SILICATOS DE SODIO LIQUIDOS / SLIDOS

Los silicatos de sodio lquido son soluciones en agua manufacturadas a partir de proporciones variadas
de oxido de sodio (Na2O) y oxido de silicio (SiO2). Dependiendo de su composicin dan un amplio rango de
propiedades fsicas y qumicas. Adems de los silicatos de sodio lquidos, SIDESA tiene una amplia variedad
de especialidades para satisfacer las necesidades de todos los usuarios que incluyen metasilicatos de sodio
pentahidratado y anhidro, silicatos en polvo G y GD, hidro y cero geles, zeolitas, etc.,...

FABRICACIN
Los silicatos de sodio se producen fundiendo a altas temperaturas, carbonato de sodio (Na2CO3) con
arena slice especialmente seleccionada. El producto resultante es un cristal amorfo (VIDRIO PRIMARIO) que
puede ser disuelto por procesos especiales para producir soluciones en gran variedad de formas.

LIQUIDOS
Tericamente, los xidos de sodio y silicio pueden ser combinados en toda proporcin. Sin embargo,
los productos lquidos actuales no deben exceder en una relacin molar de SiO2 a Na2O de 3.5 a 1 o inferiores
a 1.6 a 1. En la tabla 1 se muestran los principales productos lquidos:

TABLA 1 - SOLUCIONES DE SILICATO DE SODIO SIDESA

Nombre Relacin Densidad a 68F Viscosidad en Caractersticas
del en peso % Na2O % SiO2 (20C) Centipoises
3
producto SiO2/Na2O *Be g/cm pH (20C)

STIXO 3.25 9.2 29.9 42.5 1.41 11.3 200 a 6,000 Lquido neutro viscoso
N 3.22 8.9 28.7 41.0 1.38 11.3 Lquido neutro
O 3.22 9.2 29.6 42.2 1.41 11.3 Ms concentrado que N
K 2.88 11.1 31.9 47.0 1.47 11.5 650 a 3,800 Lquido pesado
A-20 2.35 13.4 31.4 50.0 1.53 12.0 Lquido alcalino opalescente
RU 2.40 13.8 33.2 52.0 1.55 12.0 1,150 a 4,000 Lquido denso
D-50 2.00 14.7 29.5 50.5 1.53 12.7 Lquido alcalino
B-W 1.60 17.3 27.8 52.8 1.57 13.4 Lquido alcalino fluido

SLIDOS
Para aquellos clientes que desean comprar silicato de sodio en forma de pastillas slidas con el
propsito de disolverlo para su uso, SIDESA ofrece los productos enlistados en la tabla 2. Ya que se necesita
equipo y procedimientos especiales para disolver el silicato de sodio, es conveniente que se ponga en contacto
con el departamento de Servicio Tcnico y Ventas de SIDESA para los detalles.

TABLA 2: SILICATOS DE SODIO SLIDOS SIDESA

Nombre del Relacin en % Na2O % SiO2 % H2O Densidad g/cm3 Caractersticas del tamao de
producto peso SiO2/Na2O partcula
SS 3.22 23.5 75.5 0 1.40 pastillas gruesas
SS-C 2.00 33.0 66.0 0 1.40 pastillas gruesas

ASISTENCIA TCNICA
Sidesa cuenta con un Departamento de Servicio Tcnico el cual lo asistir en caso de dudas o requerimientos
adicionales EN APLICACIONES a los telfonos: 5227-68-00 o sin costo 01-800-90-685-00.

CERTIFICACIONES
El silicato de sodio cuenta con certificaciones internacionales y nacionales tales como:
NSF (National Sanitation Foundation) de Estados Unidos para toxicologa en agua potable
CERTIMEX (Certificacin Mexicana, S.C) antes IMTA

1-7
DENSIDAD
En la industria de silicatos la densidad ha sido expresada en trminos de grados Baum que pueden
ser convertidos a gravedad especfica dividiendo 145 entre 145 menos los grados Baum (tabla 3). Nuestras
medidas son hechas con hidrmetros de intervalo angosto diseados especialmente para medir a una
temperatura estndar de 20C. La temperatura tiene un efecto sobre la densidad de las soluciones de silicato,
cuando la temperatura se incrementa la densidad decrece (tabla 4).

TABLA 3: DENSIDAD / GRAVEDAD ESPECIFICA Be TABLA 4: DENSIDADES DE SILICATOS A

EQUIVALENTES VARIAS TEMPERATURAS
Grados Gravedad Grados Baum Gravedad N O
Baum especfica especfica Temperatura C Densidad Be Densidad Be
35.0 1.3182 48.0 1.4948 10 41.5 42.6
36.0 1.3303 49.0 1.5104 21 41.0 42.2
37.0 1.3426 50.0 1.5268 32 40.6 41.7
38.0 1.3551 51.0 1.5426 38 40.3 41.4
39.0 1.3679 52.0 1.5591 49 39.9 41.0
40.0 1.3810 53.0 1.5761 60 39.4 40.5
41.0 1.3942 54.0 1.5934
42.0 1.4078 55.0 1.6111
43.0 1.4216 56.0 1.6292
44.0 1.4356 57.0 1.6477
45.0 1.4500 58.0 1.6667
46.0 1.4646 59.0 1.6860
47.0 1.4796 60.0 1.7059

VISCOSIDAD
La viscosidad es una propiedad fsica importante de las soluciones de silicato soluble. Desde el punto
estndar de aplicaciones la viscosidad de las soluciones de silicato de sodio es una funcin de la relacin,
concentracin y temperatura. La comparacin de viscosidades de soluciones de silicato de sodio de varias
relaciones, muestra que las viscosidades de soluciones ms silceas (relacin ms alta) aumentan ms
rpidamente con un incremento en concentracin que aquellas de silicatos ms alcalinos.

pH
El pH de las soluciones de silicato est ntimamente relacionado con la concentracin y la relacin de
peso. El pH decrece cuando se incrementa el contenido de slice. Anlisis potenciomtricos con cidos
muestran que el pH alto de las soluciones de silicato se mantiene hasta que el lcali es completamente
neutralizado. La capacidad de amortiguamiento (la habilidad de una solucin a resistir cambios en el pH)
aumenta cuando se incrementan las proporciones de slice soluble. Sin embargo, an las soluciones de silicato
diluido mantendr un pH relativamente constante a pesar de agregar cido.

ANLISIS
La densidad de las soluciones de silicato de sodio, se mide generalmente con un hidrmetro. Ya que
las soluciones de silicato se expanden cuando se calientan, todas las medidas deben hacerse a 20C. El
hidrmetro debe ser ajustado y bajado lentamente en la solucin de silicato. No deje caer el hidrmetro en el
lquido. Cuando el hidrmetro se equilibra se toma una lectura lo ms cercana en precisin a 0.1Be. El
contenido de oxido de sodio de los silicatos de sodio es determinado por un anlisis de titulacin volumtrica
sobre una muestra con cido clorhdrico estndar en la que se utiliza como indicador, prpura o anaranjado de
metilo, siendo en todo caso til una mezcla de xileno-cyanole. El contenido de SiO2 es determinado por
mtodos gravimtricos. Se disuelve una muestra en agua, se acidifica con HCl y se deshidrata en un bao a
vapor hasta que se seca. Se separa el precipitado, se calcina y se pesa como SiO2, aunque tambin existen
tcnicas volumtricas adecuadas.

2-7
MANEJO

Entrega en pipas
Los silicatos lquidos se transportan en pipas (camiones tanque) en las que el extremo de conexin de
la pipa debe ser roscado o soldado para prevenir le entrada de material extrao. La lnea de llenado debe estar
equipada con una vlvula de cierre cerca del extremo soldado. La lnea de llenado no debe estar a ms de 1mt.
del nivel del piso y el dimetro de salida de la manguera es de 2 pulgadas = 5cm. generalmente.

Carros tanque
Existen tres mtodos para descargar carros tanque; gravedad, bombeo y presin de aire,. Los
preferidos son descarga por gravedad o por bombeo.
Descarga por gravedad o bombeo.- Por norma utilice anteojos de seguridad y guantes de neopreno mientras
descarga las soluciones de silicato de sodio. Revise siempre la vlvula de salida y las conexiones de descarga
para evitar fuga. Ventile la campana o casco abriendo el domo en la parte superior. En los carros tanques sin
domo, abra la vlvula de liberacin de presin. Abra la vlvula de salida y vace el carro, inspeccione el interior
del carro.
Descarga por presin de aire.- Este mtodo no es recomendado. Si fuese necesario, es inminente un
ensamble de control de aire para descargar con seguridad. Debe aplicarse muy cuidadosamente la presin de
aire- PRECAUCION: NO DEBE EXCEDER LA PRESIN DE AIRE DE 25 psi DURANTE LA DESCARGA. El
trmino de la descarga ser sealado por un ligero soplido en la lnea de descarga. Despus de que se ha
cerrado la presin de aire al tanque y se ha liberado la presin, inspeccione el interior del carro para
asegurarse de que est vaco.

Tambores
SIDESA ofrece silicatos de sodio en tambores no retornables de 200lts. Para informacin acerca de
estos productos, pngase en contacto con nuestro departamento de ventas.

Bombas, vlvulas y tuberas

Las bombas de tipo centrfugo o rotatorias se han encontrado satisfactorias y dependiendo del trabajo
que se vaya a realizar para manejar varios grados de silicatos, se requiere succin de anegacin. Las bombas
centrfugas requieren generalmente menos mantenimiento ya que el cuello empacado no es sujeto a una
descarga de presin total. Las bombas rotatorias son utilizadas para servicios que requieren accin positiva y
son de auto preparacin. Toda construccin de acero al carbn es satisfactoria para las bombas de silicato
con tuberas de hierro negro que cumplen con todos los requerimientos usuales para las lneas de diseo. Para
la mayora de las instalaciones de silicato, el diafragma de hule o vlvulas de tipo compuerta son satisfactorios.
Se utilizan generalmente vlvulas de compuerta mientras que se evita el uso de las vlvulas de globo.

Almacenamiento
Las soluciones de silicato de sodio se evaporan lentamente cuando son expuestas al aire, as que los
tanques deben estar cerrados pero ventilados. Los tanques deben ser construidos de acero al carbn, hierro o
concreto y deben tener espacio suficiente para que un hombre tenga acceso para la inspeccin y
mantenimiento. Si es posible los tanques deben estar localizados en un punto cercano a su lugar de consumo.
El punto de congelacin es cercano al del agua. En consecuencia, en climas fros, los tanques de almacenaje
deben mantenerse en edificios con calefaccin. En soluciones de silicato que han sido congeladas y luego
deshieladas, contendrn silicato altamente concentrado en el fondo y una solucin relativamente diluida en la
parte superior, debido al fenmeno fsico de separacin. Se puede volver a mezclar, agitndola vigorosamente
a bombendola hasta que la solucin tenga todas las caractersticas del original. Las soluciones sobre 60 Be
no se separan o congelan pero se vuelven slidas y frgiles. Del mismo modo, no se separan en porciones
diluida y concentrada cuando se calientan a temperatura ambiente. Si se requiere calentamiento puede usarse
cinta elctrica o serpentines de vapor convencionales. Se prefiere el calentamiento exterior al interior ya que lo
minimiza por zona y previene algunas variaciones en la concentracin del silicato dentro del tanque. En
cualquier momento se debe evitar la evaporacin por calentamiento prolongado. Las soluciones de silicato
pueden ser almacenadas por largos perodos de tiempo en tambores cerrados, recipientes de acero u otros
recipientes hechos de material no reactivo. No deben utilizarse recipientes de aluminio, acero galvanizado
o zinc ya que existe la posibilidad de formar gas de hidrgeno e incendiar o hacer explotar el recipiente.
CALIDAD, SERVICIO Y CAPACIDAD DE PRODUCCIN.

3-7
 Los usuarios actuales y los prospectos encuentran datos de valor en los boletines publicados en
SIDESA as como por nuestra asociada PQ a solicitud individual. Ofrecemos tambin sugerencias que pueden
ahorrar valiossimo tiempo a investigadores y usuarios; el conocimiento tcnico de PQ est basado en ms de
un siglo de experiencia en la manufactura de silicato y su uso. Para conveniencia de los usuarios de silicatos
solubles en cantidades menores a la de carros tanques o pipas, los silicatos lquidos se comercializan tambin
por distribuidores qumicos en las principales ciudades de la Repblica Mexicana. Pida el nombre del
distribuidor ms cercano a usted. Cuando necesite informacin sobre silicatos, muestras para evaluacin o
sugerencias para almacenaje y sistemas de distribucin pngase en contacto con SIDESA.

REACCIONES QUIMICAS DE LOS SILICATOS SIDESA

Formulacin SOL y GEL

Los silicatos de sodio reaccionan con compuestos cidos. Cuando las soluciones de concentraciones
relativamente alta se acidifican, los aniones de silicato soluble se polimerizan hasta formar un gel. Cuando se
acidifican slices disueltos de concentraciones relativamente diluidas se pueden formar soles activados. El
grado de polimerizacin de los aniones de las soluciones de silicato de sodio depende de la concentracin de
la solucin, temperatura pH y otros factores. La gelacin ocurre muy rpidamente al pH neutro. Puede ocurrir
retrasos en los tiempos de gelacin (soles inestables) en rangos de pH 8-10 y 2-5. La formacin gel es
generalmente muy rpida en el rango intermedio (5-8). Los soles de slice coloidal pueden prepararse a partir
de silicatos de sodio por medio de un intercambio de iones, dilisis y otros medios a slice activada, que es
utilizada en tratamiento de agua de desperdicio industrial o municipal. El sol de slice coloidal puede usarse
para el curtido de pieles, reforzamiento de polmeros sintticos, terminado de telas y cubiertas. El gel de slice
se prepara neutralizando una solucin de silicato con cido mineral. El gel hmedo es triturado, desalinizado y
secado para preparar desecantes absorbentes, agentes transmisores y bases de catalizadores. La
neutralizacin del silicato con soluciones cidas o gases, forma capas de gel de baja solubilidad pero que son
de alguna manera frgiles y temporales por naturaleza.

Reacciones de precipitacin
Las soluciones de silicato de sodio reaccionan con cationes polivalentes disueltos para formar
precipitados. Dependiendo de las condiciones de reaccin, como pH, concentracin y temperatura resultarn
silicatos de metal insoluble o slice hidratada con xidos de metal absorbidos o hidrxidos. Este tipo de
reacciones puede usarse para formar pigmentos o compuestos que pueden utilizarse como extensores o
selladores por medio de un intercambio de iones, catalizadores, absorbentes y otros productos. El cloruro de
calcio reacciona instantneamente con soluciones de silicato. La reaccin es un mecanismo efectivo tambin
para insolubilizar una capa o cubierta de silicato. Las superficies de cemento portland son endurecidas y se
hacen menos porosas cuando se aplica una solucin de silicato a pisos o paredes. Los aluminosilicatos son un
mecanismo efectivo tambin para insolubilizar una capa o cubierta de silicato. Las superficies de cemento
portland son endurecidas y se hacen menos porosas cuando se aplica una solucin de silicato a pisos o
paredes. Los aluminosilicatos de sodio se forman por reacciones entre compuestos de aluminio y silicato de
sodio. Los productos resultantes pueden servir por medio de un intercambio de iones como suavizante de
agua, zeolitas sintticas o mallas moleculares. La extensin e ndice de la reaccin de silicatos con varias sales
metlicas depende de la naturaleza de la sal y de su estructura molecular y fsica. Por ejemplo, los carbonatos
de calcio mineral, tales como calcita muestran una interaccin limitada con silicato soluble, mientras que el
carbonato de calcio precipitado muestra una alta reactividad.

