SOLAR HEATING DESIGN

BY THE P-CHART METHOD

WILLIAM A. BECKMAN
Professor of Mechanical Engineering

SANFORD A. KLEIN
Postdoctoral Fellow

JOHN A. DUFFIE
Professor of Chemical Engineering

Solar Energy Laboratory

University df Wisconsin Madison

A WILEY-IMERSCIENCE PUBLICATION

JOHN WILEY $r SCNS, New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto

 To Sylvia. Janet. and Pat

Copyright @ 1977 h! John Wiley S: S I ~ > .Inc

All righn reserved. Puhlishcd \ ~ n i u l t a n c ~ ~ uin~ C;lnada
l!

Reproduction or tr;tnsla!~orr ol ;In! part 01' rh~. w~rrl, he?ond [hat

pcrmirted hy Section\ 107 or IOX r,f the 1976 Unircd Slate, Cop?-
right Act without the pcr~nihbiono f the c o p ? r i ~ houncr
r I\ unlaw-

ful. Reqursrs for perrrrission o r further inforn~ation\houlJ he

addressed torhc Pcrmi\\ions Dep;trtmenr. John Wile! & Sons. Inc.

Lihrary o f Congresq Cataloging i n Puhlic31ion Data

Reckman. William A
Solar heating dcrign, by the f-chan nlcthocl.

"A Wiley.lnterscience public;rtion."

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
I. Solar hearing. 1. F CH,ART (Con~puterprogram)
I. Klein. Sanford A , . 19.50- p i n t author.
11. Duffie. John A . . joint ;~o:hor. I l l . Title.
TH74n.B-l 697'.7R 77-22168
ISBN 0 4 7 I-O3JM-I
Printed in rhe United St;~reso f America
 PREFACE

The p u r p o s e o f t h l s b o o k i s t o d e s c r l b e a practical
method f o r s l z l n g s o l a r space and w a t e r h e a t l n g sys-
tems, 1-e., systems whlch c o l l e c t s o l a r energy, s t o r e
t h e energy, and d l s t r l b u t e I t as needed t o h e a t a
b u l l d i n g and t o heat water f o r domestlc use. Two
t y p e s o f systems a r e c o n s l d e r e d , one based-on t h e use
of llqulds a s t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r medium a n d t h e o t h e r
based on a l r . T h e s e a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e common system
conflguratlons.
The m a j o r parts of the s o l a r h e a t l n g systems
considered here are a solar collector which heats
e i t h e r l i q u i d o r a l r , an e n e r g y s t o r a g e u n i t w h i c h may
be e i t h e r a w a t e r t a n k o r a p e b b l e bed, and an a u x -
l l l a r y furnace or heater. The a u x l i i a r y e n e r g y s o u r c e
supplles heat as n e e d e d when the collected solar
energy Is I n s u f f l c l e n t t o meet the entlre heatlng
n e e d s , w h l c h we r e f e r t o a s t h e h e a t l n g l o a d .
It i s technfcally posslbie t o build a solar
heating s y s t e m w h l c h w o u l d s u p p l y 100% o f t h e a n n u a l
h e a t l n g l o a d , a n d w h i c h w o u l d t h e n n o t r e q u l r e an a u x -
i l i a r y heater. A solar h e a t i n g system designed t o
supply all o f t h e energy r e q u l r e d d u r l n g t h e c o l d e s t
m o n t h s w o u l d t h e n b e g r e a t l y oversized ( l e e . , capable
o f s u p p l y f n g f a r more e n e r g y t h a n needed) d u r l n g o t h e r
months o f the year. We know t h a t t h e r e i s a l a r g e
economlc p e n a l t y r e s u l t l n g from o v e r s i z i n g a solar
h e a t i n g system. I n almost all cases. I t i s more
economical t o d e s l g n a s o l a r h e a t i n g s y s t e m t o supply
part of t h e a n n u a l h e a t l n g l o a d , a n d p r o v l d e an a u x -
i l i a r y e n e r g y s o u r c e ( c o n v e n t i o n a l f u r n a c e , fireplace,
wood b u r n i n g s t o v e , e t c . ) t o s u p p l y a d d i t i o n a l energy
a s needed. As we w l l l see, t h e e c o n o m i c s o f s o l a r
h e a t l n g systems c a u s e t h e l r d e s i g n t o be more c r l t i c a l
t h a n t h a t o f conventional systems (wh;re overslzlng
r e s u l t s i n I T t t l e economlc p e n a l t y ) .
Solar h e a t l n g systems a r e a good example o f t h e
"law of dlmlnlshing returns,l For a particular
h e a t l n g s y s t e m , t h e f l r s t 2 0 s q u a r e m e t e r s ( a b o u t 200
square f e e t ) o f c o l l e c t o r area might, for example,
provlde 40% o f the annual heating load. Adding
a n o t h e r 20 s q u a r e m e t e r s m l g h t p r o v i d e an addltlonal
30s w h l l e t h e n e x t 20 s q u a r e m e t e r s w o u l d p r o v l d e o n l y
another 15% o f t h e load. So, m o r e h e a t I s p r o v l d e d
p e r u n l t c o l l e c t o r a r e a by a small system t h a n b y a
 PREFACE PREFACE
viii

large system. Since s o l a r c o l l e c t o r s a r e expenslve, Chapter 3 d e s c r i b e s the effects of collector

o r l e n t a t Ion on the overa 1 l performance o f s'olar
t h e design problem I s t o s e l e c t t h e s l z e (and t y p e ) o f
s o l a r c o l l e c t o r which, I n c o n j u n c t i o n wlth an aux- h e a t l n g systems. Collector orlentatlon affects slolar
i l i a r y furnace, w i l l supply t h e e n t i r e h e a t l n g load a t h e a t i n g system performance I n t w o ways. I t afflects
the least possible cost. T h i s book p r o v i d e s a metbod b o t h t h e t o t a l amount o f s o l a r r a d l a t l o n s t r l k l n g t h e
o f s o l v i n g t h i s problem. collector s u r f a c e , and t h e f r a c t i o n o f t h i s r a d l a b l o n
The p r o b l e m d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s b o o k I s concerned transmitted t h r o u g h t h e transparent covers I and
w i f h t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e most economical s i z e s o f t h e u l t i m a t e l y absorbed on t h e c o l l e c t o r surface. Metpods
solar c o l l e c t o r , t h e s t o r a g e t a n k , and t h e a s s o c i a t e d of e s t i m a t i n g t h e monthly s o l a r r a d l q t l o n Inelden? on
heat exchangers. We d o n o t a d d r e s s t h e many p r a c t i c a l the col lector and the monthly average trbns-
mrttance-absorptance product are presented. I
problems t h a t t h e designer w i l d face In building a
solar h e a t e d house. We d o n o t d i s c u s s t h e s l z l n g o f The p e r f o r m a n c e o f a solar heatlng syster I s
a i r d u c t s t o reduce n o i s e and t o I n s u r e uniform flow s t r o n g l y dependent upon t h e s i z e o f t h e heatlng load
distribution. We d o n o t d i s c u s s i n s u l a t i o n r e q u i r e - ( I .e., energy needs). It i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o a c c u r b t e -
ments f o r t h e house, or the constructton problems l y e s t l m a t e long-term s o l a r h e a t l n g system performance
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n s t a l l i n g c o l l e c t o r s on a r o o f . Many wlthout considering t h e h e a t i n g load. Chapter 4
of t h e s e problems a r e t r e a t e d i n s t a n d a r d e n g i n e e r i n g
describes t h e d e g r e e - d a y method o f estlmatlng the
t e x t s and i n m a n u f a c t u r e r s t l i t e r a t u r e . space heatlng l o a d a n d a method o f e s t l m a t l n g l t h e
domestlc water h e a t i n g load.
Each o f t h e s i x c h a p t e r s d e a l w l t h a particular
aspect of t h e d e s l g n o f s o l a r h e a t l n g systems. Each A method o f e s t l m a t l n g t h e u s e f u l o u t p u t o f s Ia r
chapter is nearly complete In Itself, containing
h e a t i n g systems is presented i n Chapter 5. ?The
p r o c e d u r e uses t h e r e s u l t s o f c o l l e c t o r t e s t s , h e a t l n g
l n t r ~ d u c t o r y material, references t o pertinent
l o a d c a l c u l a t f o n s , 'and c l i m a t i c data t o estlmate,
l i t e r a t u r e , and e x a m p l e s w h i c h illustrate t h e major
a particular system, the fraction of the-mon
polnts. The first f o u r c h a p t e r s p r e s e n t methods o f
h e a t 1n g l o a d s u p p l l e d b y solar energy. The ded l g r ,
estimating the various quantities t h a t are needed in
p r o c e d u r e p r e s e n t e d here, r e f e r r e d t o as t h e ' f - c h d r t w
Chapter 5 t o d e t e r m i n e s y s t e m t h e r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e and
t h e n i n C h a p t e r 6 t o d e t e r m l n e economical d e s l g n s . method, was developed by S . A. K l e l n In
Chapter 1 begins with n o t e s on solar heated program a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
b u i l d i n g s which have a l r e a d y been c o n s t r u c t e d . Most of this deslgn procedure have
o f t h e s e systems a r e s l m l l a r t o e i t h e r t h e liquid or publications ( K l e l n e t a l . (1976a), Kleln etlal.
(1976b,c), Beckman e t a l . (1977) 1 whlch the r e der
the a i r h e a t i n g s y s t e m s c o n s i d e r e d I n t h l s book.
components and o p e r a t l o n o f liquid and air
The
heating may w l s h t o c o n s u l t f o r a d d l t l o n a l b a c k g r o u n d a n d e x - "1
systems a r e d e s c r i b e d . planatlon.
Chapter 2 i s concerned w i t h t h e thermal p e r f o r - U s l n g t h e methods f o r e s t i r n a t l n g thermal perflor- -
mance o f flat-plate solar collectors. The theory mance d e s c r l b e d i n C h a p t e r 5, we show I n C h a p t e r 6 how
which r e l a t e s c o l l e c t o r performance t o I t s construc- fuel and system c o s t i n f o r m a t i o n can be u s e d t o
t i o n and t o t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i s presented In d e t e r m l n e t h e economlc optimum design o f a sdlar
an a b b r e v i a t e d form. A more c o m p l e t e t r e a t m e n t o f h e a t l n g system. The c o s t s o f a s o l a r h e a t l n g s y s t e m
t h l s s u b j e c t can be f o u n d i n t h e book, Solar Energy are r i m I Iy f lrst costs, i .e., substan~lal
Thermal Processes by D u f f l e a n d Beckman (1974). Investments a r e made I n order to save on futlure
(References a r e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e t e x t by authors and operating costs. I n t h e s i m p l e s t terms, t h e bulld~lng
dates; complete d e t a i l s o f t h e references a r e g i v e n i n owner b o r r o w s money from t h e mortgage company t o
the bibliography at tho end o f the text.) The purchase o s o l a r heatlng system which reduces k l s
heatlng. b l I I. A more c o m p l e t e a n a l y s i s t a k e s l h t o
treatment given here provides an adequate
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o l l e c t o r t e s t p r o c e d u r e s and r e s u l t s account interest and prlnclple payments t o The
w h i c h a r e needed t o d e s i g n s o l a r h e a t i n g systems. mortgage holder, reductions I n f u e l c o s t s ,
I n I n s u r a n c e a n d maintenance c o s t s , and changes
 PREFACE PREFACE

property and Income t a x e s . The amount o f f u e l s a v e d architects, engineers, and bullders prlmarlly use
by u s l n g s o l a r energy can be estlmated uslng the Engllsh units. In view of the trend toward
p r o c e d u r e d e s c r l b e d I n C h a p t e r 5. The amount o f money m e t r i c s t i o n , we h a v e u s e d S I u n l t s t o do c a l c u l a t l o n s ,
t h e b u l l d i n g owner s a v e s b y l n s t a l l l n g a s o l a r h e a t i n g b u t have p r e s e n t e d i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t s i n E n g l l s h units
system I s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c o s t o f t h e f u e l as well. Two a p p r o x I m a t l o n s a l l o w e a s y t r a n s l a t i o n s
he s a v e s ( p l u s a n y n e t tax savlngs) and hls extra o f many q u a n t i t i e s f r o m o n e s e t o f u n l t s t o t h e o t h e r :
payments t o the mortgage company f o r I n t e r e s t and A s q u a r e m e t e r I s approximately t e n s q u a r e f e e t , a n d a
p r i n c i p l e on t h e e x t r a m o r t g a g e t a k e n o u t t o pay for k l l o j o u l e (kJ) I s nearly equivalent to a BTU. A
the solar h e a t i n g e q u i p m e n t ( p l u s any e x t r a e x p e n s e s detailed s e t o f c o n v e r s l o n t a b l e s appears I n Appendlx
for maintenance, Insurance, etc.). Chdpter 6 3.
describes methods f o r dolng these c a l c u l a t l o n s whlch The r e a d e r new t o t h e f l e l d o f s o l a r e n e r g y will
account f o r expected lnflatlon of fuel and other encounter some new t e r m l n o l o g y I n t h l s b o o k . We h a v e
costs. a t t e m p t e d t o d e f l n e t h e s e new t e r m s w h e r e they first
Throughout the book, there are a serles of appear in the text. In addition, a glossary o f terms
examples of the several calculatlons needed to i s p r e s e n t e d as Appendlx 4.
determine thermal performance and economic d e s l g n . The c a l c u l a t i o n s n e e d e d to size solar heating
These examples, t a k e n t o g e t h e r , p r e s e n t a l l the cal- systems a r e o r g a n i z e d b y worksheets; b l a n k c o p i e s a r e
c u l a t l o n s needed t o d e s i g n e c o n o m i c s o l a r h e a t i n g s y s - i n c l u d e d as A p p e n d i x 5, a n d t h e reader may wish to
tems. The reader may flnd I t advantageous, a f t e r duplicate these t o f a c i l i t a t e multiple calculations.
h a v i n g s ' t u d i e d t h e book f o r the flrst time, t o go These w o r k s h e e t s a r e used i n t h e examples throughout
through the c o m p l e t e ' s e r i e s o f examples I n o t d e r t o t h e t e x t t o c a l c u l e t e s o l a r r a d i a t i o n on t h e c o l l e c t o r
b e t t e r understand t h e c a l c u l a t l o n s from beglnnlng t o surface, heating loads, system thermal performance,
end. and l i f e c y c l e economics. Once t h e r e a d e r .has become
The e n g l n e e r o r d e s i g n e r who d e s i g n s s e v e r a l s y s - f a m i l i a r w l t h t h e use o f t h e s e worksheets, t h e process
tems w!II find that many of t h e calculatf.-)ns are of sizina solar heating systems will be greatly
r e p e t i t i v e , and o n c e c o m p l e t e d , t h e y w i l l a p p l y to a simplified.
variety of lnstallatlcns In a given loca+ion. The The c o n c e p t s d e s c r i b e d i n this book have been
c a l c u l a t i o n s which appear onerous at first w i l l be incorporated into an interactive computer program,
c o n s i d e r a b l y s l m p l l f i e d as t h e r e a d e r g a i n s e x p e r l e n c e c a l l e d FCHART, whlch Is available from the Solar
with them. A l l o f t h e c a l c u l a t l o n s c a n be d o n e w l t h Energy Laboratory of the U n l v e r s l t y o f Wisconsin -
any i n e x p e n s i v e electronic calculator that can Madison. A brief description o f thls program is
c a l c u l a t e e x p o n e n t i a l functions. i n c l u d e d as Appendlx 6.
Many people are unfamiliar w i t h t h e c o n c e p ? o f We h a v e t r i e d t o i n c l u d e I n t h i s book e v e r y t h i n g
e f f e c t i v e n e s s whlch I s used I n t h l s text t o express t h e r e a d e r needs (added t o h i s e n g l n e e r l n g abilities)
the performance of the heat exchangers I n solar to s i z e s o l a r h e a t i n g systems. .4t t h e same t i m e , t h e
h e a t i n g systems. Appendix 1 d e f l n e s t h e concept and book can be c o n s l d e r e d t o be a companion volume to
describes a simple method of determining the Solar Energy T h e r m a l P r o c e s s e s b y D u f f i e a n d Eeckman
effectiveness of a heat exchanger from performance (1974). Wlth a few exceptions, we use the same
d a t a s u p p l i e d by t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r . I n A p p e n d l x 2, t h e nomenclature and calculation p r o c e d u r e s . The t h e o r y
monthly average c l lrnatic data required t o estimate we o u t l i n e I n C h a p t e r s 1 a n d 2 of thls book Is a
t h e l o n g - t e r m performance o f s o l a r h e a t i n g systems a r e condensed verslon o f several major chapters i n Solar
t a b u l a t e d f o r a l a r g e number of N o r t h American lo- E n e r g y T h e r m a l P r o c e s s e s , and we r e f e r t h e reader to
cat ions. it for a more complete discussion o f a l l of the
Units present a problem. Much o f t h e l a t e s t b a c k g r o u n d material. The f - c h a r t d e s i g n m e t h o d , w h i c h
r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e s o l a r e n e r g y f i e l d is i s t h e essence o f t h i s book, has been d e v e l o p e d since
r e p o r t e d i n SI ( S y s t e m s I n t e r n a t i o n a l ) u n l t s , a modern 1974.
version of the old metric system. However,
 The research on w h i c h much o f t h e w o r k i n t h i s CONTENTS
book i s b a s e d w a s d o n e u n d e r t h e sponsorship of the
National Science Foundaiion (NSF) and She Energy
Research and Development Adminstration .
(ERDA) The
University o f Wisconsin . Madison and t h e W i s c o n s i n
Alumni Research F o u n d a t l o n t h r o u g h t h e Graduate School CHAPTER 1 SOLAR H E A T I N G SYSTEMS
o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y have a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d substantially
t o t h l s program . 1.1 ............ 1
NOTES ON SOLAR H E A T I N G EXPERIMENTS
1.2 L I Q U I D - B A S E D SOLAR SPACE AND WATER H E A T I N G
W.A. Beckman June 1977 SYSTEMS ....................................... 2
S.A. Klein Madison. Wisconsin .
I 3 .....................5
SOLAR A I R H E A T I N G SYSTEVS
J.A. Duffie 1.4 SUMMARY ....................................... 8
CHAPTER 2 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

2.1 DESCRIPTICN ...................................1 0

2.2 COLLECTOR THEORY .............................. 1 2
2.2-1 SOLAR ENERGY ABSORBED BY THE COLLECTOR
PLATE ....................................... 1 3
2.2-2 THERMAL LOSSES FROM THE COLLECTOR ...........1 4
2.2-3 ................ 1 5
COLLECTOR E F F I C I E N C Y FACTORS
2.3 COLLECTOR TEST1W.G AND DATA .................... 1 6
2.4 THE COLLECTOR-HEAT EXCHANGER E F F l C i E N C Y
FACTOR ........................................ 2 2
2.5 SUMMARY ....................................... 2 4
CHAPTER 3 EFFECT OF COLLECTOR O R I E N T A T I O N

3.1 INSTANTANEOUS VERSUS LONG-TERM PERFORVANCE ....25

3.2 ...2 5
C A L C U L A T I O N OF R A D I A T I O N ON T I L T E D SURFACES
3.3 R TABLES ...................................... 3 2
3.4 EFFECT OF O R I E N T A T I O N ON TRANSMITTANCE AN9
ABSORPTANCE - ................. 38
SHORTCUT MPPHOD
3.5 EFFECT OF O R I E N T A T I O N ON TRANSMITTANCE AND
ABSORPTANCE - ................. 39
D E T A I L E D METHOD
3.6 .................4 3
OPTIMUM COLLECTOR O R I E N T A T I O N
3.7 SUMMARY ....................................... 4 5
CHAPTER 4 H E A T i N G LOADS

4.1 H E A T I N G LOAD C A L C U L A T I O N S.................... - 4 7

4.2 THE DEGREE-DAY METHOD ......................... 4 8
4.3 DOMESTIC WATER H E A T I N G ........................ 5 2
4.4 ................... 5 3
I N S T I T U T I O N A L WATER H E A T I N G
 CONTENTS CONTENTS

4.5 SUMMARY ....................................... 54 81BLIOGRAPHY ........................................ 1 9 0

NOMENCLATURE ........................................1 9 4
CHAPTER 5 LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR H E A T I N G
SYSTEMS I N D E X ............................................... 1 9 8

5.1 ............................ 5 5
T H E f - C H A R T METHOD
5.2 I D E N T I F I C A T I O N OF D I M E N S I O N L E S S S Y S T E M
VARIABLES ..................................... 5 6
5.3 ......5 8
L I Q U I D - B A S E D SOLAR SPACE H E A T I N G SYSTEMS
.............6 5
5.3-1 COLLECTOR L I Q U I D F L U I D FLOWRATE
5.3-2 ............................
STORAGE C A P A C I T Y 66
....................7 0
5.3-3 LOAD HEAT EXCHANGER S I Z E
5.4 .....................7 4
SOLAR A I R H E A T I N G SYSTEMS
5.4-1 COLLECTOR A I R FLOWRATE..................... 79
5.4-2 ................. 8 4
P E B e L E BED S T O R A G E C A P A C I T Y
5.5 ..........8 5
C O M P A R I S O N OF L I Q U I D AND A I R S Y S T E M S
................8 6
5.6 D O M E S T I C WATER H E A T I N G S Y S T E M S
5.7 SUMMARY .......................................9 3
CHAPTER 6 SOLAR H E A T I N G ECONCMICS

INTRODUCTION ....L..............................95
G E N E R A L PROCEDURE ......................... ...96 ?
REGULARLY VARYING COSTS .......................1 0 0
YEARLY SAVINGS ................................ 1 2 n
............1 2 2
S A V I N G S AS A F U N C T I O N OF F U E L C O S T
...........................1 2 6
S P E C I A L TAX C R E D I T S
.......................... 1 2 6
R E T U R N ON I N V E S T M E N T

IRREGULARLY VARYING COSTS

.................... 1 2 7
SECONDARY D E S I G N V A R I A B L E S
..................... 1 2 8
SUMMARY .......................................1 3 1
APPENDIX 1 H E A T EXCHANGER E F F E C T I V E N E S S ............1 3 2
APPENDIX 2 METEOROLOGICAL DATA FOR NORTH AMERICAN
LOCATIONS ...............................1 3 5
U N I T C O N V E R S I O N T A B L E S .................. 1 6 6
P

APPENDIX 3

APPENDIX 4 G L O S S A R Y OF T E R M S ....................... 1 6 9

APPENDIX 5 B L A N K WORKSHEETS ........................ 1 7 5

APPENDIX 6 T H E F C H A R T I N T E R A C T I V E PROGRAM .......... 1 8 4

SOLAR HEATING DESIGN
 CHAPTER 1
S O L A R H E A i l N G SYSTEMS

1.1 NOTES ON S O L A R HEATING EXPERIMENTS

In thls book, we a r e concerned w l t h p'activev s o l a r

h e a t l n g s y s t e m s , 1-e., those which use equipment t o
collect, store, and distribute solar heat in a
c o n t r o l l e d manner. The s y s t e m s we c o n s i d e r a r e t h o s e
which use s o l a r c o l l e c t o r s as f l u i d h e a t e r s ; t h e f l u f d
i s then pumped o r b l o w n t o t r a n s p o r t t h e e n e r g y f r o m
the collector t o storage and from storage t o t h e
house. Other systems use movable I n s u l a t l o n , r a t h e r
than flufds.
The t e r m l l s o l a r h o u s e " , may a l s o be a p p l i e d t o
buildings I n whlch archltecturai deslgn I s used t o
o b t a i n s o l a r g a l n s I n t h e w i n t e r ( a n d r e d u c e them In
t h e summer) and s o r e d u c e h e a t l n g ( a n d c o o l i n g ) l o a d s .
These Mpasslvelp s o l a r h e a t i n g s y s t e m s a r e n o t t r e a f e d
I n t h i s book. We c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e r e I s n o s u b s t i t u t e
f o r energy-conserving architectural deslgn and o u r
concern i n t h l s book I s w l t h methods f o r m e e t i n g t h e
e n e r g y n e e d s f o r s p a c e h e a t l n g (-and h o t water) whlch
are not e l l m l n a t e d by intelligent architectural
d e s i gn .
Solar h e a t i n g i s n o t a r e c e n t concept. Domestlc
solar water heaters h a v e b e e n I n w i d e u s e f o r many
years. A number o f i n d u s t r i e s m a n u f a c t u r e s o l a r w a t e r
heaters i n Australia, Israel, Japan, the United
S t a t e s , and e l s e w h e r e .
The first extensive study of solar energy
utilization for space h e a t l n g began in 1939 at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. A series of
f o u r s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s , each p a r t i a l l y heated by solar
energy, were successlvely built from 1939 t o 1960
( H o t t e i and W o e r t z ( 1 9 4 2 ) . H e s s e l s c h w e r t (19501, and
Engebretson (1964)). The l a s t o f these, MIT S o l a r
H o u s e I V i n L e x i n g t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , was d e s l g n e d t o
p r o v l d e a b o u t t w o - t h l r d s o f t h e annual space and w a t e r
heatlng loads. The p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e h e a t l n g s y s t e m
was c a r e f u l l y m e a s u r e d a n d r e p o r t e d for two heating
seasons. The system used 60 square m e t e r s o f water
h e a t l n g c o l l e c t o r s f o r t h e c o m p a c t 1 3 5 rn2 f l o o r area
house. The c o l l e c t o r s w e r e d r a l n e d when n o t i n u s e t o
p r e v e n t water from f r e e z i n g I n t h e c o l l e c t o r s . Energy
s t o r a g e was provided I n a 5 6 7 0 - l i t e r (1500-gallon)
 SOLAI? IIFATINC: S Y S T E M S SECTION 1.2

water storage tank. After several years of s u p p l y t h e space and w a t e r h e a t l n g l o a d s . I f the ~101-
e x p e r i m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e s o l a r h e a t i n g s y s t e m was lectors are not drained a t night or durlng perlods of
removed f r o m t h e b u l l d l n g . excessive c l o u d l ness, an a n t Ifreeze s o l u t i o n I 1.
The D e n v e r S o l a r House, d o s l g n e d a n d b u i l t b y L o f generally circulated t h r o u g h t h e c o l l e c t o r s t o avloid
In 1958, uses a s o l a r h e a t l n g system d i f f e r i n g from freezing. In t h l s case, a Ilquld-to-liquid heat
M I T S o l a r House 1 V p r i m a r i l y in that It uses a i r , exchanger i s u s e d b e t w e e n t h e c o l l e c t o r s and t h e J a n k
rather than a llquld, t o transfer heat. The p e r f o r - because I t I s more e c o n o m i c a l t h a n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e 1 o f
mance o f t h e D e n v e r S o l a r H o u s e h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d for u s i n g t h e a n t i f r e e z e s o l u t i o n a s t h e s t o r a g e medlum,.
its f i r s t years o f operatlon (Lof e t al. ( 1 9 6 4 ) ) and A water-alr heat exchanger, r e f e r r e d t o as t h e
for the 1974-1975 h e a t l n g season (Ward and Lof l o a d h e a t exchanger, must be used t o transfer hieat
(1975)). The 50 s q u a r e m e t e r s o f c o l l e c t o r a r e a i n from t h e storage tank t o the b u i lding. An a d d l t l q n a l
t h l s s y s t e m p r o v i d e a b o u t 255 o f the. annual heatlng I l q u f d - t o - l l q u l d heat exchanger i s used t o transfer
load f o r t h e b u l l d i n g , which has a f l o o r area o f about energy from t h e main storage tank t o a domestic h o t
300 s q u a r e m e t e r s ( 3 2 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ) . T h i s system I s w a t e r system. A domestic h o t water system c o n s i s t s o f
s t i l l in operation today, and It requires
maintenance beyond t h a t o f a c o n v e n t l o n a l h e a t i n g sys-
little a preheat tank which suppl i e s s o l a r heated r a t e r td a
conventlonal water heater. A c o n v e n t i o n a l iurnlace
tem. (i.e., a u x i l l a r y h e a t e r ) i s p r o v i d e d t o s u p p l y enelrgy
S i n c e t h e s e e a r l y e f f o r t s , numerous s o l a r h e a t e d for the space heatlng l o a d when t h e e n e r g y i n t h e
b u i l d i n g s have been c o n s t r u c f e d . A survey of most storage tank i s depleted. C o n t r o l l e r s , r e ! i e f v a l vles,
recent e f f o r t s h a s b e e n c o m p l l e d b y S h u r c l l f f (1977). pumps, a n d p i p e s make u p t h e r e m a i n i n g e a u i p r n e n t . 1
Unfortunately, measureme.nts of performance are
availsble for very f e n o f these. Although surveys
show t h a t
heating

systems
there are
system
many r e s p e c i s .
employ
designs,
Almost
a
a variety

all
fiat-plate
practical
solar
of possible
most systems a r e s i m i l a r I n
solar
collector
solar

heatlng
(see
RELIEF
VALVE
n
..,-l-= SERVICE
WATER
I
,
I
C h a p t e r 21, e n e r g y s t o r a g e o f a c a p a c i t y s u f f i c i e n t t o
s u p p l y a b o u t one day o f w i n t e r h e a t i n g , and an aux- I -
iliary energy s o u r c e such as a f u r n a c e u s l n g conven- I I>
tional fuel. Most of these existing systems are
MAIN
slmllar t o either t h e siandard l l q u l d o r a i r heating STORAGE PR E-
s y s t e m s d e s c r i b e d I n t h e following s e c t i o n s . TANK , HEAT
TANK

1.2 LIQUID-BASED SOLAR SPACE AND WATER HEATING 1

SYSTEVS

A schematic diagram o f a t y p i c a l liquid-based solar WATER

heating system is shown I n F i g u r e 1 . 1 . T h i s system SUPPLY
uses liqulds (generally water or an antifreeze
solution) a s t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r f l u i d and w a t e r as t h e FIGURE 1 . 1
s t o r a g e medium. F l a t - p l a t e solar c o l l e c t o r s are used SCHEMATIC DIAGRAb' OF A LIQUID-BASED
to transform Incident solar r a d i a t i o n I n t o thermal SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM
energy. T h i s energy I s s t o r e d i n t h e form o f s e n s i b l e
h e a t i n a l i q u i d s t o r a g e t a n k and used as needed t o
 SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS 1II SECTION 1.2

A f t e r many c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n s , e x p e r l m e n t s , a n d TABLE 1.1

y e a r s o f p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e b y many people in the DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIQUID-BASED S O L A R
fleld, a number o f d e s i g n recommendatlons f o r s o l a r SPACE AND WATER HEATING SYSTEMS
heatlng systems cf this type have evolved, as
indicated i n T a b l e 1.1. These r e c o m m e n d a t l o n s s h o u l d
be used on1 y as general guide1 lnes, s lnce
manufacturers of .solar h e a t l n g equipment may h a v e Collector Flowrate 0.015 l/s-m2
t h e i r own r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . The terminology used in (50-50 E t h y l e n e (0.022 g p m / f t 2 )
T a b l e 1.1 w i l l be f u l l y e x p l a i n e d i n l a t e r s e c t i o n s . Glycol-Water)
Usual design practice i s t o have t h e c o l l e c t o r
f l u i d f l o w r a t e a t a b o u t 0.015 I / s p e r s q u a r e m e t e r of Co l l e c t o r S l o p e L a t i t u d e p l u s 10' f a c i n g d u e
collector area ( 0 . 0 2 2 gpm p e r squar.e f o o t o f c o l l e c - and O r i e n t a t i o n s o u t h i s b e s t ; however,
tor). Economic s t u d i e s (e.g., L o f and Tybout (1973) d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m t h e optimum
and o t h e r s ) have concluded t h a t the best storage s l o p e o r o r i e n t a t i o n a s much
c a p a c i t y i s i n t h e r a n g e o f 50 t o 1 0 0 l i t e r s o f s t o r e d a s 15' h a v e l i t t l e e f f e c t .
water per square meter o f c o l l e c t o r area (about 1.25
t o 2.5 g a l l o n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t o f c o l l e c t o r ) . A house C o l l e c t o r Heat FR'/FR>O. 9
with 50 square meiers (540 square f e e t ) o f c o l l e c t o r Exchanger (See S e c t i o n 2.4)
would t h e n r e q u i r e a water s t o r a g e tank of approxi-
mately 3750 l i t e r s (i000 gallons). The t h e r m a l p e r - S t o r age Capac i t y 50 t o 100 l / m 2
formance o f s o l a r h e a t i n g systems is rather insen- ( 1 .25 t o . 2 g a l / f t 2 )
s l t l v e t o t h e a m o u n t o f s t o r a g e c a p a c i ' t y as l o n g a s i t
i s greater than a b o u t 50 l i t e r s p e r s q u a r e m e t e r o f Load Heat Exchanger 1 < E LCm1 ,/UA < 5
c o l l e c t o r .area. Storage capacity is thus not a (See S e c t i o n 5.3-3)
c r i t i c a l design f a c t o r .
The w a t e r - a i r h e a t exchanger between t h e s t o r a g e D o m e s t i c Water P r e h e a t 1.5 t o 2.0 x c a p a c i t y o f
t a n k and t h e h e a t i n g l o a d must be sized so that it Storage Capacity c o n v e n t i o n e l water heater
does not e x c e s s i v e l y p e n a l i z e t h e performance o f t h e
s o l a r h e a t l n g system. I f t h i s heat exchanger is too
small, the average temperature o f t h e water i n t h e 1.3 SOLAR AIR HEATING SYSTEMS
s t o r a g e t a n k w i l l be h i g h e r than n e c e s s a r y and the
collector output w i l l be c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y lower. A common c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f a s o l a r a i r h e a t i n g system
O r d i n a r y baseboard h e a t e r s , f o r example, are usually i s shown I n F i g u r e 1 . 2 . Other arrangements o f fans
inadequate for solar heating systems, because t h e y and d a m p e r s c a n b e d e v i s e d t o r e s u l t I n an e q u i v a l e n t
r e q u i r e higher temperatures than can be efficiently flow c i r c u i t . A i r I s heated i n t h e flat-plate solar
s u p p l i e d by s o l a r c o l l e c t o r s . A method o f c a l c u l a t i n g collector and c i r c u l a t e d t o e i t h e r t h e h o u s e o r t o a
t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e l o a d h e a t e x c h a n g e r s i z e on h e a t i n g p e b b l e bed. Energy i s s t o r e d i n the p e b b l e bed by
s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e i s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t l o n 5.3-3. heating t h e pebbles w i t h t h e c i r c u l a t i n g h o t a i r . A t
n i g h t , o r i n c l o u d y w e a t h e r when t h e available solar
energy is insufficient t o meet the heatlng load
d i r e c t l y , a i r I s warmed a s i t Is circulated through
the warm pebble bed and i n t o t h e house. Auxiliary
energy i s s u p p l i e d from t h e furnace when the energy
s t o r e d i n t h e p e b b l e bed i s d e p l e t e d . Energy r e q u i r e d
for d o m e s t l c h o t w a t e r i s p r o v i d e d i n some s y s t e m s b y
h e a t exchange f r o m t h e h o t a i r l e a v i n g t h e collector
 -
SOLAR HEATING S Y S T E M S I SECTION 1.3

t o a domestic water p r e h e a t t a n k , as I n t h e l i q u i d
system. The h o i w a t e r i s f u r P h e r h e a t e d , i f required, I c a p a c i t y and m i n i m i z e b l o w e r requirements, unlform
I site pebbles with a d1ameter ranging from 1 t o 5
by a conventional water heater. Dur I n g summer c e n t i m e t e r s ( a b o u t 0 . 5 t o 1.5 I n c h e s ) s h o u l d b e u?ctl-
operation, It i s a d v i s a b l e n o t t o s t o r e s o l a r energy
I n t h e p e b b l e bed; a s a r e s u l t , a manual l y operated 11 The exact
size unlfornlty.
size o f t h e p e b b l e s I s n o t as c r i t i c a l nc
I t i s d e s i r a b l e To u s e washed rlvnr
storage bypass i s a usual p a r t o f t h i s design ( n o t
shown i n F i g u r e 1 . 2 ) . 1 pebbles t o reduce t h e d u s t c o n t e n t i n t h e bed althouclh
crushed rock Is acceptable. A i r f l l t e r s should hn
I i n s t a l l e d I n t h e d u c t s on b o t h ends o f t h e p e b b l e bnd.
WARM AIR
TO hOUSE
TABLE 1.2
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SOLAR AIR HEATING S Y S T T M r b
HEAT

Collector A i r 5 t o 20 l /s-m2 (1 t o 4 cfm/l l .')

Fl owrate

Col l e c t o r Slope L a t i t u d e p l u s 10 f a c i n g dun

and O r l e n t a t l o n s o u t h i s b e s t ; however,
d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m t h e optimum
s ! o p e o r o r i e n t a t i o n a s much
as 1 5 O have l i t t l e e f f e c t .

Storage Capacity 0.15 t o 0.35 m3 o f cbbl@5/m7

SUPPLY RETURN AIR (0.5 t o 1 . 1 5 ft3/ffg )
FROM HOUSE
Pebble Size 1 t o 3 cm (0.5 to 1.5 In)

Bed L e n g t h I n F l o w 1.25 t o 2.5 m (4 to R f t )

FIGURE 1.2 D i r e c t ion
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A SOLAR A..lR HEATING SYSTEM
D o m e s t i c Water P r e - 1.5 t o 2 x c a p a c i t y o f
h e a t Tank C a p a c l t y conventional water heater
DesIgn recomrnendatlons f o r s o l a r a l r h e a t i n g s y s -
tems a r e g l v e n i n T a b l e 1.2. When t h e c o s t o f b l o w i n g
P r e s s u r e Drops
a l r t h r o u g h t h e c o l l e c t o r s i s c o n s i d e r e d , t h e economic P e b b l e Bed 2.5 t o 7 . 5 mm H2C
optlmum a i r f l o w r a t e t u r n s o u t t o be i n t h e r a n g e o f 5 ( 0 . 1 t:-. 0.3 I n H 2 0 )
t o 20 I / s p e r s q u a r e m e t e r o f c o l l e c t o r a r e a ( 1 to 4 Collectors 5 t o 20 mm H20
cfm per square foot of collector). The e c o n o m i c ( 0 . 2 t o 0.8 i n H z 0 1
optlmum s t o r a g e c a p a c l t y f o r t h e p e b b l e bed i s i n the Ductwork 1 mm H 2 0 / 1 5 rn
range of 0.15 to 0.35 cublc meter o f pebbles per ( 0.08 i n H20/100 f t )
' s q u a r e m e t e r o f c o l l e c t o r a r e a ( 0 . 5 t o 1.15 c u b l c f o o t
per square f o o t o f c o l l e c t o r ) . A h o u s e w i t h 50 s q u a r e Ductwork Insulation 2.5 cm ( 1 i n ) f i b e r g l a s s
m e t e r s ( 5 4 0 s q u a r e f e e t ) o f c o l l e c ' t o r would need a b o u t
Leakage D u c t w c r k seams m u s t b e s e a l e d
12.5 c u b i c m e t e r s ( 4 4 0 c u b i c f e e t ) o f pebbles. Thls
w o u l d r e q u i r e a r o o m o f d i m e n s l o n s 2.5 m x 2.5 m x 2 m
(8 f t x 8 f t x 7ft). To maximize energy storage
 SOLAR HEATING S Y S T E M S SECTION 1.5

1.4 CONTROLS FOR SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS systems of slmllar design I s n e a r y c o m p a r a b l e , as

shown I n S e c t i o n 5 . 4 . )
Solar heatlng systems requlre controls that are The r e a d e r w i l l . n o t e i n t h l s c h a p t e r t h a t I n e a c h
different from conventlonal systems. First, there o f t h e s y s t e m s we h a v e discussed, there Is both a
m u s t be a m e t h o d o f t u r n i n g o n t h e c o l l e c t o r pump o r s o l a r h e a t l n g s y s t e m and a (more o r l e s s ) c o n v e n t l o n a l
fan when the collector can s u p p l y e n e r g y . Thls Is heatlng system. As we w l l l s e e I n l a t e r c h a p t e r s , I t
u s u a l l y done b y a d i f f e r e n t l a l t e m p e r a t u r e controller I s n o t e c o n o m i c a l t o p r o v l d e 100% o f t h e h e a t l n g load
whIch measures t h e d l f f e r e n c e I n t e m p e r a t u r e between wlth solar energy, and a s o l a r h e a t i n g s y s t e m s h o u l d
the o u t l e t of the collector and the bottom o f the be t h o u g h t t o c o n s i s t o f t w o m a j o r parts, the solar
storage unit. When t h e c o l l e c t o r f a n o r pump I s o f f energy part and t h e c o n v e n t l o n a l p a r t . The e c o n o r n l c
a n d t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e d l f f e r e n c e r i s e s a b o v e some f i x e d a d v a n t a g e o f t h e c o m b l n a t i o n I s o b t a i n e d when t h e f u e l
v a l u e , t h e pump o r f a n i s t u r n e d o n . When fluld is s a v l n g s f r o m u s i n g s o l a r e n e r g y more t h a n compensates
flowing and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d l f f e r e n c e f a l l s t o near for the Increased f i r s t cost of the solar heatlng
z e r o , t h e f a n o r pump I s t u r n e d o f f . equipment.. The m a j o r p r o b l e m we a d d r e s s I n t h l s b o o k
The b u l l d l n g a l s o n e e d s a c o n t r o l that Is not Is how t o select the type and size o f the solar
conventional. The best o p e r a t i o n o f a s o l a r energy h e a t l n g equipment which, i n c o m b l n a t i o n w i t h a conven-
s y s t e m i s o b t a i n e d when t h e c o l l e c t e d s o l a r e n e r g y Is t l o n a l h e a t i n g system, w i l l s u p p l y t h e e n t i r e heating
used as soon as possible. The control is best load a t t h e l e a s t t o t a l c o s t .
a r r a n g e d s o P h a t when the thermostat in the house
cal !s for heat, t h e s y s t e m w i l l d e l l v e r what I t c a n
from t h e s t o r a g e u n l t ( o r d l r e c t l y from t h e c o l l e c t o r s
i n t h e case o f a l r systems). If the solar energy
c a n n o t meet t h e load, a second s t a g e o f t h e t h e r m o s t a t
turns on the auxlllary furnace which s u p p l l e s t h e
b a l a n c e o f t h e h e a t i n g needs. I n some designs, the
f u r n a c e t a k e s o v e r e n t i r e l y when t h e s o l a r e n e r g y s y s -
tem can not meet the load. T h l s may r e s u l t I n a
s l m p l e ~ .s y s t e m , b u t w l t h some p e n a l t y I n t h e r m a l per-
formance.

