawowych wielkoci elektrycznych
prdu staego i przemiennego";
2) http://www.engineersblogsite.com/define-active-and-passive-circuit-elements.html
3) http://www.zen22142.zen.co.uk/adt.htm;
4) http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_1.html;
5) http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Electric_Circuit_Analysis/Kirchhoff%27s_Voltage_Law
;
6) http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/eLessonsHTML/Basic/Basic5Kv.html
7) http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/semester2/c20_AC.html
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Editor: dr in. Yuhua Chang
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