Interaccin con compuestos orgnicos

Relativamente pocos compuestos orgnicos son compatibles con soluciones de silicato soluble
concentrado. Solventes polares sensibles pueden causar una separacin de fase o deshidratacin. En mezclas
con sustancias oleoflicas inmiscibles en agua, el silicato se separa en la fase acuosa, aunque en el caso de
formulaciones de detergente lquido, este fenmeno puede superarse agregando un hidrtropo adecuado o una
emulsin estabilizadora. Pocos compuestos como la glicerina, sorbitol de azcar y etilenglicol con miscibles y
algunas veces se usan como humectantes y ayudan a plastificar la pelcula de silicato. Los agentes de steres
orgnicos son utilizados para producir un retraso en el tiempo de gelacin de las soluciones de silicato. La
alcalinidad de la solucin de silicato es consumida por la hidrlisis de estos steres por un perodo de tiempo
extenso.

4-7
APLICACIONES COMUNES SLIDOS Y LIQUIDOS SIDESA
Los silicatos de sodio tienen muchas propiedades tiles que no comparten otras sales alcalinas. Esto, junto con el
hecho de que tienen bajo costo, da como resultado un amplio campo de uso en diferentes industrias. Son utilizados en la
industria como adhesivos, detergentes, ingredientes en compuestos de limpieza, cementos, binders, capas protectoras y
peculiares, ayuda coagulante, anticorrosivos, bases de catalizadores, defloculadores, insumos qumicos, zeolitas, etc. Las
diferentes propiedades y caractersticas funcionales de los silicatos solubles pueden ser utilizadas para resolver eficiente y
econmicamente muchos problemas que surgen en procesos industriales y qumicos. Las investigaciones de PQ
Corporation, base tecnolgica de SIDESA han ampliado el conocimiento de las propiedades del producto y su utilizacin
hasta incluir un amplio rango de aplicaciones. An ms, continuamente se estn estudiando nuevos usos. Si usted tiene un
problema en el que el silicato pueda ayudar a resolver, le invitamos a consultarnos. Para una referencia rpida de los usos
clasificados en las principales industrias consumidoras, a continuacin se le muestra una explicacin breve.

DETERGENTES
Las soluciones de silicato de sodio de SIDESA han sido utilizadas como un ingrediente en la fabricacin de
detergentes en polvo va torre de secado, por muchos aos. Las soluciones de silicato son fcilmente agregadas a la pasta
detergente y ayudan a controlar la viscosidad para la produccin de un polvo detergente de la densidad deseada. El silicato
de sodio acta tambin como binder para dar el grado adecuado de dureza a la partcula esfrica del detergente, sin
perjudicar la solubilidad del polvo en agua. En las formulaciones de detergente el silicato de sodio tiene un nmero de
propiedades vigorizantes que intensifican la actuacin del sistema detergente. Estas propiedades son:
Humectacin.-Las molculas del surfactante son agentes de reduccin de la tensin superficial de los lquidos permitiendo
que las superficies duras de los tejidos de fbrica se mojen apropiadamente durante el lavado.
Emulsificacin.- Es la dispersin de manchas grasosas en roco fino que las mantienen suspendidas en la solucin del
lavado.
Defloculacion.- Promueve la ruptura de manchas o partculas inorgnicas en partculas finas en la solucin del lavado.
Antiredeposicin.- Previene que la mugre o la suciedad flote sin que se redeposite a las superficies limpias.
Poder buffer.- Gracias a su alcalinidad tiene la habilidad para controlar el pH de la solucin detergente en presencia de
mugre cida, amortiguando los cambios.
Prevencin de la corrosin.- o la proteccin de superficies de metal sensible a los efectos corrosivos de otros ingredientes
del detergente.
Poder secuestrante y suavizante.- Remueve los minerales y por lo tanto la dureza del agua de lavado, mediante un
mecanismo de intercambio inico en el que se generan compuestos que se eliminan durante el enjuague, principalmente de
calcio, magnesio, fierro y manganeso.
En la formulacin de detergente de silicatos tienen la habilidad de ayudar en los efectos sobre la superficie de las
telas humectndolas en conjunto con los elementos orgnicos, ayudando a mantener las pequeas suciedades o partculas
grasosas en suspensin en el lquido de lavado, o ayudando a remover las manchas de las superficies. La alcalinidad de los
silicatos de sodio los capacita para neutralizar las manchas cidas y promover la emulsificacin de grasas y aceites mientras
dispersa o solubiliza protenas. Los silicatos tienen una alta capacidad de amortiguamiento en relacin a otras sales
alcalinas que estabiliza el pH al nivel deseado en presencia de compuestos cidos o en dilucin.

ADHESIVOS
Los silicatos ms siliceos (relacin 2.8 - 3.2) son muy tiles como adhesivos o binders, debido a un contenido ms
alto de slice polimrica. Estos materiales pegan por la remocin de pequeas cantidades de agua, los cuales los convierten
de un lquido a un slido. Las ventajas de los adhesivos de silicato de sodio incluyen un buen extendimiento y contacto, un
buen pegado, un ndice de ajuste controlable en rangos amplios y la formacin de una capa rgida, fuerte, permanente de un
sellado que es resistente a jalones, bichos (plagas), calor y moderadamente resistente al agua. Los silicatos para adhesivos
son generalmente embarcados y listos para su uso, pero para aplicaciones especiales pueden ser modificados por ciertos
aditivos tales como arcilla, casena y otros materiales inorgnicos. Se utilizan para papel, madera, metal, hojas metlicas y
otros materiales, excepto plsticos.

CEMENTOS/BINDERS
Cuando los silicatos son combinados con ingredientes de cemento, reaccionan qumicamente para formar masas
con fuertes propiedades binders. Una gran variedad de cementos se hacen con silicatos, tanto en polvo como en solucin.
Los silicatos son ingredientes importantes en las especialidades refractarias autofraguantes y morteros qumicamente
resistentes. Las ventajas de los silicatos solubles como binders son: 1)Resistencia a la temperatura, 2)Resistencia a los
cidos, 3)Resistencia a disolventes despus de su uso, 4)Facilidad de manejo, 5)Seguridad, 6)Bajo costo.

PELICULAS Y RECUBRIMIENTOS.
Las pelculas secas de silicatos no se afectan por aceites, sebo y grasas minerales, o de otras clases. Cuando se
aplican en producto de papel o madera son resistentes al fuego y plagas y a prueba de grasas. Se puede incrementar la
resistencia al agua agregando xidos de metal pesado, agentes insolubles de carbonato, polmeros inorgnicos o selladores
minerales como la mica. Los silicatos forman capas protectoras en los metales para controlar la corrosin en las lneas de
agua.

5-7
TRATAMIENTO DE AGUA
Cuando se utilizan los silicatos con alumbre, sales frricas u otros coagulantes en el tratamiento de agua cruda se
incrementa la velocidad de formacin de floculo, su tamao, densidad y resistencia. El aadir silicato de sodio, puede ser un
mtodo sencillo y econmico de controlar el hierro y/o manganeso excesivo, contenido en muchos sistemas de
abastecimiento de agua. Muchos abastecimientos de agua natural, con presencia de hierro y/o manganeso, que fallan
cediendo a los procedimientos regulares para removerlos, pueden desarrollar el silicato durante este tratamiento.

FUNDICION
El silicato de sodio es un binder bien conocido para arenas de vaciado. Es compatible con el almidn y la dextrina
utilizados en la preparacin de materiales de fundicin. Los silicatos SIDESA reemplazan exitosamente los aceites
vegetales y resinas ms costosos utilizados para formar ciertos tipos de moldes. Los compuestos de moldes. Los
compuestos de moldes basados en silicatos dan una capa dura a temperaturas moderadas, porosidad apropiada para la
liberacin de gases calientes y buena colapsibilidad. Para mtodos de produccin rpida, la aplicacin de silicatos de sodio
en combinacin con reacciones cidas de gas se emplean en el proceso comn de bixido de carbono (CO2). Tambin se
pueden lograr moldes de fundicin de autoendurecimiento con un binder hecho de la mezcla de cemento portland o steres
orgnicos con silicato de sodio.

BENEFICIO MINERAL.
Los silicatos solubles son utilizados en numerosos procesos para la concentracin de minerales. El uso principal
del silicato de sodio en la flotacin mineral, es como depresor y dispersor de minerales silceos que no se desean. En
general slo se necesitan pequeas cantidades de silicato, similares a las concentraciones utilizadas en las operaciones de
limpieza. Algunas veces la habilidad del silicato, para reaccionar o precipitar iones de metal pesado para formar una capa de
iones de sodio en una superficie particular, es importante para preparar esa superficie o bien para una separacin selectiva.
El silicato de sodio tambin ayuda a prevenir la corrosin, reduciendo as el desgaste en los equipos de molienda.

TEXTILES
Los silicatos de sodio tienen muchas aplicaciones en los talleres textiles. En las operaciones de blanqueado, la
caracterstica estabilizadora de silicato reduce el ndice de descomposicin del agente blanqueador. Este control previene el
dao que ocurra en la fibra si se permite un cambio de pH. Los silicatos de sodio son aplicados en los pretratamientos de
tela e hilo para remover cera, grasa y motas de algodn. La eleccin apropiada de la relacin de silicato y slidos produce
una mejor limpieza y evita que se redeposite la suciedad.

AGLOMERACION
Las caractersticas adhesivas naturales del silicato, junto con su habilidad de proporcionar una fijacin rpida y un
fuerte secado, as como la de suministrar una capa resistente al agua a bajo costo, han resultado en su utilizacin en las
aplicaciones de pelletizado, briqueteado y sintetizado de minerales. Sirve tambin como ayuda en el proceso de nodulacin
y estiramiento. Para la aglomeracin de materiales que son extrados, procesados o recuperados en formas muy pequeas,
elimina el polvo y mejora la transferencia de calor en las operaciones de secado, calcinacin y fundicin. La eliminacin de
estos polvos puede reducir o eliminar la contaminacin de aire y agua, as como las capas o anillos internos en un horno de
secado y mejora las caractersticas de almacenaje y transportacin. El pelletizado es un proceso en el cual el material
pequeo se forma en bolas hmedas. El silicato combinado con las partculas finas ayuda a la formacin del pellet e
incrementa la fuerza de los grnulos formados en las etapas de secado y coccin. En los procesos de estiramiento,
compresin y aglomerado, el silicato acta como lubricante y/o binder, de manera que se mejoran las caractersticas de
fluidez y propiedades fsicas del producto.

DILUYENTES AGREGADOS
Cuando se utiliza en la pasta de los cementos la solucin de silicato de sodio deflocula el mineral de arcilla y los
componentes de cal de pasta. Esto se logra mediante la combinacin de efectos, que incluyen: absorcin de la superficie
del agregado; donacin de iones de sodio (Na+); y precipitacin de iones de calcio (Ca++) en la pasta. El efecto real de este
proceso de defloculacin es una reduccin de la cantidad de agua necesitada para mantener la pasta en un rango de
viscosidad bombeable. Se prefiere el silicato de sodio como defloculador en la preparacin de soluciones estables de arcilla
fusible para el vaciado en los poros de los moldes de yeso. En la arcilla fusible, la cual es fcilmente bombeable, la slice
acta como un estabilizador para cualquier lcali presente. Ya que se necesita menos agua, la arcilla fusible es ms densa y
por lo tanto la pieza resultante ms fuerte. Se necesita menos tiempo de coccin en el molde y hay un menor encogimiento
conforme se secan las piezas moldeadas. En el proceso de arcilla cruda, la accin depresora del silicato es utilizada para
separar impurezas como cuarzo, feldespato, mica, xido de hierro, etc.

INYECCIN QUMICA
Para la inyeccin qumica o solidificacin del subsuelo, puede ser utilizado el silicato de sodio en las siguientes
situaciones: (1) donde las formaciones del subsuelo tienen fuerza insuficiente para soportar la carga requerida, tales como
bajo las paredes o cimientos, (2) donde los poros del subsuelo, permeables al agua, permiten la inundacin de minas, pozos
y tneles (3) para prevenir la prdida del agua en presas, (4) para sellar poros en los trabajos de concreto o ladrillo como se
pueden encontrar en desages o construcciones subterrneas. En el Proceso de Joosten se inyectan por separado silicato
de sodio y cloruro de calcio en el subsuelo. Se combinan para formar un gel insoluble que fragua y sella los poros y suelos
con baja resistencia.

6-7
TRATAMIENTO DE CONCRETO
El silicato de sodio ofrece dos aplicaciones diferentes para aumentar la durabilidad del concreto. Se puede aplicar
una solucin de silicato de sodio como agente curante a la superficie de la capa fresca de concreto despus de que el rea
ha sido cubierta y mantenida hmeda durante 24 horas. La aplicacin de silicato cierra los poros de la superficie sellndolos
mientras estn hmedos. Para tratar el concreto, despus de que est completamente seco o endurecido, se aplica el
silicato hasta penetrar el concreto. La cal y otros ingredientes en el concreto fresco reaccionan lentamente con la solucin
penetrante de silicato, formando un gel insoluble en los poros del concreto. Se incrementa la resistencia al uso, agua, grasa
o cido.

INDUSTRIAS QUE UTILIZAN SILICATOS DE SODIO DE SIDESA

INDUSTRIA FUNCIN DEL SILICATO BENEFICIO PRINCIPAL
CERAMICA
Cementos refractarios Binder Fraguado de aire
Fundicin Defloculador Slidos altos
Diluyente de pasta Defloculador Reduccin de agua
Refinado de arcilla Defloculador Mejora fluidez
CONSTRUCCION
Endurecimiento de concreto Reaccin qumica, sellado. A prueba de grasa y polvo, resistente al cido
Cementos a prueba de cido Binder Fcil de usar, econmico
Cementos refractarios Binder Capa dura, excelente accin trmica, resistente al cido
Aislamiento trmico Adhesivo, formacin de pelcula Capa a prueba de fuego
Solidificacin del suelo Reaccin gel Binder econmico
PETROLEO
Lodo de perforacin Control coloidal Controla formacin geolgica
Prevencin de corrosin Reaccin qumica Eficaz, reduce costo
Rompimiento de emulsin Reaccin qumica Rompe emulsin
PAPEL
Tratamiento de agua cruda Floculacin Mayor claridad en efluente
Aditivo de caja maestra Floculacin. Retiene finos y cargas en la lnea
Cubiertas Formacin de pelcula A prueba de grasa, resistente a la humedad
Blanqueo con perxido de pasta Reaccin qumica Conserva el perxido, produce pasta ms blanca
Adhesivos para laminacin y etiquetado Adhesin Capas fuertes, econmico
Tratamiento de agua pura Floculacin Incremento de tamao de floculo, clarificacin mejorada
Destintado Detergencia Remocin de tinta
CARTON
Tambores de fibra Adhesin Agrega rigidez, bajo costo
Tubos espirales Adhesin Agrega rigidez, bajo costo
TEXTIL
Blanqueo con perxido Reaccin qumica Conserva perxido, aumenta blancura
Entintado Amortiguador de pH Fijacin de tinta, menores costos de proceso
COMPUESTOS DE
LIMPIEZA/DETERGENTES Binder, inhibidor de corrosin y Ayuda de proceso en torre de secado y aglomeracin.
Detergentes en polvo defloculador Proteccin a la corrosin y detergencia
Defloculador y Amortiguador de pH Detergencia y proteccin e inhibicin a la corrosin
Jabones lquidos y limpiadores
TRATAMIENTO DE AGUA
Tratamiento de agua cruda y desperdicio. Floculante Incrementa el tamao y acelera la formacin del floculo
Prevencin de corrosin en lneas de agua Formacin de pelcula Pelcula Protectora inhibe la corrosin del metal
Control de contenido de plomo y cobre Reaccin qumica Reduce niveles de metales txicos
Estabilizacin de fierro y manganeso Reaccin qumica Mejora el sabor, elimina agua roja
METALES
Fundicin porosa Impregnacin Sella fugas y llena huecos
Cubiertas de varillas de soldadura Binder Buen binder y accin de flux
Flotacin de mineral Defloculador Agente de separacin y control de corrosin
Moldes de fundicin y binders Binder Ajuste rpido
Polvos de fundicin Aglomeracin Elimina polvo, mejora las condiciones ambientales
Pelletizado Binder Ayuda e incrementa la formacin del pellet
Briqueteado Binder Mejora caractersticas de flujo y propiedades cohesivas
TRATAMIENTO DE DESECHOS
Solidificacin y estabilizacin Reaccin qumica, binder Reduccin de porosidad y tiempo de fijacin

NOTA
La informacin contenida en este documento es una gua para el cliente. Las recomendaciones se hacen sin
ninguna garanta. Antes de usar los productos se recomienda que el cliente determine la adecuacin del
material en su proceso y este asume el riesgo y consecuencias del mismo. No sugerimos la violacin de
ninguna propiedad intelectual o permitir practicar cualquier patente de invencin sin una licencia.