1.5 SUMMARY

Liquid-based s o l a r h e a t l n g systems a r e c u r r e n t l y more

common t h a n t h e a i r h e a t l n g s y s t e m s . T h i s I s because
I l q u i d s a r e easy t o t r a n s p o r t and t h e y a r e s u p e r i o r on
a volume b a s i s t o any o t h e r p r a c t i c a l , s e n s i b l e , h e a t
storage n a t e r i a l . The disadvantages of the liquid
system however, are that heat exchange wlth the
bullding air Is required and precautions a g a i n s t
freezing, b o i l i n g , a n d corrosion m u s t be t a k e n . Thls
1s essential because a fluld leak could cause
extensive damage, a p r o b l e m n o t e n c o u n t e r e d I n an a l r
system. (The thermal performance o f llquid and air
I
I
 SECTION 2 . 1

CHAPTER 2 The disadvantages of glass as a c o v e r m a t e r l a l a r c

FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS t h a t it i s b r e a k a b l e and heavy. P l a s t i c s can a l s o be
used. They are g e n e r a l l y l e s s s u b j e c t t o breakage,
light, and inexpensive In thin sheets. However,
2.1 DESCRIPTION p l a s t i c s g e n e r a l l y do n o t h a v e a s h i g h a r e s i s t a n c e t o
weathering a s g l a s s ; t h e s u r f a c e c a n be s c r a t c h e d a n d
The flat-plate solar collector I s the basic devlce many plastics degrade and yellow with age which
used i n s o l a r space and d o m e s t i c water h e a t i n g sys- r e d u c e s I t s transmittance t o s o l a r r a d l a t i o n and l e a d s
tems. The operation o f a flat-plate solar collector t o loss I n mechanical strength. One a d d i t i o n a l
is, I n concept, simple. Most o f the soiar energy advantage o f g l a s s over p l a s t i c s i s t h a t g l a s s absorbs
l n c l d e n t on the collector i s absorbed by a s u r f a c e or reflects all of the long-wave radiatlon (heat)
which I s "blackw t o solar radiation. Part of the i n c l d e n t on It from t h e s o l a r heated absorber p l a t e ,
absorbed energy i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o a c i r c u l a t i n g f l u l d , thus reduclng r a d i a t i o n losses from the p l a t e more
while the rest is lost by heat transfer t o the effectively than p l a s t l c s whlch t r a n s m l t p a r t o f t h e
surroundings. The h e a t c a r r l e d away b y t h e f l u i d , t h e long-wave r a d i a t i o n .
u s e f u l energy gain o f t h e c o l l e c t o r , I s then either Flat-p!ate collectors absorb both beam and
s t o r e d o r used t o s u p p l y t h e h e a t i n g l ~ a d . diffuse radiation. Beam r a d l a t i o n 1s t h a t p a r t o f t h e
The essentlal parts o f t h e c c l l e c t o r are: the sol ar radl a t l o n which casts shadows. Diffuse
absorber plate, generally made o f metal wlth a r a d i a t i o n i s r e f l e c t e d and scattered by clouds and
nonreflectlve black f l n l s h t o naximlze the absorptlon d u s t b e f o r e i t r e a c h e s t h e g r o u n d and l t does no+ c a s t
o f s o l a r r a d l a t l o n ; p l p e s o r d u c t s t o circulate e i t h e r shadows. F l a t - p l a t e c o l l e c t o r s a r e u s u a l l s mounted i n
l i q u i d o r a i r In t h e r m a l contact wlth the absorber a s t a t l o n a r y p o s i t l o n on a b u i l d i n g o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r e
plate; t h e r m a l i n s u l a t i o n f o r t h e back s l d e and edges wlth an o r l e n t a t l o n dependent upon t h e l o c a t i o n and
o f t h e p l a t e ; one o r more alr spaces separated by t h e flme o f year i n whlch t h e s o l a r energy system Is
transparent covers t o provlde fnsulatlon for the top lntended to operai.2. The effects of co! lecfor
o f t h e p l a t e ; and a h o u s i n g t o a s s u r e a durable and o r i e n t a t i o n on s o l a r h e a t i n g system performance are
weatherable devlce. S e c t i o n v i e w s o f b o t h l i q u i d and considered in Chapter 3. F!at-plate collectors
a i r h e a t i n g c o l ! e c t o r s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 2.1. p r o v l d e low t e m p e r a t u r e h e a t whlch is the form o f
e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r space and w a t e r h e a t i n g .
C o n c e n t r a t i n g s o l a r c o l l e c t o r s , such as p a r a b o l i c
or Fresnel focusing collectors and t h e n o n - i m a g l n g
compound p a r a b o l l c c o n c e n t r a t o r s ( C P C ) , c o u l d be used
in s o l a r h e a t l n g systems. Most c o n c e n t r a t l n g c o l l e c -
tors w i l l use o n l y beam s o l a r tadlation. The
advantage o f concentratlng c o i l e c t o r s over f l a t - p l a t e
c o l l e c t o r s 1s t h a t t h e a r e a from which heat lossas
occur is r e d u c e d s o t h a t t h e e n e r g y c a n be d e l l v c r o d
at higher temperatures than are attainable wlth
FIGURE 2.1 flat-plate collectors. However, h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r n c
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF L I Q U I D AND AIR h a v e l i t t l e o r no v a l u e f o r s p a c e and water heatlnq.
HEAT1 NG COLLECTORS In the case o f most f o c u s i n g c o n c e n t r a t o r s , t h e c n l -
l e c t o r m o u n t i n g must t r a c k t h e p o s l t i o n of the sun.
The non-Imaging systems u s u a l l y r e q u l r e r e p o s l t l o n l n q
The t r a n s p a r e n t c o v e r s a r e u s u a l l y made o f g l a s s . a few t i m e s e a c h y e a r . I n t h i s b o o k , we t r e a t systnrn,;
G l a s s h a s e x c e l l e n t w e a t h e r a b i l i t y and good m e c h a n l c a l w h i c h u s e f l a t - p l a t e c o l l e c t o r s w h l c h a r e m o u n t e d i n ;I
p r o p e r t i e s ; It can b e v e r y t r a n s p a r e n t I f i t has a low fixed posltion.
I r o n o x l d e c o n t e n t , and i t ! s r e l a t i v e l y Inexpensive.
 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS SECTION 2.2

FR i s the collector heat removal efflclency

2.2 COLLECTOR THEORY factor

I n order t o b e t t e r understand the discussion t o IT Is the rate at which solar radiation I s

f3llow. It Is necessary to distlnqulsh between l n c l d e n t on t h e c o l l e c t o r s u r f a c e per unit
Instantaneous collector performance fi.e., the a r e a [w/m2, ~ ~ ~ / h r - f t ~ ]
performance o f t h e c o l l e c t o r a t a glven p o i n t I n time,
as a f u n c t l o n o f t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l a n d o p e r a t i n g c o n - r I s the solar transmtttance o f the transpar-
dltions occurring a t t h a t time) and t h e l o n g t e r m e n t covers
performance. In practical operations, a collector In
a solar h e a t l n g system o p e r a t e s o v e r a wide range o f a 1s t h e s o l a r a b s o r p t a n c e of the collector
c o n d l t l o n s during a year. I t w i l l r u n h o t and a t low plate
efficiency at t l m e s , and c o o l and a t h l g h e f f i c i e n c y
a t other times. T h e s e variations a r e a l l taken Into UL 1s the collector overall energy loss
a c c o u n t I n t h e d e s i g n m e t h o d d e s c r l b e d I n C h a p t e r 5. c o e f f l c l e n t [w/c-m2, ~ ~ ~ / h r - ~ - f t ~ ]
In o r d e r t o determine how a c o l l e c t o r w o r k s o v e r
t h e range o f varying operating condltlons It w i l l Ti I s the temperature o f the f l u l d entering the
encounter in solar heatlng, it Is necessary to c o l l e c t o r [C,F]
understand t h e theory r e l a t i n g instantaneous c o l l e c t o r
performance t o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and o p e r a t - i n g c o n d i - Ta I s t h e o u t s t d e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e [C,F]
tions. We w i l l see that, for our purposes, two
numbers a r e n e e d e d t o d e s c r i b e c o l l e c t o r performance,
one relating t o how e n e r g y I s a b s o r b e d a n d t h e o t h e r The t e r m s I n t h e c o l l e c t o r e q u a t i o n a r e explained In
to hoh energy is lost. These numbers are best more d e t a i l i n t h e f o l l o w l n g s e c t i o n s .
determined from collector .. tests, In whlch
i n s t a n t a n e o u s c o l l e c t o r e f f l c l e n c y i s m e a s u r e d o v e r an
a p p r o p r i a t e range o f c o n d i t i o n s . I n t h i s section, we
revlew t h e e s s e n t l a l ideas o f t h e t h e o r y which governs 2.2-1 SOLAR ENERGY AFSORBED BY THE COLLECTOR PLATE
instantaneous c o l l e c t o r performance. The r n a t e r l a l
presented here Is presented in greater detall In The I n c i d e n t r a d i a t i o n o n t h e c o l l e c t o r a t any t l m e ,
Hottel and Woertz (19421, H o t t e l and W h l l l i e r (19561, IT, i n c l u d e s t h r e e parts: beam r a d i a t i o n , dlffuse
8 l i s s ( 19591, and I n S o l a r E n e r g y Therma l P r o c e s s e s . r a d i a t l o n , and d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s l o p e o f t h e c o l l e c t o r
The u s e f u l e n e r g y g a l n f r o m t h e collector at a and the nature of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s , some r a d i a t i o n
given time I s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e amount o f r e f l e c t e d from t h e ground or su-roundings. When a
s o l a r energy absorbed by t h e absorber p l a t e and the collector Is t e s t e d , I T i s measured by a p y r a n o m e t e r
energy lost to t h e surroundlngs. The e q u a t i o n t h a t p o s i t l o n e d a t t h e same 1 n c l l n a t l o n . a ~ t h e collector.
a p p l i e s t o almost a l l p r a c t i c a l flat-plate collector ( A s shown i n C h a p t e r 5, m e a s u r e m e n t s o f I T a t f r e q u e n t
d e s i g n s Is-: t lme intervals are not needed to estlmate the
long-term performance o f a s o l a r h e a t l n g system once
collector test r e s u l t s are obtained. What i s n e e d e d
by t h e f - c h a r t m e t h o d d e s c r l b e d I n C h a p t e r 5 , 1s t h e
where monthly average radiatlon l n c i d e n t on t h e c o l l e c t o r
surface. The m o s t commonly a v a i l a b l e d a t a a r e m o n t h l y
Qu is the rate at which useful energy Is a v e r a g e r a d i a t i o n on a h o r i z o n t a l s u r f a c e . A method
c o l l e c t e d [W,BTlJ/hr] for calculating the monthly average r a d i a t l o n on
t l l t e d surfaces from t h e h o r i z o n t a l surface data Is
A I s t h e c o l l e c t o r a r e a [m2, ft?] d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t l o n s 3.2 and 3.3.)
 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS SECTION 2 . 2 15

The r a t e a? w h l c h s o l a r e n e r g y I s a b s o r b e d b y t h e w e l l - d e s i g n e d c o l l e c t o r , t h e sum o f thc b o t t o m and

collector plate a t any time I s t h e product o f the edge l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t s I s typically a b o u t 0.5 t o 0.75
i n c i d e n t r a d l a t i o n , IT, t h e fraction transmitted b y W/C p e r s q u a r e m e t e r o f c o l l e c t o r ( 2 . 8 t o 4 . 2 B T U l h r - F
the c o v e r system, r , and t h e f r a c t l o n absorbed by t h e per square foot of collector). The top loss
c o l l e c t o r s u r f a c e , a. B o t h T and a a r e functions o f coefficient is a function of the absorber plate
t h e materials a n d t h e a n g l e o f t h e i n c l d e n t r a d i a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e number of transparent covers, the
(I.e., t h e angle between the perpendicular to the cover material, the thermal ( I n f r a r e d ) emlttance o f
surface and t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e s o l a r r a d l a t l o n ) . t h e absorber plate, t h e ambient temperature, and t h e
The beam, d i f f u s e , a n d r e f l e c t e d , components of the windspeed. For most c o l l e c t o r deslgns, UL c a n b e
Incident solar r a d l a t l o n s t r i k e t h e c o l l e c t o r surface e s t i m a t e d from t h e graphs o r t h e equations -
afven In
a t d l f f e r e n t angles. As a r e s u l t , t h e transmittance --
Solar E n e r g r ~ her ma I P r o c e s s e s . However, t h e b e s t
v a l u e s o f UL a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m c o l l e c t o r t e s t s .
and a b s o r p t a n c e m u s t each be c a l c u l a t e d as a w e i g h t e d
average o f t h e s e cdmponents. ( A method o f estimating
t h e monthly average product o f t h e c o l l e c t o r t r a n s m i t -
t a n c e and a b s o r p t a n c e , needed f o r t h e d e s l g n p r o c e d u r e
i n C h a p t e r 5, I s d l s c u s s e d i n S e c t l o n s 3.4 a n d 3.5.) 2.2-3 COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY FACTORS

E q u a t i o n 2.1 I s convenient for analysis of solar

energy systems because t h e u s e f u l energy g a i n I s found
2.2-2 THERMAL LOSSES FROM THE COLLECTOR uslng t h e i n l e t f l u l d temperature. However, c o l l e c t o r
energy losses occur f r o m t h e mean c o l l e c t o r p l a t e
L o s s e s o c c u r f r o m t h e c o l l e c t o r b y s e v e r a l mechanisms. temperature whlch i s always hlgher than the inlet
Heat i s lost from the plate to t h e c o v e r ( s 1 by fluid temperature when useful energy is being
r a d i a t i o n - a n d conve,c*ion, and f r o m t h e top cover t o collected. The e f f e c t o f t h e c o l l e c t o r heat removal
+he o u t s i d e alr b y r a d i a t i o n and c o n v e c t i o n , b u t i n eff lclency factor, FR, i s t o reduce t h e c a l c u l a t e d
different proportions. Heat losses through the u s e f u l energy g a i n f r o m what it would be i f t h e whole
i n s u l a t e d back and sides o f t h e c o l l e c t o r o c c u r by collector were a t t h e i n l e t f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e t o what
conduction. D e t a i l e d methods o f calculating a l l of it a c t u a l l y Is with a fluid which increases In
these losses are described i n S o l a r Energy Thermal temperature as it f l o w s through t h e c o l l e c t o r .
Processes. C o l l e c t o r s should be designed so t h a t all FR c a n be c a l c u l a t e d f o r a w i d e r a n g e o f c o l l e c -
o f t h e s e l o s s e s a r e a s s m a l l a s practical. t o r g e o m e t r i e s , a s I s shown t n Solar ~ n e T r h e~r m a~l
The product o f t h e c o l l e c t o r o v e r a l l energy loss Processes. It is nearly independent o f t h e s o l a r
coefficlent, UL, and the temperature difference radiation I n t e n s i t y and the collector olate and
(Tl-T,) occurring I n Equatlon 2.1, represents the ambient temperatures, but it i s a function of the
e n e r g y l o s s e s f r o m t h e c o l l e c t o r p l a t e i f i t were all fluid flowrate and the absorber plate design
at the i n l e t f l u i d temperature. The c o l l e c t o r p l a t e (thickness, m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t l e s , tube spacing, etc.).
w i l l be a t a hlgher temperature than t h e inlet fluld The p r o d u c t s , F R ( T ~ ) , a n d FRUL, w h l c h a r e t h e numbers
temperature when useful energy i s belng collected. needed in the f o l l o w i n g chapters, can r e a d l l y be
. T h i s i s necessary i n o r d e r f o r h e a t t o be t r a n s f e r r e d determined from t h e standard c o l l e c t o r t e s t s noted in
- fron; t h e p l a t e t o t h e f l u i d . As a r e s u l t , a c t u a l c o l - t h e next section.
lector energy losses are higher than t h e product of
UL a n d (Ti-T,). The d i f f e r e n c e i s accounted for by
the heat removal efflclency factor, FR, which i s
described i n greater d e t a l l i n the next section.
The o v e r a l l e n e r g y l o s s c o e f f i c l e n t , UL, Is the
sum o f t h e l o s s c o e f f l c l e n t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t o p ,
bottom, and e d g e losses of the collector. For a
 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS SECTION 2.3

The r e s u l t s o f c o l l e c t o r t e s t s a r e b e s t p r e s e n t e d
2.3 COLLECTOR TESTING A N D DATA as a plot of Instantaneous e f f i c l e n c y versus
T I - T a The t h e o r e t i c a l b a s ! s f o r presenting t h e
Collectors are often tested by the procedure collector test r e s u l t s I n t h i s manner c a n be s e e n b y
recommended by t h e N a t i o n a l B u r e a u o f S t a n d a r d s (Hill d l v l d i n g both sides of Equatlon 2.1 by ITA. The
et al. (1976)). The p r o c e d u r e i s t o o p e r a t e t h e c o l - Instantaneous c o l l e c t o r e f f l c l e n c y I s then expressed
lector o n a t e s t s t a n d u n d e r s t e a d y conditions, I . e . ,
t h e s o l a r r a d l a t i o n , wlndspeed, and the amblent and
inlet f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e essentially c o n s t a n t f o r
a p e r i o d such t h a t t h e f l u i d outlet temperature and I f UL i s assumed t o b e c o n s t a n t , t h e p l o t o f c o l l e c t o r
the u s e f u l e n e r g y g a i n do n o t c h a n g e appreciably w l t h efflclency versus (TI-Ta)/IT results In a strafght
time. The c o n d i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g w i n d s p e e d , s h o u l d be l i n e h a v l n g a s l o p e e a u a l t o -FRUL and a v e r t i c a l e x i s
r e p r e s e n t a t l v e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n which t h e c o l i e c - I n t e r c e p t equal t o FR(T~),. This i s most convenient
t o r w i l l be used. C a r e f u l measurements a r e made o f slnce the values of FRUL and F R ( T ~ ) , a r e n e e d e d I n
the incident radiation, the c o l l e c t o r f l u i d flowrate, Chapter 5 t o e s t i m a t e long-term s o l a r heatlng system
I n l e t a n d o u t l e t f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e s , and the ambient performance.
temperature. Collector test results are presented In t h i s
The u s e f u l e n e r g y g a i n I s g i v e n b y manner b y Simon ( : 9 7 6 ) f o r many different flat-plate
collectors. Typical collector t e s t results plotted i n
this way for l i q u i d c o l l e c t o r s a r e shown I n F i g u r e
2.2. Generally the t e s t data s c a t t e r about a s t r a i g h t
where line. The s c a t t e r i s c a u s e d b y v a r i a t i o n s o f UL with
wlndspeed and ' t e m p e r a t u r e , as w e l l a s by e r r o r s i n
G is the collector fluid mass f l o w r a t e p e r measurements. For t h e k i n d s of collectdis normally
u n i t c o l l e c t o r area 2L
;
used for solar heating, and for purposes of thc
%
!, .,
d 7- f-chart design method, the test results can hn
i s the specific heat of the collector fluid adequately represented by a single straight llne
Cp ( I m p l y i n g t h a t UL c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t o be relatively
'<'2/k44
To I s the 'outlet f l u i d temperature constant).
---b The m a J o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c o l l e c t o r s w h l c h
affect the slope and intercept of t h e efficiency
The r e s u l t o f c o l l e c t o r tests I s usually given In v e r s u s ( T i - T a ) / I T c u r v e s a r e t h e number o f c o v e r s and
t e r m s o f c o l l e c t o r e f f l c l e n c y , 0 , d e f i n e d as the n a t u r e o f t h e a b s o r b e r s u r f a c e , I.e., wheiner I t
I s a selective or a flat-black surface. The four
typical collectors shown In Flgure 2.2are: A, 1
cover, f l a t - b l a c k surface; B, 2 covers, flat-black
where IT Is t h e measured r a d l a t l o n on t h e c o l l e c t o r surface; C, 1 c o v e r , s e l e c t i v e s u r f a c e ; D, 2 c o v e r s ,
surface per u n i t area. selective surface. Note that the relative
C o l l e c t o r t e s t s a r e e l t h e r performed outdoors on efflciencles vary, depending on t h e temperature range
clear days n e a r s o l a r noon, o r i n d o o r s u s l n g a s o l a r of operatlon. It I s not possible t o say which w i l l
simulator. I n e i t h e r case, t h e d i . f f u s e component of perform best in a system until the performance
t h e r a d l a t l o n i s s m a l l and r a d i a t i o n w h l c h s t r i k e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s described i n Chapter 5 are completed.
c o l l e c t o r s u r f a c e i s n e a r l y a t normal incidence. As a Note a l s o t h a t t h e c o s t o f t h e s e c o l l e c t o r s w l l l v a r y ;
r e s u l t, the transmittance-absorptance product the methods of Chapter 6 m u s t be u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e
r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c o l l e c t o r t e s t s c o r r e s p o n d s t o beam whlch c o l l e c t o r w l l l r e s u l t in the most economical
r a d l a t l o n a t normal i n c i d e n c e . T h i s normal Incidence system. (The curves In Flgure 2.2 are shown t o
t r a n s m l t t a n c e - a b s o r p t a n c e p r o d u c t I s w r l t t e n as (Ta),. I l l u s t r a t e d i f f e r e n c e s among collectors. Test data
 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS 1 SECTION 2 . 3

Then
A I cover blcck
B 2 covers block
0.8- -
C I cover selective f~(?a), = K (Intercept) 1
D 2 covers selective
Note t h a t t h e slope o f t h e c o l l e c t o r e f f i c l e n c y plot
-
i I s a n e g a t i v e number a n d m u l t i p l f c a t l o n b y -K r e s u l t s
I n a p o s l t i v e v a l u e f o r FRUL.
demonstrate
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s
how FRUL and F R ( T U ) ~c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d
from c o l l e c t o r t e s t r e s u l t s .

W
A EXAMPLE 2.1 Test Results of a L i q u l d
H e a t i n g Col l e c t o r

The p e r f o r m a n c e c u r v e for a llquid

heating collector having two g l a s s covers
and a f l a t - b l a c k absorber s u r f a c e I s given
0 0.05 0.10 . 0.15
I n F i g u r e 2.3. Determine t h e v a l u e s o f
(Ti -To )/IT W-1- oc - m2 F R ( ~ a I na n d FRUL f o r t h i s c o l l e c t o r .
The t e s t d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d a s a plot
FIGURE 2.2 of collector e f f l c l e i i c y versus (TI-Ta)/IT.
TEST RESULTS FOR FOUR L I Q U I D HEATING COLLECTORS I n t h i s c a s e , t h e v,alue o f FR(Ta), i s the
value of t h e Y-axis i n t e r c e p t o f t h e p l o t ,
whlch I s 0.68. The v a l u e o f FRUL is
should be used % o c h a r a c t e r l z e a p a r t i c u l a r c o l l e c t o r negative the value of the slope of t h e p l o t .
T h e r e f o r e , FRUL I s 3.75 W/C p e r s q u a r e m e t e r
whenever p o s s i b l e . )
C o l l e c t o r efficiency i s s o m e t l m e s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t o f co I lector .
t h e d i f f e r e n c e between e i t h e r t h e average fluid
temperature o r t h e o u t l e t f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e
ambient t e m p e r a t u r e d i v i d e d by IT, t h a t Is, agalnst
(T, -Ta)/lT or T o - T a Plots of t h i s nature Test r e s u l t s f o r a i r h e a t e r s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n an
appe%r v e r y siml l a r t o the plot of col lector I d e n t i c a l manner t o t h a t f o r l i q u i d heating collec-
e f f i c i e n c y versus (TI-Ta)/IT; however, t h e s l o p e and tors. However, a d l s t l n c t l o n between l l q u i d and a i r
Intercept of these plots have a dlfferent c o l l e c t o r t e s t s a r i s e s b e c a u s e FR f o r l i q u i d collec-
Interpretation. If t h e mass flowrate of the f l u i d t o r s remains r e l a t i v e l y constant over a l a r g e range o f
- f l o w i n g through t h e c o l l e c t o r durlng the test Is collector f l o w r a t e s , whereas t h e r e c a n be s l g n l f f c a n t
known, then t h e values of FRUL a n d F R ( T ~ c)a n ~ be variation I n FR o v e r t h e r a n g e o f a i r f l o w r a t e s used
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e s l o p e and I n t e r c e p t o f t h e s e t e s t in air heating collectors. A different collector
results. Thls i s done by m u l t i p l y i n g bo+h t h e s l o p e efficiency curve i s obtained for each air flowrate.
a n d t h e i n t e r c e p t o f t h e s e p l o t s b y a f a c t o r K, where The d e s i g n e r o f a s o l a r h e a t l n g s y s t e m u s l n g a i r m u s t
be s u r e t o use the FR(T~), and FRUL values
GCp/(GCp- Slope/2) for vs ( T a v g - T a ) / I ~ c o r r e s p o n d l n g t o t h e a i r f l o w r a t e whlch w i l l be used
I n t h e I n s t a l l e d system. As w l t h l i q u i d collectors,
GCp/(GCp- Slope) for q vs (To-Ta)/I~ test results are best presented i n terms o f
 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS SECTION 2.3

2 glass covers -
Black absorber
-
t 2 glass covers
Black surface
0.8- G = 0.0139 kg ~ e c - l m - ~
Z G = 10.1 liters sec-lm-2
W -

OC
0 -
+
0
0.4-
w
J
0
0 0.2-

FIGURE 2.3 FIGURE 2.4

TEST PERFORMANCE OF A L I Q U I D HEATING COLLECTOR TEST PERFORMANCE OF A SOLAR A I R HEATER

( T i - T a ) / I ~ , b u t t h e y a r e a l s o commonly presented in E q u a t i o n 2.5 f o r t e s t d a t a p l o t t e d in thls

other terms. I n t h l s case, t h e c o r r e c t i o n s r e q u i r e d manner. The c o l l e c t o r mass f l o w r a t e , G, I s
t o o b t a i n F R ( T U ) , a n d FRUL f r o m t h e a i r heater tests 10.1 I / s p e r s q u a r e m e t e r o f c o l l e c t o r a r e a .
a r e g i v e n b y E q u a t i o n s 2.5 a n d 2 . 6 . The s p e c l f i c h e a t o f a i r I s 1 0 1 2 J / k g - C and
t h e d e n s i t y o f a i r a t s t a n d a r d conditions i s
0.001204 kg/llter. Thus GC Is (10.1
I / S - i 2 ) x ( 1 0 1 2 ~ / k g - ~ x) ( 0 . 0 0 1 5 0 4 k g / ~ ) =
12.3 W/C p e r s q u a r e m e t e r . The s l o p e o f t h e
EXAMPLE 2.2 Test Results of an A i r H e a t e r
plot i n Figure 2.4 I s -3.7 W/C p e r s q u a r e
Calculate the values of FR(?a), and meter. Thus
F R U ~f o r an air heater having two glass
covers and a f l a t - b l a c k absorber surface. K = GC /(GCp - S l o p e ) = 12.3/(12.3+3.7)
The t e s t r e s u l t s a r e g i v e n i n Flgure 2.4, = 0.97
plotted in terms of the outlet air
temperature. From E q u a t l o n 2.6
The e x p e r i m e n t a l col lector efficiency
I s given I n terms o f (To-Ta)/IT. The v a l u e s ) ~ K X I n t e r c e p t = 0.77 X 0 . 6 4
F R ( T ~ =
of FRUL a n d FR(TUIn a r e determined b y = 0.49
m u l t i p l y i n g t h e s l o p e and Intercept by K, FRUL = -K x S l o p e = -0.77 x ( - 3 . 7 )
where K i s GCp/(GCp-S!ope), as i n d i c a t e d i n = 2.85 w / c - ~ Z
 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS SECTION 2.4

2.4 THE COLLECTOR-HEAT EXCHANGER EFFICIENCY F A C T O R

I n c l i m a t e s where f r e e z i n g o c c u r s , a h e a t exchanger I s
o f t e n u s e d i n l i q u i d s y s t e m s b e t w e e n t h e c o l l e c t o r and
the tank, a s shown l n F i g u r e 1.1, wlth antlfreeze
solution in t h e c o l l e c t o r l o o p and w a t e r i n t h e t a n k
loop. While t h i s h e a t exchanger i s n o t a p a r t o f the
collector, It Is convenient t o d e f i n e a n a d d i t i o n a l
e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r , F R * , which c a n be substituted for
FR in Equation 2.1 to calculate the combined
p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e c o l l e c t o r and h e a t exchanger. The
ratio FR1/F~, referred to as the collector-heat
exchanger c o r r e c t i o n factor, is an index, ranging
b e t w e e n 0 and 1 , whLch indicates t h e pen_a~I_ty-in-u~e~-u_II
-
energy--.co l le?) i o n
exchanger and
i m p ~ e d - A G y ' ~ - ~ e - - u s oef
double-flow circuit. F R ' / F ~ can
a heat
be
d e t e r m i n e d as a f u n c t l o n o f c o l l e c t o r p a r a m e t e r s , h e a t
exchanger flowrates, and EC, the heat exchanger
effectiveness. (See de Winter (1975) .) (An
exp:anation of heat exchanger effectlvsness and a
demonstration of how it can be c a l c u l a t e d from
performance d a t a appears I n Appendix 1 . )
FIGURE 2.5
COLLECTOR-HEAT EXCHANGER CORRECTION FACTOR

where Cmin i s t h e s m a l l e r o f t h e t w o f l u i d c a p a c i t a n c e
the a n t i f r e e z e s o l u t l o n and 4190 J / k g - C f o r
r a t e s (mass f l o w r a t e t i m e s f l u i d s p e c i f i c h e a t ) i n t h e
water. The effectiveness of the hcat
heat exchanger. When t h e mass f l o w r a t e s t h r o u g h t h e
exchanger wi lI be assumed to be 0.7.
two s i d e s o f t h e h e a t exchanger are Identical, Cmin
Calculate the value of the collector-heat
w i l l be the capacitance r a t e o f t h e f l u i d f l o w i n g
e x c h a n g e r correction f a c t o r , F R ' / F R .
through the c o l l e c t o r s slnce the s p e c i f i c heat of the
a n t i f r e e z e s o l u t i o n i n t h e cot l e c t o r i s less than t h a t From Example 2.1, FRUL = 3 . 7 5 w / c - ~ ? .
Of pure water. FR'/FR i s p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f The r a t i o o f t h e capacitance rate In the
c o l l e c t o r s ( p e r u n i t a r e a ) t o FRUL i s
F R U L / G C ~a n d E ~ C ~ I ~ / A G i nC F~i g u r e 2 . 5 .

EXAFPLE 2.3 Col l e c t o r - H e a t Exchanger F a c t o r

The c o l l e c t o r s d e s c r i b e d i n E x a m p l e 2.1
a r e t o be u s e d i n a solar heatlng system Since both f l o w r a t e s i n t h e h e a t exchanger
that has a separate antifreeze, corro- a r e t o be 0 . 0 1 3 9 k g / s - m 2 and the speclflc
sion-lnhlbltlng solution flowing I n t.le col- heat o f t h e a n t l f r e e z e s o l u t i o n i s less than
l e c t o r s , a s i n F i g u r e 1.1. Both flowrates that o f w a t e r , t h e mlnlmum c a p a c i t a n c e r a t e
in t h e c o l l e c t o r - t a n k heat exchanger a r e t o i n t h e h e a t exchanger, Cmin,is t h a t of the
be 0 . 0 1 3 9 k g / s p e r s q u a r e m e t e r o f c o l l e c t o r antifreeze solution flowing i n the collec-
area. The s p e c i f l c h e a t I s 3 3 5 0 J / k g - C for
 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

tor. Therefore, CmIn/AGCp Is equal to 1- CHAPTER 3

Thus EFFECT OF COLLECTOR ORIENTATION

3.1 INSTANTANEOUS VERSUS LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE

FR'/FR is found t o be 0.97 from e i t h e r
E q u a t f o n 2.7 o r F i g u r e 2.5. The collector equatlon I . . , E q u a t i o n 2.1) c a n be
The s l g n i f l c a n c e o f t h e collector-heat used t o c a l c u l a t e I n s t a n t a n e o u s c o l l e c t o r performance.
exchanger c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r , FR'/FR, i s that However, t h e d e s i g n e r o f a solar heating system i s
it I s a measure o f t h e p e n a l t y a s s o c i a t e d more concerned with long-term performance than w i t h
w i t h havlng a separate flow c l r c u i t f o r the i n s t a n t a n e o u s performance. The c o l l e c t o r e q u a t i o n c a n
collectors. When F ~ l / F ~ = 0 . 9 7 , 3 % m o r e c o l - b e u s e d i n c o m p u t e r simulations t o d e t e r m i n e l o n g - t e r m
l e c t o r area would be r e q u i r e d by t h e double system performance by calculating the energy
flow circuit system t o collect t h e same col l e c t l o n over short (e.g., hourly) p e r i o d s and
amount o f e n e r g y a s a s i m i l a r s y s t e m w l t h o u t summing these over monthly or annual periods.
a separate c o l l e c t o r flow c i r c u i t and h e a t However, a much s i m p l e r m e t h o d h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r
exchanger. standard s o l a r h e a t i n g systems o f t h e type shown In
F i g u r e s 1 . 1 a n d 1.2.
F r o m h e r e on, we w i l l be c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h t h e
m o n t h l y performancs o f s o l a r h e a t i n g systems. In t h l s
2.5 SUMMARY c h a p t e r , we w i l l discuss the effect of collector
o r i e n t a t i o n on m o n t h l y solar .heating performance.
The performance o f f l a t - p l a t e collectors I s given by C o l l e c t o r o r i e n t a t i o n a f f e c t s p e r f o r m a n c e I n t w o ways.
an e n e r g y b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n , w h i c h r e l a t e s the useful Most I m p o r t a n t l y , I t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s the amount of
energy g a i n t o t h e a b s o r b e d s o l a r e n e r g y and t h e h e a t solar radiation incident on t h e c o l l e c t o r surface.
losses. Collector tests are used t o measure t h e Presented i n t h e n e x t two s.ect1ons is a method o f
useful energy gain o v e r a r a n g e o f t e m p e r a t u r e s and e s t i m a t i n g t h e m o n t h l y a v e r a g e r a d i a t l o n on s u r f a c e s
radiation levels. The r e s u l t s o f s t a n d a r d t e s t s are o f a wide range o f o r i e n t a t i o n s . The equations are
best p l o t t e d as efflclency, q, a g a i n s t ( T i - T a ) / l ~ . presented In detall .in Section 3.2 and t a b l e s
When t h l s m e t h o d o f p r e s e n t i n g t e s t r e s u l t s I s u s e d , a developed from these equatlons are given i n Section
s t r a i g h t l i n e representatlon o f t h e data for collec- 3.3. In addition, collector orientation affects the
tors o f usual designs I s adequate f o r purposes o f t h e transmlttance o f t h e transparent covers and t h e ab-
f - c h a r t d e s i g n method. The intercept of this Ilne sorptance o f the col lector plate since both are
( w h e r e TI=Ta) i s FR(TO)~ a n d t h e s l o p e I s -FRUL. If f u n c t i o n s o f t h e angle a t which r a d i a t l o n s t r i k e s the
collector efficlency i s plotted against (Tavg-Ta)/l~ c o l l e c t o r surface. A method o f e s t i m a t i n g t h e m o n t h l y
or (To-T,)/IT, t h e s l o p e and i n t e r c e p t o f t h e s e p l o t s average transmittance-absorptance product i s presented
have d i f f e r e n t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , b u t t h e y can be used I n S e c t i o n s 3.4 a n d 3.5.
to determine F R ( T ~ ) , a n d FRUL I f t h e c o l l e c t o r f l u i d
- f l o w r a t e d u r i n g t h e t e s t I s known.
I f a h e a t exchanger i s used between t h e c o l l e c t o r
a n d t h e t a n k In, a l l q u l d s y s t e m , the collector-heat
e x c h a n g e r c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r , FR'/FR, can b e d e f i n e d t o 3.2 CALCULATION OF RADIATION ON T I L T E D SUF:FACES
account f o r t h e combined performance o f t h e c o l l e c t o r s
and t h e heat exchanger. Thus, t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e Monthly averages o f t h e d a i l y s o l a r r a d i a t i o n I n c i d e n t
c o l l e c t o r s (and t h e h e a t exchanger, I f p r e s e n t ) can be i on a
locations.
horizontal surface
This lnformatlon
are available
i s tabulated
for
for
many
many
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by two numbers, F ~ * ( - r a ) and
~ FR'UL,
w h i c h a r e needed i n C h a p t e r 5 . N o r t h A m e r i c a n l o c a t l o n s i n A p p e n d i x 2. However, r a -
i
 SECTION 3.2
26 EFFECT OF COLLECTOR ORIENTATION

In this equation, t h e f i r s t term I s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n

d i a t l o n d a t a on tilted surfaces are generally not
of the beam r a d l a t i o n , the second t e r n is the
available. A method o f e s t i m a t i n g t h e average d a l l y
contribution of diffuse r a d l a t i o n f r o m t h e sky, a n d
r a d l a t i o n f o r each month on s u r f a c e s tllted directly
the t h l r d term I s t h e contrlbutlon of radiation re-
towards t h e equator has b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y L i u and
f l e c t e d i n t o t h e c o l l e c t o r from t h e ground.
Jordan (1962). T h i s method h a s been compared w l t h
S l n c e measurements of Rd, t h e monthly average
experimental d a t a and extended t o a l l o w e s t l m a t l o n o f
d a i l y d i f f u s e r a d i a t i o n , a r e r a r e l y a v a i l a b l e , Hd m u s t
t h e monthly average dally r a d i a t i o n on surfaces
be e s t i m a t e d f r o m measurements o f the average dally
o r l e n t e d e a s t o r west o f s o u t h by K l e i n (1976d).
t o t a l radiation. S t u d i e s h a v e shown t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n
The -m o n t h l y a v e r a g e d a i l y r a d i a t i o n o n a t i l t e d
of the total r a d l a t l o n w h i c h I s d l f f u s e , Rd/R, Is a
s u r f a c e , HT, c a n be e x p r e s s e d
f u n c t i o n o f KT, t h e r a t l o o f a c t u a l d a l l y r a d i a t i o n t o
the dally extraterrestrial radlatlon. This i s shorn
i n Figure 3.1. Extraterrestrial radiation i s the
s o l a r r a d l a t l o n t h a t w o u l d be r e c e i v e d on a h o r i z o n t a l
where
s u r f a c e I f t h e r e were no atmosphere. The d a l l y e x t r a -
terrestrial r a d l a t l o n can be c a l c u l a t e d from a
i s ' t h e m o n t h l y a v e r a g e d a l l y r a d l a t i o n on a
knowledge of the solar constant and g e o m e t r i c
horizontal surface'
conslderatlons. Monthly averages o f t h e d a i l y extra-
terrestrial radlatlon are shown I n Table 3.1 f o r
I s t h e r a t i o o f t h e monthly average d a l l y r a -
northern latitudes between 20 and 60". The
d i a t i o n on a t i l t e d s u r f a c e t o t h a t on a h o r i -
relationship in Figure 3.1 can be e x p r e s s e d
z o n t a l s u r f a c e f o r each month
a n a l y t i c a l l y by
-R can be e s t i m a t e d by indlvlduaiiy considering the
C $3
beam, d l f f u s e , and r e f l e c t e d ~ c o m p o n e n t so f t h e r a d l a -
tion. Assuming diffuse radiation t o be isotropic
(i.e., u n i f o r m l l y d i s t r l b u t e d o v e r t h e s k y ) , R can be
expressed

where
-
Hd I s t h e m o n t h l y a v e r a g e d a l l y d l f f u s e r a d l a t i o n

Kb I s t h e r a t l o o f t h e m o n t h l y a v e r a g e beam r a d l a -
t l o n on t h e t i l t e d s u r f a c e t o t h a t on a h o r l z o n - -
t a l s u r f a c e f o r each month - - MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY TOTAL RADIATION - ... ..

lI"l11
- EXTRATERRESTRIAL DAILY INSOLATION
s I s t h e t i l t o f t h e surface from h o r i z o n t a l
FIGURE 3.1
P i s t h e ground r e f l e c t a n c e . L i u and J o r d a n sug-
g e s t t h a t p v a r i e s f r o m 0 . 2 t o 0.7 d e p e n d i n g
RELATIONSHIP OF THE DIFFUSE RADIATION FRACTION TO KT
u p o n t h e e x t e n t o f snow c o v e r . ( f r o m L l u and J o r d a n ( 1 9 6 0 ) )
 TABeLE 3 . 1
MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATIOP u/m2

ATITUDE JAN FEB MAR A PR MAY J UN JUL A UG SEP OCT NOV DEC

25 23.9 28.2 33.0 37.1 39.4 40.1 39.6 37.9 34.4 29.5 24.9 22.7

30 21.1 25.7 31.3 36.5 39.6 40.7 40.1 37.6 33.1 27.3 22.1 19.7

35 18.1 23.1 29.3 35.5 39.6 41.2 40.3 37.0 31.5 24.9 19.2 16.7

40 15.1 20.3 27.2 34.3 39.3 4 4 40.3 36.2 29.7 22.3 16.3 13.6

45 12.0 17.5 24.8 32.8 38.8 41.3 40.0 35.1 27.7 19.6 13.3 10.6

50 9.0 14.5 22.3 31.2 38.1 41.2 39.6 33.8 25.4 16.7 10.3 7.6

55 6.1 11.5 19.5 29.3 37.2 40.9 39.1 32.4 23.0 13.8 7.3 4.8
SECTION 3.2

l a theory, Rb, I s a c o m p l i c a t e d f u n c t i o n o f t h e
transmittance of t h e atmosphere. H o w e v e r , Rh c a n be
e s t l m a t e d as t h e r a t i o o f extraterrestrial radiation
on t h e t l l t e d s u r f a c e t o t h a t o n a horizontal s u r f a c e
f o r t h e month. For surfaces f a c i n g directly towards
the equator, I s glven a s a f u n c t l o n o f I$, t h e
l a t i t u d e , a n d s, t h e c o l l e c t o r s l o p e , I n E q u a t i o n 3.4
and I n F i g u r e s 3.2A t h r o u g h 3 . 2 0 . T h e s e v a l u e s o f Rb
may be u s e d f o r s u r f a c e s o r i e n t e d a s much a s 1 5 O east
or west o f s o u t h w i t h l l t t l e e r r o r . V a l u e s o f Kb f o r
s u r f a c e s o r i e n t e d m o r e t h a n 1 5 ' away f r o m s o u t h c a n b e
e s t l r n a t e d b y t h e method g i v e n by K l e l n ( 1 9 7 6 d ) .

where

o i s t h e s u n s e t h o u r a n g l e on a h o r i z o n t a l
S
s u r f a c e g l v e n by

us = a r c o s ( - t a m $ x tan 6 )

I s t h e s u n s e t h o u r a n g l e on t h e t l l t e d s u r -
face given by

wS' = MIN [US, arcosc-tan(@-5) x tans)]

6 I s t h e s o l a r d e c l i n a t i o n g l v e n by

n i s t h e day o f t h e year

A w o r k s h e e t h a s been d e v e l o p e d t o o r g a n l z c tl~ct
calculations r e q u i r e d t o e s t i m a t e a a n d t h e a v c r a g t s
d a l l y r a d i a t i o n on t l l t e d surfaces. The followirlcj
example demonstrates the use of t h e worksheet. A
b l a n k worksheet I s I n c l u d e d i n Appendix 5.

EXAMPLE 3.1 R a d l a t l o n o n a 58' Surface I n

Mad i s o n

Estimate t h e monthly averages o f daily

r a d l a t l o n I n c i d e n t on a s o u t h f a c i n g s u r f a c e
 SECTION 3.2

tilted 58O from horizontal i n Madlson,

Wlsconsln ( i a t . 43ON).
The c a l c u l a t i o n s w i l l follow the
worksheet I n Table 3.2. D a i l y average
values o f (column 62) a n d corresponding
v a l u e s o f KT ( c o l u m n 6 3 ) f o r M a d l s o n c a n ' b e
f o u n d i n A p p e n d i x 2. (RT c o u l d a l s o have
been c a l c u l a t e d b y d l v l d l n g H b y t h e m o n t h l y
average dally extraterrestrial radiatlon
f r o m T a b l e 3.1).
The r a t l o o f d l f f u s e t o total radla-
tion, Rd/R ( c o l u m n G4) I s found f o r each
month from F i g u r e 3.1 or Equation 3.3.
Values of ( l - D d-/ f i ) a r e t a b u l a t e d i n c o l u m n
.-
-=-
w* 65.
a I s t h e sum o f t h r e e t e r m s c o r r e s -
05;
L
frr,
- pondlng t o the c o n t r l b u t i o n s o f t h e beam,
d i f f u s e , and g r o u n d - r e f l e c t e d components o f
5 - 2 0 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
the r a d i a t i o n on t h e t i l t e d s u r f a c e . The
LATITUDE 4. LATITUDE c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e beam c o m p o n e n t I s the
product of I / ( c o l u m n G5) a n d Kb
( c o l u m n G6), w h e r e Rb I s f o u n d from Figure
3.2C or E q u a t i o n 3.4. The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f
t h e d l f f u s e component (column G8) i s the
product of-Hd/R ( c o l u m n 6 4 ) and ( I + c o s s ) / 2
(Item Dl. R ( c o l u m n G9) I s t h e sum o f the
c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e beam c o m p o n e n t ( c o l u m n
G 7 ) , t h e d i f f u s e c o m p o n e n t ( c o l u m n G 8 ) , and
t h e r e f l e c t e d component ( I t e m F ) .
The average - d a i l y radiatlon on the
tilted surface, HT (column G 1 0 ) i s the
p r o d u c t o f R (column G 2 ) and ( c o l u m n G9).

3.3 TABLES

R h a s b e e n c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e equations o f S e c t l o n
3.2 f o r a r a n g e o f v a l u e s o f l a t i t u d e , s l o p e , and KT.
Tables 3.3A through 3.3E give a f o r a ground r e -
flectance of 0.2. These tables w i l l result In
conservative estimates o f when t h e r e i s snow c o v e r
a n d t h e g r o u n d r e f l e c t a n c e I s g r e a t e r t h a n 0.2. These
LATITUDE 9 LATITUDE c#)
tables greatly slmplify the calculation of radiation
on tilted s u r f a c e s , a s d e m o n s t r a t e d I n t h e following
- FIGURE 3 . 2 examp l e .
R b FOR SOUTH FACING S U R F A C E S
 TABLE 3.2 WORKSHEET FOR EXAMPLE 3.1
COLLECTOR ORIENTATION WORKSHEET 1

AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACES

A. Location .- 8. Latitude 1 = 47 o C. Inclination s a ~8~

D. (l+cos s ) / 2 0.765 E. GroundReflectancep= F.o(l-coss)/2= 0.0+'7

TABLE 3.3A VALUES OF FOR KT = 0.30

LATITUDE JAN FLB MAR APR NAY JUN JUL AUC SEP OCT NOV DEC

. .---
. - -. .--..
: - -
-.
. .-. .- . .- 5 ..
.94 .78
.
.6:
. . -...--.-
. - 2
.- - .-- .-- .-.
.73
.-s
-95 -99
1.04 .85
.=- . - -
.s
. - .. .-. - .-- . ... -.
- - -
.--- --. I.:?
.79 1.10

-. .- ?-
1 . 7 .PS :.?&
- .- -
-.

. .=: -- .-.
. - .
-. - . .. .. .- .- . . . 1.:: :.4a
- .c--
. .
.-
. . .. - .
- -
- -
-- . --

..--
_.-.
-

..- --
:
-
-. --. -
..- . i

-- . .
:
. --- -- .-- - - --
- - - -
 TABLE 3 - 3 8 VALUES OF jr FOR i?,= 0.40
LATITUDE JAN FEB MAR APK HAY JUN JUL AUC SEP OCT NOV DEC

VERTICAL
.36 .34 .35 .40
.39 .36 .37 .44
.43 .39 .41 .49
.47 ,42 .44 .53
.51 -46 .48 -58
.55 .50 .52 .63
-60 .54 .56 .69

TABLE 3.3C VALUES OF R FOR KT =

LATITUDE JAN MAR APR NAY Jut4 JUL AUG OCT NOV DEC

VERTICAL
.32 .29 .30 .37
.35 .32 .33 .41
.LO .35 .37 .47
-44 .39 .41 .52
-49 -44 .46 .58
.54 .48 .51 .64
.60 .53 .56 .71
 TABLE 3 . 3 0 VALUES OF R FOR KT = 0.60

LATITSDE JAN MAR APH MAY JUN JUL AUC OCT NOV

(LATITUDE-TILT). 15.0
1.06 1.01 .Y8 .Y6 .97 1.00 1.09 1.14
1.10 1.02 .97 .95 .96 1.00 1.15 1.24
1.15 1.04 .97 .94 .96 1.01 1.23 1.38
1.21 1.07 .98 .94 .95 1.07 1.34 1.56
1.30 1.10 .98 .94 .96 1.04 1.48 1.82
1.41 1.14 .99 .Y4 .96 1.07 1.67 2.22
1.57 1.19 1.01 .94 .97 1.10 1.95 2.89

1.09 .98 1.17 1.30

1.13 .99 1.24 1.42
1.19 1.01 1.33 1.57
1.26 1.03 1.44 1.78
1.35 1.06 1.59 2.08
1.47 1.10 1.81 2.54
1.63 1.15 2.11 3.31

1.07 .91 1.19 1.39

1.11 .92 1.26 1.51
1.16 .93 1.35 1.67
1.23 .95 1.47 1.90
1.32 .98 1.62 2.22
1.44 1.01 1.84 2.71
1.59 1.05 2.15 3.52

VERTICAL
.63 .39 .28 .25 .26 .34 .82 1.12
.72 .46 .32 .2tl .3U .39 .93 1.28
.81 .52 .37 .32 .34 .45 1.06 1.48
.92 .59 .42 -37 .39 .51 1.21 1.73
1.05 .66 .48 .42 .44 .58 1.40 2.09
1.21 .75 .54 -47 .50 .65 1.65 2.61
1.41 -84 .60 '' .52' .55 .72 2.00 3.46

TABLE 3 . 3 E VALUES OF R FOR KT = 0.70

LATITUDE JAN FED MAR APH MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

(LATITUDE-TILT). 15.0
25 1.17 1.12 1.06 1.01 .98 .96 .97 1-00 1.04 1.10 1.16
30 1.30 1.20 1.11 1.03 ,97 .9S .96 1.00 1.07 1.17 1.27
35 1.46 1.31 1.17 1.05 .97 .94 .95 1.01 1.12 1.26 1.42
40 1.69 1.45 1.24 1.08 .98 .94 .95 1.03 1.17 1.38 1.62
45 2.03 1.65 1.34 1.12 .99 .94 .96 1.06 1.24 1.53 1.92
50 2.56 1.93 1.47 1.16 1.00 .94 .97 1.09 1.33 1.75 2.36
55 3.50 2.34 1.64 1.22 1.02 -94 .90 1.13 1.45 2.06 3.11

VERTICAL
25 1.26 .96 .66 .37 .25 .21 .23 .31 .52 -85 1.18 1.36
30
35
1.46
1.70
1.09
1.26
. 73
.84
.44
.5:
.29
-35
.25
-29
.27
.32
.37
.43
.60
.69
.97
1.11
1.35
1.57
1.57
1.85
L0 2.03 6 .96 .59 .GO .34 .37 .50 .79 1.28 1.86 2.23
i5 2.49 1.72 1.1J .i7 .47 .40 .43 .57 .90 1.49 2.25 2.78
2
C '
-
-< c
?.:3
-.3i
2.:-
I.'?
8
1.52
5
.i'
.53
.60
.45
.51
.48
.55
.65
.74
1.03
1.19
1.77
2.15
2.83
3.78
3.65
5.27 .
 EFFECT OF COLLECTOR ORIENTATION I SECTION 3 . 4
I
EXAMPLE 3 . 2 Use o f t h e 3 Tables average values o f the transmlttance and absorptance
can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n t h e v a l u e s f o r r a d l a -
Estlmate t h e monthly average d a l l y r a - t l o n a t normal I n c l d e n c e .
d i a t l o n l n c l d e n t on a s o u t h faclng surface A shortcut method o f determlnlng t h e monthly
tllted 58' f r o m h o r l z o n t a l I n M a d l s o n ( t a t . a v e r a g e transmittance-absorptance p r o d u c t , ( T a ) , w h l c h
43ON) u s l n g t h e R t a b l e s . i s useful f o r m o s t common s l t u a t l o n s , i s as f o l l o w s .
V a l u e s o f R c a n be found from Tables When a c o l l e c t o r I s o r l e n t e d w l t h a s l o p e e q u a l t o t h e
3.3A through E uslng Ilnear lnterpolatlon l a t l t u d e p l u s o r m i n u s 15O, and when t h e o l l e c t o r
where r e q u i r e d . F o r e x a m p l e , RT f o r J a n u a r y faces w l t h l n 15O o f due s o u t h , t h e r a t l o , ( ~ a ) / ( ~ a ) , ,
I n Madlson I s 0.49. In Table - 3.38 (RT=0.4) I s a b o u t 0.96 f o r a s l n g l e c o v e r collector and 0.94
for January w l t h \(I$-s)=-15, R i s 1.73 a t a for a two-cover c o l l e c t o r f o r a l l months d u r l n g t h e
T a b l e 3.3C ( K T = 0 . 5 ) ,
-
4 0 l a t l t u d e a n d 2.01 a t a 45O l a t l t u d e .
R Is 1.89 at a 40'
In h e a t l n g season.
latltude and 2.22 at a 45' latltude.
I n t e r p o l a t i n g f o r KT=0.49, R I s 1.87 at a
40 l a t l t u d e a n d 2.20 a t a 45' l a t l t u d e . A 3.5 EFFECT OF ORIENTATION ON TRANSMITTANCE A N D
second l n t e r p o l a t l o n o f t h e s e v a l u e s
latltude of 43O results I n R=2.07,
for
whlch
a ABSORPTANCE -
DETAILED METHOD
a g r e e s w l t h t h e v a l u e c a l c u l a t e d I n Example F o r a d e t e r m l r . a t I o n o f ( z ) / ( T a ), for col lectors
3.1 u s l n g t h e d e t a l l e d e q u a t l o n s . Values o f t l l t e d more t h a n 15' f r o m t h e l a t l t u d e , t h e following
a f o r o t h e r months can b e e s t l m a t e d I n t h e a n a l y s i s must be used. R a d i a t l o n l n c l d e n t on t h e c o l -
same m a n n e r . i e c t o r c o n s l s t s o f beam, d i f f u s e , a n d g r o u n d r e f l e c t e d
components. As a r e s u l t , t h e r a t l o of t h o monthly
average transmittance-absorptance p r o d u c t , (ria, t o
t h e t r a n s m i t t a n c e - a b s o r p t a n c e p r o d u c t a t normal Incl-
dence, ( ~ a ) ~ c,a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a s a f u n c t l o n o f 01
3.4 EFFECT OF ORIENTATION ON TRANSMITTANCE AND w e l g h t e d a v e r a g e f o r t h e beam, d l f f u s e , a n d r c f lrbc I r 1 t l
ABSORPTANCE -
SHORTCUT METHOD components o f t h e r a d l a t l o n . I n a manner a n a l n q n t l a . 1 1 1
E q u a t I o n 3.2,
B o t h T, t h e transmittance o f t h e t r a n s p a r e n t c o l l e c t o r 1
c o v e r s y s t e m , and a, t h e a b s o r p t a n c e o f t h e c o l l e c t o r
plate, depend o n
strikes the collector surface.
t h e angle a t whlch s o l a r r a d l a t l o n
Separate values f o r T
i
and a cannot be determlned by t h e c o l l e c t o r t e s t
p r o c e d u r e d e s c r l b e d i n S e c t l o n 2.3; o n l y the product
of FR, T, and a I s d e t e r m l n e d f r o m t h e t e s t s . Thls,
however, I s n o t a p r o b l e m s i n c e It I s t h e product of
these three terms whlch is needed to estlmate I where (=Ib, ( G I d , and ( G I r a r e t h e m o n t h 1 y a v e r a g n
v a l u e s o f t h e transmittance-absorptance product cor-
long-term s o l a r h e a t l n g system performance.
A p r o b l e m t h a t does a r i s e I s t h a t c o l l e c t o r t e s t s ! respondlng
dlatlon.
t o beam, d l f f u s e , a n d g r o u n d - r e f l e c t e d r a -
a r e u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t w l t h t h e r a d i a t i o n I n c i d e n t on I n F l g u r e 3.3, the r a t l o of the transmittance of
the col lector ln a neary perpendicular dlrectlon. the collector cover s y s t e m f o r r a d l a t l o n a t a known
Thus, t h e p r o d u c t o f FR, T , a n d a d e t e r m l n e d f r o m c o l - lncldence angle t o the transmittance f o r radldtlon a t
lector tests o r d i n a r l l y corresponds t o t h e transmlt- normal lncldence I s g l v e n f o r 1, 2, and 3 s h e e t s o f
tance and absorptance values f o r r a d l a t l o n at normal glass o r Tedlar. I n F l g u r e 3.4, t h e r a t l o o f t h e c o l -
l n c l dence, FR(T~),. Depending on the collector l e c t o r p l a t e absorptance for solar radlatlon at n
o r l e n t a t l o n and t h e t i m e of the year, t h e monthly known l n c l d e n c e a n g l e t o t h a t f o r r a d l a t l o n a t normal
 EFFECT OF COLLECTOR ORIENTATION SECTION 3.5

lncldence I s glven for a flat-black surface. The dence f o r d i f f u s e r a d l a t l o n w l l l be less the 60,
I l m i t e d data available suggests that the angular while the average angle of lncldence for the
dependence o f s e l e c t l v e s u r f a c e s I s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f g r o u n d - r e f l e c t e d r a d i a t i o n w l l l b e m o r e t h a n 60". As
the flat-black surface (Pettit and Sowell (1976)). a c o n s e r v a t l v e assumptlon, t h e average a n g l e f o r d l f -
W l t h t h i s Information, I t I s n e c e s s a r y o n l y t o s p e c l f y fuse r a d l a t l o n may be t a k e n as 60'. The small
t h e monthly average I n c i d e n c e a n g l e s f o r beam, d l f - contrlbutlon of ground-reflected radlatlon I s also
f u s e , and r e f l e c t e d r a d l a t l o n I n o r d e r t o determine t a k e n as h a v l n g an average lncldence angle o f 60'.
(~a)/(?a),. Then ( E ) d / ( ~ a ) ~a n d ( - I r / ( can be e v a l u a t e d I n
t h e same m a n n e r .
For surfaces f a c l n g d l r e c t l y towards the equator,
K l e l n ( 1 9 7 6 a ) h a s f o u n d t h a t Bb, t h e a v e r a g e l n c l d n n r n
a n g l e f o r beam r a d i a t i o n I s approximately t h e a n q l v $ 1 1
which r a d l a t l o n s t r i k e s the collector s u r f n c n :'.'I
hours
month.
-
from s o l a r n o o n o n a d a y I n t h e r n l d d l n o f IIlrr
0 b i s g l v e n i n F i g u r e 3.5 as a functlon o f
- s, the d l f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e l a t l t u d e a n d 11111
c o l l e c t o r slope. ( r a ) b / ( ~ ~ ) Ins t h e p r o d u c t o f - ,I/I,,
a n d a / a n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o an i n c i d e n c e a n g l e o f ( I b .
No s i m p l e m e t h o d f o r determining t h e valun of
( T ~ ) / ( T u ) h~a s b e e n f o u n d for surfaces faclnq morn
than 1 5 O e a s t o r west o f south. However, t h e v a l u n r l f
/ a n I s not a s t r o n g f u n c t i o n o f t h ~ s~ i 7 1 m u t 1 1
angle. The v a l u e o f ( ? a ) / ( r a ) " calculated for r.~~r-
faces facing due s o u t h c a n be u s e d f o r s u r f a c n T w l l h
an a z l m u t h a n g l e 2 s much a s 15O w l t h l i t t l e c r r c i r .
The p r o c e d u r e I s t h e n t o calculate (Gr)/( 1111
from E q u a t i o n 3.8 u s l n g t h e v a l u e s o f Rb, R, rrnd II,,/I\
c a l c u l a t e d I n t h e manner d e s c r i b e d I n the procn(111111
sectlon. The product FR(TCY), needed t o c s t 1 m n l 1 -
long-term system performance, Is determlned Ily
multiplying t h e value of FR(TffIn o b t a i n e d from t h o
c o l l e c t o r t e s t s b y ( T U ) / ( T O ) ~ . A w o r k s h e e t h a s bnnn
provided t o organlze t h e c a l c u l a t l o n o f (Ta)/(Tn),.
The u s e o f thls worksheet Is l l.lustrated In t h ~
following e x a m p l e . A blank worksheet I s Included I n
A p p e n d l x 5.

lNClDENCE ANGLE.
INCIDENCE ANGLE EXAMPLE 3.3 (=)/(~a), f o r a Two-Cover Col-
l e c t o r a t 58" i n M a d l s o n
FIGURE 3..3 FIGURE 3.4
T / T ~V S INCIDENCE ANGLE a/an VS INCIDENCE ANGLE F l a t - p l a t e s o l a r c o l l e c t o r s having two
g l a s s c o v e r s and a f l a t - b l a c k absorber s u r -
face are being considered fqr a solar
For Isotropic d i f f u s e r a d l a t l o n on a h o r i z o n t a l h e a t l n g system I n Madlson, Wlsconsln ( l a t .
surface, t h e average angle o f lncldence Is 60". If 43ON). The r o o f t h a t t h e y w l l l be m o u n t e d
the collector Is t l l t e d , t h e a v e r a g e a n g l e o f i n c l - on w l l l be lncllned a t a 58" angle.
 EFFECT OF COLLECTOR ORIENTATION SECTION 3.5

(43O-58O),or -15O.
- 8b Is tabulated In
column HZ. T / T ~ and a/an for beam radiatlon
(columns H3 and H4) are determined from
Flgures 3.3 and 3.4 correspondlng to an I n -
cldence angle o f gb. The flrst term I n
Equation 3.4, for beam radlatlon, tabulated
In column H6, Is the product o f ( I - A ~ / H I
(column G5 from Table 3.21, Rb/R (column G6
divided b y column G9), T / T ~(column H 3 ) , and
a/an (column H4).
Dlffuse radlatlon is assumed to strlke
the collector at a mean angle.of 60. T/T,
for dlffuse radiatlon Is found from Flgure
3.3and'tabulated In column H 7 . a/an Is
approxlmately 0.92 at 60. The second term
In Equatlon 3.4 (for dlffuse radlatlon),
tabulated In column Ha, Is the product of
(I+cos s)/2 (Item D from Table 3.21, Rd/R
(column G4), (column H7), and a/a,
(0.92) dlvlded i{T~ (column 09).
The thlrd term, for reflected radia-
tlon, column H9, 1s the product of
P(1-cos s)/2 (Item F from Table 3-21,
(column H7), a/an (0.92),divlded byT/Tft
(columnG9).
( T U ) / ( T ~ )(column
~ H10) I S the sum o f
the beam, d l f f u s e and reflected terms I n
columns H6, H8, and H9. Note that
(~a)/(~a),, I S approxlmately 0.94 for a
two-cover collector for most of the heatlng
season when the collector Is tilted wlthln
1 5 " of the latltude.
FIGURE 3.5
MEAN INCIDENCE ANGLE VS LATITUDE-COLLECTOR TILT

Calculate the monthly values o f ( z ) / ( ~ a ) ~ 3.6 OPTIMUM COLLECTOR ORIENTATION

for this collector.
The worksheet In Table 3.4 wlll be used
for the following calculatlons. Also, some
of the results from Table 3.2, the worksheet
used to calculate radlatlon on the 58" sur-
face, wlll be needed here.
The m_onthly incidence angle for beam
radiatlon, 0b, Is found from Flgure 3.5 as a
functton of the dlfference between the
latltude and the collector slope, whlch Is
Uslng the calculation procedures descrlbed I n Chapter
5, it Is posslble to evaluate the long-term thermal
performance of solar heating systems for a range of
collector orlentations In order to find the optlmum
orlentatlon, that Is, the orlentatlon I n whlch the
solar heatlng system provldes the largest fractlon of
the annual heattng load. This does not necessarlly
correspond to a situation In whlch the annual solar
radlatlon on the collector surface Is maxlmlzed, slnce
 TABLE 3.4 WORKSHEET FOR EXAMPLE 3.3
COLLECTOR ORIENTATION WORKSHEET 2
MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTANCE - ABSORPTANCE PRODUCT

H1. H2. H3. H4. H5. H6. H7. H8. H9. H10.
-
1 - 1
earn 1 use e ec e
? / l n O B b a h n @ Bb i i lR
b ( k . x t i 3 . x 7 / ~ n@ (oL(xE:./Gg. (Ft(/E;.xOZ.& (7e)1(7e)n
3.5) ( F i g . 3.3) ( F i g . 3.4) (G6./G9.) H4.xH5.1 ( F i g . 3 . 3 ) x0.92xH7.) xH7.1 (H~.+HB.+H~.)
SECTION 3 . 6 45
'1.

t h e r e l a t l v e t l m e distribution o f t h e s o l a r radiation
and the heating l o a d s I s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r . (See
Figure 3.6.) For s o l a r space heatlng systems, the
optlmum c o l l e c t o r o r l e n t a t i o n I s d l r e c t l y towards t h e
e q u a t o r ( s o u t h I n t h e n o r t h e r n hemisphere) a t an a n g l e
iOO t o 1 5 ' d e g r e e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e l a t l t u d e . For
domestlc water heatlng systems I n which t h e h e a t l n g
load i s approximately the same magnitude f o r all
months, the optlmum a n g l e I s about equal t o the
latitude. However, t h e c o l l e c t o r o r l e n t a t l o n Is n o t
crltlcal. Dzvlatlons f r o m t h e o p t i m u m by a s much a s
1 5 O h a v e I l t t l e e f f e c t on t h e annual performance of
solar h e a t l n g systems as shown f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e
I n F i g u r e 3.6.

,,Domestic Hot Water c3

8.0

COLLECTOR TILT -LATITUDE

FIGURE 3 . 6
EFFECT OF COLLECTOR ORIENTATION

3.7 SUMMARY

R e c o r d s o f t h e l o n g - t e r m a v e r a g e d a l l y r a d l a t l o n on a
horizontal surface are g l v e n I n Appendlx 2 f o r many
 EFFECT OF COLLECTOR ORIENTATION

N o r t h A m e r i c a n locations. The s o l a r radlatlon on a CHAPTER 4

t i l t e d s u r f a c e I s deterrnlned by m u l t l p l y l n g t h s r a d i a - HEATING LOADS
tlon on t h e h o r l z o n t a l s u r f a c e by R , w h e r e , R I s t h e
r a t i o o f average d a l l y r a d l a t l o n on t h e t l l t e d s u r f a c e
to that on the horlzontal surface. W can be 4.1 HEATING LOAD CALCULATlONS
determlned uslng either the detalled equatlons
p r e s e n t e d I n S e c t l o n 3.2, or the R tables I n Section U n l i k e c o n v e n t i o n a l h e a t l n g systems u s i n g gas, 0 1 1 , or
3.3. F o r h a n d calculations, t h e R t a b l e s w l l l u s u a l l y electricity, b o t h t h e e f f i c l e n c y and t h e economlcs o f
b e m o r e convenient u n l e s s t h e e q u a t l o n s i n S e c t i o n 3.2 s o l a r h e a t l n g depend g r e a t l y upon t h e slze of the
a r e e v a l u a t e d u s l n g a programmable c a l c u l a t o r . solar heating system in relation t o the size of the
Collector orlentatlon also affects the transmlt- space and/or water h e a t l n g loads. For conventlonal
tance o f t h e c o l l e c t o r c o v e r ( s 1 and.the absorptance o f systems, It I s o r d l n a r l l y sufficient t o estimate the
the collector plate. Ordlnarlly, collectors are deslgn heatlng load e . the maxlmum probable
tested a t c l e a r sky c o n d l t l o n s i n which t h e s o l a r r a - heating load) I n order t o s l z e t h e h e a t l n g equipment.
d l a t l o n I s n e a r l y normal to the collector surface. In contrast, estlmates of the long-term average
For c o l l e c t o r s f a c l n g south, t l l t e d w l t h l n 1 5 O of t h e heatlng load for each month a r e r e q u i r e d t o d e s l g n
l a t l f u d e , t h e r a t l o o f t h e monthly average to normal s o l a r h e a t l n g systems.
l ~ d e n cl e transmittance-absorptance product, A variety of factors Influence heatlng loads,
( - r t t ) / ( ~ a ) ~ ,d u r i n g m o s t o f t h e h e a t l n g s e a s o n I s 0.96 such as t h e geographlc location o f t h e bulldlng, i t s
for a one c o v e r and 0.94 f o r a two-cover c o l l e c t o r . a r c h l t e c t u r a l deslgn, o r i e n t a t i o n , c o n s t r u c t i o n qual-
F o r c o l l e c t o r s t i l t e d more t h a n 1 5 O f r o m t h e l a t i t u d e , ity, and the p a r t l c u l a r l i f e s t y l e o f t h e occupants.
can be e v a l u a t e d u s l n g t h e e q u a t l o n s glven Many d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s o f calculatlng space heatlng
I n S e c t l o n 3.5. (TU)/(TU), I s needed I n Chapter 5 t o loads have been developed, r a n g i n g i n c o m p l e x i t y f r o m
e v a l u a t e long-term s o l a r h e a t l n g system performance. t h e simple degree-day method t o d e t a i l e d computer
simulations using hourly meteorological data. A l l of
t h e s e m e t h o d s i n v o l v e some d e g r e e o f u n c e r t a i n t y .
In northern climates, the degree-day method o f
calculatlng space h e a t i n g l o a d s s h o u l d be adequate t o
estimate the monthly average space heating loads
needed t o deslgn solar h e a t l n g systems. A brief
r e v i e w o f t h e degree-day method and an example cal-
culation are presented i n t h e following s e c t l o n f o r
t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f r e a d e r s who a r e n o t familiar with
the degree-day m e t h o d a n d who do not have o t h e r
p r e f e r r e d methods. I f t h e r e a d e r has a n o t h e r way he
prefers t o calculate t h e monthly h e a t l n g load f o r a
b u i l d i n g , he s h o u l d use it; t h e method of estimatlng
long-term system performance presented I n the nexj
c h a p t e r d o e s n o t d e p e n d on t h e u s e o f the degree.-day
concept.
 HEATING L O A D S
SECTION 4.2

o f t h e f u e l a n d t h e f u r n a c e efficiency) d i v i d e d b y t h e
4.2 THE DEGREE-DAY METHOD t o t a l number of degree-days occu'rrlng during t h a t
per iod.
The d e g r e e - d a y m e t h o d o f estimating t h e s p a c e h e a t l n g
l o a d o f a b u i l d i n g i s based upon the fact that the
amount of heat required t o maintaln a comfortable
lndoor temperature I s prlmarlly dependent upon t h e where
d l f f e r e n c e between the lndoor and o u t d o o r t e m p e r a -
tures. The m o n t h l y s p a c e heatlng load, L, for a NF Is the unlts of fuel consumed
b u i l d l n g maintained at 22 C ( 7 2 F ) I s assumed t o b e
proportional t o t h e number o f d e g r e e - d a y s during the HF i s the heatlng value of the fuel (See f o l l o w -
month. ing table)

q~ I s t h e average f u r n a c e e f f l c l e n c y which I s
where o r d l n a r l l y b e t w e e n 0 . 5 a n d 0.6 f o r g a s a n d
o l l f u r n a c e s ( H l s e and H o l m a n ( 1 9 7 5 ) ) a n d
DD I s t h e number o f degree-days I n a month 1.0 f o r e l e c t r l c a l h e a t l n g

UA I s t h e b u l l d l n g o v e r a l l e n e r g y loss
coefflclent-area product HEATING VALUE OF FUELS

The number o f d e g r e e - d a y s I n a s i n g l e d a y I s t h e NATURAL GAS 41.0 M J / I ~ ~ 1 1 0 0 B T U / ~3 ~

d i f f e r e n c e between 18.3 C ( 6 5 F ) and t h e mean d a l l y FUEL O I L 39.0 MJ/llter 1400C0 B T U / g a l
temperature ( c a l c u l a t e d a s t h e a v e r a g e o f t h e maxlmum ELECTRICITY 3.6 MJ/kW-hr 3 4 0 0 BTU/kW-hr
and minimum d a l l y t e m p e r a t u r e s ) . If t h e mean d a l l y
t e m p e r a t u r e I s a b o v e 1 8 . 3 C, t h e number o f d e g r e e - d a y s
i s t a k e n t o be- z e r o . Degree-days a r e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g For new structures, UA m u s t be c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
18.3 C, rather than 22 C because e n e r g y g e n e r a t i o n the detalls of the b u l l d i n g construction. Thls Is
wlthln the bulldlng (from the stove, Ilghts, done by estlmatlng the deslgn h e a t l n g load I n t h e
electrical applI.ances, people, etc.) and t h e s o l a r m a n n e r d e s c r l b e d I n C h a p t e r 21 o f t h e ASHRAE Handbook
e n e r g y g a l n s t h r o u g h wlndows a r e u s u a l l y s u f f l c l e n t t o
raise the lndoor temperature from 18.3 C t o the -
of Fundamentals
temperature difference.
( 1 9 7 2 ) and d l v l d l n g I t by t h e d e s i g n
comfort level. T h e number o f d e g r e e - d a y s f o r a m o n t h
I s t h e sum o f t h e d a l l y d e g r e e - d a y s . E x t e n s l v e space DESIGN HEATINS LOAD
heatlng fuel c o n s u m p t i o n r e c o r d s h a v e shown t h a t t h e UA =
DESIGN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
m o n t h l y space h e a t i n g l o a d o f a bulldlng is nearly
proportional t o t h e m o n t h l y degree-days c a l c u l a t e d i n The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e d e s l g n h e a t l n g l o a d Is rather
t h l s manner CASHRAE Systems Handbook, Chapter 43 tedious. H o w e v e r , t h i s c a l c u l a t l o n n e e d o n l y b e made
(1973)). Long-term averages o f t h e degree-days f o r once f o r any one b u i i d l n g . The m e t h o d o f caiculatlng
each month for many N o r t h Amerlcan locations a r e the deslgn heating l o a d g l v e n I n ASHRAE I s s t r a i g h t
t a b u l a t e d I n A p p e n d i x 2. forward, and Illustrated by several examples.
The b u l l d l n g o v e r a l l e n e r g y l o s s c o e f f l c l e n t - a r e a Addlt-lonal i n f o r m a t i o n on design heat load c a t -
product, UA, c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d I n s e v e r a l ways. For c u l a t l o n s c a n be f o u n d I n t h e t e x t by J e n n l n g s (19701,
e x l s t l n g s t r u c t u r e s I n which records of conventional i n t h e C a r r i e r S y s t e m D e s l g n M a n u a l ( 1 9 7 2 1 , and I n t h e
f u e l r e q u i r e m e n t s h a v e b e e n k e p t , UA c a n h e c a l c u l a t e d l n s u l a t l o n M a n u a l f o r Homes a n d A p a r t m e n t s p r e p a r e d b y
as t h e amount o f e n e r g y r e q u l r e d t o h e a t t h e b u l l d l n g NAHB ( 1 9 7 1 ) . The m e t h o d w l l l n o t be r e p e a t e d here.
f o r a glven period (conslderlng both the heatlng value The following e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s how t h e d e s l g n
 ,
HEATING L O A D S
I
i
h e a t i n g l o a d i n f o r m a t l o n can be used t o e s t i m a t e the
I
average m o n t h l y space h e a t l n g i o a d o f a b u i l d i n g .

EXAMPLE 4 . 1 E s t i m a t i o n o f M o n t h l y Space H e a t
Loads I n Madi son

In Example 7 of Chapter 21 o f t h e
---
ASHRAE Handbook of F u n d a m e n t a l s (19721, the
design h e a t i n g l o a d o f a b u l l d l n g l o c a t e d I n
S y r a c u s e , New Y o r k I s c a l c u l a t e d t o b e 22042
W (75230 BTU/hr). The design temperature
d l f f e r e n c e I s 47.2 C ( 8 5 F). Estimate the
average monthly space h e a t i n g load o f t h i s
building I f I t were located I n Madison,
Wisconsin.
The b u i ' l d l n g o v e r a l l energy l o s s coef-
ficient-area product, UA, is the deslgn
heatlng l o a d d i v i d e d b y t h e d e s i g n tempera-
ture difference.
.-

The product of UA a n d the number of

degree-days . f c r each month r e s u l t s l n the
average monthly space heatlng load. The
long-term a v e r a g e number o f d e g r e e - d a y s for
each month in Madison can be found In
Appendix 2 I n C-day units. Thus, for
January, t h e space h e a t l n g load, Ls, i s

f - C h a r t Worksheet 1 has been p r e p a r e d t o

organize the c a l c u l a t i o n o f b o t h t h e space
and water h e a t l n g l o a d s . The s'pace heatlng
load for each month o f t h e y e a r appears I n
column C 3 o f t h e worksheet ( T a b l e 4.1). A
b l a n k w o r k s h e e t i s p r o v i d e d I n Appendlx 5.
 HEAT l NG L O A O S SECTION 4.3

4.3 DOMESTIC W A T E R HEATING

The actual water heating l o a d (1-e., t h e amount o f

energy r e q u i r e d t o heat water f o r domestlc purposes) Note t h a t t h e e n e r g y n e e d s g i v e n b y E q u a t i o n 4.4 c a n
i s h i g h l y dependent upon t h e l i f e s t y l e o f t h e b u i l d l n g b e a d j u s t e d u p w a r d o r downward i f h l g h e r o r l o w e r hot
occupants. On t h e average, however, each famlly water needs p e r p e r s o n a r e a n t l c l p a t e d .
member r e q u i r e s . a b o u t 100 l i t e r s / d a y (25 g a l / d a y ) of
domestic hot water. An a v e r a g e t i m e d l s t r l b u t i o n o f
w a t e r u s a g e i s shown I n F l g u r e 4.1. EXAMPLE 4.2 E s t i m a t i o n o f M o n t h l y Domestlc Water
H e a t i n g Loads

Estimate t h e average water h e a t l n g load

e a c h month f o r a f a m l l y o f f o u r I n Madlson,
Wisconsin. The m a l n s w a t e r temperature Is
1 1 C (51 F ) .
F r o m E q u a t l o n 4.4,

L w = 30 d a y s x 4 x 100 I / d a y x (60-11) C
x 1 k g / l x 4190 J / k g - C
= 2.46 x lo9 J (2.46 G J )

TlME of DAY The water h e a t l n g l o a d f o r each month

appears I n column C4 o f worksheet 1 (Table
4.1).
FIGURE 4.1 The m o n t h l y t o t a l l o a d . L, i s t h e sum
AVERAGE TlME DISTRIBUTION .OF WATER U;AGE' of the space and domestic water heatlng
loads.

The m o n t h l y water heatlng load, Lw, can thus be

e s t i m a t e d as
The t o t a l s p a c e and w a t e r h e a t l n g l o a d s f o r
Lw = N x t # o f p e r s o n s ) x 100 x (Tw-Tm) each month I n Madlson a r e tabulated in
x PX cp 4.4 c o l u m n C 5 o f T a b l e 4.1.

where

N i s t h e number o f days I n t h e month 4.4 INSTITUTIONAL WATER HEATING

Tw i s t h e mlnlmum a c c e p t a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e f o r For bulldlngs other t h a n r e s l d e n c e s , t h e same

h o t w a t e r ; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60 C (140 F ) b a s i c m e t h o d s o f e s t i m a t i n g w a t e r h e a t i n g l o a d s c a n be
u s e d , I.e., t h e amount o f e n e r g y needed i s t h e p r o d u c t
Tm I s t h e mains s u p p l y water t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e volume o f h o t w a t e r r e q u i r e d , the density of
water, t h e s p e c l f l c h e a t o f w a t e r , and t h e d i f f e r e n c e
P i s +.he d e n s i t y o f water (1 k g / l l t e r o r 8.33 between t h e d e s i r e d hot water temperature and t h e
I bm/ga l ) malns s u p p l y water t e m p e r a t u r e . On a m o n t h l y b a s t s ,

Cp I s t h e s p e c l f l c heat o f water (4190 J/kg-C

54 HEATING LOADS

CHAPTER 5
where V i s t h e volume o f hot water requlred for a LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS
month and o t h e r t e r m s a r e as d e f l n e d under E q u a t i o n
4.4.
H o f w a t e r s u p p l i e s f o r commercial b u l l d i n g s may 5.1 THE f-CHART METHOD
be n e e d e d on f i v e o r s l x d a y s o f t h e week, a n d n o t o n
weekends. I f w a t e r I s n o t used f o r one o r t w o days o f One approach t o t h e p r o b l e m o f d e t e r m i n i n g economic
t h e week, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e w a t e r i n t h e storage solar heating system deslgns is t o use computer
t a n k w l l l r i s e , and e n e r g y w l l l t h e n be c o l l e c t e d l e s s simulatlons directly as a design tool. This
efficiently. In this case, the fractlon of the application was o n e I n c e n t i v e f o r t h e development o f
h e a t l n g l o a d s u p p l i e d by s o l a r e n e r g y e s t i m a t e d by t h e the general s i m u l a t l o n p r o g r a m , TRNSYS ( K l e l n e t a l .
m e t h o d s p r e s e n t e d I n C h a p t e r 5 w l l l be t o o h i g h . 1973). However, t h e use o f computer simulatlons t o
aid ln the design o f every solar heating application
i s not sat.lsfactory f o r those architects, contractors,
and h e a t l n g e n g i n e e r s c o n c e r n e d with the design of
small bulldings who do n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o computing
4.5 SUMMARY facllltles. Simulatlons w i l l remain an important
d e s l g n t o o l f o r l a r g e and nonstandard systems, b u t t h e
The amount o f c o l l e c t o r a r e a r e q u l r e d f o r a particular widespread u t i l l z e t l o n o f s o l a r h e a t i n g w l l l r e q u i r e a
application d e p e n d s strongly on monthly space and simplified d e s i g n procedure for use by t h e h e a t i n g
water heating loads. The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e h e a t l n g industry, especial:^ f o r standard types of systems
l o a d s i s o f t e n t h e most d i f f i c u l t o f t h e calculations where the cost cf detalled simulations cannot be
needed to design s o l a r h e a t i n g systems. Estimatlng justified. For these reasons, the "f-chartw method
t h e ' space h e a t l n g l o a d using the degree-day method has been d e v e l o p e d and i s d e s c r i b e d h e r e .
described i n S e c t l o n 4 . 2 i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d o n c e UA, Our approach i s t o i d e n t i f y t h e i m p o r t a n t dimen-
t h e b u i l d i n g - v e r a l l l o s s coefficient-area p r o d u c t , i s s i o n l e s s v a r i a b l e s o f s o l a r h e a t i n g systems and t o u s e
known. Unless o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e , UA must d e t a i l e d computer s i m u l a t i o n s t o develop correlations
b e e s t i m a t e d as t h e d e s i g n h e a t i n g l o a d d l v i d e d b y t h e between t h e s e v a r i a b l e s and t h e long-term performance
d e s i g n t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e , and t h e d e s i g n heating o f these systems. The c o r r e l a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d f o r the
load requires tedious calculations. Methods o f liquid a n d a i r h e a t i n g s y s t e m s and f o r d o m e s t i c w a t e r
determining the design heating load are n o t presented heating systems are presented in graphical and
here since these can b e f o u n d I n a number o f o t h e r equation f o r m a n d r e f e r r e d t o as t h e " f - c h a r t s w . The
references. " f - c h a r t n method o f e s t i m a t i n g solar h e a t i n g system
Estlmates of the long-term monthly average performance has b e e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e few l o n g - t e r m
heatlng l o a d s a r e needed f o r t h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s i n system performance d a t a a v a i l a b l e I n 1977, and with
C h a p t e r 5. These procedures do n o t depend on the detalled computer simulations as d s s c r i b e d i n K l e l n
degree-day calculation method. Estlmates of the ( 1 9 7 6 ) and i n K l e i n e t a l . (1976a,b).
h e a t i n g l o a d s o b t a i n e d i n some o t h e r way, s u c h as by The r e s u l t i s a slmple method r e q u l r l n g only
c o m p u t e r i z e d c a l c u l a t i o n s , can be used. monthly a v e r a g e meteorological d a t a w h i c h c a n b e u s e d
t o e s t l m a t e t h e long-term thermal performance o f s o l a r
h e a t l n g systems as a function of the major system
design parameters. C o m b i n e d w i t h c o s t s and m e t e o r o l o -
gical data f o r t h e location i n question, the f-charts
p r o v i d e a method by which architects and heating
e n g i n e e r s can e a s i l y determine t h e thermal performance
 LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS SECTION 5.2

of solar h e a t i n g systems, and thus optlmlze solar where

h e a t l n g system d e s i g n s i n t h e l l g h t o f c o s t s .
A IS t h e area o f t h e s o l a r c o l l e c t o r [mz?

FR' I s the collector-heat exchanger e f f l c l e n c y

f a c t o r ( S e c t i o n 2.4)
5.2 IDENTIFICATION OF DIMENSIONLESS SYSTEM VARIABLES
UL I s t h e c o l l e c t o r o v e r a l l energy loss coef-
An o v e r a l l e n e r g y b a l a n c e on a s o l a r heatlng system flcient C W / C - ~ ~ ]
o v e r a one month p e r l o d can be w r i t t e n '

A I s t h e t o t a l number o f seconds I n t h e month

Tref I s a r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e d e t e r m i n e d t o be
where 100 C

QT I s t h e t o t a l useful s o l a r energy d e l i v e r e d Ta I St h e m o n t h l y a v e r a g e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e
d u r i n g t h e month w h l c h I s g i v e n f o r many l o c a t i o n s i n
A p p e n d l x 2 [C]
L I s t h e sum o f t h e s p a c e a n d w a t e r h e a t i n g
l o a d s f o r t h e month L i s t h e monthly t o t a l heating load [J]

E I s t h e t o t a l auxiliary e n e r g y r e q u i r e d
-
HT i s t h e monthly average d a l l y r a d l a t l o n In-
d u r l n g t h e month c l d e n t o n t h e c o l l e c t o r s u r f ~ c ep e r u n l t a r e a
( S e c t i o n s 3.2, 3 . 3 ) [J/m2]
AU I s t h e - e n e r g y change i n t h e s t o r a g e u n i t
N I S t h e number o f days i n a month
For t h e s t o r a g e s l z e s commonly u s e d i n s o l a r h e a t i n g
systems, AU f o r a month I s s m a l l w i t h r e s p e c t t o OT, (?El i s t h e monthly average transmitTance-absorp-
L, and E and It can be c o n s i d e r e d t o be zero. t a n c e p r o d u c t . ( S e c t i o n s 3.4, 3.5)
E q u a t i o n 5.1 c a n t h e n b e r e a r r a n g e d s o t h a t
These dimensionless groups have some physical
signlflcance. Y I s re-1-ated t o t h e r a t l o o f t h e t o t a l
e
t onfear1g' y- a
--- h be saot ri n
begd l o
oan d t hd eu r ci no gl l et rhte- om
r opnlt a
h .t e X
s u rI sf .a cr e
e l at o
t e d t ht o
e-
where f I s t h e f r a c t l o n o f t h e m o n t h l y total heatlng
l o a d s u p p l l e d by s o l a r e n e r g y . m i $ ' - r a f l o o f - a - r e f e c e n c e c o l - l e c t o - e n e r g y l o s s to.- the..
Equation 5.2 cannot be used t o c a l c u l a t e f t~efo'tT1-<eating-load -dur_ing.fhe month. a
d i r e c t l y s l n c e QT I s a c o m p l i c a t e d function of the The e q u a F o n s for X a n d Y c a n be r e w r i t t e n I n
Incident radiation, t h e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e , and t h e slightly modlfled form for convenlence In
h e a t i n g loads. However, b y c o n s l d e r i n g t h e p a r a m e t e r s calculations:
on whlch QT d e p e n d s , as discussed i n Chapter 2,
Equation 5.2 suggests that f may b e empirically
r e l a t e d t o t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n l e s s groups:
 LONG-TERM PERFORWANCE OF SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

N o t e t h a t FRUL a n d F R ( T ~ a) r ~ e obtalned from c o l l e c t o r

test results by the methods n o t e d I n S e c t l o n 2.3,
F R 1 / F R b y t h e m e t h o d o f S e c t l o n 2.4, and ( m ) / ( ~ a ) , b y
t h e method o f S e c t l o n 3.4 or Sectlon 3.5. Ta Is
o b t a l n e d from Appendlx 2 f o r t h e month and l o c a t l o n
deslred. HT I s f o u n d f r o m H a n d R b y t h e methods o f
Sectlons 3.2 and 3.3. The monthly loads,-L, a r e
d e t e r m i n e d as n o t e d I n C h a p t e r 4 . Values of A, the
collector area, are selected for t h e calculation.
Thus, a l l o f t h e t e r m s I n these two equations are
r e a d i l y determlned from a v a i l a b l e Informatton.