7-7
 SILICATO DE SODIO PARA TRATAMIENTO DE
HIERRO Y MANGANESO EN AGUA POTABLE.
El hierro y el manganeso que se encuentran en el agua potable se consideran,
generalmente no dainos para la salud. Sin embargo, causan problemas estticos
cuando se encuentran en concentraciones que exceden a los lmites permisibles ( Fe
0.3 ml/L, Mn 0.15 mg/L ).

Estos problemas incluyen el agua coloreada, manchas en los accesorios del bao y
promueven y acentan el crecimiento bacteriano dentro del agua.

El hierro y el manganeso pueden tratarse de vario mtodos. Existen tratamientos

convencionales como oxidacin, precipitacin y remocin, combinado con la aereacin,
sedimentacin, filtracin y posible adicin qumica. Estos mtodos eliminan el
problema, pero se consideran muy costosos.

El mtodo propuesto es el de adicionar simultneamente en el agua de pozo diversas

dosis de silicato de sodio tipo N y suficiente gas cloro o hipoclorito. De esta forma, el
hierro no forma precipitados ni da color o turbidez al agua por varios das.

El silicato de sodio no es peligroso para la salud, ya que, inclusive, se utiliza en el

tratamiento de aguas como floculante.

Una tcnica alternativa para el tratamiento, es el de secuestrar los iones fierro y

manganeso; secuestrar significa prevenir la formacin de color y turbiedad sin
realmente remover el fierro y el manganeso. Este mecanismo involucra la formacin de
partculas coloidales que, por su pequeo tamao y caractersticas, no generan color ni
turbiedad.

Las ventajas del mtodo silicato de sodio/cloro comparadas con los mtodos
convencionales son:
No se producen lodos residuales,
No se requiere de instalaciones complejas; y adems
El silicato que pudiera agregarse en exceso inhibir la corrosin en el sistema, ya
que sta es otra de sus cualidades.

Este mtodo, aunque es poco conocido y relativamente nuevo, se est utilizando en

gran parte de las plantas tratadoras de Canad y Estados Unidos de Norteamrica.

Diversos trabajos experimentales han demostrado en que debe adicionarse el silicato

de sodio, tenindose como conclusin que, primero debe adicionarse el silicato y, de 15
a 30 segundos despus, el cloro preferentemente en forma de hipoclorito.

Para poder determinar la cantidad que debe adicionarse al pozo a tratar, es necesario
hacer diferentes pruebas experimentales tales como pruebas de jarras y de filtros, as
como un anlisis qumico, ya que estas variables determinarn la dosis de silicato a
utilizar.
1
PRUEBAS DE ESTABILIZACIN DE HIERRO Y MANGANESO
Este procedimiento est diseado para determinar la concentracin ptima de silicato
de sodio que se requiere para la estabilizacin de hierro y manganeso en aguas
subterrneas o de pozo.

El procedimiento se realiza en un total de 2 a 5 horas, y el equipo necesario que se

recomienda es el siguiente:

6 jarras o vasos de plstico de un litro de capacidad.

1 muestra de silicato de sodio diluido (0.250) (1% en peso de concentracin de slice
que puede llevarse a cabo de la siguiente manera: 1 parte en peso de silicato de
sodio tipo N con 27 partes en peso de agua.)
1 muestra (0.250 litros) de una solucin de cloruro al 1% en peso de cloro.
1 matraz Kitazato y un filtro.
6 piezas de papel filtro libre de hierro ( se recomiendan filtros de fibra de vidrio, que
son estndar para anlisis de slidos suspendidos en agua con retencin efectiva
1.5 micrones, velocidad de flujo 13 ml/s y espesor de 0.033 cm.)
2 pipetas graduadas con 0.05 de precisin.

PROCEDIMIENTO
En el laboratorio, se adicionan a las jarras 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 y 0.8 gramos de solucin
de silicato al 1%, posteriormente, se les adiciona la cantidad de cloro utilizada
normalmente por el usuario. Ya en el pozo, se llena cada una de las jarras con el agua
de pozo bombeada. Asegrese de que la muestra se tome antes del proceso normal de
cloracin y antes de que el agua est expuesta al oxgeno atmosfrico no ms de 10
segundos. Tape las muestras inmediatamente y agtelas. Deje que las muestras se
estabilicen (esto tal vez requiera de una a tres horas), agtelas ocasionalmente;
posteriormente, filtre cada una de las muestras con diferentes filtros cada una.

RESULTADOS Y EVALUACIN.

Si ninguno de los papeles filtro presenta un residuo coloreado, podemos obtener dos
conclusiones:
1. Hay poco o no hay hierro presente en el agua.
2. No se adicion suficiente cloro.
Debe de haber una concentracin de silicato a la cual se reduce sustancialmente el
residuo de hierro en el papel filtro como precipitado coloreado; entonces, no deber de
colorear la porcelana blanca o manchar la ropa.

Como alternativa para evaluar los resultados, se puede medir el color de cada una de
las muestras, siendo la dosis adecuada de silicato la correspondiente a la muestra,
cuyo nivel de color sea el deseado.

2
SIDESA produce los silicatos solubles en hornos de alta temperatura, mezclando
carbonatos de sodio o potasio con arena silcea. Como resultado de sta reaccin, se
obtiene silicato de sodio slido que, posteriormente, puede disolverse y dar lugar a una
gran variedad de productos con diferentes propiedades.

SIDESA recomienda el uso del silicato de sodio N para aplicaciones en

tratamientos de agua, ya que su presentacin facilita su embarque, almacenamiento y
manejo.

Propiedades tpicas del silicato de sodio N

Relacin en peso SiO2 / Na2 O 3.22

% SiO2 28.7
% Na2 O 8.9
Densidad a 20C, Be 41.0
Densidad a 20C, g/cm3 1.38
pH 11.3
Caractersticas Lquido viscoso

ACEPTACIN ECOLGICA.
Los silicatos de sodio son considerados como productos no txicos y no corrosivos. No
representan ningn riesgo a la salud o al medio ambiente.

El uso del silicato de sodio para tratamiento de agua municipal est aprobado en
Estados Unidos por American Water Works Association (AWWA), Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), Enviromental Protection Agency (EPA) y la National
Sanitation Foundation (NSF). En Mxico est aprobado por la Secretara de Salud.

ASISTENCIA TCNICA.
Para informacin tcnica adicional relativa a las aplicaciones del silicato de sodio en
tratamiento de agua, pngase en contacto con su agente de ventas o con el
Departamento de Servicio Tcnico el cual lo asistir en caso de dudas o requerimientos
adicionales EN APLICACIONES a los telfonos: (55) 5227-68-00 o sin costo 01-800-
90-685-00.

NOTA
La informacin contenida en este documento es una gua para el cliente. Las
recomendaciones se hacen sin ninguna garanta. Antes de usar los productos se
recomienda que el cliente determine la adecuacin del material en su proceso y este
asume el riesgo y consecuencias del mismo. No sugerimos la violacin de ninguna
propiedad intelectual o permitir practicar cualquier patente de invencin sin una
licencia.

3

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
Bulletin 37-3
PQ Soluble Silicates:
For Protection of Water
Systems From Corrosion
INTRODUCTION
Soluble silicates are economical, effective, and environmentally responsible
chemicals which have been used for more than 70 years to protect metals
from the corrosive effects of water.1 They are classified as corrosion
inhibitors because they can deposit protective films onto various metal sur-
faces, isolating the metal from any further corrosive attack, and because
they raise water pH which can make it less corrosive to metals. Silicates do
not contribute zinc or phosphorous to treated water.
Laboratory and field experience has shown that silicate corrosion inhibitors
are effective in many different types of water. Protection is provided in both
acidic and alkaline water. In harder water slightly more silicate is needed to
achieve the same degree of corrosion inhibition, since some of the injected
silica may react with hardness ions before it has a chance to bond onto
metal surfaces
PQ silicates have been successfully used for corrosion control in water sup-
plies of municipalities, industrial plants, oil refineries, textile mills, private res-
idences, apartment buildings, and office buildings. Their corrosion inhibition
properties also make them key ingredients in such products as automobile
antifreeze and laundry detergents.
WHAT ARE SOLUBLE SILICATES?
PQ Corporation manufactures sodium and potassium silicates. These solu-
ble silicates are produced by fusing high purity silica sand and sodium car-
bonate (or potassium carbonate) at temperatures of 1000 - 1500oC. The
resulting product is an amorphous glass that can be dissolved in water to
produce silicate solutions, sometimes referred to as waterglass. The silica
in a silicate solution is present as both monomeric and polymeric anionic
species (Figure 1), that exist in equilibrium with each other.2
Ratio and silicate concentration are two important factors that influence what
species are present in solution. At concentrations typical for corrosion con-
trol, the silica monomer predominates.3
The proportion of silica to alkali in a sodium silicate is expressed as the
weight ratio SiO2/Na2O. It is one of the main characteristics that influences
product properties and distinguishes one product from another.
PQ manufactures liquid sodium silicates which range in ratio from 1.60 to
3.22. Typically, 2.00 or 3.22 ratio sodium silicate solutions, containing 25 to
30% SiO2, are used for municipal water treatment.
Registered trademarks of PQ Corporation
 INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
FIGURE 1. TWO SILICA STRUCTURES FOUND IN
SODIUM SILICATE SOLUTIONS
Na+
Na+
O- OH
O-
HO O Si
Si O
Si
O OH
HO OH O-
O Si Si
O- Na+
Si O O- OH O-
Na+
Na+ Na+
O- OH
Na+
monomer branched ring
Terminology: Silica vs. Silicate
The term silica refers to the compound silicon dioxide (SiO2.) Water is typi-
cally analyzed for silica as part of normal water quality analysis procedures.
Silica levels are usually reported as mg SiO2/L.
Silicate is a generic term for compounds that contain silicon, oxygen, and
one or more metals. They can be naturally occurring or synthetic. As an
example, PQs synthetic sodium silicate compounds can be represented by
the generalized formula Na2OxSiO2, where x varies from 1.60 to 3.22 for
commercial products.
Naturally occurring silicate minerals make up nearly 90% of the earths crust.4
Dissolved silica is a minor but ubiquitous constituent of the hydrosphere.5
Commercial soluble silicates have a higher degree of polymerized silica
species than natural dissolved silica because of higher concentrations; how-
ever, when diluted they depolymerize to molecular species that are indistin-
guishable from natural dissolved silica.6
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS OF SODIUM SILICATE
Sodium silicate adds silicate anions, together with sodium and hydroxyl ions,
to water.
Silica is found to some extent in all natural waters and is believed to be eco-
logically harmless. The charged, polymeric nature of the silica found in syn-
thetic silicate solutions is responsible for its reaction with metals and corro-
sion inhibition properties.
The sodium content of water will increase slightly with sodium silicate addi-
tion. This issue has been raised as a concern in some instances. At the high-
est dosages recommended for potable water treatment (24 mg SiO2/L), PQs
N sodium silicate will contribute less than 5.6 mg Na/L to the water.

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
Furthermore, when using N silicate at normal maintenance dosages of 4-12
mg SiO2/L, the sodium contribution is 0.9-2.8 mg Na/L, respectively. When
other sodium silicates are used, the sodium contribution will be different
depending on the weight ratio of SiO2/Na2O. If no sodium addition is tolera-
ble, potassium silicates offer an alternative.
Neither sodium nor potassium silicate corrosion inhibitors contribute phos-
phorus or metals such as zinc to the ecosystem. These are concerns with
other corrosion inhibitors, especially phosphorus-based types.
pH EFFECTS
Sodium silicates are alkaline chemicals. Treating water at typical levels of
4-24 mg SiO2/L may raise the water pH anywhere from 0.1 to 2.0 pH units or
more. The actual pH increase will depend on overall water quality and sili-
cate dosage. See Figure 2 for example. Increases in pH will generally help
minimize corrosion and will provide a synergistic effect along with deposition
of monomolecular silica film.
FIGURE 2. pH RESPONSE WITH SILICATE ADDITION
LAKE TAHOE WATER pH RESPONSE TO SODIUM SILICATE ADDITION
Measured Water pH
10
9
8
7
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Silicate Addition (ppm SiO2)
3.22 Wt. Ratio Na-Silicate Added
APPROVALS FOR USE
The use of sodium silicates for the control of corrosion in municipal water
systems is approved by the American Water Works Association and the
American National Standards Institute (refer to ANSI/AWWA Standard B404).
Sodium silicate also has Food and Drug Administration (FDA) unpublished
generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status as a corrosion preventative in
water (at levels below 100 mg/L).7
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recognizes that silicate
inhibitors may be effective in controlling corrosion of lead and copper in
potable water systems.8
THE NATURE OF SILICATE CORROSION INHIBITION
Studies have shown that soluble silicates are reactive with cationic metals
and metal surfaces.9 This phenomenon is the basis by which silicates inhibit
corrosion and is illustrated at the top of the following page.10
 INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
FIGURE 3. DEPOSITION OF SILICA ON METAL SURFACE
M OH M O OH
O + Si (OH)4 = O Si
M OH M O OH
Monomeric and polymeric silica, introduced into a water distribution system
as sodium silicate solution, is carried by flowing water to all parts of the dis-
tribution system. At the dilution levels used for water treatment, the majority
of the silica depolymerizes to a reactive monomer form. The monomeric sili-
ca, which can be represented by (SiO3)2-, is adsorbed onto metal pipe sur-
faces at anodic areas, forming a thin monomolecular film on the interior of
the pipe. This prevents any further corrosive reaction at the anode.
Corrosion will be inhibited when an anodic reaction of the type proposed
between ferrous iron and silica (shown as equation (2) in Figure 4) occurs
in place of the reaction which forms ferric hydroxide (shown as equation (4)
in Figure 4). Protective films can be formed by such a reaction.
Microscopic and x-ray examination of the film formed at the metal surface
show two layers, with most of the silica in the surface layer adjacent to the
water. When the hydrous metal oxide film has been covered with a silica
film, silica deposition stops.11 The film does not build on itself, and therefore
will not form excessive scale. The film is an electrical insulator and blocks
the electrochemical reactions of corrosion, yet it is thin enough that it does
not obstruct water flow.12
Corrosion protection with PQ sodium silicates can be achieved by modifying
the SiO2 content of the water. Therefore the key water property is SiO2 con-
FIGURE 4. POSTULATED ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS OF IRON IN
WATER, WITH AND WITHOUT ADDED SILICA
e-
IRON PIPE WALL
CATHODE ANODE
(3) 2 H+ + 2e- H2 (1) Fe2++ 2e-
2+ 2-
(2) Fe + SiO3 + 2H2O FeOSi (OH)3++ H+
INNER IRON PIPE SURFACE
2+
ANODE REACTION WITHOUT ADDED SILICA: (4) 4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O 4Fe (OH)3