5.3 LIQUID-BASED SOLAR SPACE HEATING SYSTEMS

f, t h e f r a c t l o n o f t h e m o n t h l y t o t a l l o a d s u p p l l e d by
t h e s o l a r space and water heatlng system shown in
F l g u r e 1.1, I s g l v e n a s a f u n c t l o n o f X and Y, t h e d l -
menslonless v a r l a b l e s defined I n E q u a t l o n s 5.3 and
5.4, I n F l g u r e 5.1. Thls correlation has been de-
veloped from the results of hundreds of detalled
c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n s f o r a number o f l o c a t i o n s for a
l a r g e range o f p r a c t i c a l system deslgn v a r l a b l e s . The
result, F l g u r e 5.1, I s r e f e r r e d t o as t h e f - c h a r t f o r
I l q u l d - b a s e d s o l a r space h e a t i n g systems.
To d e t e r m i n e f , t h e f r a c t l o n o f t h e h e a t l n g load
supplied b y s o l a r e n e r g y f o r a month, v a l u e s o f X and
Y a r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e c o l l e c t o r and h e a t l n g l o a d i n
questlon. ( A s w l l l be s e e n I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s ,
a l l o f t h e numbers needed for the calculations a r e
readlly available.) The v a l u e o f f 15 d e t e r m r n e d a t
the Intersection of X and Y on the chart. For
e x a m p l e , v a l u e s o f X a n d Y o f 4.0 a n d 1 . 0 r e s p e c t l v e l y
Indicate t h a t f i s 0.57. T h l s I s done f o r each month
o f t h e year. The s o l a r e n e r g y contribution f o r the
month I s t h e p r o d u c t o f f and t h e t o t a l h e a t l n g l o a d ,
L, f o r t h e m o n t h . The f r a c t i o n o f t h e a n n u a l heatlng
load s u p p l i e d b y s o l a r e n e r g y , F, , I s t h e n t h e sum o f
t h e mont'hly s o l a r e n e r g y c o n t r l b u t l o n s d l v l d e d by the
annual load.
The relatlonshlp b e t w e e n X, Y , and f 13 F l g u r e
5 . 1 can a l s o be e x p r e s s e d I n e q u a t i o n form:
 LONG-TERM PERFORVANCE OF SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS SECTION 5.3

heating loads. Estimates of t h e monthly

space h e a t l n g l o a d o f t h e b u l l d i n g were c a l -
culated in Example 4.1. The m o n t h l y
for O<Y<3 and O<X<18 d o m e s t l c w a t e r h e a t i n g l o a d was c a l c u l a t e d
i n E x a m p l e 4.2. The t o t a l h e a t l n g l o a d f o r
e a c h m o n t h I s t h e sum o f t h e s p a c e and
EXAMPLE' 5.1 Performance o f a Llquid-Based domestlc water heatlng loads which Is
System t a b u l a t e d I n c o l u m n C5 o f f - C h a r t Worksheet
1 ( T a b l e 4.11.
L l q u l d h e a t l n g c o l l e c t o r s having two The fraction of t h e monthly t o t a l
glass covers and a f l a t - b l a c k absorber h e a t l n g l o a d s u p p l l e d b y s o l a r e n e r g y , f, i s
s u r f a c e a r e t o b e used I n a . s o l a r h e a t i n g a f u n c t l o n o f t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s g r o u p s X and
system f o r t h e b u i l d i n g d e s c r i b e d in. Example Y I n E q u a t l o n s 5.3 and 5.4. X and Y m u s t be
4.1, located i n Madlson, Wisconsin. The c a l c u l a t e d f o r each month and c o l l e c t o r s i z e
system w i l l b e d e s i g n e d t o s u p p l y b o t h space In the following manner. Rearranging
h e a t and h o t w a t e r f o r a f a m l l y o f f o u r . To E q u a t l o n 5.3,
m i n i m l z e t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f r e e t l n g and
corroslon, separate flow clrcuit
c o n t a i n i n g an a n t i f r e e z e s o i u t l o n w i l l b e
used I n t h e c o l l e c t o r s . Both flowrates in F o r t h e c o l l e c t o r s c o n s l d e r e d , FRUL h a s been
t h e c o t l e c t o r - t a n k heat exchanger a r e t o be f o u n d t o b e 3.75 w/c-m2 f r o m t h o c o l l e c t o r
0.0139 k g / s p e r s q u a r e m e t e r o f collector t e s t r e s u l t s I n Example 2.1. The c o l l e c -
area. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e h e a t e x c h a n - tor-heat exchanger correction factor,
ger a t . t h e s e f.1-owrates i s 0.7. The r e s u l t s ( F R V / F R ) , h a s b e e n c a l c u l a t e d I n E x a m p l e 2.3
o f c o l l e c t o r t e s t s ( s e e E x a m p l e -2.1) have t o b e 0.97 f o r t h e c o n d l t l o n s Tn t h l s sys-
i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e v a l u e s o f F R ( T ~ ) , and tem. The p r o d u c t o f FRUL and
FRUL a r e 0.68 a n d 3.75 w / c - ~ Z , r e s p e c t l v e l y . a p p e a r s as I t e m S o f f-Ch.art W o r k (s FR
hee'IFR:
t
The c o l l e c t o r s a r e t o b e m o u n t e d f a c i n g due ( T a b l e 5.1 ) . Monthly average temperatures
south a t a n a n g l e o f 58O w l t h r e s p e c t t o f o r M a d l s o n c a n b e f o u n d I n A p p e n d i x 2. The
horizontal. The s t o r a g e t a n k I n t h e system d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n 1 0 0 C, a r e f e r e n c e tem-
w i l l h a v e a c a p a c i t y o f 75 l f t e r s o f s t o r e d perature, and t h e m o n t h l y a v e r a g e amblent
water per square meter o f collector area. temperature I s tabulated i n column C7 o f
Estimate t h e f r a c t i o n o f t h e heatlng load worksheet 2. The number o f s e c o n d s I n a
supplied by t h e s o l a r
collector areas o f
h e a t l n g system f o r
25, 50, and 1 0 0 s q u a r e
month, A t , i s g i v e n I n c o l u m n C 6
values o f X/A
. Monthly
a r e found as t h e p r o d u c t o f
meters. FR'UL, (100-=fa), and A t d l v l d e d by t h e
monthly t o t a l load. These r e s u l t s appear I n
I n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e use o f the c o l u m n C8 ( T a b l e 5 . 1 ) .
f-chart method f o r e s t i m a t f n g s o l a r h e a t l n g R e a r r a n g l n g E q u a t l o n 5.4,
system performance, worksheets which
organize the calculations have b e e n de-
veloped. These works-heets w i l l be used f o r
all of t h e example problems. B l a n k work-
s h e e t s a r e i n c l u d e d I n A p p e n d i x 5. F R ( T o ) ~ h a s been d e t e r m l n e d t o b e 0.68 I n
The f i r s t step i s t o determine t h e Example 2.1 f o r t h e c o l l e c t o r s c o n s l d e r e d I n
monthly t o t a l (space and domestlc w a t e r ) t h l s problem. The c o l l e c t o r - h e a t exchanger
SECTION 5 3

c o r r e c t l o n f a c t o r , ( F R t / F R ) , - i s 0.97. The
product of FR(ra), and ( F R ' / F R ) I s 0.66;
t h l s v a l u e I s e n t e r e d as Item D o f worksheet
2 (Table 5.1).
The ratios of the monthly average
t r a n s m i t t a n c e - a b s o r p t ~ e product t o t h a t a t
normal Incidence, (~a)/[?U)n, for the col-
l e c t o r s considered here t i l t e d a t an a n g l e
of 5 8 O h a v e b e e n c a l c u l a t e d i n E x a m p l e 3.3;
t h e s e v a l u e s a p p e a r I n c o l u m n C9.
The m o n t h l y a v e r a g e d a l l y r a d i a t i o n o n
tilted surfaces can be estimated I n t h e
manner discussed I n S e c t i o n s 3.2 and 3.3.
The m o n t h l y a v e r a g e d a i l y r a d i a t i o n on a 5 8 O
surface I n M a d i s o n , H T , h a s been c a l c u l a t e d
i n E x a m p l e 3 . 1 . and t h e results appear in
c o l u m n C10 o f w o r k s h e e t 2. Monthly values
o f Y/A a r e c a l c u l a t e d as the product of
F R ( T ~ ) ~ ,( T ~ ) / ( T U ) ~ - ,N , and RT d l v l d e d b y
t h e monthly t o t a l load. The v a l u e s of Y/A
a r e t a b u l a t e d i n column C 1 1 .
There are t h r e e c o r r e c t l o n f a c t o r s on
f - C h a r t W o r k s t , e e t 3 ( T a b l e 5.21, I t e m s E , F,
a n d G. I n t h l s example, t h e v a l u e s of the
storage and l o a d h e a t exchanger s l z e have
b e e n c h o s e n s u c h t h a t I t e m s E a n d F a r e one.
The a1 r f l o w r a i e c o r r e c t l o n f a c t o r d o e s not
apply t o Il q u i d systems. Each o f these
f a c t o r s w l \ l be d e a l t wlth i n subsequent
sectlons, and e x a m p l e s o f t h e i r u s e w i l l b e
shown.
The v a l u e s o f X/A a n d Y/A I n columns
C12 a n d C13 a r e m u l t l p i i e d by t h e c o l l e c t o r
area t o y l e l d values o f X and Y for each
month and c o l l e c t o r s l z e considered. The
v a l u e s o f X and Y a r e t a b u l a t e d !n columns
C14 and C15 for each collector slze.
Monthly average values of f, the load
f r a c t l o n s u p p l l e d b y s o l a r energy, a r e found
as a f u n c t l o ? o f X and Y f r o m F l g u r e 5.1 o r
E q u a t l o n 5.5. The m o n t h l y load fractions
are tabulated In columns C16. The s o l a r
energy d e l i v e r e d each month I s t h e product
of the load f r a c t i o n and t h e monthly t o t a l
load. These v a l u e s a r e t a b u l a t e d I n column
C17 f o r e a c h c o l l e c t o r s i z e .
 SECTION 5 . 3

T h e sum o f t h e s o l a r energy del Ivered

ior the y e a r d i v i d e d by t h e annual h e a t i n g
load r e s u l t s i n t h e annual f r a c t i o n of the
heatlng l o a d s u p p l i e d by s o l a r e n e r g y . The
annual load fractlon Is plotted as a
function o f c o l l e c t o r s l z e f o r t h i s example
I n F l g u r e 5.2. A t zero c o l l e c t o r area, of
course, the fraction supplied by solar
energy i s zero. Information of this type
w i l l be used I n a s t u d y o f t h e econornlcs o f
solar heating I n t h e next chapter.

0
L C "
0 0 Q,
e .- L
"0 25 50 75 100
U O L
m u 0
C W U COLLECTOR AREA rn2
--
c
0 0 "
C)
c
U
w
*J
L
o
U w
L 5
L C n O FIGURE 5.2
L C 7
o m ' -
x
ANNUAL LOAD FRACTION SUPPLIEC BY SOLAR ENERGY
0
w
"
X
I
'-

.-N u -

5.3-1 COLLECTOR L I Q U I D F L U I D FLOWRATE

Three system deslgn parameters were held at flxed

values t o generate t h e f-chart. These a r e t h e c o l l e c -
tor fluid flowrate per unlt collector area, the
s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y p e r u n l t c o l l e c t o r a r e a , and t h e s i z e
o f t h e load heat exchanger r e l a t i v e t o t h e s i z e o f t h e
space h e a t i n g load. The e t f e c t s o f c h a n g e s I n these
deslgn parameters a r e c o n s i d e r e d here.
 LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR HEATING S Y S T E M S SECTION 5.3

The optimum c o l l e c t o r liquid fluld flowrate f-chart can be used t o e s t l m a t e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f

I , the flowrate at whlch energy c o i l e c t l o n I s s y s t e m s w i t h o t h e r s t o r a g e capacities b y m o d i f y i n g t h e
maximized) Is infinitely large. However, the dlmenslonless group X by t h e storage size correction
d e p e n d e n c e o f s y t e m p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e c o l l e c t o r f l o w - f a c t o r . g i v e n i n F l g u r e 5 . 3 o r E q u a t l o n 5.6.
rate I s a s y m p t o t i c ; o n l y a smal 1 I n c r e a s e I n t h e c o l -
l e c t o r h e a t removal e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r , F R (and thus STORAGE S l Z E
o n l y a s m a l l g a l n I n e n e r g y collection) I s p o s s l b l e i f FACTOR
= (Xc/X) = ( ~ / 7 5
1-0-25
the collector f l u l d capacltance rate (flowrate x
s p e c i f i c h e a t ) I s I n c r e a s e d beyond a b o u t 50 W/C per for 37.5 < M < 3 0 0
s q u a r e m e t e r o f c o l l e c t o r a r e a w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o an
antifreeze solutlon flowrate of a b o u t 0.015 l / s - m 2 where M i s t h e s t o r a g e c a p a c l t y I n l i t e r s o f water per
(0.022 g p m / f t 2 ) . Low c o l l e c t o r fluld flowrates can square meter o f c o l l e c t o r area.
r e d u c e energy c o l l e c t i o n s i g n i f l c a n t ' l y by r e d u c i n g t h e
v a l u e o f FR ( o r F R ~ ) . I n a d d l t l o n , I f t h e f l o w r a t e I s
low, the fluld may boil and e n e r g y w l l l be l o s t
through a pressure r e l i e f valve.
The simulation r e s u l t s a n d correlations p r e s e n t e d
i n t h i s s e c t i o n were o b t a i n e d u s l n g a c o l l e c t o r fluid
flowrate equivalent t o 0.015 I / s of antlfreeze
s o l u t i o n per square meter o f c o l l e c t o r area. However,
slnce a change i n the collector ITquId flowrste
generally has o n l y a small e f f e c t on system p e r f o r -
mance ( b e l n g r e f l e c t e d i n t h e v a l u e o f FR, a n d t h u s I n
t h e d l m e n s l o n l ' e s s g r o u p s X and Y), the correlations
presented i n t h l s , section f,or I l q u l d systems a r e
applicable f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l collector l i q u i d flow-
rates. (Note t h a t air-based systems do r e q u l r e a
flowrate correction factor, as w i l l b e shown in
S e c t I o n 5.4-1.)

5.3-2 STORAGE CAPACITY

Many simulation s t u d l e s h a v e b e e n d o n e t o a s s e s s t h e
e f f e c t o f s t o r a g e c a p a c l t y on l o n g - t e r m s y s t e m p e r f o r -
mance. I t i s f o u n d , a l l e l s e b e i n g t h e same, t h a t i f M
storage capacity I s g r e a t e r t h a n a b o u t 50 l l t e r s o f ( Liters of Stored Water per Square Meter of Collector
water per square meter of collector, only small
improvements In the yearly performance r e s u l t frbm FIGURE 5.3
added s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y . When t h e c o s t s o f s t o r a g e a r e STORAGE S l Z E CORRECTION FACTOR
'considered, i t appears t h a t t h e r e a r e broad o p t i m a In
the range o f 50 t o 100 l l t e r s o f w a t e r p e r s q u a r e
meter o f c o l l e c t o r .
The f - c h a r t ( E q u a t i o n 5.5 o r F i g u r e 5.1) h a s b e e n
generated f o r a storage capaclty of 75 llters of
stored water p e r square meter o f c o l l e c t o r area. The
68 LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR HEATING S Y S T E M S

EXAMPLE 5.2 E f f e c t o f Storage Capacity

The e n g i n e e r r e s p o n s l b l e f o r t h e d e s i g n
of t h e s o l a r h e a t l n g s y s t e m I n Example 5.1
speculates t h a t t h e system performance could
be s l g n i f l c a n t l y Improved I f t h e s t o r a g e ca-
p a c i t y were l a r g e r . Estimate the fraction
of the heatlng l o a d s u p p l i e d by t h e s o l a r
h e a t l n g s y s t e m I n E x a m p l e 5.1 I f t h e s t o r a g e
c a p a c l t y were d o u b l e d .
The s t o r a g e capaclty fo; the solar
h e a t i n g s y s t e m I n E x a m p l e 5.1 was 75 l l t e r s
o f water per square meter o f c o l l e c t o r area. L
'- L
m 0
b-
The s t o r a g e c a p a c l t y now c o n s i d e r e d is
double t h l s
per square meter
f i g u r e o r 150 l i t e r s o f w a t e r
of collector area. The
-.-
k ?-
m o n t h l y v a l u e s o f t h e h e a t l n g l o a d , X/A, and
Y/A for this system a r e i d e n t l c a l t o t h e
values calculated I n f-Chart Worksheets 1
and 2 f o r E x a m p l e 5.1 ( T a b l e s 4.1 and 5 . 1 ) .
The e f f e c t s of storage size on the
calculatlons b e g i n w i t h I t e m E o f worksheet
3 ( T a b l e 5.3) w l t h t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of the
storage s i z e c o r r e c t l o n factor. From F - l g u r e
5.3 or E q u a t l o n 5.6,
r e c t i o n f a c t o r I s 0.84.
the storage s i z e cor-
The v a l u e s o f X/A
>
'
-
L
U

c a l c u l a t e d f o r E x a m p l e 5.1 a r e m u l t l p l l e d b y
, ~ m
0.84 and t a b u l a t e d I n c o l u m n C12 o f f - C h a r t Z S "
Worksheet 3 ( T a b l e 5 . 3 ) .
calculated
The v a l u e s o f
I n Example 5.1 r e m a i n unchanged.
Y/A "
0
O::
-.- .S-
L C
0
4 8
U
1
From h e r e on, t h e c a l c u l a t l o n s p r o c e e d i n an U
U
V
U
L
L
m o o
ldentlcal manner t o that descrlbed In " W U

Example 5.1. M o n t h l y v a l u e s o f X, Y, f , and C L O

t h e d e l l v e r e d s o l a r energy a r e t a b u l a t e d I n
.-UO O
v m
L
U

0
U 0
L 3
c o l u m n s C14, C15, C16, a n d C17, respec- L
L
m a
C -
tively, f o r each c o l l e c t o r a r e a c o n s i d e r e d . O Q Y .
u .c
U L
The a n n u a l t o t a l s o l a r e n e r g y d e l l v e r y and
the fractlon o f t h e annual t o t a l l o a d sup- - O
N
X
O
'r
-

p l i e d b y s o l a r e n e r g y a p p e a r b e l o w c o l u m n 17
f o r each c o l l e c t o r a r e a .
By c o m p a r l n g t h e a n n u a l l o a d fractions
c a l c u l a t e d I n t h l s example w l t h t h o s e c a l c u -
lated i n E x a m p l e 5.1, It c a n b e s e e n t h a t
the Increase I n annual energy delivery
r e s u l t i n g from doubllng t h e storage capaclty
70 LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE O F S O L A R H E A T I N G S Y S l C M S SECTION 5.3

I s smal I , p a r t i c u l a r i t y f o r the smaller c o l -

l e c t o r areas.
LOAD HEAT EXCHANGER = ( y c , y ) 1
CORRECTION FACTOR 1
I
= (0.39+0.65 EXP(-O.I~~/(E~C~~~/UA ))
5.7
5.3-3 LOAD HEAT EXCHANGER S l Z E I
The s l z e o f t h e l o a d h e a t exchanger can s i g n i f i c a n t l y
for 0.5 < E L C ~ ~ ~ / U50
A< I
a f f e c t t h e performance o f t h e solar heating system.
When t h e h e a t exchanger used t o h e a t t h e b u i l d i n g a i r
i s reduced I n slze, t h e storage tank temperature must
be i n c r e a s e d t o s u p p l y t h e same a m o u n t o f h e a t . This
r e s u l t s i n higher c o l l e c t o r f l u l d inlet temperatures
whlch reduces t h e c o l l e c t o r e f f i c i e n c y . A measure o f
t h e s i z e h e a t exchanger needed f o r a s p e c i f i c b u i l d ' l n g
I s p r o v i d e d by t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s parameter, ELC,~~/UA.
Here, E L i s t h e e f f e c t l v e n e s s o f the w a t e r - a ~ r load
heat exchanger. (See A p p e n d i x 1 f o r an e x p l a n a t i o n
and example c a l c u l a t i o n o f h e a t exchanger effective-
ness.) Cmln is the mlnlmum f l u i d c a p a c i t a n c e r a t e
(mass f l o w r a t e t i m e s t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t o f the fluld)
in the heat e x c h a n g e r , and i s g e n e r a l l y t h a t o f t h e
air for this heat exchanger. UA i s the building
o v e r a l l energy l o s s c o e f f l c l e n t - a r e a product dlscussed
i n C h a p t e r 4.
The o p ~ ~ l m u mv a l u e of cLCmin/UA f r o m a t h e r m a l FIGURE 5 . 4 I
standpoint i s i n f i n + t e l y l a r g e . Howeve?, s y s t e m per- LOAD HEAT EXCHANGER SIZE CORRECTION FACTOP I
formance i s a s y m p t o t i c a l l y dependent upon t h e v a l u e o f
this parameter, and f o r v a l u e s o f cLCmin/UA g r e a t e r
t h a n 10, s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e w i l l b e n e a r l y t h e same a s
EXAMPLE 5 . 3 E f f e c t o f Load Heat Exchanger I
that f o r the i n f i n i t e l y large value. The r e d u c t i o n i n
s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e due t o a t o o s m a l l load heat ex- The e f f e c t l v e n e s s , EL, a n d m i n i m u m ca-1
changer w i l l be a p p r e c i a b l e f o r v a l u e s o f ELC,~~/UA pacitance r a t e , C,ln, o f t h e c r o s s f l o w heat1
l e s s t h a n about 1. P r a c t i c a l v a l u e s o f ELC,~~/UA are exchanger whlch transfers heat from t h e
generally between 1 a n d 3 when t h e c o s t o f t h e h e a t storage tank to t h e b u t l d i n g a i r were n o t i
exchanger i s considered. s p e c i f l e d I n E x a m p l e 5.1. As a result, It1
The f - c h a r t ( E q u a t i o n 5 . 5 o r F i g u r e 5 . 1 ) h a s b e e n was assumed t h a t t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r w o u l d be1
d e v e l o p e d u s i n g a v a l u e o f E L C ~ [ ~ / UeAq u a l t o 2 . The sized s u c h t h a t ELC,,,~,,/UA=~, t h e v a l u e used
performance of systems havlnc. o t h e r values o f i n t h e development o f t h e f-chart. I t lsl
E L C ~ ~ ~ / Uc a An be c a l c u l a t e d from t h e f-chart by now known t h a t t h e a i r f l o w r a t e I n t h e h e a t
modifying the dimensionless g r o u p Y a s I n d i c a t e d I n *
e x c h a n g e r w i l l b e 520 l i t e r s o f s t a n d a r d a i r
F i g u r e 5 . 4 o r E q u a t i o n 5.7. p e r second ( 1 1 0 0 cfrn), the water flowrate
w i l l b e 0 . 5 9 4 I / s ( 1 1 gpm), and t h e e f f e c -
tiveness of the heat exchanger at these
flowrates i s 0.69, a s d e t e r m l n e d i n E x a m p l e
A l . 1 i n Appendix 1. Revise t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s
72 .ONG-TERM P E R F O R M A N C E OF SOLAR HEATING S Y S T

in Example 5.1, sing this additional

information.
The m o n t h l y v a l u e s o f t h e h e a t l n g l o a d ,
X/A, and Y/A in worksheets 1 and 2 f o r
E x a m p l e 5.1 ( T a b l e s 4.1 and 5.1) are not
affected by the additional lnformatlon
concernlng t h e load heat exchanger. Cha'nges
in the calculatlons begin wlth the
calculation o f t h e l o a d h e a t e x c h a n g e r c o r -
r e c t i o n f a c t o r , I t e m F o f w o r k s h e e t 3. Thls
c o r r e c t l o n f a c t o r I s g i v e n as a f u n c t l o n of
cLCmin/UA in Equation 5.7 o r F i g u r e 5.4.
L
The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r , E L , .r
m
L
0
y.

i s 0.69.
corresponds
As
to
shown I n Appendix 1,
the capacitance r a t e o f the
Cmln L
0
C- -
0
.

air.

UA, t h e b u t l d i n g o v e r a l l e n e r g y loss coef-

f i c l e n t - a r e a p r o d u c t , I s 467 W/C.

Therefore, f r o m E q u a t i o n 5 . 7 o r F l g u r e 5.4,
I
- L " 4
-"
r 0
U

t h e load h e a t exchanger c o r r e c t l o n f a c t o r I S P S r
u u e
X - 0
0.95. The v a l u e s o f Y / A i n c o l u m n C11 o f - L - 0
L C U
worksheet 2 ( T a b l e 5 . 1 ) m u s t be m u l t i p l i e d O
e
O
.r
W
L
b y 0.95. The c o r r e c t e d v a l u e s o f Y / A a p p e a r O C I L
W U O
C - W "
i n c o l u m n C13 o f w o r k s h e e t 3 (Table
The v a l u e s o f X / A i n c o l u m n C12 a r e t h e same
as t h o s e I n column C8 o f worksheet 2 ( T a b l e
5.4).
-
C
0
u
V
W
L
0
u
W
L
W
0
.m
L
3

5.2). k F2
0 - y .
U r

-"
From h e r e o n , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s proceed L
a4 X 'r
as d e s c r i b e d i n E x a m p l e 5 . 1 . Monthly values N a 4 . m

o f X and Y a r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r e a c h c o l l e c t o r m L
* U
ma,..,
0

area. The f r a c t i o n s o f t h e m o n t h l y h e a t l n g C J I C
m
U
W
L D -
load supplied by s o l a r energy are determlned 0 . u -
" 0 0
2 U
from Equation 5.5 or Figure 5.1 and V)

tabulated i n c o l u m n C17 o f T a b l e 5 . 4 . The

m o n t h l y s o l a r e n e r g y d e l l v e r e d I n c o l u m n C17
i s t h e p r o d u c t o f f and , t h e m o n t h l y total
heating load. The annual solar energy
d e l i v e r e d and f r a c t l o n o f the annual load
 LONG-TERV PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

s u p p l i e d by s o l a r e n e r g y appear below column

C17 for each c o t l e c t o r area. As e x p e c t e d ,
t h e performance o f t h e s o l a r h e a t i n g system
estimated I n t h i s e x a m p l e i s somewhat l o w e r
t h a n t h a t estimated I n E x a m p l e 5.1 because
o f t h e s m a l l e r l o a d h e a t exchanger.

5.4 SOLAR AIR HEATING SYSTEMS

I n a manner identical t o - t h a t f o r t h e Ilquld-based

systems, t h e c o r r e l a t l o n o f - f , t h e monthly heatlng
load f r a c t i o n s u p p l l e d by t h e s o l a r a l r h e a t i n g system
shown i n Flg'ure 1.2, t o t h e dlmenslonless groups, X
a n d Y, h a s b e e n d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g c o m p u t e r s l m u l a t I o n s .
The c o r r e l a t l o n I s g i v e n I n F l g u r e 5.5 a n d i n E q u a t l o n
5.8, I t I s u s e d I n t h e same manner a s t h e f - c h a r t f o r
I l q u l d - b a s e d systems. The deflnltlons of X and Y
given I n Equations 5.3 a n d 5.4 ( a n d 5.3A a n d 5 . 4 A )
a p p l y t o b o t h a l r and l i q u i d systems.

for O<Y<3 and O<X<18

EXAMPLE 5.4 P e r f o r m a n c e o f an A i r System

A solar a l r h e a t l n g system I s belng

consldered for the building described I n
E x a m p l e 4.1. The s y s t e m w l l l be d e s l g n e d t o
s u p p l y b o t h h e a t and h o t water f o r a family
of f o u r I n Madison, Wlsconsln. A i r heaters
having t h e characterlstlcs determined in
Example 2.2 w l l 1 be m o u n t e d on t h e r o o f o f
t h e b u l l d l n g f a c l n g d u e s o u t h a t an a n g l e o f
58" w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e horizontal; The
collector a l r f l o w r a t e i s a n t l c l p a t e d t o be
10.1 l i t e r p e r s e c o n d p e r square meter of
collector area. The pebble bed w l l l be
s i z e d s u c h t h a t t h e r e I s 0.25 cublc meters
of pebbles per square meter o f c o l l e c t o r
area. E s t i m a t e t h e e n e r g y d e l i v e r e d by t h l s
 LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR HEATING S Y S T E M S

system f o r c o l l e c t o r areas o f 25, 50, and

100 s q u a r e m e t e r r .
The space and domestic water h e a t l n g
loads f o r t h l s building are Identical to
those c o n s l d e r e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g examples.
The h e a t l n g l o a d c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e s u m m a r l z e d
I n Table 4.1.
The v a l u e s o f FRUL a n d FR(TU),, f o r the
air h e a t e r s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d i n E x a m p l e 2.2
t o b e 2.84 ~ / ~ - m 2and 0.49, r e s p e c t i v e 1 y,
corresponding t o a c o l l e c t o r a i r f l o w r a t e o f
10.1 l / s - m 2 . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e r e c o r d e d as
i t e m s C and D o f w o r k s h e e t 2 (Table 5.5).
(The collector-heat exchanger factor,
FR'/FR i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e for air systems,
and i t s v a l u e I s t a k e n t o be u n i t y . ) M o n t h l y
aver'age a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r Madlson can
be found i n Appendlx 2. The d l f f e r e n c e
between 100 C and the monthly average
ambient t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e r e c o r d e d I n column
C7. X/A i s c a l c u l a t e d as the product of
FRUL, the number o f s e c o n d s I n t h e month,
a n d ( 1 0 0 C - t a ) d i v i d e d by t h e m o n t h l y total
heatlng load (in c o l u m n C5 o f T a b l e 4 . 1 ) .
Monthly values o f X/A are tabulated in
c o l u m n C 9 o f T a b l e 5.5.
The m o n t h l y v a l u e s o f ( G I / (Ta), for a
two cover c o l l e c t o r tilted at 58O, which
appear i n c o l u m n C9, were calculated i n
E x a m p l e 3.3. S l m i l a r i l y , t h e monthly values
o f t h e average d a l Iy r a d l a t l o n on a 58"
surface I n Madison i n column C10 w e r e
d e t e r m i n e d i n Example 3.1. Monthly values
of Y/A i n c o l u m n C11 a r e t h e p r o d u c t o f
FR(T~),, (=I/( ~a),, the average dai l y
radlation, and the number o f days i n t h e
month d i v l d e d by t h e m o n t h l y total heating
load.
The storage capaclty for thls air
h e a t l n g s y s t e m w i l l b e 0.25 c u b i c m e t e r s o f
pebbles per square meter o f c o l l e c t o r area.
Thls i s the storage capaclty u,sed In the
development o f t h e f - c h a r t f o r a i r systems,
and a s a r e s u l t , t h e s t o r a g e s i z e c o r r e c t i o n
f a c t o r , i t e m E o f worksheet 3 (Table 5.61,
I s unity. (See S e c t l o n 5.4-2.) Simllarlly,
 SECT ION 5.4

the col lector air f lowrate Is t o be

10.1 l/s-m2 for which the collector alr
flowrate correction factor I s also unlty.
(See S e c t l o n 5.4-1.) Thus, the corrected
v a l u e s o f X / A a n d Y / A i n c o l u m n s C12 a n d C13
a r e t h e same a s t h e v a l u e s I n c o l u m n s C8 a n d
C11.
The values of X/A and Y/A are
m u l t l p l l e d by t h e c o l l e c t o r area to yleld
values of X a n d Y ( i n c o l u m n s C14 a n d C 1 5 )
f o r each month and c o l l e c t o r area consl-
dered. Monthly values of f, the load
fraction s u p p l i e d by solar energy, are
obtalned f r o m e i t h e r E q u a t i o n 5.8 o r F l g u r e
5.5 and r e c o r d e d i n c o l u m n C 1 6 o f T a b l e 5.6.
The t o t a l s o l a r e n e r g y d e l i v e r e d e a c h m o n t h
I n c o l u m n C17 i s t h e p r o d u c t o f f and t h e
monthly total heating load. The a nual
t o t a l d e i l v e r e d energy d i v i d e d by t h e a nual
total heatlng load r e s u l t s I n t h e a nual
l o a d f r a c t i o n supplied by s o l a r energy for
e a c h c o l l e c t o r slze.

5.4-1 COLLECTOR A I R FLOWRATE

The c o l l e c t o r a i r f l o w r a t e a n d t h e s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y o f
t h e p a c k e d bed r e l a t l v e t o t h e c o l l e c t o r a r e a ,were n o t
- L "3 varied i n generating the f-chart. The e f f e c t s o f
28' changes i n t h e s e parameters a r e c o n s i d e r e d here.
U U C
5 2 :. The c o l l e c t o r h e a t r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r , F R ,
d
L C U which a p p e a r s I n t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s v a r i a b l e s X and Y,
8 0 ? I s a function of the collector a i r flowrate. Because
U Y L
:You o f t h e c o s t o f power f o r b l o w i n g a l r t h r o u g h t h e c o l -
.- lectors, the capacitance rate in alr heaters Is
U
u
OI L
PI
S
= o r d i n a r l l y much l o w e r t h a n t h a t i n l i q u l d h e a t e r s . As
L
L
V O
C - a r e s u l t , a l r h e a t e r s g e n e r a l l y have a lower v a l u e of
0 .-,%
u C
F~ Values of FR (and thus F R ( ? ~ ) , and FRUL)
-N 2W 24 corresponding t o t h e actual a l r flowrate I n the . c o l -
.-
- 0m %0 l e c t o r m u s t b e u s e d I n c a l c u l a t i n g X a n d Y.
u w c '
m c u A s l d e from a f f e c t l n p t h e v a l u e o f FR, a change i n
m
L
O
U 0
V ) 2 U
--
O
0
-
8,
c o l l e c t o r a l r f l o w r a t e a f f e c t s the thermal s t r a t l f l c a -
tion I n t h e p e b b l e bed. An increase I n a l r f l o n r a t e
t e n d s t o i m p r o v e system p e r f o r m a n c e by i n c r e a s i n g t h e
v a l u e o f FR, b u t I t a l s o t e n d s t o decrease performance
80 LCNG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF S O L A R HEATING S Y S T E M S

somewhat b y r e d u c i n g t h e d e g r e e o f t h e r m a l s t r a t i f i c a -
tion.
The f - c h a r t f o r a i r h e a t i n g s y s t e m s ( E q u a t i o n 5.8
o r F i g u r e 5.5) was g e n e r a t e d f o r a c o l l e c t o r a l r f l o w -
r a t e o f 10.1 i / s o f a i r p e r s q u a r e m e t e r o f collector
area (2 cfm per square f o o t o f c o l l e c t o r area). The
performance o f systems having other collector alr
flowrates can be e s t i m a t e d by u s l n g t h e a p p r o p r l a t e
v a l u e s o f FR, X, and Y,and t h e n m o d l f y l n g t h e v a l u e o f
X a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 5.6 or E q u a t l o n 5.9 to
account f o r t h e degree o f s t r a t l f i c a t l o n I n t h e p e b b l e
bed.

COLLECTOR A I R FLOWRATE = ( y C / x ) = (m/10.110.28 5.9

CORRECTION FACTOR

for 5< m < 2 0

where m i s t h e a i r f l o w r a t e I n I / s per square meter o f

c o l l e c t o r area.

EXAMPLE 5.5 Effect o f A i r Flowrate

A l a r g e r - c a p a c i t y b l o w e r i s t o be used
i n $he air heating system c o n s i d e r e d in
Example 5.4. The collector a i r flowrate
w i l l b e 15.1 I / s p e r s q u a r e m e t e r o f c o l l e c -
t o r area. Collector tests a t t h l s flowrate
result i n v a l u e s o f FRUL and FR(-caln e q u a l
to 3.01 w/c-rn2, and 0.52 respectively.
Estimate t h e annual energy d e l i v e r y f o r t h e
system a t t h i s c o l l e c t o r a i r f l o w r a t e .
The c o l l e c t o r h e a t removal ' efficiency
factor, FR, I s a function of the collector
air flowrate. The collector tests have
shown t h a t increasing t h e a l r f l o w r a t e f r o m
10.1 t o 15.1 l / s - m 2 has Increased FR a n d
thus FRUL a n d F R ( T ~ b) y~ 6 % . As a r e s u l t ,
t h e v a l u e s o f X/A and Y/A f o r thls example
(Table 5.7) are 6: larger than t h e values
obta!ned on Table 5.5 i n the preceding
example.
The storage size correction factor,
I t e m E o f w o r k s h e e t 3 ( T a b l e 5.81, is unity
since the storage capaclty i s t o be 0 . 2 5
 TABLE 5.7 WORKSHEET FOR EXAMPLE 5.5
F-CHART WORKSHEET 3
SOLAR HFATING LOAD FRACTION

E. Storage s i z e c o r r e c t i o n fac:or iXC/X) = LO

F. Load heat exchanger c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r ( Y C / Y ) = (51.0 for a i r systems)
G. Collector a i r flow r a t e c o r r e c t i o n factor (xC/X) = //z ( 1 1 . 0 for I i q u i d sys terns)

Annual Fractions by Solar

( T o t a l , C 1 7 . ) / ( T o t a l , C5.) = - 0.23

(D n +-a -hn +v c o n o m - n w a n n
-ha-3 3 0 0 - l 2 - * o c o n w O ~ o o c
-hv,ov 3 1- oa, 1 C . l o < - ( 5
can-h
-
- ( D * 1 c 1 0 ) - l - t ( D - -
n . 7 o a (D33cD-h m 3 - t a,---an
n ~< - - a 3 o o o +n c - - n o o n
(D +a -+nm a n a r + I n O \ + x v + 3
DO a + m ( ~ + 2 w - o 0
3
- 5

-- ( X c
n w - a (D-a. I O'U 7 -t
-<+ u<UIOQ(DO,Cl(D 3 3 - (D COLLECTOR AIR FLOW RATE
S-h< UI 04-In. <wul bJ + + a 1 CORRECTION FACTOR
0 1 + -a- 0 0 . I S l l n
-hCO (D - - r < D
Q ( D ~ - ~ = J ( D m
O T 3
m
- t D O l - h l C D ( D 3
ul-
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N ( D (D

.
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0 + -
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1 r o ( D ( D ( D 1 .
v l O ~
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0 +--I-+= I r ( D
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(D. nJ1m J -h-J. o(Dn(Dw

-In - h + a 0 m
0-4 - 0 - 1 7 0-
z n - 0 - 1 - 0
T T X - N n a m -
0 0 21Ir(DOI--z(D(D\-.< 0 1- t o
m -+co 3 0 a - a 0 B(D0) --to m
-0 0 v 1 3 0 a--hs- 1
(D 3 + 3 < a C l - . m DJT)
an-+n+ 3 5 0 v (Do+on(O(O
a9-tvrsoO a m - -o v,3=r+O(Dl
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 LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR HEATING S Y S T E M S
I

larger air flowrate, the reduction o f

thermal s t r a t l f l c a t l o n i n the pebble bed
resulting from the larger air fiowrate
tended t o o f f s e t the Increase I n energy
delivery. ( I n a d d l t l o n , t h e energy r e q u i r e d
to pump t h e a l r t h r o u g h t h e s y s t e m w o u l d be
hlgher a t the higher flowrate.)