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
tent, not pH or calcium level, as in other types of corrosion control practices.
Alkalinity, pH, and water hardness may influence the effectiveness of sili-
cate treatment.
In many cases, natural SiO2 found in water probably has already reacted
(i.e., adsorbed) with other metals in the water and may not be effective in
reacting with metal pipes. Therefore, a fresh source of reactive SiO2 is
needed (as from soluble silicate solutions).
LENGTH OF CARRY
When silicate treatment is first started, the system near the point of applica-
tion is coated immediately; then the film continues to form at greater dis-
tances. Eventually, with continued feeding and sufficient water flow rate, the
treatment becomes effective throughout the entire system.
Once the film has been created, the protection is maintained as long as sili-
cate treatment is continued; if stopped, the protection is gradually lost. If
damaged, the film is self healing, as long as the silicate feed is continued.
METALS PROTECTED
Silicate treatment is effective in controlling corrosion of many different
metals and in systems made up of a variety of metals.
METALS THAT HAVE BEEN SUCCESSFULLY PROTECTED
BY TREATMENT OF SOLUBLE SILICATES:
Lead Galvanized Steel
Copper Bronze
Cast Iron and Red Brass
Ferrous Metals Yellow Brass
Steel Nickel Alloys
PROTECTION OF CEMENTICIOUS MATERIALS
Addition of silicate to water systems can protect cementicious materials
from long term deterioration. The silicate reacts with available calcium to
form insoluble calcium-silicate compounds. Studies have shown that silicate
treatment may reduce the breakdown of asbestos-cement surfaces, thus
prolonging the life of the material and minimizing the release of fibril
asbestos.13
COST OF TREATMENT
The cost for silicate treatment will vary, depending on the amount of silicate
being fed into the water system, and the quantities purchased.
A GENERAL EQUATION FOR DETERMINING THE COST OF
SILICATE TREATMENT IS:
[8.34] [a] [b] $
=
[c] MG water
a = desired SiO2 dose (in mg/L or ppm)
b = $/pound silicate solution
c = wt. % SiO2 in silicate (decimal format)

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
TESTING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SILICATE TREATMENT
The effectiveness of silicate corrosion inhibitors can be evaluated in a
number of ways. Options include:
1. Monitoring levels of dissolved metals (e.g., Fe, Cu, Pb) in water samples
before and after treatment.
2. Conducting pipe-loop studies based on U.S. Army Construction
Engineering Research Laboratory (USA-CERL) and/or American Water
Works Association Research Foundation (AWWARF) procedures.
3. Conducting coupon testing based on ATSM Test Method D-2688,
Corrosivity of Water in the Absence of Heat Transfer.
Results from a coupon test are presented in Figure 5. The water source was
a surface water in southern California. The treatment levels of silicate and
zinc orthophosphate used were cost equivalent.
These results are valid for the specific water tested and actual test condi-
tions. The effectiveness of silicates on other waters may vary.
Current theory postulates that the presence of some corrosion product on
the metal surface will enhance the effectiveness of the silicates since the
reaction is believed to be between silica species and cationic metals (Figure
4). It is therefore recommended that coupon specimens and pipe loops be
exposed to untreated water for a conditioning period prior to passivation.
This practice will also be more representative of conditions that exist in actu-
al water systems where corrosion has already occurred.
During lab or pilot testing, as in actual field use, a relatively high passivation
dose of SiO2 is required initially for at least 30 days in order to establish the
protective film on metal surfaces.
PQ technical service personnel are available to assist in evaluations of
silicate corrosion inhibitors.
FIGURE 5. WATER PLANT TRIAL RESULTS
STEEL CORROSION RATES
Corrosion Rate (MPY)
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Untreated Untreated N Silicate ZOP
Water Treatment Method
37 Days Exposure, 4 ppm SiO2, O.5 ppm Zn
1010 Mild Steel/MPY=Mils Per Year
ZOP=Zinc Orthophosphate
 INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
SUGGESTED PQ SILICATES FOR MUNICIPAL WATER TREATMENT
Either PQs N or D sodium silicate solutions can be used for corrosion
control. The choice will depend on water quality and operator preference.
Since D silicate is slightly more alkaline than N, it may be preferred in lower
pH waters (e.g., water with pH below 6.0).
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF PQ SODIUM SILICATES
PQ Product Name N D
Wt. Ratio (SiO2/Na2O) 3.22 2.00
%Na2O 8.9 14.7
%SiO2 28.7 29.4
Density @20oC (oBe') 41.0 50.5
(lb./gal.) 11.6 12.8
(g/cm3) 1.38 1.53
pH 11.3 12.7
Viscosity @20oC (cps) 180 400
OTHER SILICATES
In addition to solutions, PQ offers silicates in powder and glass form. The
products (e.g., SS or METSO ) can be mixed with other inhibitors to pro-
duce blended products.
SILICATE DOSAGES
Although there is natural silica (SiO2) in many waters, it may or may not
have any inhibiting effect and is generally not considered in determining the
dosage of the silicate treatment.
PASSIVATION DOSAGE
Normally, relatively high dosages of silicate are required during the first 30
to 60 days of treatment in order to form the initial protective coating. This
initial silicate dosage is referred to as a passivation dosage and should be
24 mg/L above the background silica level.
The actual amount of time required to establish the initial coating will
depend on the amount of silicate injected, water quality, water flow rates,
and system length.
MAINTENANCE DOSAGE
After the first 30 to 60 days of treatment, or once film formation has been
verified (i.e., by SiO2 balance), the dosage can be reduced to a mainte-
nance dose. It is advisable to reduce the silica dose incrementally, for
example by lowering it to 12 mg SiO2/L for a period of time (e.g., 30 days),
then 8 mg SiO2/L, and possibly even down to 4 mg/L. Silica balances
should be done over the system as the dosage is decreased in order to
verify that the protective film remains intact.

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
CALCULATING SILICATE DOSAGES
It is important to remember that commercial sodium silicate solutions con-
sist of various proportions of silica (expressed as weight percent SiO2),
alkali (expressed as Na2O), and water. The required silicate injection is
based on the %SiO2 in the silicate, the water flow rate through the system,
and the desired incremental SiO2 level.
The following general equation can be used to determine silicate solution
feed rates in gallons per day:
[8.34] [a] [b] = gallons silicate solution
[c] [d] day
a = water flow rate (MGD)
b = desired SiO2 dose (mg/L or ppm)
c = wt. %SiO2 in silicate (decimal format)
d = density of silicate (lb./gal.)
Example:
a = 2MGD
b = 24 mg SiO2/L
c = 0.287 (wt. %SiO2)
d = 11.6 lb./gal.
[8.34] [2] [24] = 120.2 gal. silicate solution
[0.287] [11.6] day
Alternatively, the following more specific relationships can be used:
Using N Silicate
To obtain: 1 mg SiO2/L
Inject: 2.50 gal. N per MG Water
For example, to get an incremental dosage of 8 mg SiO2/L into a water
stream flowing at 10 million gallons per day, 200 gallons per day N silicate
must be injected (2.5 x 8 x 10 = 200).
Using D Silicate
To obtain: 1 mg SiO2/L
Inject: 2.25 gal. D per MG Water
For example, to get an incremental dosage of 8 mg SiO2/L into a water
stream flowing at 0.5 million gallons per day, 9 gallons per day D silicate
must be injected (2.25 x 8 x 0.5 = 9).
In situations with low water flow rates it may be necessary to dilute the
sodium silicate solution in order to get feed rates within the operating range
of typical metering pumps.

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
DETERMINING WHEN A PROTECTIVE FILM HAS BEEN FORMED
IN A DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM BY SILICA BALANCE
One way to monitor formation of the protective silica film is to do a silica
(SiO2) balance around the distribution system. This involves first determining
the normal background level of SiO2 in the water to be treated, and monitor-
ing it periodically to make sure any changes are recognized.
The silicate treatment will involve introducing a known incremental amount
of SiO2 (e.g., 24 mg/L). Once treatment begins, water samples at strategic
end points of the distribution system are periodically checked for SiO2. Once
the incremental level of SiO2 at the ends of the distribution system matches
the amount being introduced, no more SiO2 is being consumed (i.e., becom-
ing part of the protective film). This means the initial protective coating has
been formed, and the treatment dosage can gradually be reduced to a
maintenance dosage which will maintain the protective film.
It is important to continuously feed the silicate maintenance dose in order to
preserve the film. If silicate treatment is stopped, the film will gradually dis-
solve.
DETERMINATION OF SILICA
Test kits for determination of silica, as well as continuous monitoring equip-
ment, are available from firms such as:
Hach Chemical Company
P.O. Box 389
Loveland, Colorado 80539
Classical laboratory procedures for the determination of silica by colorimetric
and photometric techniques may be found in standard texts on inorganic
analysis.
Such procedures are published in Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Waste Water, American Public Health Asssociation, Washington,
D.C., or in current ASTM Book of Standards (ATSM Designation D-859,
Standard Test Method for Silica in Water).
Test methods for silica determination should be reviewed concerning possi-
ble interference effects that may influence the accuracy of results.
METHODS OF FEEDING
Sodium silicate solutions can be easily added to water by means of positive
displacement metering pumps. Piston, plunger, diaphragm and gear pumps
are suitable. Chemical feed rates can be adjusted by changing the length
and speed of the piston or diaphragm stroke, or by adjusting the gear
speed.
Silicate solution should be injected at a point near the discharge of the water
treatment plant, after final filtration, (i.e., at the clear well). With groundwater,
the silicate can be injected at the well site. The silicate feed pump can be
wired to activate based on water flow rates, or in conjunction with water trans-
port pumps, in order to maintain the proper proportion of silicate to water.

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
Aside from a suitable storage tank and feed pump, no special equipment is
required to use silicate. The silicate solution can be stored in drums, day-
tanks, or if delivered in tanker trucks, in bulk storage tanks. It can be fed at
delivered concentration or diluted with water. If diluted, this must be consid-
ered when calculating dosages.
The internals of the silicate feed pumps should be flushed with water when
they are taken out of service (e.g., during routine maintenance.) For addi-
tional information refer to PQ bulletin 17-70, Storage and Handling of PQ
Liquid Sodium and Potassium Silicates.
SAFETY
Sodium silicate solutions are inorganic compounds. They are not explosive
or flammable and are not classified as hazards in U. S. Department of
Transportation shipping regulations.
Due to their moderate alkalinity, care should be taken to prevent contact of
silicate solutions with eyes and skin. Personnel involved in unloading and/or
handling silicate solutions should use protective clothing and equipment to
prevent accidental contact. This equipment generally consists of hard hat,
chemical goggles or face shield, alkali-resistant gloves, safety footwear and
coveralls.
If silicate is splashed into the eyes, flush immediately with warm water and
seek medical attention. If splashed on the skin, sodium silicate solution
should be washed off with water, preferably warm water. If allowed to remain
in contact with the skin, irritation may result.
Wet silicate spills are slippery and will dehydrate to form glass-like films;
therefore, it is recommended that minor spills be rinsed with water immedi-
ately.
Some dried deposits of liquid silicate may form sharp edges (e.g., if spilled
around openings of sample jars), and care should be taken in such cases
since skin cuts may result. Such cuts should be washed with water and
given appropriate medical attention to prevent infection.
Additional safety information is contained in Material Safety Data Sheets
supplied by PQ Corporation.
SUMMARY TABLE
1. Soluble silicates are economical, effective, and environmentally responsible chem-
icals that have been used for more than 70 years to protect metals from the corro
sive effects of water. They do not contribute zinc or phosphorus to the environment.
2. Silicates are approved as direct additives to potable water. They are nonhazar-
dous, nontoxic, and nonflammable. They do not impart any taste or odor to water.
3. American Water Works Association Standard for Liquid Sodium Silicate
(ANSI/AWWA B404) recognizes the use of sodium silicate in water treatment.
4. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recognizes that silicates may be
effective in controlling lead and copper corrosion in potable water systems.
5. At the dilutions typical in water treatment, most of the added silica is in the
monomeric form.

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
THE PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
6. The silica in sodium silicate solutions carries a negative charge and will
migrate to anodic areas where it can react with metallic ions and form a
protective film that inhibits corrosion.
7. The alkali present in silicate will typically raise pH. Increases in pH generally
lead to decreased corrosion rates.
8. The film does not build on itself and will not obstruct water flow.
9. In areas of low water flow the supply of silica may eventually be exhausted
within the effective range of the electrical forces around the anode. A sufficient
water flow is required to supply additional silica.
10. In areas of low flow, the pH contribution of the silicate may also be reduced.
11. If only part of the area is protected, the remainder takes all the attack of the
corrosive medium. Therefore it is important to use enough inhibitor.
12. The efficacy of the silicate treatment may vary with the type of metal.
13. The treatment has inhibited corrosion in systems where two dissimilar metals
are in contact.
14. A passivation dose of 24 mg SiO2/L is recommended during the first 30-60 days
of treatment in order to quickly establish the protective film.
15. After the protective film has been formed, it can be maintained by feeding less
silicate. In most waters a maintenance dosage of 8 mg SiO2/L is effective.
16. The minimum recommended maintenance dosage is 4 mg SiO2/L
17. Higher dosages of silicate have been shown to give better protection from
corrosion.
18. Higher dosages of silicate speed the formation of the protective film.
19. Optimum silicate dosage will depend on specific water chemistry and system
characteristics.
20. The preferred sodium silicate solution for treating water with pH greater than 6.0
is 3.22 ratio SiO2/Na2O. For waters with pH of 6.0 or lower, 2.00 ratio
SiO2/Na2O is preferred.
21. Silicate solutions from PQ are supplied ready to use, or may be diluted.
22. Contact PQ Corporation for product samples or additional information.
ABBREVIATIONS
MGD: Million Gallons per Day
mg/L: Milligram per Liter
cps: Centipoise
ppm: Parts per Million
 FACTORS FOR UNIT CONVERSIONS
INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
Quantity Equivalent Values
DIVISION
Mass 1 kg=1000g= 0.001 metric ton = 2.20462 lb
Volume 1 m3 = 1000 liters = 106 cm3 = 106 ml
= 22.83 imperial gallons = 27.41 gallons
Concentration 1 mg/L = 1 ppm = 0.0001%
Viscosity 1 centipoise = 1 millipascal-second = 0.01 poise

LITERATURE REFERENCES
1. Thresh, J. C., Analyst, p. 459, 1922.

2. Iler, R. K., The Chemistry of Silica, Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY, p.127, 1979.
THE PQ CORPORATION 3. Katsanis, E. P., Esmonde, W. B., and Spencer, R. W. "Soluble Silicate Corrosion Inhibitors in Water Systems,"
Materials Performance, Vol.25, No.5, p. 19, 1986.
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS 4. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed., s. v. "silicon compounds (syn inorganic silicates)."
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840 5. Ibid.
Phone: 800-944-7411 6. Ibid.

7. Select Committee on GRAS Substances, Evaluation of the Health Aspects of Certain Silicates as Food
IN CANADA Ingredients, SCOGS-61, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, NTIS Publication 301-402/AS,
National Silicates Springfield, Va., p.4, 1979.
Phone: 416-255-7771 8. 40 CFR 141.82, National Primary Drinking Water Regulations-Description of Corrosion Control Treatment
Requirements, revised July 1, 1991.
IN MEXICO 9. Falcone, Jr., J. S., Soluble Silicates, American Chemical Society Symposium Series No. 194, Falcone, Jr., J. S.,
Silicates y Derivados, S.A. ed. p. 133, 1982.
Phone: 011-52-55-5227-6801
10. ller, R. K., The Chemistry of Silica, Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY, p 83, 1979.

IN EUROPE 11. Vail, J. G., Soluble Silicates, Their Properties and Uses, Vol. 2, Technology, Reinhold Publishing, New York, NY, p.
251, 1952.
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030 12. Ibid., p. 256.

13. Schock, M. R. and Buelow, R. W., "The Behavior of Asbestos-Cement Pipe Under Various Water Quality
IN AUSTRALIA Conditions: Part 2, Theoretical Considerations, " AWWA J., Vol. 73, No. 12, p. 646, 1981.
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200

IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515

METSO, SS, N, and D are registered trade-

marks of the PQ Corporation.

Information herein is accurate to the best of our

knowledge. Suggestions are made without war-
ranty or guarantee of results. Before using, user
should determine the suitability of the product for
his intended use and user assumes the risk and
liability in connection therewith. We do not sug-
gest violation of any existing patents or give per-
mission to practice any patented invention with-
out a license.

37-3/1002
6
It Works
Sodium silicate is a proven corrosion inhibitor,
effective on a variety of metals, including lead,
zinc and copper. Since first being used in 1921
to control lead in English drinking water, sodium
Reasons to Choose
PQ. Sodium Silicate as

Your Corrosion Inhibitor

It WorksEasily
Use sodium silicate as a corrosion inhibitor, and
you wont need to think about other treatments.
Sodium silicates contribute no zinc or phospho-
rous to drinking water.
silicate remains the time-tested solution to
corrosion inhibition. It WorksEffectively
Sodium silicate is the simple, natural way to inhibit
It WorksTwo Ways corrosion. Many water systems in the United
Sodium silicate reacts with metal surfaces to States and Canada are using this environmentally
form a protective barrier against corrosion. It safe, readily soluble liquid.
also increases water pH, another important
corrosion control mechanism. It WorksFor You
Be sure to include PQ sodium silicate in your next
It WorksSafely corrosion control study.
Just add sodium silicate to your water distribution
system. Its safe. And its easy to handle, store,
and apply.

PQ: The Hard Working Silicate Experts

When youre ready to make short work of corrosion with sodium silicates, give the experts at PQ a
call. No other company combines such consistent product quality with strong technical support
we can show you how to efficiently and effectively use sodium silicates in your system. Then we
can supply you high-quality sodium silicates at highly competitive prices. And with 17 plants in the
U.S. and Canada, you receive prompt delivery in the quantities you need. Call today to find out more
about why PQ sodium silicates are the best choice in corrosion inhibition.
610-651-4200
PQ Corporation, recently acquired by JPMorgan Partners, is a leading producer of silicate, zeolite, and other performance materials serving the
detergent, pulp and paper, chemical, petroleum, catalyst, water treatment, construction, and beverage markets. It is a global enterprise, operating
in 19 countries on five continents, and along with its chemical businesses, includes Potters Industries, a wholly owned subsidiary, which is a
leading producer of engineered glass materials serving the highway safety, polymer additive, metal finishing, and conductive particle markets.
Although the information and suggestions in this brochure ("information") are believed to be correct, PQ Corporation makes no representations or warranties as to the completeness or accuracy of the information. The information is
supplied upon the following conditions: The persons receiving the information will determine its suitability for their purposes; PQ Corporation will not be responsible for damages of any nature whatsoever resulting from the use of,
or reliance upon, the information or the materials, devices or products to which the information refers; No information is to be construed as a recommendation to use any product, process, equipment or formulation in conflict with any
patent; PQ Corporation makes no representation or warranty, express or implied, that the use thereof will not infringe any patent; and NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, OF
MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR OF ANY OTHER NATURE ARE MADE HEREUNDER WITH RESPECT TO INFORMATION OR THE MATERIALS, DEVICES OR PRODUCTS TO WHICH THE
INFORMATION REFERS.

Copyright 2005 by PQ Corporation.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher and copyright holder.
 Report 12
INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION Sodium Silicate Corrosion
Inhibitors: Issues of
Effectiveness and Mechanism
Judy LaRosa Thompson
Technical Service Representative, The PQ Corporation, Conshohocken, PA

Barry E. Scheetz
Professor of Materials, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA

PQ CORPORATION Michael R. Schock

Research Chemist, Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840 Darren A. Lytle
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840 Environmental Engineer, Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH
Phone: 800-944-7411
Patrick J. Delaney
IN CANADA Municipal Market Manager, Carus Chemical, Peru, IL
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
Presented at the Water Quality Technology Conference, November 9-12, 1997, Denver, CO

IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801 I. INTRODUCTION
According to the EPAs 1991 Lead and Copper Rule (LCR), water distribution
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe systems are required to have corrosion control measures completely
Phone: 31-33-450-9030 installed by January 1997 for large systems (> 50,000 people), by January
1998 for medium systems, and by January 1999 for small systems (< 3300
IN AUSTRALIA people). The water systems are obligated to evaluate the methods listed
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200 below in order to find the optimal method for their particular system. They
must ensure that the lead and copper concentrations at the consumers taps
IN TAIWAN meet certain action levels; the 90th percentile of all sample measurements
PQ Silicates Ltd. must not exceed 0.015 mg/L for lead and 1.3 mg/L for copper.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515

Possible treatment methods for corrosion control include:

PQ Corporation is a privately held global
enterprise operating in 19 countries, with
annual revenues in excess of $500 million.
PQ is a leading producer of silicate, zeolite,
and other performance materials serving
the detergent, pulp and paper, chemical,
petroleum, catalyst, water treatment,
construction, and beverage markets.
Potters Industries, PQs wholly owned
subsidiary, is a leading producer of
engineered glass materials serving the
highway safety, polymer additive, fine
abrasive, and conductive product markets.
1) Adjust pH and alkalinity to decrease corrosivity of water.
2) Saturation of calcium carbonate to promote precipitation of carbonate
layer within pipes.
3) Add phosphate corrosion inhibitor.
4) Add silicate corrosion inhibitor.
Of these methods, the effectiveness and the mechanism by which silicates
inhibit the corrosion of pipes are perhaps the least understood even though
silicates have been used regularly for this purpose since the late 1920s.
There has been a confusing assortment of both positive and negative
results, and consequently, many contradictory statements have been pub-
lished concerning this method. For example, in the chapter on corrosion
inhibitors in Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems [1], the follow-
ing statements can be found: Silicates are generally not effective, (p.570);

Registered trademarks of PQ Corporation


INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
and, Test applications... have shown a generally excellent protection with sil-
icate inhibitors, (p.553). The mechanism of corrosion inhibition by silicates is
also in question. Again from the same reference: The principal benefit of
using silicates appears to be the increase in pH after dosage, (p.552); and,
Surface analysis indicates that protection by the silicates occurs when a thin
layer forms over a layer of corroded metal, (p.552). Such contrary state-
ments point to the need for a more definitive evaluation of the effectiveness
of silicates to control corrosion in water distribution systems especially con-
sidering the requirements of the LCR.
In response to this need, this paper provides a review of various topics relat-
ed to the use of soluble sodium silicates to inhibit corrosion of metal pipes.
These topics include: metal corrosion and inhibition, characterization of sili-
cate species in solution, known mechanisms of silicate film formation, review
of experimental studies, and results of surface analysis of pipes. Some par-
ticular issues that are addressed include: effect on iron and manganese
sequestration, the effectiveness of silicate treatment with and without pre-
existing corrosion products, the effect of water quality on silicate film forma-
tion, and the pH effect of silicate treatment. It is hoped that this review will
bring a measure of harmony to previous seemingly contradictory results and
that a contribution can be made to the provision of safer drinking water.
II. BACKGROUND
Metal Corrosion and Corrosion Inhibition
Corrosion proceeds when all of the components of a corrosion cell are
present. These include: 1) an anode, 2) a cathode, 3) an electrical connec-
tion between the anode and cathode, i.e., the metal itself, and 4) an elec-
trolyte to serve as the transport medium for ions. The anode and cathode are
areas on the metal surface whose difference in electrical potential sponta-
neously drives both the anodic oxidation reaction (M = M+ + e-) and the
cathodic reduction reaction (A + e- = A-). In the case of a single metal, the
electrical potential difference may result from inhomogeneities on the surface
(such as defects, impurities, or different crystal structures) or from momen-
tary or systematic differences in the concentrations of electrolyte, dissolved
oxygen, or dissolved hydrogen [2]. In the case of two different metals or
alloys, a galvanic cell forms, meaning that one metal or alloy, due to its more
negative electrical potential, tends to be the anode and is oxidized while the
other acts as the cathode. For example, copper is cathodic to iron, zinc, and
lead. Generally speaking, the locations of the anode and the cathode may
constantly change, resulting in a uniform corrosion across the pipe surface.
On the other hand, the sites may be fixed, become large in area, and cause
the formation of pits, crevices, or tubercles.
It is common in the literature to see terms like plumbosolvency or cupro-
solvency to describe the solubility of a metal under various water conditions
(e.g., pH, alkalinity, dissolved inorganic carbonate). Metals might not neces-
sarily be thought of as being soluble in water; however, dissolution implies
that ions are transferred from a solid into a solution. In the case of ionic com-
pounds such as salts, the dissolving crystal decomposes. But in the case of
metals, dissolution (also known as leaching) occurs electrochemically via
reactions that are non-oxidative, oxidative, or reductive, all with or without
complex formation. Therefore, plumbosolvency indicates the fact that lead

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
can get into solution to some extent, whereas lead corrosion denotes how
lead gets into solution (i.e., by electrochemical process).
Besides anodic and cathodic reactions, a variety of other reactions can take
place to form numerous types of corrosion products. For instance, in the iron
system, any of the following species may form, disappear, and reform
throughout the corrosion process: Fe2+, Fe3+, FeOH2+, Fe(OH)2+, FeOOH(s),
Fe(OH)2(s), Fe(OH)3(s), Fe3O4(s), FeCO3(s). In the case of copper, which is not
usually susceptible to galvanic corrosion because it is cathodic to most of
the common plumbing metals, corrosion proceeds in the presence of oxidiz-
ers, e.g., 2 Cu(s) + O2(g) + 4H+ = 2Cu2+ + 2H2O. And with bicarbonate, 2 Cu2+
+ HCO3-+ 2H2O = Cu2(OH)2CO3(s). Depending on the exact conditions, other
corrosion products may include CuO and Cu2O or a great variety of others:
Cu2OH2CO3, CuCl, Cu2CO3, Cu2SO4, Cu2S, Cu4(OH)6SO4, Cu3OH4SO4,
CuOCuSO4, Cu(OH)2, CuCO3Cu(OH)2, Cu2OH3Cl, Cu2OH3NO3, Cu3(PO4)2,
CuH2SiO4. The specific water conditions will influence which of these phases
occurs [3].
Corrosion is also influenced by the water quality. The concentrations of dis-
solved oxygen, chloride, sulfate, organics, and suspended solids plus the
pH, alkalinity, and hardness may all have some effect on the corrosion
process [2]. Theoretical predictions and experimental observations agree
that plumbosolvency, for example, decreases with increasing pH [4-6].
One way to inhibit corrosion in water distribution systems, then, is to make
water less corrosive, for example, by increasing the pH. Another strategy is
to eliminate one or more of the corrosion cell components. Arpaia [7]
explains that the pipe surfaces may be modified by protective deposits which
1) act as a physical barrier between the surface and the electrolyte to inhibit
the flow of electrons and/or the diffusion of reacting species; and/or 2) have
an electrochemical effect by displacing reactive species from the surface and
thereby changing the electrical potential difference. For instance, oxide,
hydroxide, or carbonate passivation layers may form on pipe surfaces due to
appropriate conditions in the system (e.g. high CaCO3 levels in the water), or
the formation of protective layers may be induced by the addition of corro-
sion inhibitors such as phosphates or silicates. The corrosion of lead may be
curbed by the formation of a protective layer of lead carbonate or basic lead
carbonate (Pb3(CO3)3(OH)2) which serves as a physical barrier, limiting the
uptake of lead [5, 8].
Soluble Sodium Silicate Solutions
Besides corrosion control in water distribution systems, soluble sodium sili-
cates are utilized in a number of other applications. Some of these include
the following: engine antifreeze (to inhibit corrosion), detergents (to inhibit
corrosion, improve wetting, disperse oily soils, deflocculate inorganics, buffer
wash water), paper adhesives, fire- and grease-proof films and coatings, ore
beneficiation (to inhibit corrosion, disperse siliceous matter, aids in separa-
tion of minerals), textiles (buffer in bleaching and dying operations, remove
oil and dust from cotton), binders for refractory materials, stabilization and
solidification of hazardous waste, and concrete surface treatment to harden
and improve acid-resistance. It is interesting to note that a number of these
applications utilize the corrosion inhibiting properties of sodium silicate.

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
Liquid sodium silicate, also known as waterglass, is produced by melting
high purity silica sand along with sodium carbonate at 1100-1200oC. The
molten glass is combined with water resulting in a solution that may consist
of 24-36 weight % SiO2 with an SiO2/Na2O weight ratio between 1.60 and
3.22. For water treatment applications, the SiO2/Na2O ratio is usually 3.22;
however a ratio of 2.00 may be used in the case of very acidic water.
Manufacturers recommend a start-up dosage of about 24 mg/L SiO2 for 30
to 60 days followed by an incremental decrease to a maintenance dosage
of about 8-12 mg/L. A high startup dosage is critical to gaining control over
corrosion. The protective layer should be formed as quickly as possible
because if only parts of the pipe surfaces are protected while others are still
exposed, the current density at the exposed parts will be magnified and cor-
rosion may become worse before it gets better.
A sodium silicate solution consists of monomeric and polymeric species. The
concentrations of monomer and polymer depend on the silica content and
the SiO2/Na2O ratio of the solution. To illustrate, a concentrated solution hav-
ing a SiO2/Na2O ratio of 1.0 or 0.5 mainly consists of SiO3-2 and HSiO-;
whereas solutions with higher SiO2/Na2O ratios are characterized by
increasing polymer concentration and increasing polymer size (up to 30nm
diameter). Furthermore, the polymer is in equilibrium with the soluble
monomer Si(OH)2 according to the following [9]:
SinO(4n-nx)/2(OH)nx + [(4n-nx)/2]H2O = nSi(OH)4
n = degree of polymerization, depends on SiO2/Na2O
x = OH/Si in polymer (x decreases as n increases)
The polymers are equiaxed and approximately uniform in size. In larger
polymers, the interior Si are linked by bridging oxygen while exterior Si may
be bonded to at least one OH-. In addition, the polymeric particles may be
ionized [9]:
SinO(4n-nx)/2(OH)nx + zOH- = SinO(4n-nx)/2(OH)nx-zOz-z + zH2O
So, the polymeric particles are in equilibrium with Si(OH)4, as stated above,
and the Si(OH)4, in turn, is in equilibrium with monomeric silicate ions, for
example [9]:
OH- + Si(OH)4 = (HO)3SiO- + H2O
OH- + (HO)3SiO- = (HO)2SiO2-2 + H2O
Therefore, an equilibrium exists between ionic silica and colloidal, or poly-
merized, silica. Arpaia expresses it this way:
nSiO3-2 + 3nH2O = (H2SiO3)nnH2O + 2nOH-
In general, as concentrated alkali metal silicate solutions are diluted (to a
lower limit of ~330 ppm), the pH and [OH-] are reduced, and silicate ions
hydrolyze to form larger polymeric species along with a lower SiO2/Na2O
ratio silicate [9]. As stated by Iler [10](pg.20): When a solution of soluble sil-
icate, which is always highly alkaline, is neutralized by acid to a pH below
about 10.7, the silicate ions decompose to silicic acid [Si(OH)4], which then
polymerizes to silica.
However, for very dilute solutions (< 300 ppm SiO2) as in the case of drink-
ing water applications (4-25 ppm SiO2), essentially complete depolymeriza-
tion occurs and monomer (i.e., Si(OH)4 and HSiO3- [9]) is the dominant
 species. For example, upon adding a sodium silicate solution (SiO2/Na2O =
INDUSTRIAL
INDUSTRIAL 3.22, ~400,000 ppm SiO2) to water, Lehrman and Shuldener [11, 12]
CHEMICALS
CHEMICALS observed that for dilutions of 14, 70, 140, and 350 ppm SiO2, only a few per-
DIVISION
DIVISION cent of the silica at most was in colloidal form whereas the majority was
molybdate-reactive (i.e., monomer). According to the authors, these equilib-
ria were reached very rapidly, probably instantaneously. For dilutions of
700 and 1400 ppm SiO2, the percent colloidal silica increased over the
seven days of the experiment up to 21 and 29%, respectively.