5.4-2 PEBBLE BED STORAGE CAPACITY

The r e s u l t s o f many s l m u l a t l o n s I n w h l c h the pebble

bed storage capacity per unlt collector a r e a was
v a r i e d f r o m 0 . 1 2 5 t o 1.0 c u b l c m e t e r of pebbles per
square m e t e r o f c o l l e c t o r a r e a ( 0 . 4 t o 3.3 c u b i c f e e t
p e r square f o o t o f c o l l e c t o r ) have i n d i c a t e d t h a t the
performance o f air h e a t l n g systems I s s l i g h t l y l e s s
s e n s i t i v e t o s t o r a g e c a p a c l t y t h a n a r e I l q u i d systems.
(One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e r e d u c e d s e n s i t l v l t y Is that
the alr h e a t i n g system can o p e r a t e i n t h e c o l l e c -
t o r - l o a d mode, i n w h l c h t h e s t o r a g e c o m p o n e n t Is not ( Cubic
~eters'ofPebbles per
used. Another Is that pebble beds a r e hlghly Square Meter of Colleclor )
s t r a t i f l e d ; a d d l t l o n a l c a p a c l t y I s effectively added
to the " c o l d n e n d o f t h e bed, w h i c h i s s e l d o m h e a t e d
a n d c o o l e d t o t h e same e x t e n t a s t h e " h o t " e n d . ) FIGURE 5 . 7
The f - c h a r t f o r a i r h e a t l n g s y s t e m s ( E q u a t i o n 5 . 8 STORAGE S l Z E CORRECTION FACTOR
a n d F i g u r e 5 . 5 ) was g e n e r a t e d f o r a s t o r a g e capaclty
of 0.25 c u b i c meters o f pebbles per square meter o f
c o l l e c t o r area. The p e r f o r m a n c e o f s y s t e m s w i t h o t h e r STORAGE S l Z E
= (Xc/X) = (V/0.25)-0.3 5.10
s t o r a g e c a p a c l t l e s can be d e t e r m l n e d b y m o d l f y i n g the CORRECTION FACTOR
dimensionless g r o u p X a s l n d l c a t e d i n F i g u r e 5.7 o r .
E q u a t l o n 5.10. for 0.125 < V < 1.0

where V I s t h e s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y I n cublc meters of

pebbles p e r square meter o f c o l l e c t o r area.

r
5.5 COMPARISON OF L I Q U I D AND AIR SYSTEMS

A comparison of t h e f - c h a r t s f o r t h e l l q u l d and a l r
s y s t e m s , F l g u r e s 5 . 1 a n d 5.5, lndlcates that, for the
same v a l u e s o f X a n d Y, t h e a i r s y s t e m o u t p e r f o r m s t h e
l l q u l d system, particularly f o r systems deslgned t o
supply a large f r a c t i o n o f the heating load. There
 L O N G - T E R M PERFORVANCE OF SOLAR HEATING S Y S T E M S SECTION 5.6

are several reasons f o r t h l s behavlor. The a v e r a g e redefined so a s t o I n c l u d e t h e e f f e c t s o f Tm a n d T w .

c o l l e c t o r f l u l d i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e I s lower f o r t h e a i r I f n o n t h l y v a l u e s o f X a r e multiplied b y the correc-
system (and t h u s t h e c o l l e c t o r e f f l c l e n c y Is hlgher) tlon factor i n Equation 5.11, the f-chart for
t h a n t h a t f o r t h e l l q u l d s y s t e m a t t l m e s when t h e r e I s I l q u i d - b a s e d s o l a r space and w a t e r h e a t l n g systems
a space heatlng l o a d , s i n c e I n t h i s c a s e , r o o m tem- (Equation 5 . 5 o r F i g u r e 5 . 1 ) can be used t o e s t l m a t e
p e r a t u r e a l r i s c i r c u l a t e d through the a i r heater and monthly values o f f f o r domestlc water h e a t i n g sy.s-
returned t o the buildlng. Another reason I s t h a t
t h e r m a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s ordinarily m a i n t a i n e d at a
hlgher level I n p e b b l e beds t h a n I n w a t e r t a n k s , i n DOMESTIC WATER HEATING CORRECTION FACTOR = ( X c / X )
p a r t because o f t h e s m a l l e r fluld capacitance rates
normally used I n a i r h e a t e r s . A t h i r d reason I s t h a t
a h e a t exchanger between t h e storage unit and the
heating l o a d i s n o t r e q u i r e d i n an a i r h e a t i n 9 s y s t e m
and t h u s t h e p e n a l t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w l t h a l o a d h e a t ex- The solar water h e a t l n g systems c o n s l d e r e d hnrr*
changer a r e avolded. A l s o , a i r s y s t e m do n o t "dumpw have a s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y o f 75 l i t e r s of water pcsr
e n e r g y a s l l q u l d s y s t e m s d o when t h e f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e square meter of col lector area; the averarln
reaches I t s b o l l l n g p o i n t . d i s t r l b u t l o n o f w a t e r u s a g e shown i n F l g u r e 4.1 Is
I t c a n n o t be g e n e r a l l y c o n c l u d e d , however, t h a t assumed. These a r e t h e c o n d i t i o n s upon w h l c h t h o
a i r h e a t l n g systems p e r f o r m b e t t e r than l i q u i d sys- f-chart method is based. The heatlng load
tems. T h e c o l l e c t o r o v e r a l l e f f l c l e n c y f a c t o r , FR, i s distrlbutlon during the day does n o t have a s t r o n q
ordinarily lower f o r a i r h e a t e r s . As a r e s u l t , X a n d e f f e c t upon t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of solar water h a a t In(!
Y a r e o r d l n a r i l y lower and t h u s t h e performance o f an systems w l t h t h l s s l z e s t o r a g e c a p a c l t y . H o w c v ~ r , thrr
air s y s t e m may b e equivalent, h i g h e r , o r l o w e r t h a n a c t u a l d l s t r l b u t i o n o f t h e w a t e r h e a t l n g l o a d mny ~ ~ 1 r - y
t h a t o f a l i q u i d system o f comparable s i z e . greatly f r o m t h e a v e r a g e d l s t r l b u t i o n shown I n I l r 1 1 1 r
4.1. I f m o s t o f t h e d a i l y u s e t y p i c a l l y o c c ~ ~ rw ql t l 1 l 1 1
a s h o r t t l m e i n t e r v a l e a c h day, t h e l o a d f r a c t i o n < . I I ~ -
p l i e d b y s o l a r e n e r g y may b e l o w e r t h a n t h a t e s t l m t i t t * r l
using the f-chart i n t h e manner recommended h e r e . III
6 5.6 DOMESTIC WATER HEATING SYSTEMS t h i s case, an i n c r e a s e i n s t o r a g e s i z e w l l l i n c r e < ~ c . c
s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e more t h a n that suggested b y the
The f - c h a r t s p r e s e n t e d I n S e c t i o n s 5.3 a n d 5.4 apply m o d i f i c a t l o n s I n S e c t i o n 5.3-2.
for solar h e a t i n g systems t h a t s u p p l y b o t h space and Also, the correlation presented here assumes
w a t e r h e a t l n g , a l t h o u g h i t I s assumed t h a t the water t h a t t h e water h e a t e d above t h e minimum acceptable
h e a t i n g l o a d I s a s m a l l f r a c t i o n , l e s s t h a n a b o u t 20$, t e m p e r a t u r e , T, I s no more u s e f u l t h a n h o t water a t a
o f t h e space h e a t i n g load. A method o f e s t l m a t i n a t h e temperature o f Tw. A t t i m e s , t h e s t o r e d w a t e r tem-
p e r f ormanc_eA.--- p e r a t u r e w i l l e x c e e d Tw. I t I s assumed t h a t t h e s o l a r
- l-o--a d I s p r l m a r i l y o r e n t i r e l y due t o d 9 ~ 3 3 5 t M t e ~ e n e r g y u s e d t o h e a t w a t e r a b o v e T, i s w a s t e d a n d t h l s
heatlng i s described hern- energy 1s not considered to be p a r t o f t h e w a t e r
-7he malns water s u p p l y temperature, T ,, and t h e h e a t l n g load.
mlnlmum a c c e p t a b l e h o t water temperature, Tw, both
. a f f e c t t h e performance o f s o l a r water h e a t i n g systems.
Since b o t h Tm a n d T, affect the average system EXAMPLE 5 . 6 P e r f o r m a n c e o f a D o m e s t i c Water
o p e r a t l n g t e m p e r a t u r e l e v e l , and thus the collector H e a t i n g System
energy losses, It i s r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e d l -
menslonless group X, w h l c h has p h y s l c a l s l g n l f l c a n c s A s o l a r a s s i s t e d domestlc water h e a t i n g
related to the collector energy losses, can be s y s t e m I s t o be Installed in a residence
 LONG-TERM PERFORPANCE OF S O L A R HEATING SYSTEMS

located i n Madison, Wlsconsln. There w l l l

b e f o u r f a m i l y members l i v l n g i n t h e hcuse,
and i t i s a n t l c i p a t e d t h a t each person w l l l
u s e 100 l i t e r s ( 2 5 g a l l o n s ) o f w a t e r p e r day
a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 6 0 C. The m a i n s supply
water temperature i n M a d i s o n i s a b o u t 11 C
a l l year. Flat-plate solar cot l e c t o r s
having two glass covers and a f l a t - b l a c k
a b s o r b e r s u r f a c e a r e b e i n g considered. The
test results o f these collectors are given
i n Example 2.1. The c o l l e c t o r s are t o be
mounted on the roof o f the bu.ilding facing
d u e s o u t h a t 58' w i t h r e s p e c t t o h o r i z o n t a l .
The c a p a c i t y o f t h e solar preheat storage
tank w i l l b e 75 l i t e r s o f w a t e r p e r s q u a r e
meter of cot lector area. Estimate the
fractlon of t h e water h e a t i n g load whlch I s
supplied by solar energy for collectors
a r e a s o f 2, 5 , a n d 1 0 s q u a r e m e t e r s .
The first step Is t o estimate the
monthly h e a t i n g ioad. I t Is assumed that
the dally water usage Is 100 I/day per
p e r s o n which, f o r f o u r p e o p l e , I s 400 ]/day
every day of the year. The a v e r a g e dai1.y
water heating load I s the product of the
daily water usage, the specific heat o f
water, and the difference between the
r e q u i r e d h o t w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e , Tw, and t h e
malns supply- water temperature, Tm. The
average monthly water h e a t i n g load I n column
C4 o r C5 of worksheet 1 (Table 5.9) I s
s l m p l y t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e average d a l l y load
a n d t h e number o f d a y s i n e a c h m o n t h .
From t h e t e s t r e s u l t s i n Example 2.1,
it I s known t h a t FRUL and F R ( T ~ ) " a r e 3.75
w / c - ~ Z and 0.68, respectively. Because of
the freezing temperatures i n Madison, t h e
s y s t e m w i l l have an a n t l f r e e z e ' s o l u t i o n In
the c o l l e c t o r s and a h e a t exchanger between
t h e c o l l e c t o r s and t h e t a n k . Assuming that
both flowrates In the h e a t exchanger a r e
0.0139 kg/s-m2 and t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r e f f e c -
t l v e n e s s i s 0.7 a t t h e s e f l o w r a t e s , t h e c o l -
lector-heat exchanger correction factor,
FR'/FR, Is 0.97 as d e t e r m i n e d I n Example
2.3. Thus, FR'UL, Item C o f worksheet 2
( T a b l e 5.101, and F R ' ( T a j n , i t e m D, a r e 3.64
W/C-m2 and 0.66, respectively.
Monthly values o f X / A ( c o l u m n C8) and
Y/A (column C9) are determined using
Equations 5.3 and 5.4. Monthly average
ambient temperatures for Madison can be
f o u n d i n A p p e n d i x 2. The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
1 0 0 C and t h e monthly ambient temperatures
appear i n column C7. The values of the
average monthly solar radiation o n a 58'
s u r f a c e i n M a d i s o n ( i n column ClO) were c a l -
c u l a t e d i n Example 3.1. The r a t i o s o f the
monthly average t o normal I n c i d e n c e t r a n s -
mlttance-absorptance products ' f o r a two
cover collector tllted at 58' i n M a d i s o n
( c o l u m n C9) w e r e d e t e r m i n e d i n E x a m p l e 3 . 3 .
For a domestic water h e a t i n g system,
the values of X/A in column C8 m u s t be
c o r r e c t e d by t h e f a c t o r

DOMESTIC WATER HEATING CORRECTION FACTOR

w h e r e Tw i s 6 0 C a n d Tm i s 11 C in this
case. Note t h a t t h e domestic water h e a t i n g
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r has a d i f f e r e n t v a l u e each
m o n t h b e c a u s e o f t h e variation i n t h e m o n t h -
ly average ambient temperature. The
c o r r e c t e d v a l u e s o f X / A a p p e a r i n c o l u m n C12
o f worksheet 3 ( T a b l e 5.11).
Monthly values of X and Y in
c o l u m n s C14 a n d C15 are determined by
m u l t i p l y i n g e a c h c o l l e c t o r c o n s i d e r e d by t h e
values of X/A and Y/A In c o l u m n s C12
a n d C13. Values o f f, t h e f r a c t i o n of the
m o n t h l y w a t e r h e a t i n g l o a d s u p p l f e d by s o l a r
energy, a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m E q u a t i o n 5.5 o r
F l g u r e 5.1 a n d t a b u l a t e d I n c o l u m n C16. The
t o t a l s o l a r energy u s e f u l l y d e l i v e r e d each
month i n c o l u m n C17 I s t h e p r o d u c t o f f and
t h e m o n t h l y h e a t i n g load. The a n n u a l solar
e n e r g y u s e f u l l y d e l i v e r e d and t h e s o l a r l o a d
 SECTION 5 . 6 93

fractlon appear below c o l u m n C17 f o r e a c h

c o l l e c t o r area.
The a n n u a l f r a c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l water
heating load s u p p l i e d by s o l a r energy from
T a b l e 5.11 I s p l o t t e d a g a l n s t c o l l e c t o r a r e a
I n F i g u r e 5.8. The general shape of the
curve is simflar t o that of Figure 5.2 for
space h e a t i n g .

COLLECTOR A R E A rn2

e,
L E U
0
4 .0 aJ
L FIGURE 5.8
U 4 L
.o
C
U
O
0
U
ANNUAL LOAD FRACTION SUPPLIED B Y SOLAR ENERGY
C L a8
0 0 -
'- u m
w L
U L
a a, 3
L - 0
L C ?
O W L
U .c
U L
a x -
.,-
- 4 0 -

0
V I*I0 L
5.7 SUMMARY
-
W a J U
O I L U
ce a8
L u
o
0
m
0
-
0 Using the f-chart method described In this
V) -I U
c h a p t e r , t h e thermal performance o f s o l a r space and/or
water heatlng systems can be e s t f m a t e d i n a s i m p l e
manner f o r any l o c a t i o n i n w h i c h meteorological data
are avaflabie. T h e n e c e s s a r y d a t a a r e g i v e n f o r many
N o r t h A m e r i c a n l o c a t i o n s I n A p p e n d i x 2. The c o l l e c t o r
parameters required f o r use with the f-charts arc
94 LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

F R ( ~ a I n and F R U ~ , which can be determined from CHAPTER 6

standard col lector t e s t s . SOLAR HEATING ECONOMICS
The results of the thermal performance
calculations are best e x p r e s s e d a s a p l o t o f F, t h e
f r a c t i o n o f t h e a n n u a l h e a t i n g l o a d s u p p l i e d by solar 6.1 INTRODUCTION
e n e r g y * a g a l n s t c o l l e c t o r a r e a , s u c h a s i n F i g u r e s 5.2
and 5.8. The l n f o r m a t l o n on annual c o n t r i b u t i o n o f Although some p e o p l e w i l l buy a s o l a r energy h e a t i n g
s o l a r energy as a f u n c t i o n o f c o l l e c t o r area Is used s y s t e m t o "be Independent o f t h e u t i l i t i e s " o r " t o be
i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e economics o f s o l a r the f i r s t o n t h e i r b l o c k t o own a s o l a r s y s t e m w m o s t
heating. people w l l l conslder solar heatlng only i f it is
llkely t o be c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s . The
economic choice between the various conventional
heating s y s t e m s c a n be b a s e d e n t i r e l y o n t h e p r i c e o f
f u e l t o d a y , I f i t i s assumed t h a t t h e v a r i o u s choices
will a l l i n c r e a s e i n p r i c e a t r o u g h i y t h e same r a t e .
Usually natural gas ( i f available) is the least
expensive f u e l , LP g a s a n d o i l a r e n e x t , a n d e l e c t r i c
r e s i s t a n c e h e a t i n g i s t h e most expensive. Comparing
solar with these alternatives on a sound economic
basis i s t h e subject o f t h l s chapter.
I n t h e s i m p l e s t terms, a s o l a r energy system w i l I
b e l e s s e x p e n s i v o ~ h a na n o n s o l a r s y s t e m i f the fuel
savings are greater than t h e mortgage payments r e -
q u i r e d t o buy t h e s o l a r equipment. A problem w i t h
this comparison i s t h a t it i s d i f f i c u l t t o take i n t o
account r i s i n g f u e l costs. And, t h e r e a r e o t h e r i t e m s
a f f e c t i n g t h e economics o f s o l a r h e a t i n g which should
be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , s u c h as p r o p e r t y t a x e s , income
taxes, i n s u r a n c e , and maintenance. A more realistic
approach is t o u s e t h e l i f e c y c l e c o s t method w h i c h
t a k e s i n t o account a l l f u t u r e expenses. This method
provides a means o f comparison o f f u t u r e c o s t s w l t h
t o d a y ' s c o s t s , b y r e d u c i n g a1 l costs t o the common
b a s i s o f p r e s e n t w o r t h , t h a t i s , what w o u l d have t o b e
i n v e s t e d t o d a y i n o r d e r t o have t h e f u n d s a v a i l a b l e i n
t h e f u t u r e t o meet a l l o f t h e a n t i c i p a t e d expenses.
In a l i f e c y c l e c o s t a n a l y s i s , t h e r e q u i r e d cash
f l o w ( n e t payment) f o r h e a t i n g i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r each
year. The l i f e cycle c o s t I s f o u n d by d i s c o u n t i n g
e a c h a n n u a l c a s h f l o w t o i t s p r e s e n t v a l u e and f i n d i n g
t h e sum o f t h e s e dlscounted cash flows. When the
present values of a l l f u t u r e c o s t s h a v e been d e t e r -
mined for each of the alternative systems under
consideration, i n c l u d i n g s o l a r and n o n s o l a r o p t i o n s ,
t h e system t h a t y i e l d s t h e lowest l l f e c y c l e cost Is
selected as t h e most c o s t e f f e c t i v e . The r e a s o n t h a t
c a s h f l o w s m u s t be d i s c o u n t e d l i e s i n t h e " t i m e value
96 S O L A R HEATING E C O N O M I C S
SECTION 6 . 2

of money." A fuel bill or other expense t h a t I s

system, h i s income t a x d e d u c t i o n s , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
a n t i c i p a t e d t o be YlOOO i n 10 y e a r s i s equivalent to
t h i s calculatlon, are limited t o the interest 2nd
an obligation of $463 today a t a "market d i s c o u n t
property tax that can be ascribed t o the heating
r a t e M o f 8%. I n o t h e r words, an investment of 8463
system. F o r t h e owner o f an i n c o m e - p r o d u c i n g proper-
today at an 8% i n t e r e s t r a t e w i l l have a v a l u e o f
t y , a l l expenses, i n c l u d i n g f u e l , a r e d e d u c t a b l e .
$ 1 0 0 0 i n 10 y e a r s .
The yearly expenses t o heat a b u i l d i n g include
A l t h o u g h l i f e c y c l e c o s t i n g I s a c c e p t e d by most
t h e a n n u a l payment f o r l n t e r e s t and p r i n c i p a l t o buy
economists as the soundest approach f o r m a k i n g an
t h e equipment, t h e f u e l expense, i n s u r a n c e , m a l n t a i n c e
e c o n o m i c d e c l s i o n (e.g., s e e R u e g g ( 1 9 7 5 1 1 , it h a s o n e
costs, and p o s s i b l y property taxes. This yearly
m a j o r d r a w b a c k ; we m u s t be a b l e t o p r e d i c t c o s t s into
expense Is r e d u c e d by tax savlngs, which for a
the future. F u t u r e c o s t s o f f u e l and o t h e r expenses
homeowner, consists of income t a x deductions for
a n d t h e m a r k e t d i s c o u n t r a t e m u s t be e s t i m a t e d . Given
i n t e r e s t payment and p r o p e r t y t a x e s . For a business-
the uncertainty i n p r e d i c t i n g f u t u r e costs, one
man w i t h a n I n c o m e - p r o d u c i n g p r o p e r t y , h i s i n c o m e t a x
alternative is t o make a set of p e s s i m i s t i c and
d e d u c t l o n s w i l l i n c l u d e a l l income-producing expenses
another s e t o f o p t i m i s t i c assumptions and determine
p l u s a depreciation allowance. B o t h t h e homeowner a n d
t h e most c o s t e f f e c t l v e system f o r b o t h cases. The
t h e b u s i n e s s m a n may be a b l e t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f s t a t e
c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e d e s i g n s I s t h e n made on n i n t u i t i o n f l
and/or federal tax c r e d i t s s p e c i f i c a l l y designed t o
b y t h e homeowner o r t h e b u s i n e s s m a n .
encourage s o l a r energy u t i l i z a t i o n .
The c o m p u t a t i o n i n v o l v e d i n a l i f e cycle cost
I n e q u a t i o n form, t h e annual c o s t s f o r b o t h s o l a r
analysis is significant. A l a r g e b u s i n e s s has t h e
and n o n s o l a r systems can be e x p r e s s e d as:
t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l and can easily afford the effort
since they are usually considering large insta!la-
tions. A l t h o u g h t h e t y p i c a l homeowner o r s m a l l busi-
nessman may n o t be a b l e t o make t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s , he
Yearly c o s t = Mortgage + Fuel + Maintenance
for heating payment expense and i n s u r a n c e
can understand the factors involved a n d he can
c 5 p r e c i a t e t h e "bottom line." H i s b u i l d i n g c o n t r a c t o r ,
a r c h i t e c t , o r h e a t i n g and
have to do t h e
ventilating engineer
c a l c u l a t i o n s and e x p l a i n t h e conse-
will + Property - Tax
tax savings
quences o f v a r i o u s d e c i s i o n s . I n order t o ease the
computational burden involved i n estimating the cost
o f s o l a r heating, worksheets a r e provided, which for
where the income tax savings for a residential
most systems permit the l i f e cycle cost calculations
b u i l d i n g a r e g i v e n by
t o be n o m o r e t i m e c o n s u m i n g t h a n a s i n g l e y e a r ' s c a l -
culation.
Interest + Froperty 6.2
savings rate payment tax ]
6.2 GENERAL PROCEDURE
and t h e lncome t a x s a v l n g s f o r a commercial installa-
t l o n are
-In order t o remove some o f the complexity in
presenting t h i s material, we w l l l f i r s t l o o k a t t h e
yearly cost of heating. This 'yearly cost includes a l l
Interest + Property + Fuel
n e c e s s a r y payments t o h e a t t h e b u i l d f n g , l e s s any tax
savings rate payment tax expense
savings. Tax s a v i n g s r e s u l t i n g f r o m i n c o m e t a x d e d u c -
tions are an i m p o r t a n t consideration a n d d e p e n d u p o n
+
who owns t h e s y s t e m . F o r a homeowner w l t h a nonsolar
Maint. + Ins. + Deprec.
I 6.3
 SOLAR HEATING ECONOMICS 1 SECTION 6.2
I
The r e a s o n t h a t f u e l s a v e d I s a n e g a t i v e t a x d e d u c t i o n
The m o s t g e n e r a l e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s w i l l evaluate
i s t h a t a buslness a l r e a d y deducts fuel expenses so
each heating alternative. An e c o n o m i c d e c i s i o n c a n
t h a t t h e c o s t o f f u e l s a v e d i s t a x a b l e Income.
t h e n be made by c o m p a r i n g t h e l i f e cycle costs of
These e q u a t i o n s m u s t be e v a l u a t e d f o r e a c h y e a r
these alternatives. With only a small loss in
g e n e r a l i t y , t h e concept o f s o l a r savings can be used of the perlod of the economic analysis, and each
t o simplify some o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s . Solar savings
I resulting yearly savings must be d i s c o u n t e d back t o
a r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e l i f e c y c l e c o s t of a t h e present time and summed. This calculation is
conventional h e a t i n g s y s t e m and a solar heating i l l u s t r a t e d by T a b l e 6.1. H e r e we show t h e t e r m s i n
system. ( S a v i n g s c.an be negative; they a r e then
I E q u a t i o n 6.4 f o r t h e f l r s t few years and t h e last
losses.) The s a v i n g s concept i s u s e f u l because i t i s year. Column 1 I s t h e f u e l s a v l n g s , 2 i s e x t r a m o r t -
n o t necessary t o e v a l u a t e c o s t s that a r e common t o gage payment, 3 i s e x t r a i n s u r a n c e and maintenance, 4
both t h e s o l a r a n d t h e n o n s o l a r sysTem. F o r example, i s extra property tax, 5 i s t a x savlngs, 6 I s t h e
t h e a u x i l i a r y f u r n a c e a n d much o f the ductwork and s o l a r savings, and 7 i s t h e p r e s e n t w o r t h o f each o f
p l u m b i n g I n a s o l a r s y s t e m a r e o f t e n t h e same a s w o u l d the items i n c o l u m n 6, t h a t i s , t h e a m o u n t o f money
be installed i n a n o n s o l a r system. With t h e savings whi.ch w o u l d h a v e t o b e invested today to have the
concept, I t i s o n l y necessary t o e s t i m a t e the incre- amount i n column 6 a v a i l a b l e i n t h a t y e a r .
I
mental cost of installlng a s o l a r system. I f the
furnaces o r o t h e r equipment i n t h e t w o systems are
different, the difference in their costs can be I
TABLE 6.1
I n c l u d e d a s an e x t r a c o s t ( o r s a v i n g s ) o f I n s t a l l i n g a EXAMPLE OF A SOLAR SAVINGS
s o l a r system. I n e q u a t i o n form, s o l a r s a v i n g s a r e AND PRESENT WORTH CALCULATION

Solar = Fuel - E x t r a mort. - E x t r a Ins. d 2

EXTRA
3
EXTRA
4
EXTRA
7
PRES.
savings savings payment . maintenance
FUEL MORT. INS. d PROP. TAX SOLAR WORTH
--
YEAR S A V . PAY. MAINT. TAX .&S SAV. OF 6
- Extra + Tax 1 457 592 60 80 260
258
-61 5
19
-61 4'
16
prop. t a x savings
256 60 48
253 103 76
The income t a x s a v i n g s f o r a r e s i d e n c e a r e

Tax
savings
= Tax x
rate
[.I n Et exrt er as t + Extra
property tax
20 3074 592 192 2 58 141 2173
L I F E CYCLE SOLAR. SAVINGS
466
83801
* T h e f i r s t y e a r i n c l u d e s a downpayment o f 5600 a t
and t h e income t a x s a v l n g s f o r a b u s l n e s s a r e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e y e a r and i s n o t discounted.

Extra + Extra + Exl-ra

s a Tv ai nx g s = r a
T at e
x [interest maintenance insurance In this example, we h a v e assumed a m a r k e t
d i s c o u n t r a t e o f 8%. Thus, f o r e x a m p l e , c o l u m n 6 of
the table indicates that 5103 w i l l be t h e s o l a r
+ Extra + Extra savings I n t h e f o u r t h year; t h e present worth o f these
property tax depreciation saved savlngs i s 103/(1.~8)~=476.
 SOLAR HEATING ECONOMICS SECTION 6 . 3

Each o f t h e l n d i v l d u a l e n t r i e s i n t h l s table is
an estimate o f what t h a t p a r t i c u l a r i t e m I s e x p e c t e d
t o be I n a f u t u r e y e a r . Somehow, e s t f m a t e s must be
made o f these antlclpated c o s t s a n d g a i n s ; o n l y by
d o i n g so can the comparlsons o f future costs and
present fnvestments b e made. Two situations may a n d i s t a b u l a t e d i n I n c r e m e n t s o f 5 f o r N f r o m 5 t o 30
occur. i n T a b l e s 6.2A t h r o u g h 6 . 2 F .
F i r s t , c o s t s may b e a n t l c l p a t e d t o change in a I f the inflation-dlscount function of Equation
regular manner through the perlod of the analysls.
The m o s t common a s s u m p t i o n w o u l d b e t h a t e a c h t y p e of ! 6.7 i s m u l t l p l l e d b y t h e v a l u e o f t h e f i r s t p a y m e n t o f
any expense t h a t I s expected t o I n f l a t e a t a r a t e I,
cost represented as a t e r m I n E q u a t l o n s 6.4 t c 6.6 then t h e result is the sum o f N such payments.
I n f l a t e s o r d e f l a t e s a t a f l x e d percentage per year. discounted t o the present time w i t h a discount r a t e of
The calculations f o r t h l s sltuatlon are slmpllfled, d. As an example, we can o b t a i n t h e 20-year l i f e
a n d i t I s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o make up a table such as c y c l e f u e l e x p e n s e w i t h f u e l i n f l a t i n g a t 10% a year
Table 6.1. The sum o f t h e p r e s e n t w o r t h o f t h e I t e m s and wlth a m a r k e t d i s c o u n t r a t e o f 8 % by m u l t i p l y i n g
I n each c o l u m n (e.g., f u e l s a v l n g s ) c a n be c a l c u l a t e d the f lr s t year I s f ue l expense bY
b y a convenient e q u a t i o n a n d t h e s e p r e s e n t w o r t h i t e m s I FUNCTION(20,0.10,0.08) = 22.169 ( f r o m Table 6.20).
can then be used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l i f e c y c l e s o l a r L i f e cycle malnienance costs, Insurance costs and
savlngs. T h l s method I s o u t l l n e d i n s e c t l o n s 6.3 to I p r o p e r t y t a x e s c a n a l s o b e e v a l u a t e d i n t h l s manner as
6.7. l o n g a s t h e y a r e assumed t o i n f l a t e a t f i x e d r a t e s .
Second, I f costs are e x p e c t e d t o c h a n g e I n an This equation assumes t h a t p a y m e n t s a r e made a t
irregular manner, or If Incremental costs are t h e end o f each t i m e p e r l o d (e.g. December 31) and
antlclpated durlng t h e period o f the analysls, then a the r e s u l t i n g p r e s e n t w o r t h i s as o f t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
t a b l e s u c h a s T a b l e 6.1 may h a v e t o b e u s e d . However, t h e f i r s t t l m e p e r i o d (e.g. January I o f the first
I f t h e anticipated c o s t s a r e n o t t o o irregular, then year ). NOT^ that the first year's expense is
simplified m e t h o d s c a n be used. Examples o f t h l s e v a l u a t e d a t t h e end o f t h e f i r s t t i m e p e r i o d . These
would be t h e anticipatlon of major maintenance ideas are i l l u s t r a t e d on F i g u r e 6.1. Some d u t h o r s
e x p e n s e s a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d , o r an (Rueggs, 1 9 7 5 ) h a v e deflned t h i s function with an
expected change In the rate at which f u e l p r i c e s additional multiplier of ( l + i 1. There is no
increase. A method f o r h a n d l l n g t h e s e situatlons is f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m w l t h e i t h e r d e f i n i t i o n as l o n g a s
o u t l i n e d I n S e c t i o n 6.9. t h e assumptions are c l e a r l y defined.
These tables have o t h e r uses. T h e y c a n be u s e d
t o find the u n i f o r m annual payment of a loan by
dividing t h e l o a n p r i n c l p l e by FUNCTION(N,O,m), where
m i s t h e m o r t g a g e i n t e r e s t r a t e a n d N i s t h e number o f
6.3 REGULARLY VARYING COSTS years. T h i s i s found i n Table 6.2 . u s i n g a market
discount rate of m a n d an a n n u a l i n f l a t i o n r a t e o f
I f costs are assumed to I n f l a t e (or deflate) a t a zero. F o r example, t h e a n n u a l payment on a $1000,
f i x e d p e r c e n t a g e each year, t h e I l f e c y c l e s a v l n g s can 20-year, 8% mortgage i s 8 1 0 0 0 / 9 . 8 1 8 o r $101.85. We
be o b t a i n e d b y ' c a l c u l a t i o n s that are only slightly can t h e n f i n d t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e o f 20 such payments
m o r e complicated t h a n the calculations for a slngle with a 6% d i s c o u n t rate by m u l t i p l y i n g $101.a5 b y
year. To p e r f o r m t h l s c a l c u l a t i o n we have t a b u l a t e d FUNCTION(20,0,0.06) o r 11.470 t o g i v e $1168. In other
an Inflation-discount f u n c t l o n t o I n f l a t e a t a r a t e 1 words, t h e t r u e c o s t o f t h i s $1000 l o a n i s $168. This
per perlod, dlscourlt a t a r a t e d per period, and sum $ 1 6 8 w l l l be f u r t h e r r e d u c e d i f we c o n s i d e r t a x d e d u c -
each economlc term for N periods. (Note t h a t t h e tions for interest.
P e r l o d N i s u s u a l l y a year, and d and I are then These t a b l e s can a l s o be u s e d t o f i n d t h e p r e s e n t
y e a r l y r a t e s . ) T h i s f u ' n c t l o n I s d e f l n e d as: v a l u e o f a l l i n t e r e s t p a l d on a l o a n . The c a l c u l a t i o n
 T A B L E 6.2A INFLATION-DISCOUNT FUNCTION F O R N = 5

d, i,
MARKET * ANNUAL
DISCOUI\'T * INFLATION
RATE * RATE
(2) ** (%)

-.... - - . . - .. . - . ..-... __ . . .. . ._.__ --

TABLE 6 - 2 8 INFLATION-DISCOUNT FUNCTION F O R N = 10

ir
I.IAUR~T "
DISCOUNT *
ANNUAL
INFLATION
RATE * RATE
(X)
 TABLE 6 . 2 C INFLATION-DISCOUNT FUNCT.ION FOR N = 15

d,
MARKET * ANNUAL
DISCOUNT * INFLATION
RATE +< RATE
(X) * (%I

TABLE 6 . 2 0 INFLATION-DISCOUNT F U N C T I O N FOR N = 20

d
M A R ~ T* A ~ E I AL
U
DISCOUNT INFLATION
RATE * RATE
(%I
(Z)
 TABLE 6.2E INFLATION-DISCOUNT F U N C T I O N FOR N = 2 5

d, i,
MARKET * ANNUAL
DISCOUNT * INFLATION
RATE * RATE
(%I ; (XI .
. . . . . . *. . . 0. . . . 1. . . . 2. . . . .3 . . . .4 . . . . 5. . . . 6. . . . .7 . . . .8 . . . .9. . . .10. . 11 12

- --- -- - - --

TABLE 6 . 2 F INFLATION-DISCOUNT F U N C T I O N FOR N = 30

d, i,
MARKET * ANNUAL
INFLATION
DISCOUNT
RATE * RATE
(XI
(%)
 S O L A R HEATING ECONOMICS

v
Total Payments = A+B+C+-+K
I
n ,
Present Worth of K =J(l+i) .
Total Payments = o+b+c+-+k
=~(l+i)~''
= A X F ( N,i,d)

Time Base for

Present Worth Colculotions
n

Z
0
u
TIME (years) 2 2
df=.U

FIGURE 6.1 *
W O U
W
CL:
PRESENT WORTH OF A UNIFORM
SERIES OF INFLATING PAYMENTS

r e q u i r e s a number o f v a l u e s f r o m T a b l e 6 2 and w f l l be
i l l u s t r a t e d I n E x a m p l e 6.1. When t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s
a r e performed f o r t h e p r e v i o u s $1000 l o a n , w e f i n d
t h a t t h e present value o f a i l t h e Interest i s $586.
If the borrower's average e f f e c t l v e t a x bracket IS
402, t h e n t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e o f h i s t a x savings IS
0.4~586=$235. An a l t e r n a t i v e way o f l o o k i n g a t t h e
t a x s a v i n g s i s t o c o m p a r e i t w i t h $168, t h e t r u e c o s t
of the loan. We f l n d t h a t u n d e r t h e s e e c o n o m i c a n d
t a x c o n d i t i o n s , b o r r o w i n g $1000 a c t u a l l y r e s u l t s I n a
" p r o f i t n o f 235-168 or. $67.
As w i l l be d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e examples, T a b l e
6.2 c a n b e u s e d t o f I n d t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e o f the
straight-line depreciation a l l o w a n c e on commercial
property. If sum-of-digits or double-decllnlng
b a l a n c e d e p r e c i a t i o n m e t h o d s a r e u s e d , T a b l e s 6.3A o r
6.38 m u s t be u s e d .
W o r k s h e e t s a r e p r o v i d e d as a c o n v e n i e n c e I n d o i n g
t h e economic c a l c u l a t i o n s . The u s e o f t h e s e work-
sheets is i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g examples, and
b l a n k w o r k s h e e t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n AppendTx 5. Work-
sheet 4 includes, i n items H through Z, l i s t i n g of t h e
 SECTION 6 . 3 111 .

various paramefers which a f f e c t t h e economics o f t h e

s o l a r h e a i i n g system. Items AA t h r o u g h FF a r e values
of FUNCTION(N,i,d), obtained from Table 6.2 or
E q u a t i o n 6.7. A A i s f o r f u e l c o s t s , w h i l e BB through
FF all relate to the investment and a r e used i n
c a l c u l a t i n g l i f e c y c l e e x p e n s e s as a f r a c t i o n of the
initial investment. I t e m s GG t h r o u g h PP are a
c o n v e n i e n t way of doing the arithmetic needed in
E q u a t i o n s 6 . 4 t h r o u g h 6.7. Then, W o r k s h e e t 5 u t l l i z e s
Information f r o m W o r k s h e e t 4 , A A and e i t h e r 0 0 o r PP,
i n t h e calculation o f t h e s o l a r s a v i n g s f o r s y s t e m s o f
various c o l l e c t o r areas.

EXAMPLE 6.1 S o l a r Economics f o r a Residence

2
z ~ .x- x0 o
ma
......
6
- k 3 3 e O w W <Ow-
o O n m m ~ w nn-o
mn~ m
a aoEm
91
umm-
co.jam
1 y ~ 1 5 1N-mw
N+OW 9~r-ab
nmtnw
-m<o
. * . a
We w l l l assume that the building of
cn
d
+
d
o w a n u n
*N--44-
N-00
-+-+
mwcow I.--- Example 4.1 i s a residence. The r e a s o n f o r
a~+i u s i n g a r e s i d e n c e i s t h a t t h e income t a x de-
W O U -r
r w ductions f o r commercial property are more
complicated than for a residence. This
addltlonal tax calculation Is the only
dlfference between t h e l i f e c y c l e c o s t o f a
s m a l l o f f i c e and a resldence and will be
illustrated In example 6.2. A completed
v e r s i o n of w o r k s h e e t 4 is shown in Table
6.4. Only t h o s e e n t r i e s t h a t a r e r.ot s e l f
e x p l a n a t o r y w i l l be discussed. (The only
entries that use S.I. units a r e , l i n e K,
whlch c o u l d be changed t o S p e r square f o o t ,
a n d l i n e s M a n d N, w h l c h c o u l d be c h a n g e d t o
S/ml l l i o n BTU.
L i n e s K a n d L r e p r e s e n t a s l m p l e way o f
l o o k i n g a t t h e s o l a r investment. For many
installations, t h e c o s t s c a n be p l a c e d i n t o
t w o c a t e g o r i e s ; a c o s t t h a t i s dependent on
collector a r e a and a f l x e d c o s t . The a r e a -
dependent c o s t I n c l u d e s t h e c o s t o f t h e c o l -
lector, labor for installation, possible
credlts for savings on t h e r o o ! , expenses
f o r roof support modiflcations, p a r t o f the
storage unit, and all other costs that
increase i n proportion t o i n s t a l l e d coilec-
tor area. The f i x e d c o s t s i n c l u d e c o s t o f
pumps, f a n s , c o n t r o l s , e x t r a d u c t w o r k , heat
exchangers, the remainder of the storage
unlt, a n d a1 l other costs that are
 TASLE 6 . 4 W O R K S H E E T FOR E X A M P L E 6 . 1 1 SECTION 6.3

F-CHART WORKSHEET 4
ECONOMIC PARAMETERS independent of the col !ector area. in
addition, the flxed costs w i l l include the
H. Annual mortgage i n t e r e s t r a t e &&%/lo0 difference in price, i f any, b e t w e e n t h e
Term o f mortgage - 2 0-Yrs. conventional furnace and t h e solar system
;. Down payment (as f r a c t i o n o f investment) L%/ 100
b a c k u p f u r n a c e . A l t h o u g h t h e b a c k u p f u rnace
must be c a p a b l e o f carrying 100% o f t h e
K. C o l l e c t o r area dependent costs =l/m2
d e s i g n h e a t i n g load, as does the conven-
L. Area independent c o s t s /&?L$ t i o n a l f u r n a c e , t h e t w o may b e d i f f e r e n t a n d
M. Present c o s t o f s o l a r backup system f u e l ~-S/GJ may even u s e d i f f e r e n t fuels. For t h i s
N. Present cost o f conventional system f u e l =$/6J e x a m p l e we h a v e a s s u m e d t h e area dependent
0. E f f i c i e n c y o f s o l a r backup furnace ~ % / l O O costs t o be $200 p e r s q u a r e m e t e r a n d t h e
P. E f f l c j e n c y o f conventional system furnace c r / ! O O a r e a independent c o s t s t o be $1000.
Q. Property tax r a t e (as f r a c t i o n of investment) 0.0133 Z/100 L i n e s M and N a r e t h e a n t i c i p a t e d c o s t
of fuel for the f i r s t year o f operation.
R. E f f e c t i v e income t a x bracket (state+federal-sta t e x federal ) ax%/100
For this example we have assumed that
5. E x t r a I n s . 6 maint. c o s t s (as f r a c t i o n o f investment) b.o/%/ 100
electricity is t o be u s e d a t S0.03/kW-hr
T. General i n f l a t i o n r a t e p e r year ~ % / l O O w h i c h I s e q u i v a l e n t t o $8.33 p e r GJ ($8.79
"U. Fuel i n f l a t i o n r a t e p e r year 6./0%/ 100 p e r m i l l i o n BTU). T h i s e x a m p l e assumes t h a t
V. Discount r a t e ( a f t e r t a x r e t u r n on b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e investment) ~S-%/~OO e lectr l c it y rates do not vary w It h the
W . T e n o f economic a n a l y s i s C Y r s . usage. Most u t l l i t i e s have a r a t e s t r u c t u r e
X. F i r s t y e a r non-solar f u e l expense ( t o t a l , C5) (N.)/(P. ) + I 0 such t h a t l a r g e consumers pay l e s s p e r u n i t .
s1-
*Y. Depreciation l ( f e t 1 m e 4
-Yrs. L a t e l y , some . ~ lti lt i e s h a v e a b a n d o n e d this
2. Salvage value (as f r a c t i o n . o f investment) - 0 %/lo0
type of r a t e s t r u c t u r e and, i n f a c t , some
have even i n i t i a t e d i n v e r t e d structures in
AA. fab?e 6.2 w i t h Yr = (W.), Columna (U.) and Row = ( V . ) 22.16? which t h e c o n s u m e r p a y s m o r e p e r u n i t a s he
BB. (W.) (T.) (V.) !5.596 uses more u n i t s . All of these various
CC.
tfDD.
MIN(I.,W.)
MIN(W..Y.) .