The kinetics of depolymerization of soluble sodium silicates in very dilute

solutions has been studied by Dietzel and Usdowski [13]. They obtained an
empirical pseudo second-order law to describe the depolymerization:
[T]/[P]t = [T]kDt + [T]/[P]t=0
[T] = Total silica concentration
[P]t = concentration of polymer at time t
PQ CORPORATION kD = reaction rate constant for depolymerization

CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
For the case of a waterglass WG 37/40 (SiO2/Na2O = 3.15, 25.2 wt.% SiO2)
diluted to 23 mg/L SiO2 at 20oC and a constant pH of 5.74, they found kD =
0.3428 L/molsec and, by extrapolating to t = 0, [T]/[P]t=0 = 1.123. They also
observed that the depolymerization rate increased with pH and decreased
with increasing final concentrations of silica (over 3.8 to 23 mg/L SiO2). For
23mg/L SiO2, kD varies with pH according to: kD = pH11.61(5.662x10-10). So for
a pH of 8.0, kD = 17.29 L/molsec. Substituting this into the above equation
and assuming a similar [T]/[P]t=0 [13], it will take about 22.4 min. for the 23
mg/L SiO2 solution to depolymerize to 90% monomer, and about 4.2 hours
to attain 99% monomer. Such values agree with the previous statements
that depolymerization in very dilute sodium silicate solutions occurs rapidly.
The fact that negatively charged monomeric silicate species are present in
very dilute solutions of sodium silicates is significant, especially considering
the charged nature of pipe surfaces due to the presence of anodes, cath-
odes, or other ionic corrosion products. No doubt, the possibility and reality
of silicate film formation on pipe surfaces within water distribution systems is
linked to these characteristics.
Iron and Manganese Sequestration
One of the challenges facing water systems is having to control a variety of
water quality parameters. For instance, compliance with the LCR requires a
pH of 7-10; however, the polyphosphates that are commonly used to control
red and black water problems are less effective with increasing pH [14].
Therefore, chemicals that serve in more than one capacity of water treat-
ment are desirable. In fact, silicate, in combination with chlorine, is effective
for Fe and Mn sequestration [15, 16]. As a result, silicate treatment may
simultaneously provide corrosion inhibition and Fe and Mn sequestration.

III. THE ROLE OF SILICATE IN THE FORMATION OF

PROTECTIVE FILMS

Silicate Usage and Observations up to 1945

The formation of protective silicate layers was observed as early as 1920 by
Speller who, based on experiment, suggested that the natural silica present

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
in water precipitated onto pipe surfaces via reaction with colloidal ferric
hydrate. Speller further suggested that water could be purposefully
endowed with the properties that promote the formation of such corrosion
inhibiting films [17]. Perhaps the first occasion of adding sodium silicate to
a water supply was reported by Thresh in 1922. In this attempt to prevent
further occurrences of lead poisoning in an English moorland community,
the silicate treatment not only controlled the dissolution of lead but also
solved the red water problems by inhibiting iron corrosion. The treatment
also was used successfully in other English communities having similar
water problems. Besides water distribution systems, sodium silicates were
added to water systems in small apartment buildings, office buildings, and
laundries in New York, Boston, and Pittsburgh in the early 1920's. This
water treatment served as an alternative to mechanically or chemically
deaerating corrosive waters. In 1923 Texter [18] reported that a "self-heal-
ing" protective film formed in hot water systems upon additions of soluble
sodium silicates.
Stericker [17] summarized in 1945 what was known at that time about uti-
lization of sodium silicates as a corrosion inhibitor. The selected items in
the following list are taken from his summary:
1. Large amounts of silicate speed up the formation of the protective film
but increase the chances of removing accumulated products of corrosion
from old piping.
2. The preferred silicate for waters in which the pH is > 6.0 is 3.22
SiO2/Na2O.
3. Larger amounts of silica are required when the water contains consider
able amounts of chlorides.
4. Because of the negative charge on silica, it will migrate to anodic areas
where at least a part of the charge will be neutralized.
5. The silicate films are electric insulators.
6. In stagnant water, the supply of silica is soon exhausted.
7. If only part of the area is protected, the remainder takes all the attack of
the corrosive medium. Therefore it is important to use enough inhibitor.
The Mechanism of Film Formation in Galvanized Iron and Brass
The mechanism of silicate film formation in Zn-containing metal pipes,
specifically yellow brass and galvanized iron, was determined by Lehrman
and Shuldener [11, 12]. These authors showed that after a year of continu-
ous addition of sodium silicate (8-12 ppm SiO2) to hot water, a thin gelati-
nous film formed on the pipe surfaces. The film consisted of two layers.
The layer adjacent to the pipe was white and mainly composed of zinc
hydroxide and/or zinc silicate with trace amounts of carbonate, and the
layer adjacent to the water was darker in color and contained silica gel
along with precipitates of Fe2O3 and organic material. By chemical analysis,
the overall compositions of the films that formed in each kind of pipe were
as follows:
Brass: 67% silica and organic matter, 4%Cu, trace Bi, 9%Fe, 6% Zn, 1% Ca,
<1% Mg, and 13%Na. (Metals were present as hydroxides and/or silicates.)
Galvanized iron: 63% silica and organic matter, trace Cu, 10% Fe, 20%
Zn, 1% Ca, <1% Mg., and 6% Na. (Metals were present as hydroxides
and/or silicates.)

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
Although the overall compositions of the layers were different for the two
different pipes, Lehrman and Shuldener indicated that the compositions of
the white layers adjacent to the metal were very similar. In fact, the layers
were similar even for the different kinds of pipes that had carried silicate
treated (8-12ppm SiO2) hot and cold waters over 7 months to 20 years.
In brass pipe, the film was described as being evenly distributed, tan-col-
ored, and adherent; whereas in galvanized iron pipe, the film was evenly
distributed, loose, rust-colored, and included white blobs which were deter-
mined to be Zn(OH)2. For both types of pipe, analysis by X-ray diffraction
(XRD) revealed that the predominant crystalline phases present in the films
were Fe2O3H2O and quartz. (Quartz deposits were common for that par-
ticular water even without silicate treatment.) In order to crystallize the
amorphous material in the films, they were heated at 1000oC for 30 min.
This resulted in the crystallization of -cristobalite (SiO2) plus either cop-
per oxide in the film from brass pipe or zinc oxide in the film from galva-
nized iron pipe.
Based on the above results and additional experiments, the authors deter-
mined that the mechanism of film formation consisted of two steps. First,
positively charged corrosion products, namely zinc hydroxide, developed
on the pipe surface to become the bottom layer of the total film. Secondly,
negatively charged silica species were adsorbed, specifically by
chemisorption, and formed the gelatinous, upper layer. This silica gel then
mechanically enmeshes particles such as iron and hardness precipitates
and organic matter.
In addition to identifying the mechanism of film formation, other experi-
ments in this work revealed the importance of having corrosion products
present in order for silica to adhere to pipe surfaces. In saturated solutions
of hydroxides of Fe, Zn, and Cu (with no solid precipitate present), the con-
centration of silica did not decrease over eight weeks indicating that the
silica species were not reacting with any of the metal hydroxides in solu-
tion. However, when solid hydroxide was present in the saturated solutions,
the silica concentrations did decrease. The decrease was greatest for zinc
hydroxide followed by ferric hydroxide and then cupric hydroxide. In addi-
tion, it was observed that the original hydroxide solids became stickier,
adhering strongly to the bottom of the bottle. Furthermore, pieces of black
iron and galvanized iron removed silica from sodium silicate solutions (ini-
tially 10 and 292 ppm SiO2) over six and eight weeks, respectively. (In
1952 they reported [12], Magnetite Fe2O3 removes silica from very dilute
sodium silicate solutions (8.5 and 290 ppm SiO2) to a larger extent than
zinc hydroxide at room temperature. However, the work has not pro-
gressed far enough to indicate the mechanism.) A yellow brass sample did
not remove silica, however neither did this sample corrode over the course
of the experiment. All of the above results indicate that the presence of
solid corrosion products is another variable to be considered when design-
ing experiments or interpreting results.
In a subsequent paper [19], Shuldener and Lehrman investigated the role
of the bicarbonate ion on corrosion in the presence of silicate for waters at
160oF (71oC). Again they showed that silica was removed from water by
iron and zinc corrosion products and was deposited on the specimens sur-

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
faces. This process occurred more quickly for zinc than for iron. But in
addition, they observed that the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) reversed the
potential from zinc being anodic to cathodic. Silicate, however, has the
opposite effect, making the zinc more anodic, and therefore counteracts
the bicarbonate ion. The final potential, then, is determined by the relative
amount of each species in solution. For lower concentrations of silica and
in the presence of bicarbonate, they deduced that the potential was moved
toward iron being anodic, and because iron corrosion products are slower
to remove silica, rust formed. They concluded that bicarbonate ion
reversed the potential between zinc and iron to cause the formation of
rust, but that in the presence of silicate, the corrosion rated decreased.
(E.g., 2.0 ppm SiO2, 4 ppm HCO3-, at pH 7.1 proved to be a more corro-
sive water than 8.5 ppm SiO2, 14 ppm HCO3-, at pH 7.1.)
IV. CORROSION CONTROL STUDIES USING SODIUM SILICATES
In 1945 Stericker noted that there was a history of laboratory tests not
matching field experience for sodium silicate treatment [17]. He believed
that perhaps some factors had not been considered when the experiments
were designed. This section reviews several studies that have utilized
sodium silicate and evaluates the experimental design, the experimental
procedure, and the resulting conclusions.
A. York Water District, York, Maine [20]
Data was collected over 1991 on this system consisting of 40% 50-100
year old unlined cast-iron pipes and 60% cement-lined cast and ductile
iron pipes. The average flow rate varies from 5MLD in the winter to 11MLD
in the summer. The source of water is a surface water supply character-
ized as soft (Ca < 1 mg/L), low alkalinity (8-10 mg/L CaCO3), pH 8.3-8.8,
with low turbidity (<0.10 NTU), low color (<10CU), temperature of 13oC
(range 4-24oC), 0.03 mg/L Fe, 0.06 mg/L mn, and 0.05 mg/L Al. The water
also has a natural silica content of approximately 4 mg/L SiO2, which was
monitored during the study. Regular treatment includes additions of alu-
minum sulfate and NaOH for coagulation; chlorination for disinfection; and
additions of NaOH to raise the pH back to 8.3-8.8 (after chlorination) and
ammonia gas to promote the formation of monochloramine. Consumers
had red water complaints due to an iron content in the range 0.40-1.9
mg/L. For example, there were 15 complaints from 6/90-12/90.
Over 12/90 to the first week of 1/91, the average metal concentrations
were 83 145 /L Pb, 0.33 0.55 mg/L Fe, and 0.15 0.13 mg/L Cu.
Sodium silicate (SiO2/Na2O = 3.22) was added at 15-16 mg/L SiO2 for the
first two months followed by a dosage of 9-14 mg/L SiO2. The pH, alkalini-
ty, Ca, Pb, Cu, and Fe were measured at twelve points throughout the dis-
tribution system. First-draw samples were taken after a 6-12 hour stagna-
tion period. After a five min. flush, second- and third-draw samples were
taken. The flow rate over the course of the experiment was 130-280 million
liters per month.
For the period 5/91-12/91, average metal contents for the first-draw samples
showed reductions compared to the previous measurements: 16 9 micro-
gram/L Pb, 0.10-1.37 mg/L Fe (compared to the range 0.10-1.9 mg/L Fe

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
measured previously), and slight reductions in Cu. According to the
report, some sites consistently had reductions in Pb content while others
remained relatively constant or increased. In general the iron contents
decreased but then increased over the course of the study. The authors
suggested that this increase was due to decreasing flow rate, although it
appears to be better correlated with increasing water temperature. Red
water complaints, however, were eliminated. It was observed that the pH
was lower at dead ends (7.52 0.38) compared to central points (8.17
0.05). Also there were lower silica concentrations (16.0 1.2 vs. 17.8
0.53 mg/L SiO2, includes natural silica) and lower alkalinity (5 mg/L vs. 10
mg/L CaCO3) at dead ends. Consequently, the highest concentrations of
lead were found at dead-end locations. In addition, the average silica con-
tent was lower for unlined cast-iron mains (15.6 1.5) than for other types
of pipes (17.5 0.71), and second-draw silica was being taken out of
solution (e.g., by being adsorbed onto pipe surfaces) by home plumbing
systems. The authors also noted that it was very difficult to maintain con-
stant pH and silica content of the finished water because of the low
buffering capacity and variations in the coagulation process. It was also
evident that the problems of low silica content and low pH at the dead-
ends were of some concern. They suggested monitoring silicate treatment
for two or three years in order to gain a better understanding of any fluc-
tuations that occur with a particular season.
B. City of Rochester Water Bureau [21]
Both a pipe loop and a field study were reported by the City of Rochester
Water Bureau. In this case, zinc orthophosphate and KOH treatments
were analyzed along with sodium silicate and a control. The initial water
had an alkalinity of 60 mg/L CaCO3, pH 7.5-8.5, and hardness 80 mg/L
CaCO3.
Loop Study: The pipe loop study, performed on AWWARF test racks,
consisted of three different phases. In the first five weeks (4/22-6/7/92),
no chemicals were added, and the four test racks were studied to see if
their corrosion characteristics were similar. Only the soldered Cu loop Cu
results were significantly lower in the rack that was to be treated with
KOH. In phase II (6/8-12/10/92), treatment began: 1) KOH, pH to 8.5; 2)
zinc orthophosphate, 1 mg/L as PO4 for two weeks and then 0.4 mg/L
PO4 for the remainder; 3) sodium silicate (3.22 SiO2/Na2O), 20 mg/L SiO2
for two weeks followed by 22 weeks at 12 mg/L SiO2. In phase III (12/11-
2/25/93), the silicate dose was changed to 8 mg/L SiO2 while the others
were treated as in phase II.
For the phase II lead and copper results (i.e., Pb loop Pb results, solder
Cu loop Cu and Pb results, and Cu loop Cu results), the phosphate was
most effective, followed by silicate, for reducing lead contents, while sili-
cate was best, followed by phosphate, for reducing copper contents
(based on median measurements). Both the phosphate and the silicate
were better than the control for Pb and Cu uptake. The KOH also showed
improvement over the control except for the case of the soldered Cu loop
Pb results. Based on the mean corrosion rates of the steel coupons, the
KOH loop was the best followed by the control, silicate, and phosphate
loops. The pH of each of the loops during this phase generally ranged as

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
follows: 8.5-9.25 for silicate; 8.25-8.75, KOH; 7.75-8.5, control; 7.5-8.25,
phosphate.
In phase III which used a smaller silicate dosage, the silicate treatment
did not perform well. Although it still resulted in significantly lower Pb lev-
els than the control for Pb loop Pb results, it was not significantly differ-
ent for the soldered copper loop Pb results. (No copper results were
reported for phase III.)
The pipe loop studies showed that all of the treatments were effective at
reducing lead levels from lead pipes, with zinc orthophosphate being the
best followed by sodium silicate. In addition, these two treatments were
the only ones to significantly reduce lead from soldered copper pipes.
Samples of copper pipe from this experiment were sent to The
Pennsylvania State University to be analyzed by x-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS), a method especially suited for studying thin films.
(Please refer to the paper, XPS Characterization of Films Formed on
Distribution Systems Using Additives to Control Pb/Cu Levels in Drinking
Water, for details of the analysis.) The analysis revealed that Si had been
incorporated into the film on the pipe treated with silicate; thus confirming
the theory that silicate forms some kind of layer on the pipe surface.
Field Test: Two hydraulically isolated sections of the citys distribution
system were selected for the field study. Measurements were taken at 20
different sites within each section , all of which had lead service lines to
single family residences. Every two weeks, lead levels were measured
from first-draw samples. Before treatment began, the two sections were
monitored (5/4-7/27/93). The mean lead concentration in the test area
was 24ppb which was statistically higher than that of the control (21ppb).
From 7/29 to 11/12/93, a silicate dose of 7-10 mg/L SiO2 was added to
the test area. During this time there was no statistical difference in lead
levels between the test and control areas. (Although this may be consid-
ered an improvement over the pretreatment results.) The mean lead lev-
els dropped in both cases to 11.3 ppb for the control and 9.7 ppb for the
silicate. However, the lead action level was exceeded in both cases.
From 11/13/93 to 1/26/94, the silicate dosage was raised to 12 mg/L
SiO2. For this period, only the silicate test area met the lead action level,
and it was statistically less than the control area having an average lead
concentration of 7.3 ppb compared to 10.9 ppb. For two months the sili-
cate treatment was stopped, and, as expected, there was a small
increase in lead uptake in the test area. The average was 8.6 ppb which
was not statistically different from the control average of 9.7 ppb.
Although the lead levels decreased in the control area over the course of
the experiments, the lead action level was exceeded in every set of
measurements. The same test area was then treated with KOH. (The
zinc orthophosphate was not used in the field study because zinc would
cause a sludge disposal problem and phosphate could stimulate algae
growth in the system's reservoirs.) Because of control problems, the pH
varied from about 8.4-9.1 throughout the approximately 10 weeks of the
treatment. During this time, the lead concentrations between the test (7.2
ppb) and the control (9.1 ppb) areas were not statistically different.

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
In general, the City of Rochester Water Bureau concluded that a 7-12
mg/L silicate treatment reduced lead levels at the consumers taps with a
dose of 12 mg/L SiO2 being the most effective. However, they planned to
continue investigating pH adjustment to 8.5 with KOH since it also seemed
effective and could be less expensive.
C. University of South Carolina, Dept. of Civil Eng. [22]
The water used in this study was a ground water, low in alkalinity (0-2
mg/L CaCO3), acidic (pH 5.2-6.3), soft (1-3 mg/L CaCO3), conductivity
13.0-19.0 mhos/cm, < 0.05 g/L Pb, 0.4-1.4 mg/L nitrate, < 0.05 mg/L flu-
oride, < 0.05 mg/L Zn, 0.03 mg/L Cu, 0.1 mg/L Mn, 0.05 mg/L Fe, 2.1-3.2
mg/L Cl, 22-23oC. This water also had a natural silica content of 6.3-7.1
mg/L SiO2. Each of the seven lines in this batch-mode, fill and draw type,
system consisted of a 4L polyethylene solution tank from which water
flowed into an acrylic sleeve that housed ten copper couplings. These cou-
plings had been partially coated with a 50:50 Pb:Sn solder and were elec-
trically insulated from each other. For the first five weeks (4/28-5/17/93), all
lines were treated with a high test hypochlorite to maintain a 0.5 mg/L
chlorine content. This was done to accelerate corrosion of the coupons so
that corrosion products would be present when sodium silicate (SiO2/Na2O
= 3.22) and NaOH treatments began. From 5/18 to 10/6/93, lines 1-3 were
adjusted to 15, 20, and 25 mg/L SiO2, respectively. (These concentrations
included the background silica.) Line 4 received chlorinated water and
served as the control. The pH of lines 5-7 was adjusted with NaOH so that
the pH of line 5 matched that of line 1 (pH 6.6), line 6 matched line 2 (pH
7.0), and line 7 matched line 3 (pH 7.6). From 10/7 to 12/1/93, the silicate
concentration in line 1 was increased to 30 mg/L SiO2, and the pH in line 5
was raised correspondingly (pH 8.6). There were no changes in the treat-
ments of the other lines during this time.
Every week, copper and lead concentrations were measured in 125 ml
samples that were drawn from the columns after 8 and 68 hr. stagnation
periods. On other days, the columns were gently flushed with at least two
through-put volumes of treated water. The pH and silica contents were
analyzed daily. Water samples from the solution tanks were analyzed
twice/week to monitor alkalinity, total dissolved solids, conductivity, dis-
solved oxygen, and temperature. The effects of stagnation were observed
by monitoring the water quality in the tanks and in the coupon assemblies.
The corrosion rates were determined by coupon weight loss after they had
been removed at the end of the study.
The copper up-take was minimal in all cases. The lead up-take was
reduced by 75, 81, and 87% over the control in the 20, 25, and 30 mg/L
SiO2 lines, respectively, somewhat better than the corresponding NaOH
lines by 12, 8, and 0%. However, for the last (i.e., seventh) month of treat-
ment, the improvement over NaOH increased to 18, 11, and 7%, respec-
tively. These results suggest that silicate offers some benefit besides that
of raising the pH. Also, with increasing silicate dose, there is less differ-
ence between silicate treatment and the corresponding NaOH treatment;
though with time, silicate provides increasing protection relative to NaOH.
It may be that because of the higher pH resulting from the higher silicate
dosage, the formation of lead corrosion products is slowed. However, with

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
time, they do form, and the silicate can interact with the corrosion products
(adsorb onto them) and provide additional protection. To verify this, the
rate of lead corrosion product formation must be known at different pHs.
According to a visual inspection of the samples, a non-uniform, fibrous
film developed on most of the coupons. It was more prevalent on the sol-
der surface but did extend to the copper surface as well. Consequent
XPS analysis at Penn State University on samples from Loops 3 and 7
revealed that, as with the Rochester sample, Si was prevalent in the film
from the silicate treated pipe. A smaller amount of Si was also found in the
NaOH treated pipe, presumably from the natural silica.
Although the stagnant feature of this experimental set-up is unique com-
pared to other studies which utilize the AWWARF pipe racks, it was sug-
gested that further investigation be performed under flowing conditions.
Flow tends to enhance the performance of silicates because, apparently,
more silica is likely to come in contact with the pipe surfaces compared to
stagnant conditions which rely solely on diffusion.
D. City of Portland, Bureau of Water Works [23]
This water is low in alkalinity (6.0 mg/L CaCO3), soft (7.2 mg/L CaCO3),
with a pH of ~ 6.8, and a natural silica content ~ 9 mg/L SiO2. The
AWWARF test racks included galvanized pipes and Pb-Sn soldered cop-
per pipes. Copper and steel coupons were also incorporated. From 7/1 to
8/8/93, water flowed 23hr/day during a pretreatment phase. After this
(through 2/14/94), flow was restricted to 3.5hr/day, and the following treat-
ments were administered:
1) pH9 (lime), alk. 20mg/L CaCO3 (actual pH was ~9.2)
2) pH8 (lime), alk. 25mg/L CaCO3
3) Trisodium phosphate, 0.5 mg/L as P, lime to adjust pH to ~7.5
4) Sodium silicate, 10mg/L SiO2 (pH ranged from 8-9 from 8/23-10/25,
then it was usually ~9.2 for 11/3/93 to 2/14/94)
5) Control
Every week a 1L sample was drawn after an 8 hr. stagnation period, and
metals uptake was analyzed. Of the five treatments, #1 and #4 performed
the best and are described below:
Source Metal Metal Uptake #4 % reduction over #5 #1 % reduction over #5
Pb solder Pb 75 68
Brass Pb 92 92
Cu pipe Cu 95 87
Brass Cu 90 87
Brass Zn 96 93
Galvanized steel Zn 78 80
E. Las Vegas Valley Water District, Southern Nevada Water System [24]
This water was characterized by: alkalinity 125 mg/L CaCO3, pH 7.8, hard-
ness 90 mg/L CaCO3, total dissolved solids 680 mg/L, 9 mg/L Si, 248-259
mg/L SO4, 0.0017-0.0067 mg/L PO4, 16oC. Copper test loops were given
the treatments listed below for six months and compared to a control. In

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
each case, there was 8 hr. of flow per day. Also shown are copper and lead
reductions over the control. (The source of lead is not clear from this report.)
Treatment Dosage (mg/L) % Pb Reduction % Cu Reduction
1) Sodium polyphosphate 3.74 72 23
2) Silicate polyphosphate 4.44 -55 27
3) Zinc orthophosphate 0.93 67 -61
4) Sodium silicate 3.99 59 14
5) Blended orthophosphate 4.00 70 49
6) NaOH 7.65 22 36
The conclusions of this study were to continue testing only the three
bestsodium polyphosphate, blended orthophosphate, and zinc
orthophosphatealthough it was admitted that silicate may have per-
formed better if a higher start-up dosage had been used. For the final 3
months, the silicate reduced Pb uptake by 64%. Had higher start-up and
maintenance dosages been used, and if a pretreatment phase had
allowed some corrosion product to form before silicate was added, the sili-
cate treatment would have probably provided additional reductions in
metal up-take.
F. City of Newark, NJ, Division of Water/Sewer Utility [25]
The City of Newark Water Utility employed a two-cell corrosion test device
and AWWARF test racks to investigate treatments of lime, orthophosphate,
orth-poly blended phosphate, and silicate. The water quality was described
as: alkalinity 22-35 mg/L as CaCO3, pH 6.2-6.9, hardness 24-45 mg/L as
CaCO3, turbidity 1.0-2.5 NTU, color 10-25 CU, 0.1-0.3 mg/L Fe, 5-25 mg/L
sulfate, 4.0 mg/L SiO2, 0.01-0.06 mg/L Mn, DIC 48-49 as CaCO3, 6-32
mg/L chloride, 1-20oC.
In the two-cell device, steel coupons were placed in each of the cells. Raw
water flowed through the first cell and then was mixed with the inhibitor.
The treated water then flowed through the second cell. The % reduction of
Pb leaching for each of the inhibitors was as follows:
1) 15% for lime, pH 8.5-9.0
2) 50% for zinc orthophosphate (dose not specified)
3) 40% for ortho-poly blended phosphate (dose not specified)
4) 45% for silicate (1 month 20 mg/L, 1 month 9 mg/L)
These tests were followed by AWWARF pipe loop experiments. For six
weeks three racks were run with no treatment in order to flush them, to
allow corrosion to begin, and to allow the water quality and metal content
to stabilize. By the end of this period, the water had an alkalinity 19.2 mg/L
CaCO3, pH 7.3, and Ca hardness 23.0 mg/L CaCO3. After some initial fluc-
tuations from pipe to pipe and rack to rack, the lead and copper concentra-
tions leveled off to the following: soldered copper pipe Pb was 47.5-47.9
ppb, soldered copper pipe Cu was 0.31 ppm, and lead pipe Pb was 428.5-
437.0 ppb. The flow rate was one gal./min., and 1 L samples were drawn
every week following an 8 hr. stagnation period. The following treatments
were applied after the stabilization period:
1) Non-zinc orthophosphate: 1 mg/L, weeks 7-25 of the study
2) Sodium silicate: 24 mg/L SiO3 for weeks 7-9; 18 mg/L for wks. 10-13;12
mg/L for wks. 14-21, 9 mg/L for wks. 22-33, 8 mg/L for wks. 34-38
3) Control: weeks 7-40

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
After the first 25 weeks of the study, the orthophosphate treatment was
stopped. That rack was cleaned, and then water with no treatment was
run through from weeks 26 to 29. After this, ortho-poly blended phosphate
was fed at a dose of 1 mg/L (as ortho) from weeks 30 to 42. The average
water quality during the course of treatment was : alkalinity 31.0 mg/L (all
racks), Ca hardness 37.0 mg/L (all racks), and pH of 7.4 for the phos-
phate treatments, 8.4 for 8 mg/L SiO2 dose, and 9.0 for the 24 mg/L SiO2
dose.
The blended phosphate did not provide effective corrosion control, and
although the orthophosphate was considerably better, the water utility
decided against phosphate treatment because of anticipated problems
with algae growth in its open reservoirs. The silicate treatment proved to
be very effective. It reduced the Pb content from lead pipe 65% over the
control and Pb from soldered copper pipe 60% over control. With respect
to lead control, it was described as being more effective and more consis-
tent than the orthophosphate treatment. All three treatments reduced cop-
per concentrations. In the end, the water utility recommended sodium sili-
cate to control corrosion starting with a dosage of 18-20 mg/L and then
decreasing to an 8 mg/L maintenance dose.
G. Greater Vancouver Water District [26]
The combination of acid rain and the absence of lime in Canadian lakes
result in acidic surface water. Greater Vancouver is no exception. Its water
has a pH of 6.0-6.3 which drops to 5.4-5.9 after chlorination. The alkalinity
of 1.5-3.7mg/L CaCO3 also drops to 0.5-2.0 mg/L after chlorination. In
addition, the dissolved oxygen content is near to saturation levels. All
these factors contribute to produce a rather corrosive water.
The following treatments were administered in this pilot plant study which
was conducted over 12 months, 3/91-3/92:
1) Control, raw water
2) Treated control; pH 8, alk. 20 mg/L
3) Silicate/orthophosphate blend, 5 mg/L (0.18 mg/L as P, 0.83 mg/L as
SiO2 ); pH 8, alk. 20 mg/L
4) Sodium silicate, 12 mg/L; pH 8, alk. 20 mg/L
5) Zinc orthophosphate 1.5 mg/L (0.13 mg/L as P, 0.13 mg/L as Zn); pH 8,
alk. 20 mg/L
6) Zinc orthophosphate, 4.5 mg/L (0.37 mg/L as P,0.37 mg/L as Zn); pH 8,
alk. 20 mg/L
7) Zinc orthophosphate, 4.5 mg/L (0.37 mg/L as P,0.37mg/L as Zn);
pH7.5, alk. 10-12 mg/L
Loops 2-7 were disinfected with chloramine (2.5 mg/L). The alkalinity was
adjusted with NaHCO3 . For loops 2, 3, and 5-7, the pH was raised with
Ca(OH)2 . And, although the report does not say so, MacQuerries thesis
clearly says that the pH of loop 4, the silicate loop, was lowered from a
value >9 to 8 with addition of HCl [27].
Each loop consisted of the following: cast iron and copper pipe coupon
inserts (4 long, 1 ID), copper and mild steel corrosometer probes, 84 of
lead soldered copper plumbing coils downstream of the coupon inserts

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
(50:50 Pb:Sn solder every 4, velocity 2.6/sec., metal content from this
section was measured from 24 hr. standing water), 500g 50:50 Pb:Sn
solder coils contained in plastic canisters downstream from the plumbing
coils, and brass faucets. Each loop had a total flow of 6 hr./day. The
water temperature varied with the season. Any fluctuations that may have
occurred in the water quality were not reported.
The silicate treatment (#4) provided comparatively good protection in sev-
eral categories. The 12 month average copper coupon corrosion rate was
lowest for treatments #6 and #7 (~0.0024 mm/yr) followed by #4 and #5
(0.0047 mm/yr). The 12 month average cast iron corrosion rate was low-
est for #4 (0.1350 mm/yr) followed by #6 (0.1510 mm/yr) and #7 (0.1600
mm/yr). The copper corrosometer probe corrosion rates were lowest for
#6 (0.0014 mm/yr) followed by #7 (0.0023 mm/yr) and #4 (0.0035 mm/yr).
The mild steel corrosometer probe corrosion rates were lowest for #6
(0.217 mm/yr) followed by #7 (0.265 mm/yr) and #4 (0.308 mm/yr). The
copper uptake from the plumbing coils and the faucets was generally low-
est for #2 followed by #4, and #6 followed by #4, respectively. The uptake
of lead from the plumbing coils was generally lowest for #2 followed by #1
and #4. In the case of zinc uptake, only #2, 3, and 4 reduced the Zn level
below that of #1, the raw water case.
One interesting note is that there were several coincidental spikes in the
data for different metals and different loops. Coincidental spikes occurred
for copper from solder coils (loops 5, 6, and 7 only), zinc from solder
coils, lead from solder coils (except loop 4), copper from plumbing coils,
and lead from plumbing coils. This phenomenon, however, may be gener-
ated by the open nature of the different test coupons (i.e., corroding cop-
per coupons upstream from lead and zinc).
At this point, it must be clear that silicate treatment performs best when
there has been 1) a pretreatment phase to allow the formation of some
corrosion products and 2) a higher start-up dosage to facilitate a speedier
transition from pipe surfaces being partially protected (i.e., highly suscep-
tible to corrosion) to fully protected. Neither of these conditions were pro-
vided in this study. Furthermore, the addition of HCl to a water distribution
system is, to state it mildly, unrealistic, and undoubtedly this detracted
from the performance of the silicate. In spite of these shortcomings, the
silicate treatment performed better than many or most of the other treat-
ments especially for the cases of reducing the corrosion rate of cast iron
pipe coupons, reducing copper uptake from the plumbing coils and
faucets, and reducing lead uptake from the plumbing coils.
V. DISCUSSION
With respect to the studies A through G given above, sodium silicate was
proven to be very effective at reducing metal uptake in all cases except E
and G. In E a very low dosage of 4 mg/L SiO2 was used for the duration
of the six month experiment. In addition, there was no pretreatment
phase to allow for the formation of corrosion products which appear to be
necessary for silicate film formation. Study G not only lacked a pretreat-
ment phase, but HCl and NaHCO3 were both added to the silicate loop
and undoubtedly reduced its effectiveness. (Recall the article by