"
(H.)
(Zero)
-u (v.)
(V.)
zo.l~rt schemes can be accomodated i n c a l c u l a t i n g
the f i r s t year's fuel b i l l .
EE. (I.) " (Zero) " (H.) 9.129 L i n e s 0 and P a r e the efficiencies of
FF. MIN(I.W.) w (Zero) ,, (v.) 9.811 the furnaces w h i c h a r e needed t o c a l c u l a t e
t h e amount o f f u e l that must be used t o
GG. (FF.)/(EE. ), Loan payment 1.076 deliver a unit of h e a t t o t h e load. For
HH. (GG.)+(CC.)[(H.)-l/(EE.)], Loan i n t e r e s t 0.680 e l e c t r i c i t y , t h i s e f f i c i e n c y i s 100% b u t f o r
11. (J.)+(l-J.)[(GG.)-(HH.)(R.)], Capital cost 0.787 an o i l o r gas furnace this efficiency is
JJ. (s.)(BB.), I ~ Mc o s t 0.156 o f t e n a s low a s 5 0 o r 6 0 % ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 ) .
0.1/2. In some states, the installation of
KK. (Q.)(BB)(l-R.), Property t a x
LL. ( z . ) / ( ~ + v . ) ( ~ . ) , Salvage v a l v e -- s o l a r c o l l e c t o r s w i l l Increase t h e
v a l u a t i o n and r e s u l t i n an I n c r e a s e d p r o p e r -
assessed
'HM. (R.)(DD.)(l-Z.)/(Y.),
NN. Other costs (see Section 6.9)
Depreciatfon
- I!&~X
ty tax.
locations i s
The property
based upon t h e
tax rate
fair
i n some
market
' 00. (II.)+(JJ.)+(KK.)-(LL.
PP. (II.)+(JJ.)(~-R.)+(KK.)-(LL.)-(MM.)+(NN.)(~-R.),C~~~~~~~~ -
)+(NN.), R e s i d e n t i a l costs
costs
value
u p o n some
while
fixed
I n o t h e r l o c a t i o n s i t i s based
fraction of the market
"For o t h e r fuel i n f l a t i o n f a c t o r s see Section 6.9. value. Line Q is used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e
*Comercia1 only. dollars paid i n taxes on each dollar
t s t r a i g h t l i n e only. Use Tables 6.3A o r 6.38 f o r o t h e r d e p r e c i a t i o n methods
invested. I n t h i s example t h e t a x r a t e i s
assumed t o b e 2 8 o f t h e a s s e s s e d v a l u e w h i l e
t h e r a t i o of a s s e s s e d v a l u e t o actual cost
 SOLAR HEATING ECONOMICS SECTION 6.3

is assumed t o b e 0 . 6 7 ; t h u s t h e t a x r a t e a s
problem, for a residence, we w i l l use a
a f r a c t i o n o f i n v e s t m e n t i s O.Cl33. I n some d i s c o u n t r a t e o f 85, w h l c h i s 2 % a b o v e the
locations property tax credits are given for assumed g e n e r a l i n f l a t i o n r a t e .
a s o l a r investment. Such t a x credits w i l I The t e r m o f t h e economic a n a l y s i s f o r
be d l s c u s s e d l a t e r . l i n e W can be the expected l l f e of the
The m a j o r i t y o f t a x savings are i n t h e system, t h e t e r m o f t h e mortgage, t h e depre-
f o r m o f income t a x r e d u c t i o n s . I f the same ciation lifetime of the b u l l d i n g o r any
deductions are allowed f o r s t a t e t a x e s as other time period. For thls example, we
f o r f e d e r a l t a x e s , t h e n t h e e f f e c t i v e income w i l l u s e 20 y e a r s , t h e same a s t h e m o r t g a g e
tax rate is the federal plus state tax p e r iod.
brackets minus t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e two. The The f u e l e x p e n s e w l t h o u t s o l a r f o r the
reason that the sum is reduced by the first year is the annual heating load
product Is t h a t s t a t e taxes are deductable m u l t i p l i e d by t h e c o s t o f fuel divided by
from federal taxes. For this p r o b l e m we the furnace efficiency. T h i s i s shown o n
h a v e assumed a f e d e r a l b r a c k e t o f 40% a n d a l i n e X.
s t a t e b r a c k e t o f 10% f o r an effective tax The d e p r e c i a t i o n l i f e t i m e ( l i n e Y) i s
b r a c k e t on l i n e R o f 4 6 % . for commercial p r o p e r t y o n l y and i s u s u a l l y
L i n e S i s f o r i n s u r a n c e and m a l n t e n a n c e t a k e n a s t h e s m a l l e s t t i m e p e r i o d a l l o w e d by
costs for t h e s o l a r system as a p e r c e n t a g e t h e I n t e r n a l Revenue S e r v i c e . The salvage
0.f the inltlal cost. Insurance for a value in l i n e Z i s n e e d e d f o r b o t h commer-
conventional home Is o n t h e o r d e r o f 0.5% c i a l a n d r e s i d e ~ t i a lp r o p e r t y . For comner-
a n d we w l l I assume + h i s same r a t e h o l d s for clal property, the amount that can be
t h e s o l a r h e a t i n g system. E x t r a malntenance d e p r e c i a t e d I s 1-Z; it is to the owners
c o s t s f o r t h e s o l a r s y s t e m a r e assumed t o b e advantage to take Z as s m a l l a s p o s s i b l e .
0.5% f o r a t o t a l e n t r y o n l i n e S o f 1%. A t t h e end o f t h e l i f e o f t h e system, some
The g e n e r a l i n f l a t i o n r a t e h a s b e e n on salvage v a l u e may e x i s t s l t h o u g h t h e s y s t e m
t h e o r d e r o f 6% p e r y e a r ( w i t h some years has been d e p r e c i a t e d t o z e r o . I t wou I d i n e n
much h i g h e r ) w h i l e f u e l i n r e c e n t y e a r s has be n e c e s s a r y t o i n c l u d e t h i s "windfall" as
i n c r e a s e d a t a r a t e o f o v e r 10%. For many income. It is also possible t h a t i n an
years before the "energy crisis," fuel a c t u a l system t h e salvage value i s negative;
I n f l a t i o n was a c t u a l l y l e s s t h a t t h e g e n e r a l i t may a c t u a l l y c o s t t h e o w n e r money t o h a v e
inflation r a t e ; t h e f u t u r e trends must be t h e s y s t e m removed. For a residence, the
estimated by the user as he sees the owner n a y c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e s y s t e m h a s some
situation. The two inflation rates are resale value. Consequently, this value
e n t e r e d o n l i n e s T a n d U. should be a d d e d t o t h e l i f e c y c l e s a v i n g s .
The market discount rate for line V F o r t h i s e x a m p l e we h a v e t a k e n a c o n s e r a t i v e
represents the best alternative investment a p p r o a c h a n d assumed t h e salvage value is
for the prospective owner of the solar zero.
system. F o r homeowners, t h e b e s t i n v e s t m e n t E n t r i e s I n l i n e s A A t h r o u g h FF a r e f r o m
m i g h t be l o n g - t e r m c e r t l f i c a t e s of deposlt T a b l e 6.2 w i t h d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s o f t h e t h r e e
which yield 0 t o 2% more r e t u r n t h a n t h e parameters. The meaning o f MIN(I., W . 1 on
general i n f l a t i o n rate. For a business, t h e l i n e CC i s that the smaller time period
r a t e may b e 0 t o 4% a b o v e t h e i n f l a t i o n r a t e shown in I or W must be used. Lines AA
f o r a l o w - g r o w t h company t o 10 o r even 20% through CC represent the sum of the
for a high-growth company. The company discounted (present) value of a l l yearly
a c c o u n t a n t u s u a l l y h a s a number t h a t he u s e s p a y m e n t s o f an e x p e n s e that is Inflating.
in evaluating alternatives. For this L i n e DD i s u s e d f o r d e p r e c i a t i n g c o m m e r c i . a l
 SOLAR HEATING ECONOMICS TABLE 6.5 WORKSHEET FOR E X A M P L E 6 . 1

property. L l n e s E E t h r o u g h HH a r e n e e d e d I n
loan calculatlons. L l n e GG I s t h e p r e s e n t F-CHART WORKSHEET 5
v a l u e o f t h e payments o n one d o l l a r borrowed ECG:!OMIC ANALYSIS
f o r I y e a r s a t an I n t e r e s t r a t e o f H w l t h a
market dlscount r a t e o f V. L l n e HH I s t h e
p r e s e n t v a l u e o f a l l I n t e r e s t p a l d on t h e
R1. Collector Area
one d o l l a r loan. (Worksheet 3)
The t e r m s I I t h r o u g h NN r e p r e s e n t l i f e
c y c l e values o f various cash flows as a R2. Fraction by Solar
(Worksheet 3)
fractlon of the Inltlal lnvestment. For
e x a m p l e , l i n e I I f o r t h l s p r o b l e m I s 0.787, R3. Investment i n Solar
whlch means t h a t f l n a n c l n g t h e . p u r c h a s e o f (K.)(RI.)+(L.)
t h e e q u l p m e n t f o r 20 y e a r s wlth the given R4. 1st Year Fuel Expense
values o f Income t a x e s , downpayment, a n d (Total. C5)(1-RZ.)(M.)/(O.) +lo9
dlscount r a t e r e s u l t s I n a cost t h a t I s only
78.7% o f t h e p u r c h a s e p r l c e . Llkewlse, the R5. Fuel Savings
(1.-R4.)(AA.)
l l f e c y c l e I n s u r a n c e a n d maintenance c o s t I s
15.6% o f t h e s o l a r Investment. L l n e NN w l l l R6. Expenses (Residential
b e d l s c u s s e d I n S e c t l o n 6.9. (OO.)(R3.)
L l n e s 00 a n d PP r e p r e s e n t t h e t o t a l R7. Expenses (Comnercial)
l i f e c y c l e c o s t as a f r a c t l o n of t h e Invest- (PP. )(R3.)
ment f o r r e s l d e n t l a l and commerclal proper-
R8. Savings (Residential )
ty. F o r t h l s example, t h e t o t a l l l f e c y c l e (R5.)-(R6.)
c o s t I s 105.5% o f t h e Investment:
The e c o n o r n l c calculatlons a r e worked R; -. Savings (Commercial)
(R5.)(l-P.)-(R7.)
out for four different c o l l e c t o r a r e a s o n
worksheet 5 as shown I n Table 6.5. The
f l r s t column I s used f o r a s o l a r system w l t h
zero collector area. The z e r o a r e a s o l a r
s y s t e m I s used because a small collector
area I s needed for later lnterpolatlon t o
f l n d t h e optlmum s y s t e m and t h e calculation
of the thermal performance a t zero area I s
trlvlal. The o t h e r t h r e e a r e a s a r e chosen
t o b r a c k e t t h e optlmum. F o r t h l s p r o b l e m we
have chosen a r e a s o f 25, 50, a n d 7 5 s q u a r e
meters w lth the correspondlng solar
f r a c t l o n s f r o m F i g u r e 5.2.
The solar lnvestment for row R 3 i s
c a l c u l a t e d from t h e c o l l e c t o r u n l t area c o s t
and f r o m t h e f l x e d c o s t .
The f l r s t y e a r ' s f u e l e x p e n s e for the
z e r o a r e a s o l a r s y s t e m I s shown I n t h e f l r s t
column o f row R4. Thls fuel b l l l Is the
t o t a l load tlmes the cost o f tho solar
backup fuel dlvlded by the furnace
efflclency. Thls fuel b i l l I s reduced by
 SOLAR HEATING ECONOMICS TABLE 6.6 WORKSHEET FOR EXAMPLE 6.2 ,.

t h e f r a c t i o n s u p p l i e d by s o l a r f o r t h e t h r e e F-CHART WORKSHEET 4
dlfferent systems. The l i f e cycie fuel ECONOHIC PARMETERS
savings, given in row R5, arc then the
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e f u e l expense wlthout H. Annual m r t g a g e I n t e r e s t r c t e -%/lo0
solar and w i t h solar times the approprlate I. Term o f m r t g a g e 20 Yrs.
Inflation-discount factor. J. Down payment (as f r a c t i o n o f investment) a%/
100
The l l f e c y c l e e x p e n s e s are shown In K. C o l l e c t o r area dependent costs 2 0 0 s/a+
row R6 f o r r e s i d e n t i a l p r o p e r t y and i n row
R7' f o r commercial p r o p e r t y . The final
L. Area independent costs /sf
M. Present c o s t o f s o l a r backup system f u e l =$/a
r e s u l t i s t h e s o l a r s a v l n g s shown I n r o w s R 8
N. Present c o s t o f conventional system f u e l =$/a
and R 9 . S o l a r s a v l n g s c a n be n e g a t i v e w h i c h
means t h a t I t i s a c t u a l l y a loss..
acteristic
The c h a r -
o f a1 I s u c h s a v l n g s c a l c u l a t i o n s
0.
P.
E f f i c i e n c y o f s o l a r backup furnace
E f f i c i e n c y o f conventional system furnace
-1.0
&z/
XI100
100
is that at zero area the savlngs are Q. P r o p e r t y tax r a t e (as f r a c t i o n of investment) O ~ Z / l O O
negative, the savings u s u a l l y I n c r e a s e as R. E f f e c t i v e income tax bracket ( s t a t e + f e d e r a l - s t a t e x f e d e r a l ) -%/I00
t h e a r e a I n c r e a s e s and u l t l m a t e l y f o r large 5. E x t r a i n s . h m i n t . costs (as f r a c t i o n o f investment) &Z/ 100
areas t h e s a v i n g s a g a i n become n e g a t i v e , as 5: General i n f l a t i o n r a t e p e r year w Z / 100
shown I n F i g u r e 6.2. The economic optimum
"U. Fuel i n f l a t i o n r a t e per year ~ Z / l O O
solar s y s t e m I s f o u n d by p l o t t i n g c o l l e c t o r
a r e a v e r s u s s o l a r s a v i n g s and finding the V. Discount r a t e ( a f t e r t a x r e t u r n on best a l t e r n a t i v e investment) 6 9 % / 1 0 0
area that maximizes savlngs. For this W. Term o f economic analysfs X Y r s .
example, t h e most economlc c o l l e c t o r a r e a i s X. ~ i r s yte a r non-solar f b e l expense ( t o t a l . C~)(N.)/(P.)+IO~ $=I
a b o u t 50 s q u a r e m e t e r s b u t p o s i t i v e savlngs *Y. Depreciation l i f e t i m e 20 Yrs.
are r e a l i z e d -From 5 t o over 100 s q u a r e 2. Salvage value (as f r a c t i o n o f investment) *%/ 100
meters.
AA. Table 6.2 with Y r = (W.). Column= (U.) and Row = ( V . ) a?drJ-
BB. (W.) " (T.) " (v. LSL~J-
CC. MIN(I..W.)" (H.) " (V.) 2 0.2112
t*DD. HIN(U..Y.) " (Zero) " (V.) 9.918.
EXAMPLE 6 . 2 S o l a r Economics f o r a Business EE. 1 " (Zero) " (H.) 9.129
FF. HIN(1. .W.) " (Zero) " (v.) 9.9/8
A comparison between t h e s o l a r savlngs GG. (FF.)/(EE.), Loan payment /, 676
for commercial and r e s i d e n t i a l p r o p e r t y i s HH. (GG.)+(cc.)[(H.)-~/(EE.)], Loan i n t e r e s t 0.6 go
interesting. Table 6.6 gives the same
11. (J.)+(l-J.)[(GG.)-(HH.)(R.)], Capital cost 0.787
parameters as E x a m p l e 6.1, except t h a t t h e
p a r a m e t e r s needed f o r a commercial bul l d l n g SJ. (s.)(BB.), ran cost 0.156
have been added. F o r commercial p r o p e r t y , KK. (Q. )(BB)(l-R.), Property tax 0.//2
t h e s o l a r e q u i p m e n t c a n be depreciated. In LL. ( z . ) / ( ~ + v . ) ( ~ - 1 , Salvage value 0.022
order to make t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n we n e e d t o
know the depreclatlon lifetlme and the
+MM.
NN.
(R.)(DO.)(l-Z.)/(Y.).
Other c o s t s (see Section 6.9)
Depreciation 0.203
-
salvage value.
f o r t h i s example i s 20
The depreciation lifetlrne
years as shown on
00.
PP.
(II.)+(JJ.)+(KK.)-(LL.)+(NN.), Residential costs
(lI.)+(JJ.)(l-R.)+(KK.)-(LL.)-(EV.I.)+(NN.)(l-R.),Convnercial costs
-
l i n e Y a n d t h e s a l v a g e v a l u e , l i n e Z, i s 10%
of t h e o r i g i n a l Investment. L l n e DD i s t h e "For o t h e r f u e l i n f l a t i o n f a c t o r s see Section 6.9.
* C o m e r c i a 1 only.
p r e s e n t v a l u e o f a l l y e a r l y d e p r e c l a t l o n de- t S t r a i g h t l i n e only. Use Tables 6.3A o r 6.38 f o r o t h e r d e p r e c i a t i o n methods.
ductions (straight l i n e only). (If other
d e p r e c i a t i o n schemes a r e t o be u s e d , s u c h a s
 S O L A R HEATING ECONOMICS TABLE 6.7 WORKSHEET FOR EXAMPLE 6 . 2 .,,, ,
I
I

F-CHART WRKSHEET 5
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

Collector Area
(Uorksheet 3)
Fraction by Solar
(Worksheet 3)
lnvbrtment in Solar
(R.)~Rl.~+(L,j
1st Year Fuel Expense
(Total. ~5)(1-~2.)(~.)/(o.)+l#
Fuel Savings
(X.-R4.)(AA.)
-2000 Expenses (Resjdential)
50 100
(00.1 (R3.1
COLLECTOR AREA m2
Expenses (Comnercia1)
(PP. ) (R3.)
FIGURE 6.2
L I F E CYCLE SAVINGS AS A FUNCTION OF COLLECTOR Savings (Residential)
(R5. )-(R6. )
AREA FOR RESIDENTIAL BUILDING OF EXAMPLE 6.1
Savings (Comnercial )
(R5.)(1-R.)-(R7.)
sum-of-digits or d o u b l e - d e c l i n i n g balance,
t h e f a c t o r DO i s f o u n d i n e i t h e r T a b l e 6.3A
o r 6.38.)
T a b l e 6.7 gives the 20-year s a v i n g s
w i t h t h e commercial t a x deductions. I n row
R9, the fuel sav-ings, f r o m R5, m u s t be
reduced by 1 minus t h e income t a x bracket
s i n c e f u e l s a v i n g s r e s u l t i n g f r o m installing
a solar system i s taxable lncome t o t h e
businessman (who has a l r e a d y deducted t h e
c o s t o f f u e l as a b u s i n e s s e x p e n s e ) .

6.4 YEARLY SAVINGS

The p r e v i o u s examples gives the life cycle cost

c o m p a r i s o n b u t does n o t g i v e the savings for indl-
vidual years. U s u a l l y , t h e s a v i n g s i n t h e f i r s t few
years are negative b u t I f f u e l p r i c e s Increase faster
than other expenses, the y e a r l y s a v i n g s c a n become
positive. Because o f c o n c e r n o v e r cash f l o w problems
in early years it is sometimes Interesting t o
 122 S O L A R HEATING ECONOMICS TABLE 6 . 8 WORKSHEET FOR EXAMPLE 6 . 3

F-CHART WORKSHEET 6
c a l c u l a t e y e a r l y savings. Worksheet 6 can be used to
f i n d y e a r l y savings. YEARLY SP.VINGS FOR COLLECTOR P.REA = 2 5 mz

EXAMPLE 6 . 3 Y e a r l y Savings R10. Year (n) (first year-1) / 1 2

The first four
E x a m p l e 6.1 a r e shown i n r o w
6.8.
year's savings
R23 o f T a b l e
for

As e x p e c t e d , m a j o r c a s h f l o w p r o b l e m s
tRl1. Current Mortgape
r(R1I.)-(Rl4.)+(Rla.)] 1 5qOO 1 6L99
R12. Fuel Savfngs
can e x i s t i n t h e f i r s t y e a r . (x.-R~.)(I+u.~-'
The sum o f a l l t h e y e a r l y s a v i n g s will
not be e q u a l t o the l i f e cycle savings
u n l e s s each y e a r ' s s a v i n g s i s d i s c o u n t e d t o
the present. I f the savings f o r year N i s Mortga
(I-J-)?R~.)I(EE.)
e Payment
d i v i d e d N-1 t i m e s b y ( l + d ) , w h e r e d i s the
market discount rate, the. result i s the Extra Insurance & aintenance
discounted savings. The sum o f all these ( S . I ( R%I(l+T.) n-p
yearly discounted s a v i n g s w i l l be e q u a l t o
Extra Property Tax
the l i f e c y c l e savings. This calculation I s (R~.)(Q.)(~+T.)~-~
p e r f o r m e d i n r o w 824 o f w o r k s h e e t 6. (The
down p a y m e n t i n t h e f i r s t y e a r s h o u l d n o t be Sm
(R13.+R14.+R15.+R16.;
discounted.
Interest on Mortgage
(Rll. ) ( t i . )
Tax Savlnqs
(R.)(R16.+R18.)
6.5 SAVINGS A S A FUNCTION OF FUEL COST
Depreciation (st. line)
(R3.) (1-Z.)/(Y.)
I n F i g u r e 6.3, we show s o l a r s a v i n g s f o r E x a m p l e 6.1
as a f u n c t i o n o f c o l l e c t o r area for four different Business Tax Savings
( R . )(R20.+R15.-R12.)
initial electricty rates; $0.01, $0.02, 60.03, a n d
$0.04 p e r kW-hr. ( E l e c t r i c t y a t $0.01 per kW-hr is Salvage Yalue
equivalent t o n a t u r a l g a s a t $0.22 p e r 100 c u b i c f e e t (RZ.)(Z.) (Last Year Only)
w i t h a 55% f u r n a c e e f f i c i e n c y . ) As the initial fuel Solar Savings
p r i c e i n c r e a s e s , t h e s o l a r s a v i n g s a t t h e optimum a r e a {RlZ.-R17.+R?9.+R21 .+R22.)
goes from negative t o positive. As e x p e c t e d , as t h e
f u e l p r i c e increases, both t h e
area increase.
savings and optimum
Somewhat u n e x p e c t e d I s t h e b r o a d r a n g e
**R24. Discounted Savings
(R23.)/(ItV.)" 1-614 1 16 148 176 (
o f c o l l e c t o r a r e a t h a t w i l l g i v e near optlmum s a v i n g s .
Savings are p o s i t i v e f o r a f u e l c o s t o f $0.04 f r o m 5 tFor the first year use [(R3.)(1-J.)]; for subsequent years use equatfon
with previous years values.
'to well over 100 s q u a r e m e t e r s . Thus, errors in
finding the e x a c t .optimum a r e n o t c r i t i c a l . The 2 0 'Income producing property only.
year savings a r e a l l above $10,000 for 45 t o 1 0 0 "The darn payment should not be discounted.
square meters w l t h a maximum o f $11,000 a t 70 s q u a r e
meters. Another i n t e r e s t i n g number is the "break
even" electricity cost. If electricity w e r e a b o u t
i2 4 SOLAR HEATING ECONOMICS SECTION 6 . 5

$0.018 p e r kW-hr, t h e 2 0 - y e a r s a v i n g s would be zero potential savings for commercial p r o p e r t y a r e much

w i t h a c o l l e c t o r o f a b o u t 20 square meters. smaller than f o r a residence. At an e l e c t r i c i t y cost
of $0.04 per kW-hr, t h e o p t i m u m 2 0 - y e a r s a v i n g s a r e
o n l y 63,400 compared t o o v e r 511,000 maximum s a v i n g s
for the residential property. These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e
due e n t i r e l y t o t a x laws. The c u r r e n t t a x laws tend
t o make solar energy a more favorablechoice for
residential u s a g e t h a n f o r c o m m e r c l a l u s a g e .

-8000 -
-
-12000-
-
-16000 1 I 1
0 20 40 60 80
COLLECTOR A R E A m2

FIGURE 6 . 3
L I F E CYCLE SAVl NGS AS A FUNCTION. OF COLLECTOR
AREA FOR FOUR DIFFERENT FUEL COSTS FOR B U I L D I N G
OF EXAMPLE 6.1 TREATED A S A RESIDENCE COLLECTOR A R E A m2

F i g u r e 6 . 4 shows s a v i n g s as a f u n c t i o n o f c o l l e c - FIGURE 6 . 4
t o r area f o r four d i f f e r e n t i n i t i a l f u e l costs f o r t h e SAVINGS FOR FOUR DIFFERENT FUEL COSTS FOR
ccmmercial p r o p e r t y o f E x a m p l e 6.2. I n t h i s case t h e B U I L D I N G OF EXAMPLE 6 . 2 TREATED AS A BUSINESS
savings can be positive for any fuel . cost above
approximately $0.025 p e r kW-hr ( I n s t e a d o f $ 0 . 0 1 8 a s
was t h e case for the residential building). The
 SOLAR HEATING E C O N O M I C S S E C T ION 6 . 7

savings would have been less than $923. A 20%

6.6 SPECIAL TAX CONSIDERATIONS discount rate results In a loss of 5370, It is
obvious t h a t there i s a discount r a t e t h a t w i l l g i v e a
The f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d many s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s are zero l i f e c y c l e savings. This d i s c o u n t rate is the
proposing tax credits to encourage solar energy " r e t u r n on I n v e s t m e n t ."
utilization. The p r o p o s a l s r a n g e f r o m e x e m p t i n g s o l a r Finding the r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t i s a t r i a l and
systems f r o m t h e usual property tax, to giving a e r r o r process. A p a r t i c u l a r d e s l g n i s chosen, u s u a l l y
"bottom line tax c r e d i t . " Since it Is impossible t o t h e d e s i g n p r o d u c i n g t h e maximum s a v i n g s . The s a v i n g s
g e n e r a l i z e such c r e d i t s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t r e a t each calculations are repeated using different discount
case s e p a r a t e l y . rates u n t i l zero l l f e c y c l e savings I s obtalned. The
Another type o f t a x i n c e n t i v e i s the investment process i s best c a r r i e d o u t graphically. Two d i s c o u n t
tax credit which a l l o w s a b u s i n e s s m a n an a d d i t i o n a l r a t e s a r e used i n i t i a l l y , one g i v i n g p o s i t i v e s a v l n g s
one-time deduction i n t h e f i r s t year; This tax break and a second g i v i n g n e g a t i v e s a v i n g s . The s a v i n g s a r e
is not allowed on h e a t i n g and a i r conditioning p l o t t e d on a g r a p h as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e .
equipment b u t i s a p p l i c a b l e t o s o l a r systems s u p p l y i n g The t w o p o i n t s a r e c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r by a s t r a i g h t
process heat. The p r e s e n t v a l u e o f any special tax l i n e and t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n w l t h t h e zero savings axis
c r e d i t w o u l d b e a d d e d t o l i n e R 8 o r R9 o f w o r k s h e e t 5 . i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t . I f the two
initial market discount r a t e s a r e f a r f r o m t h i s new
estimate of the r e t u r n on investment, it may be
EXAMPLE 6.3 P r o p e r t y Tax E x e m p t l o n necessary t o c o m p u t e a t h i r d p o i n t a n d draw a s m o o t h
curve through the three points. F i g u r e 6.4 shows s u c h
As an example, c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t o f a c u r v e f o r t h e 25 s q u a r e m e t e r s y s t e m o f E x a m p l e 6.2.
p r o p e r t y t a x e s ori t h e l i f e cycle cost of The r e t u r n o n i n v e s t m e n t I s seen t o b e 1 4 % .
Examples 6.1 a n d 6.2. The l i f e c y c l e p r o p - .
e r t y t a x i s g i v e n a s l i n e KK o f Tables 6.4
a n d 6.6. T h i s a m o u n t was u s e d a s an e x p e n s e
- i n l i n e s 0 0 a n d PP s o t h a t t h e n e t e f f e c t o f
eliminating property taxes i s t o lncrease 6.8 SECONDARY DESIGN VARIABLES
t h e s a v i n g s by 0.112 t i m e s the investment.
With t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y taxes, t h e T h i s c h a p t e r has used l l f e c y c l e c o s t s t o examine o n l y
l i f e cycle savings for the four areas one design variable, the collector area. The
i n c r e a s e by $ 1 12, $672, $1232, an,d 61792. guidelines given i n Tables 1.1 and 1.2 f o r less
i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s ( i - e . secondary v a r i a b l e s ) can be
expected t o y i e l d near optimum systems. However, i f
i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o check t o see I f these recommenda-
tions are correct, i t w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o r e p e a t
6.7 RETURN ON INVESTMENT b o t h t h e t h e r m a l and economic c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r a r a n g e
o f each secondary v a r i a b l e . Consider storage s i z e as
I n the example problems o f t h i s chapter, a l l - c a s h an example. F o r a number o f d i f f e r e n t s t o r a g e s i z e s
f l o w s were d i s c o u n t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t u s i n g t h e "market we w o u l d h a v e t o f l n d t h e c o l l e c t o r a r e a that yields
*discount rate." I f t h e m a r k e t d i s c o u n t had been z e r o , t h e optimum s a v i n g s . A c u r v e i s t h e n drawn o f optimum
all l i f e c y c l e s a v i n g s w o u l d have. been s u b s t a n t i a l l y s a v i n g s as a f u n c t i o n o f s t o r a g e s i z e . The o p t i m u m o f
increased. For t h e 25 square meter commercial system this curve Identifies the system t h a t has b o t h t h e
o f E x a m p l e 6.2, t h e d i s c o u n t e d s a v i n g s was $ 9 2 3 . If a optimum storage size and c o l l e c t o r area. It is
zero discount rate had been used, t h e s a v l n g s w o u l d o b v l o u s t h a t t h i s i s a time-consuming process t h a t can
o n i y be j u s t i f i e d i n except.ional circumstances.
have been $4976.
rate greater than
On t h e o t h e r hand, i f a discount
8% h a d b e e n used, t h e l i f e c y c l e I
 S3LAR HEATING ECONOMICS SECTION 6 . 9

I f a n t i c i p a t e d expenses are made at irregular

intervals, the p r e s e n t w o r t h o f each o f t h e expenses
can be c a l c u l a t e d by d i v i d i n g an expense by (l+dlN
where d is the discount r a t e and N i s t h e y e a r i n
w h l c h t h e p a y m e n t i s made. The sum o f the present
worths o f a l l such expenses s h o u l d t h e n be s u b t r a c t e d
f r o m t h e s a v i n g s i n r o w s R 8 o r R9.
Section 6.2 shows how t o use t h e inflation-
discount f u n c t i o n of Equation 6.7 t o f i n d t h e p r e s e n t
worth o f a maintenance or replacement c o s t t h a t occurs
each y e a r . B u t what i f a maJor expense o c c u r s every
few y e a r s ? F o r example, a system w i t h p l a s t i c g l a z i n g
on t h e c o l l e c t o r may h a v e t o h a v e t h e c o v e r s r e p l a c e d
periodically. The p r e s e n t w o r t h o f s u c h a series of
payments can also be found using the inflation-
discount function but with slightly different
interpretations of the inflation and discount
parameters. I t i s necessary to find the inflation
r a t e and d i s c o u n t r a t e t h a t i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e r e -
placement time period b a s e d u p o n t h e assumed y e a r l y
values. W i t h an i n f l a t i o n r a t e per year of I, an
equivalent inf l a t i ~ n rate o f j p e r r e p lacement t i m e
p e r i o d , M, c a n be f o u n d f r o m

'-.DISCOUNT RATE (%I

FIGURE 6.5 I n a s i m i l a r manner, t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e o f d p e r year
L I F E CYCLE SAVINGS AS A FUNCTION 3F MARKET DISCOUNT is equivalent t o a r a t e o f c p e r M y e a r s , where c i s
RATE FOR 2 5 SQUARE METER SYSTEM OF EXAMPLE 6.2. g i v e n by
lNTERSECTlON WITH 0 AXIS I S THE RETURN ON INVESTMENT.

The l i f e c y c l e r e p l a c e m e n t c o s t (LCRC) f o r l i n e NN a s
6.9 IRREGULARLY VARYING COSTS a f r a c t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l investment i s t h e n equal t o

If costs v a r y w i t h t i m e i n an i r r e g u l a r manner, t h a t LCRC = r x F ( M , j , c ) 6.10

i s , i f t h e y do n o t i n c r e a s e a t a constant percentage
per year, then t h e present value c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h i s where r i s t h e r a t i o of replacement c o s t a t t h e t l m e
chapter cannot be used directly. Although in o f t h e f i r s t replacement t o t h e i n i t i a l cost.
- principle it Is possible t o determine t h e present A n o t h e r common t y p e of an irregularly varying
v a l u e o f any a r b i t r a r y s e r i e s o f c o s t s , d e t a i l e d cal- cost occurs when a f u - e l i n f l a t i o n r a t e o f e p e r y e a r
culations are seldom justifiable becaues t h e e x a c t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t o level o u t a f t e r M years t o a value
n a t u r e o f f u t u r e c o s t e s c a l a t i o n s c a n n o t be known w i t h of f p e r y e a r u n t i l y e a r N. The p r e s e n t w o r t h o f t h e
a high degree of certainty. Consequently, this f u e l exponse f o r t h e f i r s t M years, f o r each d o l l a r o f
section is concerned only w i t h costs t h a t vary i n a the f i r s t year's fuel payment, is F(M,e,d) from
r e a s o n a b l y w e l l behaved manner. Equation 6.7. The c o s t o f f u e l a t t h e e n d o f y e a r M ,
i n t e r m s o f f u e l p r i c e s a t t h e end o f t h e f i r s t year,
 S O L A R HEATING ECONOMICS SECTION 6 . 9

is then ( ~ + e ) ~ - al n d a t the end of year M+l i s vidually. The t h r e e c o v e r r e p l a c e m e n t c o s t s

(1+elM-I ( l + f ). The v a l u e , a t t h e e n d o f year M, of are anticipated to be (as a f r a c t i o n of
the N-M remaining fuel payments is then i n i t i a l i n v e s t m e n t ) 0.268, 0.358, and 0.479.
The f i r s t r e p l a c e m e n t must be discounted 5
( ~ + e ) ~ ( -l +
' f IF(N-M,f , d ) . The p r e s e n t worth of thls
years, t h e s e c o n d 1 0 y e a r s a n d t h e t h i r d 15
amount i s f o u n d by d i v i d i n g by ( I + c I ) ~ . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
years. The p r e s e n t w o r t h o f t h e t h r e e c o s t s
! i f e cycle f u e l c o s t (LCFC), s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e f l r s t
a r e t h e n 0.182, 0.166, and 0.151. The sum
y e a r ' s payment o f one d o l l a r i s
of these t h r e e c o s t s I s 0.499, t h e same a s
LCFC = F(M,e,d) + x F(N-M,f,d) 6.11 the previous calculat!on.
The l i f e c y c l e f u e l c o s t I s calculated
using Equation 6.11. Substituting i n the
When a p p r o p r i a t e , t h i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e used t o find appropriate va!ues
the entry f o r l i n e AA o f w o r k s h e e t 4. The f o l l o w i n g
example w i l l i l l u s t r a t e these c a i c u l a t i o n s . LCFC = F(6,0.12,0.08) +
[%I [I%] "
EXAMPLE 6 . 4 I r r e g u l a r l y Varying Costs

I f a p l a s t i c g l a z i n g on a c o l l e c t o r i s
t o be replaced every 5 years a t a cost of
m a t e r i a l s and l a b o r t h a t i s e x p e c t e d t o be T h i s number skfiould b e e n t e r e d o n l i n e AA of
20% o f t h e i n i t i a l investment ( i n terms o f Worksheet 4 .
today's cost), what is the 20-year life
cycle factor for line NN o f W o r k s h e e t 4 ?
Assume general inflation is 6 % and the
discount rate is 8%. Also, i f fuel
6.10 SUMMARY
i n c r e a s e s a t 12% p e r y e a r f o r the f i r s t 6
years and at 8% +hereafter, what i s t h e
In this chapter we have used the r e s u l t s of t h e
20-year l i f e c y c l e f u e l f a c t o r f o r line AA
thermal analysis t o find the collector area that
o f worksheet 4?
maximizes the discounted l i f e c y c l e savings. Solar
For this problem t h e c o v e r s must be
s a v i n g s were d i s c o u n t e d t o t a k e I n t o account t h e time
r e p a c e d t h r e e t i m e s ; a t t h e end o f y e a r s 5,
value of money. I n c o m e t a x d e d u c t i o n s w e r e shown t o
10 and 15. A replacement s h o u l d n o t be
be o f maJor i m p o r t a n c e . P r e s e n t t a x laws were shown
c o n s i d e r e d i n y e a r 20. A t t h e end o f year 5
t h e r e p l a c e m e n t c o s t w i l l b e 0.20 x - ( r . 0 6 1 5 t o favor residential adoption of s o l a r heating over
or 26.8$ o f t h e I n i t i a l c o s t . An i n f l a t i o n comrnerlcial adoption.
F i n a l l y , we m u s t c a u t i o n t h e r e a d e r n o t t o a s s u m e
r a t e o f 6% per year is equivalent, from
t h e parameters u s e d . i n t h e i l i u s t r a t l v e examples are
Equation 6.8, t o 34% p e r 5 y e a r s and t h e 8%
valid for his location. The v a l u e s o f t h e economic
yearly discount r a t e i s equivalent t o 47%
p a r a m e t e r s used I n t h i s chapter were chosen to be
per 5 y e a r s f r o m E q u a t i o n 6.9. Therefore,
representive of t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d i n many l o c a t i o n s ,
the l i f e cycle cost of the three cover re-
but clearly are not generally applicable. The reader
placements, as a f r a c t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l I n -
s h o u l d d e t e r m l n e l o c a l c o s t s f o r h i s own e c o n o m i c c a ! -
vestment, i s 0.268 x F(3,0.34,0.47) = 0.268
culations.
x 1.866 = 0.499. This value would be
e n t e r e d o n l i n e NN o f W o r k s h e e t 4.
The same resu I t s can be o b t a i n e d by
treating each cover replacement indi-
 APPENDIX i 133

APPENDIX i In the water-to-air heat exchanger i n which space h e a t

HEAT EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS is transferred from the water storaye tank, the
minimum c a p a c i t a n c e r a t e , Cmin, i s u s u a l l y t h e c a p a c i -
tance rate of the air. I n t h i s c a s e , C,in would be
in a l i q u i d - b a s e d s o l a r h e a t i n g system, such as t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e mass f l o w r a t e a n d t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t
shown i n F i g u r e 1 .l, t h e r e a r e o f t e n t w o o r m o r e heat of the alr. In the collector-tank heat exchanger,
exchangers. A liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger is Cmin i s often the capacltance r a t e o f the antlfreeze
needed t o t r a n s f e r h e a t from t h e s o l a r collectors to solution flowing i n the solar collectors because the
the storage tank when a separate flow circuit mass flowrates o f t h e w a t e r a n d a n t l f r e e z e solutions
c o n t a i n i n g a n t i f r e e z e and/or c o r r o s i o n inhibitors is a r e o f t e n equal, b u t t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t of the anti-
used in the collectors. A second l i q u i d - t o - l i q u i d f r e e z e s o l u t i o n i s lower t h a n t h a t o f water.
n e a t e x c h a n g e r may b e u s e d i n some s y s t e m s t o t r a n s f e r The actual heat transfer rate i s a function of
heat from the storage tank t o the domestic water t h e h e a t exchanger s i z e and design, and the capaci-
preheat tank. A water-to-air (usually crossflow) heat t a n c e r a t e s and t e m p e r a t u r e s o f t h e f l o w s t r e a m s . The
exchanger i s needed t o t r a n s f e r h e a t from t h e s t o r a g e actual heat t r a n s f e r r a t e , o r e q u i v a l e n t l y , t h e tem-
tank t o the b u i l d i n g a i r . p e r a t u r e r i s e o f e i t h e r f l o w stream, for a speclflc
The p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s o l a r heating system is heat exchanger operating a+ known conditions i s
affected by t h e performance o f t h e h e a t exchangers I n ordinarily a v a i l a b l e f r o m t a b l e s o r c h a r t s s u p p l i e d b y
t h e system. I n t h i s t e x t , heat exchanger performance 1 the manufacturer.
is represented i n terms o f t h e heat exchanger e f f e c -
t i v e n e s s , E , and t h e minimum c a p a c l t a n c e rate (1-e.,
mass f l o w r a t e x s p e c i f i c h e a t ) I n t h e heat exchanger. EXAMPLE A l . 1 Effectiveness o f a Load Heat
As a r e s u l t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o b e a b l e t o determine Exchanger
t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a heat exchanger from t h e p e r f o r -
mance..data o r d i n a r i l y s u p p l i e d b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r . A crossflow water-to-air heat exchanger
The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a heat exchanger, E, i s t h e i s t o be u s e d i n a s o l a r h e a t i n g system t o
r a t i o of the actual rate of heat transfer t o the s u p p l y t h e space h e a t i n g l o a d f r o m h o t water
maximum p o s s i b l e h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e . in a storage tank. The w a t s r f l o w r a t e w l l l
b e 0.694 l i t e r s p e r s e c o n d ( 1 1 gpm) a n d the
ACTUAL HEAT TRANSFER RATE air flowrate w i l l b e 520 l i t e r s o f a i r a t
E = A1 . 1
MAXIMUM HEAT TRANSFER RATE standard c o n d i t i o n s p e r second (1100 cfm).
Data from t h e manufacturer i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e
The effectiveness w i l l always have a value rate o f h e a t t r a n s f e r f o r t h i s h e a t exchan-
b e t w e e n 0 and 1 . I n a specific heat exchanger, both g e r a t t h e s e f l o w c o n d i t i o n s w i l l be 16660 W
the actual and t h e maximum h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e s w i l l ( 5 6 8 6 0 E T U / h r ) when t h e e n t e r i n g a l r t e m p e r -
vary as t h e temperatures of t h e entering flow streams a t u r e i s 22 C and t h e e n t e r i n g w a t e r temper-
change. The a d v a n t a g e o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s c o n c e p t i s a t u r e I s 6 0 C. Calculate the effectlveness
that t h e r a t i o o f t h e a c t u a l t o maxlmum h e a t t r a n s f e r o f t h i s heat exchanger.
r a t e s i s n e a r l y constant, independent of temperature
variations, i f t h e mass f l o w r a t e s i n t h e h e a t e x c h a n - The c a p a c l t a n c e r a t e o f t h e water, C,, i s
ger a r e constant.
T h e maxlmum h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e I s t h e p r o d u c t of
t h e m i n i m u m c a p a c i t a n c e r a t e , C,in, and t h e d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s o f t h e e n t e r i n g h o t and c o l d
f l o w s t r e a m s , Th a n d Tc r e s p e c t i v e l y . The c a p a c i t a n c e r a t e o f the air, C
,, i s

MAXIMUM HEAT TRANSFER RATE = C m l n x (Th-Tc) A1.2

 APPENDIX 1

APPENDIX 2
METEOROLOGICAL DATA

Presented i n t h e follow!ng t a b l e s are meteorolog-

The mlnlmum c a p a c l t a n c e r a t e , C,I I s thus ical data f o r 171 I o c a t l o n s i n t h e U n l t e d S t a t e s a n d
that of the air. Canada. The t a b l e s a r e a r r a n g e d i n alphabetical o r d e r
The maximum p o s s l b l e h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e b y c i t y name, w i t h t h e Unlted States clties first,
I s t h e p r o d u c t o f Cmln and the temperature f o l l o w e d by t h e C a n a d i a n - c i t l e s .
d if f e r e n c e between the e n t e r I ng f low The d a t a l n c ! u d e : H, t h e m o n t h l y a v e r a g e o f d a l -
streams, whlch i s (60 C - 2 2 C ) o r 38 C. ly r a d i a t i o n on a horiz- o n t a l surface, i n megajoules
p e r s q u a r e m e t e r ( M J / ~ Z ) ; KT, the ratlo of average
MAXIMUM HEAT TRANSFER RATE = 6.32 V / C X 38 C dally -
radlatlon t o average dally extraterrestrial
= 24016 W r a d i a t l o n ; Ta, t h e m o n t h l y mean ambient temperature
(C); a n d OD, t h e a v e r a g e number o f d e g r e e - d a y s I n t h e
The effectiveness o f t h e l o a d heat exchan- month (C-days).
ger, EL, i s the r a t i o of the actual t o the The d a t a i n t h e t a b l e s h a v e been compiled from
maximum h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e s . Thus, several sources, as l i s t e d b e l o w . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d
t h a t t h e r e may be s l g n l f l c a n + e r r o r s I n t h e radiation
data arlsing from past instrumental difficulties;
r a d i a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e now b e i n g u p g r a d e d in the
United States network for s o l a r r a d i a t l o n measure-
ments. When m o r e r e c e n t d a t a e r e a v a i l a b l e i o p r o v i d e
a b a s i s f o r r e v i s e d a v e r a g e s , t h e y s h o u i d b e used.'
Klein e t at. (19771, i n t h e l a s t - reference in
the l i s t b e l o w , d i s c u s s I n some d e t a l i , t h e c a l c u l a -
t l o n o f average r a d i a t l o n on t i l t e d s u r f a c e s o f varl-
03s inclinations. lncluded in the report are c a l r ~ l -
l a t e d estimates o f r a d i a t l o n o n s u r f a c e s with slopes
of 20" t o 90, a n d a t a z i m u t h a n g l e s o f 0" t o 45O,
based on t h e d a t a I n c l u d e d i n this appendix. There
are uncertalntles in the calculation methods, and
t h e s e methods w i l l u n d o u b t e d l y be r e f i n e d a s more re-
liable d a t a become a v a i l a b l e .

ASHRAE GUIDE AND DATA BOOK, SYSTEMS, A m e r i c a n S o c l e t y

o f H e a t i n g , R e f r l g e r a t l n g a n d A l r C o n d i t l o n l n g En-
g i n e e r s , New Y o r k (1973)
B e c k E.J. a n d F l e l d R.L., Solar Heatlng of
Bulldlngs
p --
a n d D o m e s t i c H o t ~ae
th
r,nclal R e p o r t R835, Na-
v a l F a c l l l t l e s Engineering Command ( 1 9 7 6 )

*A r e v i s e d SOLMET d a t a b a s e became a v a i l a b l e i n m i d -
1970. The new d a t a c a n be o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l
O c e a n i c and A t m o s p h e r i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; i t i s a l s o
i n c l u d e d i n t h e d a t a f i l e s o f t h e FCHART program v e r -
s i o n 3.0 ( a v a i l a b l e from t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin)
and i n R e p o r t 4 4 - 2 (b8.00)of t h e E n g i n e e r i n g E x p e r i m e n t
S t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, W I
53706.
 136 APPENCIX 2 m-0 - wmo -
.
hr. .a
.
mif -G\
.em
-
-4-
* if m 1 . D

CINO -
t o f , G.O.G., Duffie, J.A., and Smlth, C.O., Worid E- -
corn -0
.NO

--
tributlon of Solar Radlatlon, Report No. 21, Engi-
neering Experiment Station, Unlversity of Wisconsin
- Madlson ( 1 9 0 6 )
U.S. D e ~ t . of Commerce. Cllmatlc - --
Atlas of -the Unltcd
- -

states, ~ n v l r o n m e n t iI Data Service, Repr lnted b y .

the Nat lona l
Admlnlstratlon (1974)
Ocean 1 c and Atmospheric
moo
.
tn
4
-
m m -00
.brn

U.S. --
Dept. of Commerce, Vonthly Normal of Temperature,
Preclpitatlon, and Heatlng and Cooling Degree-Days
(1941-19701, ~ m o n a l Oceanlc and Atmospheric
Admlnlstratlon, Cllmatography of the United States 00-30 .
No. 81 .
vlm
.
.u
4

Kleln, S.A., Beckman, W.A., and Duffle. J.A., Monthly

Average Solar Radlatlon on lncllned Surfaces for
171- NOT
- American Cltles, Report No.
Englneerlng Experiment Statlon, Unlverslty
44,
of
Wlsconsln -
Madison (1977) NIOO .
. .urn
QU
co
-Q\

4-
d

..
0
.-*a .
mmh
CCI
.m
. -3m
 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUFIE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

ANNAPOLIS 2 MD (LAT. 38.6)

TI MJ/m 7 . 3 3 10.17 14.24 17.54 20.43 23.32 22.69 19.64 16.03 12.31 7.91 6.49
KT .46 .48 .51 .51 -52 .56 .56 .54 .53 .53 .46 .45
Ta C 1.0 2.0 6.0 12.0 17.0 22.0 24.0 23.0 2 16.
0.0 11 43 .70, 8.0 2.0
DD C-DAY 526. 454. 376. 183. 58. 0. 0. 9. 293. 484.

ANNETTE AK (LAT. 5 5 . 0 )
2.64 4.81 9.88 15.24 18.30 18.34 18.34 14.28 10.80 5.11 2.47 1.72
-43 .42 -51 .52 -49 .45 .47 -44 .47 .37 .34 ,36
C .O 2.0 3.0 5.9 9.0 11.0 15.0 14.0 12.0 8.0 4.0 2.0
527. 465. 468. 381. 281. 187. 143. 124. 196. 315. 410. 499.

APALAQiICOL$ F L (LAT. 29.4)

R W/m 1 2 . 2 5 15.22 18.44 23.00 25.47 24.71 22.62 2!.20 19.24 17.48 13.93 11.04
*T .57 .59 .59 .63 .64 ,61 .57 .56 .58 .63 .62 .55
Pa C 12.0 13.0 15.0 19.0 23.0 26.0 27.0 27.0 26.0 21,O 16.0 13.0
DD C-DAY 193. 144. 100. 18. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 9. 85. 177.

ASHEVILLE NC (LAT. 35.3)

H M J / ~ ~ 9.21 12.48 16.03 20.51 23.26 23.?8 23.24 21.56 18.25 14.86 10.47 8.45
TRT~6 C-DAY
C
.51
3.0
467,
.54
4.0
398.
.55
8.0
329.
.58
13.0
155,
.59
18.0
.58
21.0
.58
23.0
.58
23.0
.58
19.0
.60
14.0
.55
8.0
.5i
4.0
' 56. 8. 0. 0. 26. 169. 312. 453.