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
Shuldener and Lehrman [19] which discussed the adverse effect of the
bicarbonate ion with silicate treatment.)
In many of the studies reported above, references were given indicating
that silicate was not an effective corrosion inhibitor. The three references
that were usually cited included Sheiham and Jackson [28], Boffardi [29],
and Schock and Wagner [30]. Sheiham and Jackson analyzed the
deposits in lead pipes, studied the theoretical solubility of lead for different
water conditions, and performed experiments to measure the lead uptake
from lead pipes with different water conditions. The lead pipes were 4-6.5
long, 1/2 diameter. Water was fed continuously through them, and the
mean residence time of water in the pipe was about 30 min. In one case,
sodium metasilicate (SiO2/Na2O weight ratio = 1) was added continuously
at a level of 10 mg/L SiO2 at a location immediately before water entered
the pipe. As a variation, the silicate treated water was first fed through tub-
ing for two days and then entered the lead pipe. These two tests were run
on new pipes at pH 6.5 and on older pipes, which had been removed from
service, at pH 7.5. A low alkalinity moorland water with a pH of 7.5 was
used. Addition of sodium silicate raises water pH anywhere from 1-2 units
depending on the dose and soda content. Considering the original pH of
the water, it is apparent that after silicate treatment the pH was adjusted
down to 6.5 and 7.5 thereby losing any benefit that the silicate would have
provided in raising the pH. (Details of the procedure indicate that the pH
was lowered by adding CO2(g).) In comparing the results that they obtained
for silicate treatment vs. phosphate treatment, Sheiham and Jackson con-
cluded that, compared to the control, the silicate had little effect but phos-
phate was much more attractive. Since these tests were conducted
under conditions that misrepresent real service, one cannot conclude by
extrapolation that silicate treatment is ineffective in the field.
Boffardi [29] is another reference that portrays silicates as ineffective:
Their effectiveness has not matched that of phosphate-based treatments
for protecting iron and steel. Silicate treatments are not recommended for
control of lead solubility in distribution systems. Boffardi, however, pro-
vides neither experimental evidence nor reference citation to support these
statements. Since Sheiham and Jackson is one of three references listed
at the end of the paper, it may be supposed that their report was influential
in forming Boffardis opinion.
Schock and Wagner [30] report on experiments performed by the Drinking
Water Research Div. of the USEPA in 1979 and 1980. In these experi-
ments, sodium silicate was added at 10 and 20 mg/L SiO2 to a soft, low
alkalinity (20 mg/L CaCO3) water. The pH for both silicate treatments and
a control was 8.2. Obviously for the three to be the same, the pH was low-
ered for the silicate treated water. Three recirculating systems were used
with new pipes. The lead levels in the control rose to about 0.175 mg/L Pb
after 60 days and then fell to about 0.140 mg/L Pb by the end of 75 days.
The 10 and 20 mg/L SiO2 cases exhibited slightly better results. The lead
levels at 75 days were about 0.105 mg/L Pb and 0.095 mg/L Pb, respec-
tively, with peaks at 0.110 and 0.105. By the end of 90 days, the levels
were about 0.095 mg/L Pb for both. After the first runs, the water was
emptied from the system and water of the same quality was added. For
the second run, the control peaked at about 0.125 mg/L Pb and then

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
decreased to about 0.065 mg/L Pb by 105 days. At 105 days, the lead lev-
els for 10 and 20 mg/L SiO2 were about 0.060 and 0.072 mg/L Pb after
having peaked at 0.063 and 0.095, respectively. The last measurement for
the 10 mg/L SiO2 was about 0.050 at 115 days, and that of the 20 mg/L
SiO2 was about 0.040 mg/L Pb at almost 260 days. The authors conclud-
ed that in order to achieve significant control, a treatment of 20 mg/L SiO2
would have to be administered.
Of those studying corrosion in water distribution systems, some believe
that sodium silicate inhibits corrosion by raising the pH of the water; oth-
ers hold the opinion that silicates form a protective layer against corrosion.
The former implies a neutralization approach to corrosion control, and the
latter, a passivation approach [27]. If raising the pH is the only benefit to
adding silicate, then its effectiveness is limited to suppressing those reac-
tions in which H+ is a reactant and to changing the solubilities of metal,
corrosion products, etc. However, if silicate forms a thin protective layer,
then there should be additional benefits. This was the case in an experi-
ment reported by Wehle [31] in which a dose of 7 ppm SiO2 reduced the
corrosion rate of galvanized steel significantly more than a NaOH treat-
ment at the same pH. The work of Duffek and McKinney [32] also directly
compared the effects of silicate treatment with NaOH treatment adjusted
to the same pH. For a range of 3 mg/L SiO2 (pH 7.9) to 500 mg/L (pH
9.3), the NaOH treatments were comparatively ineffective at preventing
corrosion. In the study by the University of S. Carolina (described above)
in which silicate treatments were analyzed alongside companion treat-
ments of the same pH, the silicate performed more effectively for lead
uptake although to a lesser degree with increasing silicate dosage and
pH. However, with time, the differences between the corresponding treat-
ments increased. Considering the fact that corrosion products must be
present in order for silica to adsorb onto the surface of iron, copper, and
zinc-containing metal pipes, perhaps the same is true for lead. In that
case, the results are consistent with the idea that at higher silicate con-
centrations, the pH is raised causing the corrosion of lead to slow. Since
the corrosion products that are needed for a silicate film to form are slow
to appear, the benefits of a silicate passivation layer are not experienced
until later. Since the silicate layer depends on the presence of corrosion
products, once these products are covered, the layer will cease to accu-
mulate.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Historically, silicates role as a corrosion inhibitor has received mixed
reviews. This is due, in part, to the mystery surrounding how it works and
also because of the wide range of experimental findings. However, new
evidence provided by XPS analysis indicates that a silicate film does form
on the interior of pipes. This film may help to inhibit corrosion as indicated
by experiments in which silicate treatments were compared to NaOH of
the same pH - silicate always provided superior corrosion control. In addi-
tion, silicates poor or mediocre performance in some studies must be
reconsidered because of misconceptions about how silicate functions. In
some cases, the pH of silicate treated water was actually lowered and
then compared to other treatments. Also, it is apparent that silicate films
require the presence of corrosion products in order to form on pipes.

INDUSTRIAL
CHEMICALS
DIVISION
PQ CORPORATION
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840
Phone: 800-944-7411
IN CANADA
National Silicates
Phone: 416-255-7771
IN MEXICO
Silicates y Derivados, S.A.
Phone: 52-555-227-6801
IN EUROPE
PQ Europe
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
IN AUSTRALIA
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
IN TAIWAN
PQ Silicates Ltd.
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
Some experiments, then, had a negative influence on the effectiveness of
silicate because of their design. In order to clarify silicates efficacy, further
study is warranted especially considering its potential to simultaneously
control corrosion and red and black water problems.
VII. REFERENCES
1. Ryder, R.A. and I. Wagner (1985). Corrosion Inhibitors. Internal Corrosion of
Water Distribution Systems. Denver. AWWA Research Foundation. 513.
2. Snoeyink, V.L. and A. Kuch (1985). Principles of Metallic Corrosion in Water
Distribution Systems. Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems. Denver,
AWWA Research Foundation. 1.
3. Edwards, M., J.F. Ferguson, and S.H. Reiber (1994). The Pitting Corrosion of
Copper. Jour.AWWA 86 (7):74.
4. Lee, R.G., W.C. Becker, D.W. Collins (1989). Lead at the Tap: Sources and
Control. Jour.AWWA 81:52.
5. Schock, M.R. and M.C. Gardels (1983). Plumbosolvency Reduction by High pH
and Low Carbonate-Solubility Relationships. Jour. AWWA 75:87.
6. Karalekas, P.C., C.R. Ryan, and F.B. Taylor (1983). Control of Lead, Copper,
and Iron Pipe Corrosion in Boston. Jour. AWWA 75:92.
7. Arpaia, M. Corrosion and Scale Inhibitors for Drinking-Water Pipes. International
Committee on Corrosion and Protection of Underground Pipelines.
8. Kirmeyer, G.J. and G.S. Logsdon (1983). Principles of Internal Corrosion and
Corrosion Monitoring. Jour. AWWA 75:78.
9. Iler, R.K. (1979). The Chemistry of Silica. New York. John Wiley and Sons.
10. Iler, R.K. (1955.) The Colloid Chemistry of Silica and Silicates. Ithica, New York,
Cornell University Press.
11. Lehrman, L. and H.L. Shuldener (1951). The Role of Sodium Silicate in
Inhibiting Corrosion by Film Formation on Water Piping. Jour. AWWA 43:175.
12. Lehrman, L. and H.L. Shuldener (1952). Action of Sodium Silicate as a
Corrosion Inhibitor in Water Piping. Ind. Eng. Chem. 44:1765.
13. Dietzel, M. and E. Usdowski (1995). Depolymerization of Soluble Silicate in
Dilute Aqueous Solutions. Col. Poly. Sci. 273 (6):590.
14. Clement, J.A., M.R. Schock, and D.A. Lytle (1994). Controlling Lead and
Copper Corrosion and Sequestering of Iron and Manganese. Critical Issues in
Water and Wastewater Treatment. Proceedings from National Conference on
Environmental Engineering. Published by Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng. 1.
15. Robinson, R.B., G.D. Reed, and B. Frazier (1992). Iron and Manganese
Sequestration Facilities Using Sodium Silicate. Jour.AWWA 84:77.
16. Dart, F.J. and P.D. Foley (1972). Silicate as Fe, Mn Deposition Preventative in
Distribution Systems. Jour. AWWA 64:244.
17. Stericker, W. (1945). Protection of Small Water Systems from Corrosion. Ind.
Eng. Chem. 37:716.
18. Texter, C.R. (1923). The Prevention of Corrosion in Hot Water Supply Systems
and Boiler Economizer Tubes. Jour. AWWA 10:764.
 19. Shuldener, H.L. and L. Lehrman (1957). Influence of Bicarbonate Ion on Inhibition
INDUSTRIAL of Corrosion by Sodium Silicate in a Zinc-Iron System. Jour. AWWA 49:1142.
CHEMICALS
20. Michniewicz, D.C., J.A. Clement, T.S. Gimpel, and M.S. Schock (1993). Sodium
DIVISION Silicate for the Simultaneous Control of Lead, Copper and Iron Based Corrosion.
Report on York Water District, York, ME.

21. Schantz, L.G. (1994) Summary of Corrosion Control Studies. Report by the City
of Rochester, Rochester Water Bureau, Water Quality Operations, Rochester, NY.

22. McAnally, A.S. (1994). Evaluation of Sodium Silicate for Lead/Copper Corrosion
Mitigation Utilizing a Lab-Scale Treatability Study. Dept. of Civil Eng., University of
South Carolina, Columbia, SC.

23. Watson, M. (1994). Lead and Copper Rule Corrosion Control Study. Report by
the City of Portland, Bureau of Water Works and Participating Wholesale
Customers, Portland, OR.

24. Gifford, G.F. and J. Fronk. Pipe Loop Testing for Corrosion Control
PQ CORPORATION
Optimization. Report by Las Vegas Valley Water District, Southern Nevada Water
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS
System, Boulder City, NV.
PO Box 840
Valley Forge, PA 19482-0840 25. City of Newark report on Corrosion Optimization Study. (1994) Division of
Phone: 800-944-7411 Water/Sewer Utility, Little Falls, NJ.

IN CANADA 26. MacQuarrie, D.M., D.S. Mavnic, and D.G. Neden (1993). Greater Vancouver
National Silicates Water District Drinking Water Corrosion Inhibitor Testing, Part I: Weight Loss
Phone: 416-255-7771 Coupons and Part II: Metal Mobility.

IN MEXICO 27. MacQuarrie, D.M. (1993). GVWD Corrosion Control Initiative - Phase II Inhibitor
Silicates y Derivados, S.A. Chemical Testing at Seymour Dam. Master's Thesis. The University of British
Phone: 52-555-227-6801 Columbia.

IN EUROPE 28. Sheiham, I. And P.J. Jackson (1981). The Scientific Basis for Control of Lead in
PQ Europe Drinking Water by Water Treatment. J.Inst.Water Eng.Sci. 35(6):491.
Phone: 31-33-450-9030
29. Boffardi, B.P. (1988). Lead in Drinking Water - Causes and Cures. Public Works
IN AUSTRALIA
(November):67.
PQ Australia Pty. Ltd.
Phone: 61-3-9708-9200
30. Schock, M.R. and I. Wagner (1985). The Corrosion and Solubility of Lead in
IN TAIWAN Drinking Water. Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems. Denver. AWWA
PQ Silicates Ltd. Research Foundation. 213
Phone: 886-2-2383-0515
31. Wehle, V. (1982). Influence of Phosphates and/or Silicates on the Corrosion
Behaviour of Drinking Water Towards Installation Materials. The Institute of Water
Engineers and Scientists, Scientific Section Symposium on the Internal Corrosion
Printed with the permission of WQTC. of Iron Mains and Copper Services. London, The Chameleon Press Ltd. 54.
Although the information and suggestions in this brochure
("information") are believed to be correct, PQ Corporation makes 32. Duffek, E.F. and D.S. McKinney (1956). New Method of Studying Corrosion
no representations or warranties as to the completeness or accu-
racy of the information. The information is supplied upon the fol- Inhibition of Iron with Sodium Silicate. J. Electrochem. Soc. 103 (12):645.
lowing conditions: The persons receiving the information will
determine its suitability for their purposes; PQ Corporation will not
be responsible for damages of any nature whatsoever resulting
from the use of, or reliance upon, the information or the materials,
devices or products to which the information refers; No
information is to be construed as a recommendation to use any
product, process, equipment or formulation in conflict with any
patent; PQ Corporation makes no representation or warranty, Reprinted from Proceedings of 1997 AWWA Water Quality Technology
express or implied, that the use thereof will not infringe any
patent; and NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, Conference, by permission. Copyright 1997, American Water Works Association
EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, OF MERCHANTABILITY, FIT-
NESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR OF ANY OTHER
NATURE ARE MADE HEREUNDER WITH RESPECT TO INFOR-
MATION OR THE MATERIALS, DEVICES OR PRODUCTS TO
WHICH THE INFORMATION REFERS.

Copyright 2003 by PQ Corporation.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or other-
wise, without the prior permission of the publisher and copyright
holder.