ASTORIA OR (UT. 4 6 . 1 )
1 w/m2 3.85 6.52 11.17 15.51 20.49 20.16 22.37 19.07 15.01 8.82 0.77 3.26
-34 .39 .46 -48 -53 -49 .56 .55 .55 .47 .38 -33
Tb C 5.0 6.0 6.0 r.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 15.0 14.0 11.0
DE C-DAY 420. 333. 355. 267. 219. 142. 91. 84. 112. 210.
8.0
308.
5.0
382.

ATLANTA GA (LAT. 33.4)

M J / ~ ~ 9.53 11.88 15.77 20.24 22.37 23.17 22.50 20.99 17,23 14.64 11.08 8.41
KT .50 .50 .53 .56 .56 .56 .56 .56 .54 .57 .55 .48
B C-DAY
C 6.0
389.
7.0
311.
11.0
246.
16.0
80.
20.0
15.
24.0
0.
25.0
0.
25.0
0.
22.0
4.
17.0
76.
11.G
227.
7.0
371.

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP 9CT h'OV DEC

ATLANTIC C I Y
R" MJ/mT
KT
Ta C
DD C-DAY

BALTIMORE
H ~ / m 2
rz,
Ta C
DD C-DAY

BARROW
1 M J / ~

BETHEL
A MJ/m2
T% c
DB c-DAY
B I G SPRING
~ / m 2
9
Ta c
DD C-DAY

BILLINGS M'T (LAT. 45.5)

H w/m2
-Rf ".
1a
-- -
6.62
5
-6.0
9.92 15.03 19.09 22.65 25.62 26.63 23._3_2 1 7 2 5 - 1 0 - 6 8
- 5 8 -
-3.0 0
3 8 -
7.0
r5
12.0
r 7 6 T . 6 7 - .67
1?.0 22.0 21.0
.65
15.0
.55
10.0
1 2 1 ; 5.U
.56
2.0
.54
-3.0
DD C-DAY 742. 585. 55i. 340. 185. 13. 6. 8. 123. 271. 488. 658.
 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

BINCHAMFTON NY (LAT. 42.1)

fl w / m 2 5.82 8 . 5 4 12.48 15.99 20.39 23.32 22.90 19.72 15.24 10.60 6.03 4.77
.42 -45 .48 .47 .52 .56 .57 .55 .53 .5! .40 .39
gT C -6.0 -5.0 .O 7.0 15.0 18.0 21.0 20.0 16.0 10.0 3.0 -4.0
DB C-DAY 741. 657. 581. 338. 178. 42. 12. 22. 96. 253. 447. 682.

BIRMINGHAM AL (LAT. 33.3)

R w/m2 8.58 11.85 15.32 20.56 23.40 23.57 22.94 21.18 18.09 15.03 10.38 8.12
-45 -49 -51 .57 .59 .57 -57 .57 .56 .58 -51 .46
Ta c 7.0 8.0 12.0 17.0 21.0 25.0 27.0 26.0 23.0 12.0 11.0 7.0
DD C-DAY 363. 287. 216. 64. 11. 0. 0. 0. 3. 16. 217. 341.

B ISMhRCK ND (LAT. 4 6 . 5 )
6.61 10.50 14.68 18.78 23.04 24.55 25.59 21.66 15.98 11.42 6.73 5.19
P .59 .63 .61 .58 .60 .59 .64 .62 .59 .61 .54 .54
4
0
C -13.0 -11.0 -3.0 6.0 12.0 17.0 21.0 20.0 14.0 7.0 -1.0 -9.0
DD C-DAY 978. 801. 687. 367. 188. 68. 10. 19. 140. 313. 602. 851.

MA (L4T. 4 2 . 1 )
6.52 8 . 9 9 12.71 15.85 19.70 21.62 20.91 18.15 14.72 10.41 6.1 5.39
.47 .47 .49 .47 .50 .52 .52 .51 .51 .49 .44 .GC
-3.0 -3.0 1.0 7.0 13.0 18.0 21.0 20.0 16.0 11.3 5.0 -1.0
DD C-DAY 654. 585. 520. 322. 148. 38. 0. 12. 59. 212. 383. 603.

BOISE ID (TAT. 4 3 . 3 )
Il ~ / m 2 5.94 9.74 14.18 20.32 24.55 26.72 27.98 23.80 19.07 13.13 7.57 5.14
F
D% C-DAY
C
.46
-1.0
618.
.53
1.0
474.
,55
5.0
401.
-61
9.0
243.
.63
14.0
136.
.65
18.0
45.
.70
23.0
0.
$67
22.0
0.
.67
17.0
.64
11.0
.53
4.0
.A4
.O
73. 231. 440. 565.

BOSTON MA (LAT. 42.2)

n m/m2 5.81 8.28 12.25 15.22 19.74 20.87 20.74 17.77 14.26 9.95 6.06 4.98
*42 -43 -47 -45 .SO -50 .52 .50 .49 .47 .41 .41
q c
b c-DAY
-1 . O
604.
.O
540.
3.0
470.
9.0
285.
15.0
116.
29.0
LO.
23.0
0.
22.0
5.
18.0
33.
13.0
176.
7.0
335.
1.0
545.

JAN FEE MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY .4UG SEP OCT NOV DEC

BOULDER CO (LAT. 4 0 . 0 )
8 . 4 1 11.22 1 6 . 7 9 19.26 19.26 21.98 21.77 18.38 17.25 12.98 9.23 7.62
.56 .55 .62 .56 ,49 .53 .54 .51 .58 .58 .57 .56
C .O 1.0 3.0 9.0 14.0 19.0 23.0 22.0 17.0 12.0 5.0 2.0
DD C-DAY 551. 459. 449. 268. 131. 49. 3. 0. 77. 204. 383. 503.

BROWNSVILLE TX (LAT. 2 5 . 5 )

h
DD
""'c
C-DAY
12.00 14.05 16.81
.51
15.0
125.
.50
17.0
84.
.51
20.0
49.
19.15
.52
23.0
0.
23.25
-59
26.0
0.
25.26
.63
28.0
0.
25.89
-65
28.0
0.
23.21
.61
28.0
0.
19.15
.57
27.0
0.
16.98
.58
24.0
3.
11.68
.b8
19.0
19.
10.58
.47
16.0
81.

CAPE HATTEYS NC (LAT. 35.2)

TI M/m 10.20 13.26 18.07 23.88 26.56 26.97 26.30 23.29 19.74 15.10 11.88 9.03
w
a TKT C
$57
8.0 .58
8.0 .62
10.0 .67
14.0 1 9. 6. 07 .66
23.0 .65
25.0 .63
25.0 .63
23.0 .61
18.0 1 3.62
.0 .54
9.0
P DB C-DAY 339. 299. 254. 104. 26, 0. 0. 0. 0. 42. 154. 298.

6
CARIBOU
M.T/rn2
ME (LAT. 4 6 . 5 )
5.73
.52
9 . 6 2 15.35
.56 .64
16.73
.52
19.82
.51
20.07
.49
21.29
.53
18.82
.54
13.93
-52
8,78
.47
4.60
.37
4.43
.46
T C -11.U -10.0 -4.0 3.0 10.0 15.0 18.0 17.0 12.0 7.0 0 -8.0
D% C-DAY 939. 817. 727. 477. 260. 102. 43. 64. 187. 379. 586, 853.

CHARLESTON SC (LAT. 32.5)

10.58 12.67 16.39 21.54 23.00 23.42 21.87 20.74 17.06 14.3L 11.92 9.03
.54 .52 .54 .60 .58 .57 .54 .56 .53 .55 .58 .50
10.0 10.0 14.0 18.3 22.0 25.0 27.0 26.0 24.0 19.0 14.0 10.0
D% C-DAY 271. 216. 162, 30. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 33. 157. 262.

CHARLOTTE NC (LAT. 35.1)

9.29 12.39 16.20 21.39 23.07 24.45 23.65 21.69 18.21 16.86 10.51 8.54
.52 .54 .5S .60 .5R .59 .59 .59 .58 .GO .55 .51
6.0 7.0 10.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 26.0 25.0 22.0 16.0 11.0 6.0
DB C-DAY 394. 327. 256. 81. 19. 0. 0. 0. 6. 84. 233. 386.
 JAN FEB MAR APR HAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

CHATTANOOGA TN (LAT. 3 5 . 0 )
IT h!J/m2 8.12 1 1 . 3 5 14.49 19.51 22.57 23.32 22.90 21.02 17-84 13.94 9.46 7.58
KT
T C
.45
5.0
.49
6.0
.4?
10.0
.55
16.0
.57
20.0
.57
24.0
.57
26.0 .57
26.0 .57
22.C .Sb
16.0 9. 4. 09 .45
5.0
D$ C-DAY 427. 347. 268. 92. 28. 0. 0. 0. 5. 101. 268. 410.

CHICAGO IL (LAT. 4 1 . 6 )
U ~ / m 2 7.15 9.70 13.63 16.31 20.78 23.13 22.04 20.32 16.06 11.08 6.57 5.48
.51 .50 .52 .40 .53 .56 .55 .57 .55 -52 .43 .43
%
Ta c -3.0 -2.0 3.0 10.0 16.0 21.0 24.0 23.0 19.0 1 3 5.0 -1.0
DD C-DAY 701. 585. 486. 252. 116. 14. 0. 4. 32. 176. 410. 629.

CLEVELAND OH (LAT. 4 1 . 2 )
5.19 7.53 1 3 . 0 5 15.77 21.87 23.38 23.04 20.62 15.72 11.00 5.90 4.8:
.36 .38 .49 .46 .56 .57 .57 .57 .54 .51 -38 .37
c. C -2.0 -1.0 2.0 9.0 15.0 20.0 22.0 21.0 18.0 12.0 5.0 .O
4
N D% C-DAY 656. 577. 498. 278. 136. 22, 5. 9. 53. 197, 39G. 598.

COLUMHIA MO (LAT. 38.6)

R M J / ~ ~ 7.53 1 0 . 4 5 14.39 18.11 22.21 23.88 24.00 22.00 18.73 !3.55 9.28 7.07
.47 .49 52 .52 .56 -58 .60 .60 .62 .55 .54 .49
ZTb c -1 . O .O k.3 12.0 18.0 23.0 25.0 24.0 20.0 14.0 6.0 .O
D% C-EAY 598. 486. 398. 180. 67. 7. 0. 0. 30. 139. 362. 537.

COLUMi3US . OH (LAT. 4 0 . 0 )
R ~.i~/rnZ 5.39 8.28 12.38 16.43 20.41 23.50 22.67 19.95 17.65 11.96 7.44 5.52
T6 C
, 3
-1 .O 6 .41
.O
.46
4.0 .48
11.0 .52
16.0 .57
21.0 .56
23.0 .55
22.0 1 8.59
.0 1 2. 5. 04 .L6
5.0 .41
.O
D% C-DAY 604. 527. 449. 237. 95. 15. 0. 3. 47. 193. 397. 577.

CORPUS CHRI3TI TX (LAT. 27.5)

MJ/m 10.97 13.82 17.29 19.85 23.49 25.29 26.33 23.36 19.68 17.C8 11.93 10.05
T"T C
-49
13.0 .51
15.0 1 8.54
.0 .54
22.0 .59
25.0 2 7. 6. 03 -66
29.0 .62
29.0 .58
27.0 2 3.00
.0 1 8. 5. 01 1 .47
5.3
D% C-DAY 169. 111. 67. 0. 0. 0. C. 0. 0. 11, 45. 122.

JAK FEB MAR APR FLAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT h'OV DEC

CORVALLIS OR (LAT. 4 4 . 3 )
R M J / ~ ~ 4.22 5.81 11.75 16.89 21.24 24.30 28.02 22.87 16.69 9.83 5.86 3.39
5LaT C
.34
3.0
.33
6.0
.47
7.0
.51
10.0
.55
13.0
.59
16.0
.70
18.0
-65
18.0
.60
16.0
.49
11.0
.43
7.0
-31
5.0
DD C-DAY 451. 341. 336. 248. 163, 80. 34. 31. 67. 203. 328. 4!3.

DAL LA S TX (LAT. 32.5)

A m/m2 9 . 6 7 12.85 16.49 19.01 21.81 24.91 24.62 22.52 19.17 15.20 10.93 9.25
KT -49 -53 .54 .53 -55 .61 -61 .60 .59 .58 .53 .51
T C 7.0 10.0 13.0 19.0 23.0 28.0 30.0 30.0 26.0 20.0
DB C-DAY 338, 243. 174. 39, 0. 0. 13.0 9.0
0. 0. 0. 31. 158. 289.

DA V I S CA (LAT. 3 8 . 3 )
w/m2 6 - 6 1 10.71 16.81 22.08 26.60 29.36 28.86 25.55 20.83 14.55 9.03 6.19
.41 .SO .60 .64 .67 .71 .72 .70 .69 .63 .52 .42
Th C 7.0 9.0 11.3 14.0 17.0 21.0 23.0 22.0 21.0 17.0 11.0 7.0
D% C-DAY 324. 230. 184. 99. 40.- 0. 0. 0. 0. 31. 178. 303.

GAYT ON OH (LAT. 39.5)

6.78 9.38 13.90 17.46 21.69 24.07 23.61 21.52 17.75 12.94 7.83 6.07
-44 -46 .51 .51 .55 .58 .59 .59 .59 .5: .47 .44
C -2.0 -1.0 4.0 11.0 16.0 22.0 24.0 23.0 19.0 13.0 5.0 -1.0
636. 538. 448, 229. 92. 7. 0. 4. 35. 171. 387. 587.

DENVER co (LAT. 3 9 . 4 )
m/m2 10.68 14.15 18.25 21.73 24.37 27.38 26.50 24.79 20.68 15.49 10.97 9.13
.69 .69 .67 .63 .62 .66 .66 .68 -69 .69 .66 .65
5
% C
c-DAY
-1 .O
604,
.O
501.
3.0
482.
9.0
292.
14.0
i41,
19.0
44.
23.0
0.
22.0
0.
17.0
67.
11.0
227.
4.0
427.
.o
558.

IA (LAT. 41.3)
7.03 9.92 13.48 17.79 21.52 23.78 23.78 20.93 16.96 12.60 7.91
."
5.78
.49 -51 .51 .52 .55 .57 .59 .58 .58 .58 .jl .45
-7.0 -4.0 1.0 10.0 16.0 21.0 24.0 23.0 18.0 12.0 3.0 -4,O
D?I C-DAY 706. 634. 536. 758. 103. 14. 0. 7. 52. 144. 455. 689.
 JAN FEE MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

DETROIT
-HK T ~J/rn2
Ta C
DD C-DAY

DODGE C I ~ Y KA (LAT. 37.5)

~ ~ / r n 2 10.83 13.67 18.07 22.58 23.54 27.56 27.18 24.38 20.62 15.89 11.71 0.70
KT
Ta C
.G5
-1.0
.63
1.0
.64
5.0
.65
12.0
.60
17.0
.67
23.0
.67
26.6
.67
25.0
.67
20.0
,67
13.0
.66
5.0
-64
.0
DD C-DAY 589. 463. 410. 191. 64. 12. 0. 0. 23. 137. 370. 544.

DULU'rH MN (LAT. 46.5)

Ti M J / ~ ~ 5,57 8.83 13.44 16.70 20.22 23.11 23.19 19.55 13.94 9.71 5,32 4.35
I-e
4
' TK C
C-DAY
-50
-13.0
973.
-53
-11.0
823.
.56
-5.0
715.
.52
4.0
440.
.52
10.0
269.
.56
15.0
108.
.58
19.0
37.
.56
18.0
55.
.52
12.0
177.
.52
7.0
339.
.43
-2.0
610.
.45
-i0.0
872.

EASTLAN.C.TN5 M I (LAT. 4 2 . 4 )
FT ~ i m 4.81 8.36 12.29 14.18 19.65 21.70 21.37 18.44 14.76 10.12 5.39 4.31
-35 .14 .47 .42 .50 .52 .53 .52 .51 .4S -36 .35
-5.0 -4.0 .O 8.0 13.0 19.0 21.0 20.0 16.0 10.6 3.0 -2.0
DB C-MY 730, 638. 553. 308. 156. 27. 5. 15. 74. 234. 443. 653.

EL P A S 0 TX (LAT. 31.5)
il MJ/~* 1 3 . 8 4 1 8 . 0 7 22.96 27.39 29.90 30.53 28.02 26.72 24.05 19.32 15.35 13.09
KT .69 .72 .75 .76 .75 .75 .70 .71 .74 .73 .72 .70
Ta C 7.0 9.0 13.0 17.0 22.0 27.0 27.0 26.0 23.0 18.0 11.0 7.0
DD C-DAY 381. 247. 177. 58. 0. 0, 0. 0. 0. 47, ~ 3 0 . 360.

ELY NV (LAT. 3 9 . 2 )
il b ~ / m 2 9.95 13.93 19.40 23.59 26.10 29.61 27.10 25.43 21.70 16.43 12.00 9.20
.64 .67 .70 .68 .66 .72 .67 .70 .72 .72 .72 .65
c'I' 7 -4.0 -2.0 0 5.0 L0.0 14.0 19.0 18.0 13.0 7.0 1.0 -3.0
Db C-DAY 727. 597. 54j. 373. 253. 125. 16. 24. 130. 329. 522. 658.

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUC SEP Off NOV DEC

FAIRBANKS AK (LAT. 6 4 . 5 )
R u/m2 .80 3.18 9.74 16.10 19.95 22.04 18.57 15.18 7.69 3.60 1.13 .25
RT C
.61
-24.0
.55
-19.0
-70
-13.0
.64 .56 .54 .49 .52 .43 .45 .51 .49
T, -1.0 8.0 14.0 15.0 12.0 6.0 -3.0 -16.0 -22.0
DD C-DAY 1311. 1056. 966. 593. 308. 123. 95. 184. 357. 668. 1018. 1252.

FARGO ND (LAT. 4 6 . 5 )
R w/m2 5.32 8.92 12.89 17.54 21.10 22.02 23.19 19.89 14.57 10.13 5.48 4.94
P
DB C-DAY
C
.48
-14.0
1018.
.54
-12.0
844.
.54
-4.0
703.
.54
6.0
378.
.55
13.0
186.
.53
18.0
5L.
.58
21.0
7.
.57
21.0
18.
.54
14.0
130.
.54
8.0
310.
.44
-2.0
607.
.51
-11.0
896.

FORT SMITH An (LAT. 3 5 . 2 )

a M J / ~ ~ 8.25 11.30 15.11 18.80 22.02 23.61 22.86 21.86 18.13 14.19 9.80 7.83
'4
+ .46 .49 .52 .53 .56 .57 ,57 .59 .58 -57 .51 -47
TRT C 4.0 6.0 10.0 17.0 21.0 26.0 28.0 27.0 23.0 17.0 10.0 5.0
'a D8 C-DAY 448. 338. 262. 73. 9. 0. 0. 0. 0. 75. 243. 405.

FORT WAYNE IN (UT. 41.0)

F! M J / ~ ~ 6.32 9.08 13.44 17.08 22.06 24.45 23.82 21.10 16.54 12.35 7.07 5.65
KT .44 .46 .50 .50 .56 .59 .59 .59 .56 .57 .45 ,43
Ta C -4.0 -2.0 2.0 10.0 15.0 21.0 23.0 22.0 18.0 12.0 5.0 -2.0
DD C-DAY 684. 582. 491. 252. 120. 13. 0. 7. 50. 202. ,413. 627.

F O R T KORTH TX (LAT. 32.5)

M J / ~ ~ 10.54 13.42 17.77 12.25 23.46 26.85 25.59 24.59 20.91 16.48 12.1;6 10.20
KT ,514 .55 .59 34 .5Y -66 .64 .66 .65 .63 .60 -56
C 7.0 9.0 13;O ! 22.0 27.0 29.0 29.0 25.0 19.0 13.0 8.0
B! C-DAY 341. 249. 17,. 52. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 36. 180. 298.

FRESNO CA (UT. 36.5)

7.78 12.38 13.32 22.70 26.64 29.15 27.93 25.34 21.03 15.68 10.08 6.69
-45 .55 .64 -65 -67 .71 .69 .69 .68 .65 .55 .42
C 7.0 10.0 12.0 16.0 19.0 23.0 27.0 26.0 23.0 18.0 12.0' 7.0
~8 C-DAY 336. 237. 186. 30. 34. 3. 0. 0. 0. 47. 197. 321.
 ,
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCP NOV GEC

6
GAINESVILLE
u/rr2
FL
.54
(LAT. 29.4)
1 1 . 6 3 15.35 18.61
.59 .59
22.54
.62
24.51
.62
22.75
.56
21.75
.54
21.24
-56
18.57
.56
15.39
.56
13.30
.59
10.62
.53
I C 13.0 14.0 17.0 21.0 24.0 26.0 27.0 27.0 26.0 22.0
DB C-DAY 164. 17.0 14.0
133. 73. 11. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 7. 69. 143.

GLASGOW MT (LAT. 48.1)

R bu/m2 6.44 10.58 15.77 19.03.23.50 25.63 26.76 22.33 17.15 11.21 6.48 4.94
F~ .64 .68 .68 .60 .61 .62 .67 .65 .65 63 .57 .57
Fa C -12.0 -8.0 -3.0 6.0 12.0 17.0 21.0 21.0 1150.
4.0 k.0 -613.
1.0 -7.0
DD C-DAY 951. 799. 659. 360. 186. 83. 17. 26. 338. 814.

G R A N 5 LAKE co ( U T . 40.2)
1 M J / ~ ~ 8.88 13.11 17.71 21.44 23.11 26.&6 25.12 21.14 19.93 15.11 9.80 7.70
.h .59 .65 .65 .63 .59 .64 -62 .58 .67
'I -9.0 -7.0 -4.0 0 6.0 10.0 13.0 12.0 8.0 3. 6. 08 .61
-3.0 - 8.57
.0
D% C-DAY ,864. 734. 720. 525. 381. 250. 153. 174. 280. 446. 6.53, 820,

GREAT F A L L S MT ( L ~ T .4 7 . 3 )
fi ~ d / m 2 5.77 9.58 15.14 17.'.4 21.91 24.71 26.56 22.12 16.89 10.96 6.44 4.68
.54 .59 .64 .56 .57 -60 .67 .64 .63 .60 .j4 .51
c
TD"D C-DAY
-5.0
749.
-2.0
641.
-0
591.
6.0
357.
!2.0
213.
16.0
103.
21.0
16.
20.0
29.
14.0
143.
9.0
302.
1.0
512.
-2.0
649.

G R E E N BAY WI (LAT. 44.3)

5.74 8.79 13.10 16.08 20.47 22.69 22.52 19.24 14.78 19.05 5.82 4.60
.46 .49 .52 .49 .53 -55 .56 .55 .53 .50 .42 .42
C -9.0 -8.0 -2.0 7.0 i2.0 18.0 21.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 L.0 -6.0
DB C-DAY 854. 731. 627. 353. 188. 51. 12. 30. 106. 272. 51j. 759.

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

GREENSBORO NC (LAT. 36.0)

R 1*~/m2 8 . 5 7 11.37 1 4 . 8 0 19.61 22.29 23.5! 22.62 19.86 17.23 13.76 10.16 7.78
YT .49 .50 .51 .56 .56 .5/ .56 .54 .55 .56 .55 .&8
C
3 C-DAY
3.0
453.
4.0
379.
8.0
302.
14.0
113,
19.0
33.
23.0
0.
25.0
0.
24.0
0.
21.0
13.
14.0
116.
8.0
278.
4.0
437.

GRNVLE-SPTNBRG
An ~ / m 2
@
D% C-DAY
C

GRIFFIN
B m/m2
l-
a
4
FD% C-DAY
C

HARTFORD
-
H ~ / m 2
$T C
DB C-MY

H ILO-
H M J / ~ ~
b c
DD C-DAY

H I !I.AT. 21.2)
15.20 17.67 21.63 23.40 25.83 25-75 25.?5 25.62 23.99 21.23 17.84 15.53
.58 .59 .63 .62 .66 .65 .66 ,68 .68 .68 .66 .63
22.0 22.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 26.0 26.0 25.0 26.0 23.0
D% C-DAY 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. U. 0. 0.
 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUC SEP OCT NO?' DEC

HOUSTON TX (LAT. 2 9 . 6 )
w/m2 10.05 12.64 16.37 18.97 23.11 25.08 24.53 21.69 19.09 16.56 11.55 9.50
R .47 .49 -52 .52 .58 .62 .61 .58 .58 .6U .52
T; C 11.0 13.0 -48
DD C-DAY 231. 163.
16.0
105.
21.0
13.
24.0
0. 27.0
0. 28.0
0. .
2 9.J. 0 26.0
0.
22.0
13.
16.0
6.
13.0
185.

IN (LAT. 39.4)
6.15 8 . 9 5 13.05 16.42 20.53 22.87 22.67 20.32 10.W 12.25 7.35 5.L4
.4C .43 .4P .48 -52 -55 -56 .56 .57 .54 .4L .39
-1 . O 0 4.0 11.0 17.0 22.0 24.0 23.0 19.0 13.0 5.0 0
639. 53j. 436. 215. 88. 6. 0. 3. 35. 168. 368. 58j.

I NYOKERN CA OAT. 3 5 . 4 )
m/mZ 13.0> 17.52 24.17 29,32 32.99 34,96 32.79 30.86 27.10 20.24 15.31 12.34
P
Sr
OD
kD1) C-DAY
C 7-7-3
.0
341.
.77
11.0
218.
.83
14.0
148.
1 8. 8. 03
71.
.83
23.0
6.
.85
27.0
0.
.81
32.0
0.
3 1.84
.0
0.
.66
27.0 .82
20.0 I i .800 75
k.0
0. 24. 176. 334.

ITHACA NY (LAT. 4 2 . 3 )
R ~l/m* 5.10 8.49 11.79 14.55 19.61 22.56 22.37 19.24 14-89 i0.37 5.23 4.14
AT
Y .37 .45 a45 -43 .50 .54 .56 .54 .52 .49 .35 .?L
Aa C -5.0 -4.0 5 7.0 12.0 18.0 20.0 !9.0 15.0 10.G LC: -2.':.
DD C-DAY 723. 646. 56i. 332. 176. 39. li. .22. 87. 2Lj. '2j. 552.

JACKSOIJ MS (WT. 3 2 . 2 )
A' w/m2 8 - 8 8 11.72 15.83 20.18 22.94 23.53 22.78 21.39 17.96 15.11 10.42 8.46
F
i)B C-DAY
c .45
8.0
316.
.k8
10.0
246.
.52
'

13.0
174.
.56
19.0
41.
.58
23.0
3.
-57
26.0
.57
28.0
.57
27.0
.55
24.0
.58
19.0
.50
13.0
.46
9.0
0. 0. 0. 0. 51. 157. 280.

JACKSONVILL3 FL (LAT. 3 0 . 2 )
R W/m 11.18 14.49 17.71 21.52 23.28 21.98 2!.86 19.93 16.03 13.86 11.4i 9.53
.53 .57 .57 .59 ,59 e54 .55 a53 .49 .51 .52 -69
T% C 12.0 13.0 16.0 20.0 23.0 26.0 27.0 27.0 25.0 21.C 16.0 I?.<
DB C-DAY 193. 157. 98. 13. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 11. 89. 175.

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

KANSAS CITY MO (LAT. 3 9 . 2 )

TI hu/rn2 7.62 10.55 14.28 18.46 21.81 24.70 24.24 22.02 17.79 13.40 9.00 6.87
it -49 .51 .52 .54 .55 .60 -60 .61 -59 .59 .54 .49
T$ C -2.0 1.0 5.0 13.0 18.0 23.0 26.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 6.0 .O
DD C-DAY 641. 496, 414. 174. 62. 7. 0. 0. 23. 131. 357. 563.

KEY !JEST FL (LAT. 24.3)

MJ/~* 13.69 17.16 20.51 23.95 24.24 22.73 22.36 20.97 18.63 16.49 13.90 12.23
.56 .60 -62 .64 .62 .57 .57 .55 .54 .55 .55 .53
2
DD C-MY
C 21.0
9.
21.0
14.
23.0
3.
25.0
0.
27.0
0.
28.0
0.
29.0
0.
29.0
0.
28.0
0.
26.0
0.
23.0
0.
21.0
10.

LAKE CHARLES LA (LAT. 3 0 . 1 )

1 w/m2 1o.uo 12.71 16.56 20.20 23.17 24.34 21.79 21.08 18.73 16.81 12.38 9.70
R .48 .50 .53 .55 .58 .60 .54 .56 .57 .h2 -5.5 .40
I-'
SI
10
TZ
DD C-DAY
C 11.0
212.
12.0
152.
15.0
108.
20.0
22.
23.0
0.
27.0
0.
28.0
0.
27.0
0.
25.0
0.
21.0
11.
15.0
117.
12.0
189.

LAN DL R WY (LAT. 4 2 . 5 )
9.62 13.42 18.86 23.13 24.46 28.23 27.10 24.25 19.40 14.89 9.91 8.24
.71 .71 .72 .69 .63 .68 .67 -68 .68 ./l .67 .68
C -6.0 -3.0 .0 6.0 12.0 16.0 21.0 21.0 15.0 8.0 0 -4.0
DD C-DAY 767. 636. 565. 363. 212. 85. 3. 11. 113. 308. 56j. 722.

LANSING MI (LAT. 4 2 . 5 )
R MJ/~Z 5.65 8.92 12.89 14.99 20.89 23.15 22.78 20.14 15.78 10.80 5.86 4.69
R .42 .47 .5U .45 .53 .56 .57 .56 .55 .51 .40 .39
T= C -5.0 -4.0 1.0 6.0 14.0 19.0 22.0 21.0 16.0 11.0 4.0 -3.0
DE C-DAY 730. 638. 553. 308. 156. 27. 5. 15. 74. 234. 443. 653.

LARAMIE WY (LAT. 4 1 . 2 )
R M J / ~ ~ 9.37 12.46 17.73 20.83.?2.92 76.22 24.80 22.00 17.56 13.34 9.49 7.65
R .65 .63 67 .61 .58 .63 .62 .61 .60 .6? .61 .59
T~
DB C-DAY
C -5.0
763.
-4.0
650.
-i.O
653.
3,O
453.
9.0
296.
14.0
143.
18.0
39.
17.0
56.
12.0
192.
6.0
374.
.O
577.
-4.0
715.
 JA.. FEB MAR APR MAY JIJRX JULY AUC SEF OCT NOV DEC

LAS VEGAS NV (LAT. 36.0)

X M J / ~ ~ 11.67 16.14 21.12 26.01 29.36 31.20 28.27 26.22 23.29 17.94 13.30 10.6?
KT .67 .72 .73 -74 .74 .76 .70 71 .75 -74 .71 .68
T
~8 C-DAY
C 6.0
382.
9.0
271.
12.0
186.
17.0
62.
23.0
3.
28.0
0.
31.0
0.
3
0 . 26.0
0.
19.0
43.
11,O
215.
7.0
343.

LEXINGTON KY (LAT. 38.0)

3 MJ/~Z 7.15 10.79 15.22 19.91 24.09 25.97 25.76 23.34 20.53 15.10 9.8.; 7.15
.44 .50 .54 .57 .61 .63 .64 .64 .67 .65 .56 .48
P BT C
VI
o DD C-DAY
.o
553. 2,O
462. 6.0
374. 1168.
3.0 13.0
59. 23.0
4. 25.0
0, 24.0
0. 20.0
22. 14.0
137. 7.0
340. 2.0
509.

LINCOLN NE (LAT. 40.5)

il m/m2 7.95 10.66 14.51 17.73 20.74 22.79 22.46 21.24 17.23 13.59 S.66 7.l?
R .54 -53 .54 .52 .53 .55 .56 .59 .58 .62 .54
T* C -4.0 -2.0 3.0 11.0 16.0 22,O 25.0 24.0 19.0 12.0 4.5$
." -1.0
~8 C-DAY , 687. 564, 463. 223. 95. 17. 0. - 3. 42. 167. 405. 592.

LITTLE ROCK AR (LAT. 34.4)

M J / ~ ~ 8 . 2 8 10.96 14.97 19.03 22.08 23.50 23.34 21.58 18.46 14.47 10.20 7.82
-45 .47 .51 .53 -56 .57 .58 .58 .58 .57 .52 .66
T~ C 4.0 6.0 10.0 16.0 21.0 26.0 27.0 27.0 23.0 17.0 10.0 5.0
DB C-DAY 420. 321. 241. 70.' 5. 0. 0. 0. 5. 71. 258. 398.

LOS ANGELES CA (LAT. 3 3 . 6 )

a ~/m2 10.75 14.39 19.19 21.66 24.09 25.80 27.14 24.63 21.08 15.39 12.25 10.29
R~
Ta C
.57
12.0
.60
13.0
.64
13.0
.61
15.0
.61
16,O
.63
18.0
.67
20.0
.66
20.0
-66
20.0
.60
18.0
.61
15.0
.59
13.0
DD C-DAY 184. 150. 148. 108. 63. 39. 11. 8. 13. 43. 88. 155.

- - -------..-- . . . . - - -.-.
.. . ..--. -
. -. .-- . .- .---,-

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT ?lOV DEC

LOUISVILLE KY (LAT. 38.1)

T
k MJ/m2
C
6.87
.42
.O
9.67 13.61
.45
2.0
.49
6.0
17.58
.51
13.0
21.56
.55
18.0
23.45
.57
22.0
23.03
.57
24.0
20.85
.57
24,O
17.08
.56
20.0
12.69
.54
14.0
7.95
-46
7-0
6.28
.42
1.0
D% C-DAY 546. 454. 367. 159. 58. 0. 0. 0. 19. 134. 333. 506.

LYNN MA (LAT. 42.3)

R w/m2 4.94 8.74 12.55 16.48 18.'99 22.50 22.54 17.65 14.22 9.66 5.56 4.18
h C
.36
-1 .O
.46
.O
.48 .49
9.0
.49 -54 .56 .49 .49 .46 .37 .34
Ta 3.0 15.0 20.0 23.0 22.0 18.0 13.0 7.0 1.0
DD C-DAY 604. 540. 470. 285. 116. 20. 0. 5. 33. 176. 335. 546.

ELA CO N GA (LAT. 32.4)

Fi ~ / m 2 10.38 12.98 16.41 21.39 '23.70 23.95 23.07 21.81 18.13 15.41 11.14 9.08
P
R -53 -53 .54 .59 .60 -58 -57 .58 .56 .59 .54 .SO
'a
+
T$ C 9.0 10.0 14.0 19.0 23.0 26.0 27.0 27.0 24.0 19.0 13.0 9,O
D'3 C-DAY 302. 235. 166. 37. 3. 0. 0. 0. 0. 46. 169. 288.

MAD XSON WI (LAT. 4 3 . 1 )

2 m/m2 6.41 9.22 13.99 16.53 19.82 23.67 23,24 19.76 16.40 11.28 6.31 5.63
KT
Ta C
.49
-7.0
.50
-6.0
.54
.O
.49
7.0
.51
13.0
-56
19.0
.58
21.0
.56
20.0
.58
15.0
.55
10.0
.44
1.0
.48
-5.0
DD C-DAY 830. 696. 599. 328. 165. 40. 8. 22. 96. 263, 505. 742.

MAN WTTAN KA (LAT. 39.1)

A ~ / m 2 8.04 1 1 . 0 5 !4.44 1 8 . 1 3 22.36 23.07 22.23 22.02 17.17 12.23 9.50 6.53
4DB c-LAY
C
.52
-1.0
623.
.53
1.0
496.
-52
5.0
401.
.53
13.0
183.
.56
18.0
69.
.56
23.0
7.
.55
26.0
0.
.61
25.0
0.
.57
20.0
32.
.54
14.0
150.
.57
6.0
373.
.46
0
544.

MATANUSKA (LAT. 6 1 . 3 )
AK ::
'
1.34
M J / ~ ~ 3.85 10.13 14.9: 18.25 19.34 17.12 13.15 8.29 4.18 1.59 .63
R, .49 .50 .64 .>h .51 .48 45 43 42 .42 - .41 - 137- -

- 2 - -Ht.-(t-7;8 - - 3 ; 0 - 3 . t t - ~ - l l O - ~ t ; a 7 b * o - -1 . 0 -6.0 -10.U

~b C-DAY 314. 714. 639. 7 . 31. 1 6 1 . 16. 28i. 526. 738. 904.
 JAN FED NAR APR NAY JUNE JULY AUC; SEP OCT NOV DEC

- ~

A ~ ~ j r n " 4.94 -8.87-'13.88 20.24 24.63 27.31 29.23 25.17 18.7P 11.63 6.36 3.S5
FT .36 .46 -52 .60 -63 .66 .73 .70 .65 .55 .43 .31
T C 3.0 5.0 7.b 10.0 14.0 18.0 22.0 21.0 18.0 12.0 6.0 3.0
~6 C-DAY 489. 369. 348. 247. 139. 52. 6. 12. 49. 200. 358. 470.

1,EMP'tl IS TN (LAT. 35.0)

R 1.1J/rn2 8.04 11.18 15.03 19.68 23.13 24.66 24.41' 22.40 18.50 14.82 9.96 i.70
.44 .48 .51 .55 .59 .60 .61 .61 .jS .60 .52 .45
5.0 7.0 11.0 17.0 22.0 26.0 28.0 27.0 23.0 17.0 10.0 6.0
D% C-DAY 422. 330. 254. 73. 12. 0. 0. 0. 4. 79. 235. 384.

MUMI FL (LAT. 25.5)

M/m2 14.34 17.40 20.53 22.75 23.08 22.21 22.46 21.24 18.69 16.27 14.80 13.34
P *T .61 .62 .63 .61 .59 .55 .57 .56 .55 .5h .60 .60
VI C 19.0 19.0 21.0 23.0 25.0 27.0 27.0 28.0 27.0 25.0 22.0 20.0
w C-DAY 41. 31. 11. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 36.

MIDLAND
y M J / ~ ~
KT
Ta C
DD C-DAY

MILWAUKEE WI (LAT. 4 2 . 6 )
M J / ~ ~ 6.24 8.79 13.10 16.83 21.27 23.65 23.57 20.31 16.&1 11.18 6.74 5.02
.46 .47 .50 .50 .54 .57 .59 .57 .57 .53 .46 .42
C -7.0 -5.0 .O 7.0 12.0 18.0 21.0 21.0 16.U 11.0 2.0 -4.0
D~T C-DAY 786. 661. 579. 338. 193. 50. 8. 20. 78. 244. 475. 703.

MINE-ST. PAU$ (LAT. 4 4 . 5 )

Ff M/m 5.99 9.21 12.81 16.54 20.18 22.44 22.82 19.51 14.99 10.80 6.03 b.69
T! .49 .52 .51 .50 .52 .54 .57 .55 .54 .54 .44 .43
-11.0 -9.0 -2.0 7.0 14.0 19.0 22.0 2!.0 16.0 10.0 C' -7.6
g8 C-DA! 909. 754. 632. 332. 151. 36. 6. 12. 96. 262. 54j. 799.

JAlJ FEB MAR APR M Y JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

EIT WEATHER VA (IAT. 3 9 . 0 )

~ / m 2 7.20 11.47 14.15 17.33 21.27 21.98 21.35 18.00 15.70 11.76 8.46 7.03
4~ -46 .55 .51 -50 -54 .53 .53 .50 .52 .52 .50 .49
Ta C -1 .0 .O 3.0 10.0 15.0 23.0 22.0 21.0 18.G 12.0 5.0 .0
DD C-DAY 615. 535. 453. 251. 102. 13. 0. 3. 44. 189. 370. 573.

NASHVT LLE TN (LAT. 3 6 . 1 )

H b!~/n2 6.82 10.04 13.76 18.82 21.62 23.71 23.13 20.66 17.90 13.67 9.07 6.73
I:DD C-DAY
C
.39
3.0
460.
-45
5.0
373,
-48
9.'0
291.
-53
15.0
98.
.55
2C.O
25.
.58
24.0
0.
-57
26.0
0.
-56
25.0
0.
.57
22.0
6.
.56
16.0
100.
-49
9.0
217.
.4?
5.0
424.

NATICK MA (LAT. 4 2 . 2 )
MJ/m2 6.36 9.70.13.63 16.35 20.91 17.10 21.45 19.11 15.01 10.91 6.15 5.60
I-' .46 -51 .52 .49 .53 .41 -53 .53 .52 .52 .41 .46
UI
W
-2.0 -2.0 3.0 9.0 15.0 20.0 23.0 22.0 17.0 12.0 6.G 0
C-MY 672. 585. 487. 282, 123. 17. 0. 6. 56. 203. 375. 606.

NEb! ORLEANS LA (LAT. 29.6)

Ti M / m 2 8.96 10.84 14.03 17.25 18.80 18.55 17.46 17.42 16.03 14.95 11.64 8.29
.42 a42 -45 -47 .47 -46 944 .46 .48 .54 -52 .42
TC 11.0 13.0 15.0 20.0 23.0 26.0 27.0 27.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 12.0
D% C-DAY 202. 143. 107. 22. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 11. 107. 179.

NEW YORK
R MJ/~Z
NY
5-44
(LAT. 4 0 . 5 )
8-33 12.14 15.45 18.09 19.68 19.22 16.29 13.86 10.13 6.15
.-'
4.81
KT .37 -41 -45 -45 .46 .48 -48 -45 -47 .46 .38 -36
B ,-DAY
C .O
541.
1.O
488.
5.0
41i.
11.0
230.
17.0
6Q.
22.0
3.
25.0
0.
24.0
0.
20.0
15.
15.0
124.
9.0
293.
2.0
493.
 JAN FEB MAR APR !dAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

NORFOLK

C
D% C-DAY

NORTR OMAHA

DD C-DAY

OAK RIDGE
R m/m2
P KT
VI
e
Ta c
DD C-DAY

OKLAHOMA CITY OK (LAT. 3 5 . 2 )

R ~ / m 2 10.66 13.26 17.02 20.83 22.58 26.35 25.51 24.59 20.24 15.85 11.88 9.91
.59 .58 .58 .59 .57 .64 .63 .67 .64 .64 -62 .60
CTa 2.0 4.0 9.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 27.0 27.0 23.0 16.0 9.0 4.0
DD C-DAY .486. 369. 296. 100. 20. 0. 0. 0. 7. 82. 263. 431.

PAGE AZ ( L A T . 3 6 . 4 )
R ~ / m 2 12.56 15.99 22.02 25.87 29-10 29.60 28.47 24.95 21.60 16.83 12.98 10.17
-73 .72 .77 .74 .74 .72 -71 .68 .70 .70 .7G -64
Ta .O 2.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 24.0 22.0 18.0 12.0 5.0 .O
DD C-DAY 591. 447. 396. 240. 107. 21. 0. 6. 41. 189. 390. 562.

PARKE RSBURG
~ / m 2
KT
Ta C
DD C-DAY

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV CEC

PASADENA
H m/m2
k
T
U% C-DAY

I' C
D$ C-DAY

PE ORJA IL (LAT. 4 0 . 4 )
~ / m 2 6.82 9.54 13.48 17.67 21.31 23.99 23.57 21.02 17.04 12.52 7.75 5.82
P .46 .47 a 5 0 .52 -54 -58 .59 -58 -58 .57 .48 .43
L,'; -5.0 -2.0 3.0 11.0 16.0 22.0 24.0 23.0 19.0 13.0 4.0 -2.0
w DD C-DAY
Ta
% C 709. 580. 477. 231. 100. 9. 0. 4. 39. 182. 418. 637.

DF? C-DAY

PITTSBURGH
R w/m2
L
 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AL'G SEP 9C1'

POCAT ELL0
R_ ~ / m 2
KT
Ta C
DD C-DAY

PORT ARTHUR
9 ~ / m 2
ST
Ta C
DD C-DAY

PORTLAND
fl M J / ~ ~
w KT
m
0
l a C
DD C-DAY

PORTLAND
~.l~/rn~
3
DB c-DAY
C

PROSSER
8 ~ / m 2
IGp'
Ta
DD C-DAY

PUEBLO

D% C-DAY

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

? UL LMAN
R .w/m2
KT
Ta
DD C-DAY

PbT-IN-BAY OH (LAT. 41.4)

R MJ& 5.02 8.32 12.21 15.43 20.66 22.67 23.71 21.58 16.69 12.34
2
UD C-DAY
C .35
-2.0
661.
.43
-1.0
.46
2.0
.46
9.0
.53
15.0
.55
21.0
.59
24.0
6
23.0
.57
19.0
.57
14.0
576. 501. 283. 122. 13. 0. 0. 22. 154.

RALEIGH NC (LAT. 3 5 . 5 )
R m/m2 9.95 12.75 16.81 19.78 20.87 23.84 22.71 20.20 16.14 13.05
w KT .56 .56 .58 .56 -53 .58 .56 -55 .52 .53
VI Ta C 5.0 6.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 24.0 25.0 25.0 22.0 16.0
4 DD C-DAY 422. 354. 279. 100. 27. 0. 0. 0. 7. 103.

RALEIGH-DURHAM NC 6LAT. 35.5)

R M J / ~ ~ 9 . 0 11.85 1 5 . 6 6 20.22 21.64 22.44 23.15 20.14 16.62 13.23
KT .5! .52 .54 .57 .55 .54 .57 .S5 .53 .54
Ta c 5.0 6.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 24.0 25.0 25.0 21.0 16.0
DD C-DAY 422. 354. 279, 100. 27. 0. 0, 0. 7. 103.

R A P I D CI'Y SD (LAT. 44.1)

".
R m/m2 7.78 11.63 1 6 . 6 9
-62 .65
20.28 22.41 2k.76 24.88 22.62 17.98 13.13
i(T .6h 1 .58 -60 .62 .64 .64 .65
l'a C -5.0 -2.0 .0 7.0 13.0 18.0 23.0 22.0 16.0 10.0
DD C-DAY 741. 636. 584. 342. 181. 70. 12. 7. 92. 267.

RENO NV (LAT. 3 9 . 3 )
R ~ / m 2 9 . 8 0 13.56 I8.SU 24.79 27.80 29.09 29.60 27.05 22.27 16.54
RT .63 -65 .bR .72 -71 .72 .73 .74 -74 -73
T.a C 0 2.0 b.CJ 8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 19.0 15.0 10.0
DD C-DAY 576. 434. 426. 303. 162. 81. 9. 26. 93. 253.
ouo

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 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

S AVAN NA H GA (LAT. 3 2 . 1 )
u/m2 10.30 13.15 16.87 21.64 23.57 23.19 22.44 20.97 16.87 14.57 11.10 8.96
-KT .52 -53 .55 .60 -59 -57 -56 -56 .52 .55 .53 .49
Ta C 10.0 11.0 14.0 19.0 23.0 26.0 27.0 27.0 25.0 20.0 14.0 10.0
DU C-DAY 268. 211. 142. 35. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 33. 141. 254.

S A U L T ST. blAfIE MI (L4T. 4 6 . 3 )

R MJ/m 5.56 9.45 14.89 17.52 22.00 23.00 23.96 19.95 13.47 9.03 4.39 3.97
.49 .57 .62 .54 .57 .56 .60 .57 -50 .48 .35 .41
-9.0 -10.0 -4.0 3.0 9.0 14.0 17.0 17.0 13.0 7.0 0 -6.0
847. 767. 709. 450. 265. 112. 53. 58. 155. 322. 526. 759.

SCHENECTADY NY (LAT. 4 2 . 5 )
1 bu/m2 5.44 8.41 11.46 14.22 17.31 18.78 18.57 16.69 12.55 9.16 5.39 4.35
I- X~ .40 .44 -44 .42 -44 .45 .46 .47 .44 .44 .36 .36
m
o ?B C-DAY
C -5.0
744.
-4.0
641.
1.C
543.
8.0
302.
15.0
136.
20.0
20.
23.0
6.
21.0
I!.
17.0
76.
11.0
234,
h.0
420.
-2.0
656.

SEATTLE IJA ( L A T . 47.3)

H ; , ~ / ~ 2 3.26 5.69 11.04 16.56 20.95 21.79 23.71 19.86 13.72 7.90 4.43 2.68
ST
T C
-31
5.0
.35
7.0
.47
7.0
.52
10.0
.54
13.0
.53
16.0
.59
18.0
.57
18.0
.51
16.0
.43
12.0
.37
8.0
.29
6.0
~8 C-DAY . 410. 333. 321. 220. 134. 65. 28. 26. 72. 183. 302. 365.

SHREVEPORT LA (LAT. 32.2)

fl .MJ/m2 9.45 11.67 15.81 19153 22.92 22.75 23.50 21.75 17.36 14.47 10.16 8.28
KT -48 .48 .52 .54 .58 .56 -58 .58 .54 .55 .49 -45
T C 8.0 10.0 14.0 18.0 22.0 26.0 28.0 28.0 25.0 19.0 13.C 9.0
DO C-DAY 307. 237. 169. 45. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 26. 165. 265.

SILVER H I L L MD (LAT. 38.5)

-R MJ/rn2 7.61 10.20 14.22 18.32 21.45 23.21 21.58 19.19 16.60 12.34 8.45 6.62
ST .48 .48 -51 ,53 -54 -56 .54 -53 .55 .53 .49 .47
Ta C 2.0 3.0 7.0 13.0 18.0 23.0 25.0 24.0 21.0 15.0 9.0 3.0
DD C-DAY 506. 431. 343. 147. 40. 0. 0. 0. 8. 106. 283. 476.

J&' FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEp Om NOV DEC

S POKAN E WA (LAT. 47.4)

R MJ/rn2 4.94 8.91 13.26 19.53 23.25 25.30 27,73 23.17 17.02 8.62 5.48 3.18
!$ C -3.0
-4 7 -5: $56
3.0 -61
8.0 .60
13.0 .61
16.0 -70
21.0 .67
20.0 1 5.64
.0 .47
9.0 .46
2.0
35
-1.0
Dfl C-DAY 682. 510. 474. 315. 182. 80. 12.. 26. 109. 296. 492. 620.

SPRINGFIELD
WK T MJ/m2
Ta C
DD C-DAY

S T A T E COLLEGE PA (LAT. 40.5)

R s/m2 5.81 -8.45-'12.42 15.60 19.53 22.75 22.08 18.99 15.10 11.5C 6.48 5.02
t-
o\
F
%
DD C-DAY
C
.3"
-2.0
654.
.42
-2.0
572.
.16
2.0
489.
.46
9.0
267.
-50
15.0
115.
.55
20.0
13.
.55
22.0
3.
-53
21.0
8.
.51
17.0
61.
.52
11.0
214.
.41
5.0
400.
.38
-1.0
609.

STILLWATER OK (LAT. 36.1)

R ~~/rn2 8.66 11.96 16.23 19.07 20.99 24.80 24.80 r 22.67 19.03 14.72 lC.75 8.53
KT .50 .53 .56 .54 .53 .60 .62 .62 .61 .60 .58 .5?
Ta C 2.0 5.0 9.0 16.0 20.0 25.0 27.0 27.0 22.0 17.0 9.0 4.0
DO C-DAY 481. 358. 287. 97. 21. 0. 0. 0. 6. 81. 258. 429.

SUHMIT MT (LAT. 48.2)

74 ~ / m 2 .5.11 6.78 11.22 17.33 19.34 20.64 23.45 21.35 14.82 9.04 4.27 3-18
R .51 .44 .48 .55 .50 .50 .59 -62 .56 .51 -38 .37
:
T C -8.0 -5.0 -4.0 1.0 6.0 10.0 14.0 13.0 8.0 4.0 -2.0 -6.0
DD C-DAY 854. 691. 715. 518. 377. 253. 143. 171. 302. 457. 647. 777.
 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT XOV DEC

TALLAHASSEE FL (LAT.30.3)
10.33 13.01 17.69 20.20 22.92 19.91 22.75 22.46 17.73 14.75 15.22 13.01
.49 .51 .57 .55 .58 .49 -57 .60 .54 .54 .69 .67
C 11.0 12.0 16.0 19.0 23.0 26.0 27.0 27.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 12.0
DD C-DAY 227. 179. 104. 19. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 17. 113. 209.

TAMPA EL (LAT. 27.6)

H M J / ~ ~13.67 16.35 19.95 22.79 24.88 23.96 22.29 20.70 18.99 16.94 14.93 12.63
.61 .61 .62 .62 .63 .59 .56 .55 .56 -60 .64 .60
C 16.0 16.0 19.0 21.0 24.0 26.0 27.0 27.0 26.0 23.0 19.0 16.0
DD C-DAY 113. 98. 50. 5. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0, 39. 94.

TRENTON NJ (LAT. 40.1)

F? btJ/nr2 7.24 10.22 14.36 17.75 20.56 22.86 22.61 19.64 16.29 12.31 0.16 6.49
P K .48 .50 .53 .52 .52 .55 .56 .54 .55 .55 .50 .48
a\
N
c-DAY
C .O .o 5.0 11.0 16.0 21.0 24.0 23.0 19.0 13.0 7.0 1.0
567. 492. 410. 213. 75. 0. 0. 0. 22. 140. 312. 518.

TUCSON AZ (LAT. 32.1)

F! m/m2 13.09 16.81 22.83 27.85 30.95 29.65 26.26 24.67 24.30 18.69 14.85 12.42
KT .66 .68 .75 .77 .78 .72 .65 .66 .75 .11 .71 .67
Ta C lC.O 11.0 14.0 18.0 22.0 27.0 30.0 28.0 26.0 20.0 i4.0 10.0
DD C-DAY , 262. 191. 134. 42. 3. 0. 0. 0. 0. 14. 128. 226.

TULSA OK (LAT. 36.1)

A M J / ~ ~ 8.67 11.43 15.45 18.30 21.56 24.41 23.86 22.23 18.34 13.77 9.8: 8.16
KT .50 .51 .54 .52 .55 .59 .59 .60 .59 .57 ,s - .5!
Ta 3.0 5.0 9.0 16.0 20.0 25.0 28.0 27.0 23.0 17.0 !O.O 4.1:
DD C-DAY 489. 370. 293. 98. 16. 0. 0. 0. 6. i9. 260. 434.

TWIN FALLS ID (LAT. 40.3)

M J / ~ ~ 6.82 10.05 14.86 19.24 23.11 24.79 25.20 22.61 18.09 11.97 7.37 5.49
KT .46 .50 .55 -57 59 .60 .63 .63 .61 .54 .46 .41
Ta C -1.0 1.0 4.0 9.0 13.0 17.0 22.0 21.0 16.0 10.0 4.0 0
DD C-DAY 644. 490. 454. 290. 161. 73. 0. 12. 99. 260. 442. 585.

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

WASHINGTON . DC
-. (LAT. 38.51
R t-u/rnz 6.65---9,62-'13.38 16.85 18.69 23.34 22.12 19.32 15.35 11.75 8.82 6,15
KT .42 .45 .48 .49 .47 .56 -55 .53 -51 ,51 .51 -42
E~D C-DAY
C 2.0
484.
3.0
423.
7.0
348.
13.0
160.
18.0
41.
23.0
0.
25.0
0,
24.0
0.
21.0
18.
15.0
121.
9.0
288.
3.0
463.

WICHITA KS (LAT. 37.4)

R ~ / m 2 O.29 11.97 15.99 19.76 22.78 25.20 24.41 22.57 18.71 14.40 10.26 8.29
.56 .55 .56 .57 .58 .61 .61 .62 .61 .61 .58 .54
q
Ta c 0 2.0 6.0 14.0 19.0 24.0 27.0 26.0 21.0 15.0 7.0 1.0
DD C-DAY 58i. 447. 373. ,153. 5n. 4. 0. 0. 18. 117. 337. 526,

YUMh AZ (LAT. 32.4)

R MJ/m2 12.77 16.79 21.64 26.50 29.43 29.52 27.30 24.58 22.19 18.50 13.82 11.35
.65 .69 -71 .74 .74 .72 .68 -66 .69 .71 -67 -62
R
Ta T C 12.0 15.0 17.0 21.0 25.0 29.0 34.0 33.0 30.0 24.0 17.0 13.0
DD C-DAY 1 107. 54. 13. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 60. 153.

AKLAVIK NW (L4T. 68.1)

R ~ / m 2 .21 2.09 8.45 16.23 21.54 22.08 10.65 12.42 6.52 2.59 .46 .04
% 1.61 .56
-28.0 -27.0 -22.0
.72 .69
-12.0
-62
0
.54
9.0
.49
13.0
.44
10.0
.41
3.0
.44
-7.0
.65
-19.0
.OO
-26.0
% C-DAY
C
1462. 1298. 1268. 930. 591. 268. 152. 255. 448. 786. 1141. 1406.

CHURCHILL MA (L4T. 58.4)

1 m/m2 2.72 6.27 12.75 18.01 21.33 22.16 21.12 15.89 9.41 4.81 2.51 1.46
R, .65 .67 .73 .67 .58 .54 .55 .51 .44 .41 .47 .49
Ta C -27.0 -26.0 -19.0 -10.0 -2.0 5.0 11.0 11.0 5.0 -1.0 -11.0 -21.0
DD C-DAY 1421. 1265. 1183. 8i2. 641. 375. 200. 208. 378. 601. 900. 1249.

EDMOilTON
B t~/rn2
AT
3.72
(LAT. 53.3)
7.36 13.05 17.27 21.29 21.45 22.00 17.10 12.46 7.86 4.64
..'
2.76
B
D% C-DAY
C
.53
-14.0
1006.
.59
-11.0
844.
.64
-5.0
739.
.58
4.0
425.
.57
11.0
222.
.52
14.0
123.
.56
16.0
41.
.52
15.0
100.
.52
10.0
228.
.53
5.0
410.
.56
-4.0
675.
.48
-10.0
891.
 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

KAPUSKASING
q t4~/m2
2
OD C-DAY
C

LETHB RI DGE
n ~J/rn~
KT
Ta
DD C-DAY
c

T"r
D% C-DAY
C

MONTREAL

DD C-DAY

OTTAWA
RI7
~ / m 2
$2 C
DD C-DAY

ST. JOHNS
k ""2
T - ~ C
Ljb C-DAY

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUC SEP OCT HOV DEC

TORONTO. OT (LAT. 43.4)

R ~ / m 2 5.06 7.74 12.21 15.56 19.99 21.75 22.04 18.15 14.39 9.37 5.14 3.97
R .39 .42 .48 -47 .51 -53 -55 .51 .51 .46 ,36 .34
2
DD C-DAY
C -3.0
685.
-3.0
622.
.O
563.
6.0
342.
12.0
166.
17.0
34.
18.0
4.
17.0
10.
15.0
84.
10.0
244.
4.0
422.
-1.0
617.

VANCOWER BC (LAT, 48.6)

R MJ/~* 3.18 4.35 7.82 14.34 19.57 20.16 22.79 16.64 10.54 6.69 3.97 2.34
p
~6 C-DAY
C
.32
2.0
479.
.28
3.0
402.
.34
6.0
376. ,
.45
9.0
278.
.51
12.0
172.
.49
15.0
87.
.57
16.0
45.
.49
16.0
48.
.40
14.0
122.
.38
10.0
-36
6..0
.28
4.0
253. 365. 437.

WINNIPEG MA (LAT. 49.5)

R m/m2 5.48 9.41 15.18 18.36 21.33 21.95 23.75 19.74 13.34 8.57 4.98 3.85
P
OI
RT
Ta C
.59
-17.0
.64
-15.0
-67
-7.0
.59
3.0
.56
11.0
.53
15.0
.60
17.0
.58
17.0
.52
12.0
.50
6.0
.47
-4.0
.4?
-13.0
VI SD C-DAY 1116. 955. 814. 452. 225. 82. 21. 39. 179. 379. 695. 976.
 APPEND l X 3

APPENDIX 3 Yo 1 ume Volumetric Rafe

U N l T CONVERSION TASLES
1 f t 3 = 28.3168 1 1 cfm = 0.47195 I j s
1 g a l = 3.78544 1 1 g a l / m i n = 0 . 0 6 3 0 9 I/s
1 f:3 = 7.48 gaf 1 g a l / m l n - f t 2 = 0 . 5 7 9 1 1,'s-m2
-
S I -.UNITS 1
1
y a r d 3 = 0.7645 m
g a l / f t 2 = 0.02454 l / m 2
1 c f m / f t 2 = 0.1968 I / S - G ~
(air)
--
Basic U n i t s Der -
- Ived -
tin I t s

meter m length liter I volume 10-3m3

-
Mass --
Mass -
Flow -
Rate

kilogram k g mass Newton N force kg-m/s

second s tlme Joule J energy N-m
Ke!vln K temperature Watt W power J/s
Hour hr t lme 3600 s
Temperature
Declma 1 Sca l e s Differences

tera
3iga
mega
k llo
m i l l 1
micro Energy Power
na n o
Pico 1 BTU = 1.05506 kJ 1 BTU/hr = 0.29307 W
1 Therm = 105.506 MJ 1 ton (refg)= 3.51685 k H
1 cal = 4.1868, J 1 kcal/hr = 1.163 W
U N l T CONVERS13NS 1 kW-hr = 3.6 MJ 1 hp = 0 . 7 4 5 7 0 kW
1 l a n g l e y = 41.86 k~/m2

Length -
Velocity Energy F l u x

1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 ft/mln = 0.00508 m/s 1 ~ ~ U / h r - f t =Z 3.15469 ~ / m 2

1 mlle = 1.6093 rn 1 mile/hr = 0.44704 m/s 1 t a n g l e / h r = 11.6277 ~ / m 2
1 Inch = 25.4 nm 1 3
c a ! / c m -rnin= 6 9 7 . 4 w/m2
1 yard = 0.9144 m 1 @ i U / h r - f t 2 - ~ = 5.67826 ~ / r n 2 - ~
1 BTU/hr-ft-F = 1.70307 W/n-C
-
Area
 APPENDIX 3

APPEND l X 4
NUMERICAL - U E S-OF SOME PROPERTIES
V A L- GiOSSARY

-
Solar - -
Cons tant = 1353 ~ / m 2 ABSORBER PLATE -
the surface i n a f l a t - p l a t e collector
= 1.940 l a n g l e y s / m i n upon w h i c h l n c l d e n t s o l a r r a d i a t l o n I s absorbed.
= 428 B T U / h r - f t 3
ABSORPTANCE - t h e r a t l o o f t h e r a d l a t i o n a b s o r b e d by a
s u r f a c e t o t h a t l n c l d e n t on t h e s u r f a c e .
Denslty
ACTIVE SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM - a s o l a r h e a t l n g system
A i r 1.204 kg/rn w h i c h u s e s s p e c l a l l z e d equipment t o c o l l e c t , s t o r e
0.07516 1b/ft3 a n d distribute s o l a r h e a t I n a c o n t r o l l e d m a n n e r .
Water 1000 kg/m3
62.42 lb/ft3 A I R HEATING SYSTEM - a s o l a r h e a t l n g system i n which
8.34 Ib / g a l alr Is h e a t e d i n t h e s o l a r c o l l e c t o r and used as
Rock 2400 kg/rn3 t h e e n e r g y t r a n s f e r medium t o t h e r e s t o f t h e s y s -
150 Ib / f t 3 tem.
Antlfreeze 1065 kg/rn3
(50-50 e t h y l e n e 66.50 lb/ft3 ANNUAL LOAD FRACTION -
f r a c t i o n o f t h e annual heatlng
glycol/water) needs s u p p l i e d by s o l a r e n e r g y .

AUXILIARY ENERGY -
e n e r g y supplied f o r h e a t i n g b y some
means o t h e r t h a n s o l a r e n e r g y ( 0 1 1 , y a s , or e l e c -
tr'l"city).

BEAM RADIATION - s o l a r r a d i a t i o n wh!ch Is n o t s c a t -

t e r e d by dust o r water droplets. I t i s capable o f
b e l n g f o c u s s e d and c a s t s shadows.

BLACK -
a p r o p e r t y o f a s u b s t a n c e w h i c h h a s a h l g h ab-
sorptance f o r r a d i a t l o n .

I BUILDING OVERALL ENERGY LOSS COEFFICIENT-AREA PRODUCT

-
t h e f a c t o r w h i c h when m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e m o n t h l y
1 degree-days y i e l d s t h e m o n t h l y space h e a t i n g load.

CAPACITANCE RATE -
mass f l o w r a t e t l r n e s s p e c l f i c h e a t
o f t h e f l u l d f l o w i n g t h r o u g h a c o m p o n e n t s u c h as a
heat exchanger.

COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY -
the r a t i o of the useful energy
I gain for a t i m e p e r i o d t o t h e s o l a r energy i n c i -
i d e n t on t h e s u r f a c e d u r l n g t h e sane t i m e p e r i o d .
 APPENDIX 4 APPEND l X 4

COLLECTOR-HEAT EXCHANGER CORRECTION FACTOR, FR'/FR - DIFFUSE RADIATION -

s o l a r r a d i a t l o n w h i c h I s s c a t t e ed
tP
an Index ranglng I n value from 0 t o 1 i n d i c a t i n g by air molecules, d u s t o r water d r o p l e t s bef r e
t h e p e n a l t y I n u s e f u l energy c o l i e c t l o n r e s u l t i n g reaching the Ground and n o t capable o f being
f r o m u s i n g h e a t e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n t h e c o l l e c t o r and focused.
t h e s t o r a g e t a n k i n l l q u l d s o l a r h e a t i n g systems.
DIMENSIONLESS VARIABLE - a q u a n t i t y w h l c h does h o t
COLLECTOR HEAT REMOVAL EFFICIENCY FACTOR. FR -
t h e ra- have d i m e n s i o n a l u n i t s and i s t h e r e f o r e has t h e
t l o of the actual useful energy galn of a same v a l u e i n a n y s y s t e m o f u n i t s . I
f l a t - p l a t e s o l a r c o l l e c i o r t o t h e energy gain I f
t h e e n t i r e c o l l e c t o r p l a t e were a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW - present worth o f a f u t u r e pdy-
of the i n l e t f l u l d . ment. I

COLLECTOR OVERALL ENERGY LOSS COEFFICIENT, UL a pa- - DOMESTIC HOT WATER -

h o t water used for conventlojal
rameter c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e energy losses of the p u r p o s e s such as b a t h l n g and washing. I
c o l l e c t o r t o t h e surroundings.
DOMESTIC WATER HEATING SYSTEM -a s o l a r h e a t i n g sysjem
COMPOUND PARABOLIC CONCENTRATORS -
a t y p e o f con- which s u p p l i e s a p o r t i o n o f t h e energy n e e d e d t o
h e a t water used f o r domestic purposes, such
centratlng collector u s i n g parabolic r e f l e c t o r s las
w h i c h d o e s n o t f o r m an Image o f t h e s u n o n t h e r e - b a t h i n g and washlng.
I
c e i v i n g surface.
EFFECTIVENESS - t h e r a t l o o f actual heat t r a n s f e r i d a
CONCENTRATING SOLAR COLLECTOR
beam r a d i a t l o n
-
a devlce which focuses
s o as t o o b t a i n energy a t h i g h e r
h e a t e x c h a n g e r t o t h e maximum p o s s i b l e h e a t t r a n s -
fer.
temperatures than a t t a i n a b l e w i t h f l a t - p l a t e solar I
collectors. EMITTANCE - t h e r a t i o o f t h e :'-adiant e n e r g y ( h e a l t )
e r n l t t e d from a s u r f a c e a t a g i v e n ' t e m p e r a t u r e Ito
CONTROLS -
t h e r m o s t a t s and t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s i n g d e v i c e s t h e e n e r g y e m i g t e d by a p e r f e c t b l s c k body a t t k ~ e
same t e m p e r a t u r e . I
u s e d t o m a n l p u l a t e f a n s , pumps, and d a m p e r s i n s o -
l a r h e a t i n g systems. I
EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION -
t h e s o l a r r a d i a t i o n whibh
DECLINATION -
t h e a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n o f t h e sun
noon w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e plane o f the
a t solar
equator,
would be r e c e l v e d on a h o r i z o n t a l s u r f a c e i f t h e r e
were no atmosphere. I
I.e., the angular p o s l t l o n o f t h e sun north or I
south of t h e equator; a functlon o f the time of f-CHART - a correlation, presented g r a p h i c a l l y apd
year. analytically, which expresses the monthly loqd
f r a c t i o n s u p p l i e d by s o l a r energy I n terms o f tyo
DEGREE-DAYS ( m o n t h l y ) -
t h e sum o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e - dlmenslonless variables which i n c l u d e measured
c o l l e c t o r p a r a m e t e r s and m o n t h l y a v e r a g e meteor?-
t w e e n 18.3 C ( 6 5 F ) a n d t h e mean d a l l y t e m p e r a t u r e
f o r each d a y o f t h e month. loglcal condltions.
I
DESIGN HEATING LOAD -
t h e maximum p r o b a b l e s p a c e h e a t - FCHART -
an I n t e r a c t I v e computer program a v a i lab / e
i n g needs o f a b u l l d i n g . from t h e S o l a r Energy Laboratory, University df
W lsconsin -
Mad l s o n , w h i c h c a l c u b a t e s s o l a r h e a d -
DESIGN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE -
t h e maximum p r o b a b l e i n g system p e r f o r m a n c e and economlcs b y t h e m e t i -
ods d e s c r i b e d i n t h l s book. I
d i f f e r e n c e between the indoor and the a m b i e n t
temperatures.
-
172 APPEND l X 4 1

FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR - t h e b a s i c h e a t collection PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING solar heatlng of- a br~ilding
dev!ce used I n s o l a r h e a t i n g systems; c c n s i s t s c f
a " b l a c k " p l a t e , i n s u l a t e d on t h e b o t t o m and edg- I accomplished by a r c h i t e c t u r a l deslgn without t h e
a i d o f mechanical equlprnent.
es, and c o v e r e d b y one o r more t r a n s p a r e n t c o v e r s . II PEBBLE BED -
a large b i n o f unlforrn s i z e pebbles used
FRESNEL COLLECTOR - a concentratlng solar collector for storing s o l a r h e a t i n s o l a r a l r h e a t i n g sys-
whlch focuses solar radlation using a Fresnel i tems.
lens. I PRESENT WORTH -
t h e amount o f money w h l c h m u s t be In-
HOUR ANGLE - 1 5 " t i m e s t h e number o f h o u r s f r o m solar vested today i n o r d e r t o have a s p e c i f i e d amount
noon. a t a f u t u r e tlme.

INCIDENCE ANGLE - t h e a n g l e between ' t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r PYRANOMETER - an i n s t r u m e n t f o r measuring t o t a l (beam,

to a surface and the dlrectlon of the solar dlffuse, and r e f l e c t e d ) s o l a r r a d l a t i o n .
radiation.
REFLECTED RADIATION solar - radiatlon whlch is
- r e f l e c t e d f r o m a s u r f a c e such as t h e g r o u n d (and,

I
LIFE-CYCLE ECONOMIC ANALYSIS a method o f d e t e r m l n l n g
a l l f u t u r e costs i n terms o f today's d o l l a r s . a s u s e d h e r e , I s u l t i m a t e l y i n c i d e n t on the col-
lector surface).
LIQUID-BASED
system
SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM
I n which Iiquld, either
a solar heatlng
water or
-an REFLECTANCE - t h e r a t i o o f r a d i a t i o n r e f l e c t e d f r o m 3
antifreeze solution, i s heated i n t h e s o l a r c o l - surface t o the t o t a l radiatlon I n c i d e n t on the
lectors . s u r f ace.

L I Q U I D - T O - L I Q U I D . HEAT EXCHANGER a -
device, for heat RETURN ON INVESTMENT -
t h e market discount r a t e whlch
exchange between t w o l i q u l d s t r e a m s . w i l I r e s u l t i n zero l i f e c y c l e savings.
I
- SELECTlVE SURFACE - a s u r f a c e w h i c h h a s a h i g h a b s o r p -
LOAD space o r d o m e s t i c water h e a t i n g needs which
t o b e s u p p l i e d by s o l a r o r c o n v e n t i o n a l e n e r g y .
is
i tance f o r solar r a d l a t i o n , but a
f o r thermal (long-wave) r a d l a t i o n .
low e m i t t a n c e

LONG-WAVE RADIATION - Infrared o r r a d l a n t heat.

MARKET DISCOUNT RATE - t h e r a t e o f r e t u r n w h l c h c a n be

I SOLAR SAVINGS -
the l i f e cycle cost o f conventional
h e a t i n g minus t h e l i f e c y c l e c o s t o f solar heat-
e x p e c t e d on t h e b e s t i n v e s t m e n t . ing .
MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE -average o f the mlnlrnum a n d STORAGE CAPACITY -
t h e amount o f e n e r g y w h i c h c a n be
maximum d a T l y temperatures used t o determine t h e s t o r e d b y a s o l a r h e a t i n g s y s t e m t o be u s e d a t a
number o f d e g r e e - d a y s . l a t e r t i m e f o r space o r water h e a t i n g .

MIN[a,bl - smaller o f the values enclosed i n brackets. I SUNSET HOUR ANGLE -

t h e hour angle o c c u r r i n g a t sunset

NORPAL RADIATION -
t h e component of solar radiatlon i ( S e e HOUR ANGLE)

which I s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a b s o r b i n g s u r f a c e . I TRANSMITTANCE the - r a t i o o f the r a d i a t i o n passing

through a material t o t h e radlation i n c l d e n t on
PARABOLIC FOCUSING COLLECTOR
lector which focuses beam
- a concentratlng col-
radiation with a
t h e upper s u r f a c e o f t h a t m a t e r i a l .

parabolic reflector.
 APPENDIX 4

T R A N S M I T T A N C E - A B S O R P T A N C E PRODUCT - t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e
transmlttance of the transparent col!ector
c o v e r ( s ) and the absorptance of the collector
plate.
APPENEIX 5
UNiFORM ANNUAi PAYMENT -
t h e p a y m e n t t o b e made e a c h
BLANK W O R K S H E E T S
yea on a mortgage loan.

USEFUL ENERGY GAIN

collector which
-
t h e energy c o l l e c t e d by
is not lost t o the surroundln~s
a solar

a n d can ultimately be used for space or water

h e a t lng .
WATER-AIR HEAT EXCHANGER -
a d e v i c e i n which a i r Is
e i t h e r heated o r c o o l e d by f l o w i n g w a t e r .
 COLLECTOR ORIENTATION WORKSHEET 1

AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACES

A. Location B. L a t i t u d e = C. Inclination s -
D. ( l t c o s s)/2 E. Ground Reflectance P = F. ~ ( 1 - c o s s ) / 2
- GI.

Month
"
G2,

JIDay -m K~
G3.
-
(Appendix 2 ) (Appendix 2 )
64.
-tld/R
~ t g .3.1 or
Eqn. 3 . 3 )
65.

I-%/'
6 6 .
- I
( ~ i g R ~ 3 . 2 Beam
( 1 -64. ) o r Eqn. 3.4) (G5. xG6. )
68.-GIO.
-

Diffuse
(D.xG4. ) (G7.+G8.+F.)
t ' ~ 2
J/Oay -m
(G9.xG2. )

Jan x106 XIO 6

Feb x106 xl@q
Mar xloG 6
x 10
AP r x106 x106
May x106 x106
Jun xl0q
- x10 6
Jul x106 x106
I
Aug x106 x106
SSP x106 x106
Oct x106 x106.

x10 6

x106

COLLECTOR OR1ENTAT ION WORKSHEET 2

MONTHLY AVEWGE TRANSMITTANCE - ARSORPTANCE PRODUCT

Hl. 112. ti3. H4. H5. H6. H7. HE. H9. H10.
- eam use

Month
eb
( F j g . 3.5)
@ 9, a
i n
( F i g . 3.3)
/@8
(Fig. 3-41
Rb/r
(GG./G9.)
(~S,nHl,r
H4.xH5.1
@ 60'
'/in

( F i g . 3.3)
(DY:A:,t9.
x0.92xH7.)
(F>/i;.,(.2
xti7.)
(3/('dn
(H6.tHE.tHs.)
*
Jan lCe
 F-CHART KORKSHEET 1
HEATING LOADS

A. UA Desi n S ace Heatin Load W

-+-
~esi:n T k p e r a ture 8 i f f c r e n c e
CJi-- a
[WIOC] (See Section 4.2)

0. Water Heating Load =- [ I f t e r s l d a y ] x 4190 x (T,-~,)[J/liter] = - [JIDay 1

Domes t l c Water Load

Heating Degree Days [JIMonth] T o t a l Load, 1
["C-day] [JIMonth (See Section 4.3) [JIMon ttr]
(86400) (A. ) ( C Z . )
Jan 31 1
,Feb 28 1
Mar 31
Apr 50
I.lay 31
Jun 30 -
Jul 31
,Aug 31

otals 365

F-CHART WORKSHEET 2
ITEMS MAKING UP X AND Y

c. FRUL(F'R/FR) [W/%~OCI (See Sections 2.3 and 2.4)

D. FRkaln(Fi/FR)= (See Sections 2.3 and 2.4)

C6. C7. . C8. C9. C10. C11.

( 100-7,) ["C] (G)l(~a),, D a i l y Radiation
(Ta can be XIA[U~~]
= on Col 1ec t o r ~ / ~ [ l / r n =~ )
Per found i n C
()~.). (5eeSecti0ns [ ~ l m 2 - ~ a y (See
]
Month 3 . 4 and 3.5) (O.)(C9.)(ClO.)(Cl.)
Appendix 2) (C5.) Section 3.2) (C5.1
Jan 2.68~10~ x1ob
Feb 2.42~10~ x106
Yar 2.68~10~ x106
Apr 2.59~10' x106
May 2.68x106 x1o6
Jun 2.59~10~ x106
Jul 2.68x106 x106
2 . 6 ~ o6
~1
A U ~ x1a6 -
2.59x106 x106
Oct 2.68x106 x106
Nov
lDec
2.59~10~
2 . 6 8 ~ 1o6
x106
x106 I
--
A
 F-CHART UORKSHEET 4
ECONOMIC PARAMETERS

H. Annual m r t g a g e i n t e r e s t r a t e %/I00
1. Tern o f m r t g a y e
J. Down payment (as f r a c t i o n o f investment)
K. C o l l e c t o r area dependent c o s t s
L. Area independent costs s
M. Present cost o f s o l a r backup system f u e l
N. Present c o s t o f conventional system f u e l
0. E f f j c i e n c y o f s o l a r backup furnace
P. E f f i c i e n c y o f conventional system furnace
Q. Property tax r a t e (as f r a c t i o n of investment) %/lOC
R. E f f e c t i v e income t a x bracket (state+federal:statexfederal) %/
100
5. E x t r a i n s . L rnaint. costs (as f r a c t i o n of investment) %/ 100
T. General i n f l a t i o n r a t e p e r y e a r %/lo0

-
7
I,
**U.
V.
W.
Fuel i n f l a t i o n r a t e per y e a r
Discount r a t e ( a f t e r t a x r e t u r n on b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e investment)
Term of economic a n a l y s i s
%/lo0
%/lo0
Yrs
X. F i r s t year non-solar fuel expense ( t o t a l , C ~ ) ( N . ) / ( P . ) + ~ O ~ 5
*Y. Depreciation l i f e t i m e Yrs.

11
z. Salvage value (as f r a c t i o n o f investment) %/ 100
AA . Tabie 6.2 with Y r = (W.), Column= (U.) and Row = (V.)

-* 2-.
A
x
11
U BB. (W.) " (T.) " (V.1
\ CC. MINV..W.) " (H.) " (v-)
U L
It 2 S t*DD. MIN(W. ,Y.) " (Zero) " (v.1
L *
m
EE. (I.) " (Zero)" (H.
cU sV -
X m
E
0 FF. MIN(I.,W.) " (Zero) " (v.
u y- -r
u GG. (FF.)/(EE.), Loan payment
L C U
0 0 0 ,
42
0 - L
L .- HH. (GG. )+(CC.)[(H.)-l/(EE.)], Loan i n t e r e s t
m u 0
'+-wu II. (J.)+(l-J.)[(GG.)-(HH.)(R-)I, Capital cost
L
C L W
0 0 0
'r U r(l
JJ. (S.)(BB.), ILM c o s t
u L
u L KK. (Q.)(BB) (1-R.), Property t a x
0 , W Z
L D O
L c - LL. ( z . ) / ( ~ + v . ) ( ~ - 1 ,Salvage v a l u e
o m -
u c
a
U
x
L
-
*MM. (R.)(DD.)(l-Z.)/(Y.), Depreciation
.,-NW w
U
m
L
NN. Other costs (see Section 6.9)
m 0
w w o 00. ( I I . ) + ( J J . )+(KK.)-(LL.)+(NN.), R e s i d e n t i a l costs
c n r u
m w PP. (II.)+(JJ.)(l-R.)+(KK.)-(LL.)-(EIM.)+(NN.)(1-R.),Comercial costs
L - U - -
o m -
0 0 0
V) 2 V **For o t h e r f u e l i n f l a t i o n f a c t o r s see Section 6.9.
*Comercia1 only.
+ S t r a i g h t l i n e o n l y . Use Tables 6.3A o r 6.38 f o r o t h e r d e p r e c i a t i o n methods.
 F-CHART WORKSHEET 6
YEARLY SAVINGS FOR COLLECTOR AREA =

R10. Year (n) (first year=l)

tR11. Current Mortgage

[(Rll. )-(R14.)+(~16.)]
R12. Fuel Savings
(X.-R~.)(T+U.T-'
R13. Down Payment (1st year only)
(R3. ) ( J . )
Mortga e Payment
(1-J.)~R~.)/(EE.)
R15. Extra Insurance & Yaintenance
(s-)( ~3-)(1+T.)
R16. Extra Property Tax
(R~.)(Q.)(I+T.)O-~
R17. Sum
(R13.+R14.+R15.+R16.,
Interest on Mortgage
(Rll.)(H.)
-
- R19: Tax Savinqs
.-.o (R.!(Rlb.+R18.) 4
U
C
* ~ 2 0 . Depreciation(st. line)
E
0
(R3.) (1-Z.)/(Y.)
U
Y e

w m
*R21. Business Tax Savings
W P I
nn-
(R.)(R20.+R15.-R12.)
c-
al.
ca R22. Salvage Value
x a
Id- (R2.)(2.) (Last Year Only)
R23. Solar Savings
(R12.-R17.+R19.+R21 .+R22. )
*R24. Discounted Savings
(R23.)/(1+V.)n

tFor the first year use [(R3.)(1-J.)]; for subsequent years use equation
w f th previous years values.
"Income producing property only.
**The down payment should not be discounted.
 APPENDIX 6
THE FCHART I N T E R A C T I V E PROGRAM
V N I V E R S I T Y OF W I S C O N S I N
aOLAR ENEPGY LAPORATORY
An I n t e r a c t i v e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m , c a l l e d FCHART, FCHART VERSION 2.0
hes been d e v e l o p e d t o do t h e c a l c u l a t l o n s d e s c r i b e d i n T H l S PROGRAM U T I L I Z E S THE D E S I G N CHARTS DEVELOPED A T T H I S L A B O R ~ ~ O R Y
thls text. Included are meteorological data for T O S I Z E COLLECTORS FOR SOLAR SPACE AND D O M E S T I C WATER H E A T I N G SYSTEMS
approximately 170 N o r t h A m e r i c a n locations. The OF CONVENTIONAL DESIGN. T O USE. ANSWER T H E Q U E S T I O N S .
I
program i s a v a l l a b l e from t h e S o l a r Energy L a b o r a t o r y , 00 YOU NEED INSTRUCTIONS(Y,N OR X ) ? I
University o f W l s c o n s l n , M a d l s o n . Y
The r e s u l t s o f t h e economlc calculatlons .are "FCHART" IS SO SIMPLE TO USE THAT YOU M A Y NEVER ASK FOR INSTRUCT~IONS
presented I n t e r m s o f t h e p r e s e n t w o r t h o f the s o l a r A G A I N . RESPOND TO THE A 8 0 V E Q U E S T I O N W I T H "Nu OR " X " TO BYPASS TPESE
I N S T R U C T I O N S . "N" KEANS NO I N S T R U C T I O N S ARE NEEDED, BUT LONG YERS:ONS
e n e r g y system and t h e p r e s e n t worth of the system OF A L L SUBSEQUENT QUESTIONS W I L L BE PRINTED OUT. * x N IS FOR THE ~ X P E R I -
wlthout s o l a r energy. The p r e s e n t w o r t h o f t h e s o l a r ENCED USER WHO I S I N A HURRY AND WANTS SHORT VERSIONS OF THE Q U E S T I O N S .
savings, t h e q u a n t i t y c a l c u l a t e d by t h e methods o f AFTER A S E R I E S OF Q U E S T I O N S THE PROGRAM W l L L ASK YOU T O "TYPE I N
CODE NUMBER AND NEW VALUE". AT T H l S P O I N T YOU HAVE THE FOLLOWINGIALTER-
thls book, i s t h e n t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p r e s e n t N A T I V E S . TYPE IN:
worths o f t h e non-solar and solar systems. Samplg I
outputs for a case i n whlch t h e s p e c l f l e d c o l l e c t o r "1" - T O L I S T A L L OF THE PARAMETERS D E S C R I B I N G T H E SOLAR I
SYSTEM ALONG W I T H T H E I R CODE NUMBERS AND I N I T I A L VALUES

--- TTO
a r e a I s used and f o r a case i n whleh the optlmlzed " L N" O ONLY L I S T PARAttETER NUMBER "N". f
collector a r e a . I s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p r o g r a m a r e shown "N V" CHANGE THE VALUE OF PARAMETER "N" TO "V". I
on t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s . "8"
"R"
"S"
-- T O RETURN TO THE B E G I N N I N G OF T H E PROGRAM
T O RUN AN A N A L Y S I S OF THE S P E C I F I E D SOLAR SYSTEM.
T O STOP E X E C U T I O N OF THE PROGRAM.
I
I
AFYER T Y P I N G I N wRn,THE PARAMETER V A L U E S ARE SCANNED TO SEE I F T ~ E YARE
REASONABLE. I F THE C I T Y C A L L NUMeER I S t THAN 1 7 2 YOU HAVE THE O q T I O N
OF M O D I F Y I N G WEATIIER D A T A . WHEN O P T I M I Z I N G COLLECTOR AREA,YOIJ W l L L NEED
T O S P E C I F Y THE COLLECTOR MODULE S I Z E .

YOU MAY U S E E I T H E R S 1 OR E N G L I S H U N I T S . I
DO YOU W l S H TO USE 5 1 U d l T S ? I
Y
WOULO YOU L I K E A L 1 S T I N G OF L O C A T I O N S FOR WHICH CALCULAT1ONS CAN B E
MADE? I
N
YOU MAY MODEL THE SPACE HEATING LOAD USING THE DEGREE-DAY COHCEP-~
OR YOU MAY TYPE I N A SPACE H E A T I N G LOAD FOR EACH MONTH.
DO YOU W l S H TO USE THE DEGREE-DAY CONCEPT?
I
Y I
YOU HAY E I T H E R HAVE THE GROUND REFLECTANCE S E T T O 0.2 FOR A L L MONTHS
OR YOU MAY TYPE I N A Y.\LUE FOR EACH MONTH
DO YOU W l S H TO HAVE THE GROUND REFLECTANCE S E T T O 0.2 FOR A L L M O N ~ H S ?
Y
WOULD YOU L I K E T H E PROGRAM T O PERFORM AN ECONOHIC A N A L Y S I S ? I
Y
I S T H l S A N INCOME PRODUCING B U I L D I N G (NOT A R E S I D E N C E ) ?
I
N I
TYPE I N CODE NUMBER AND NEW VALUE I
L
CODE VARIABLE DESCRIPTION VALUE U N I T S R
H A D 1 SON WI 43.08
A I R SYSTEM=l. L I Q U I D SYSTf4=2 .................
C O L L E C T O R AREA ............................... ****THERMAL ANALYSIS****
FRPRIME-TAU-ALPHA ..
PROOUCT(N0RMAL I N C I D E N C E ) T I M E PERCENT I N C I D E N T H E A T I N G WATER DEGREE A M B I E N T
F R P R I M E - U L PRODUCT ........................... 4;7i w/c-~2 SOLAR SOLAR LOAD LOAD D A Y S TEKP
NUPBER OF TRANSPARENT COVERS .................. .
2 00 (CJ) (GJ) ( G J ) (C-DAY) (C)
COLiECTOR SLOPE ............................... .
43 0 0 DEGsEES JAN 32.5 19.14 19.92 1.91 830. -7 .
A Z I M U T H ANGLE (E.G. ........
SOUTH=O. WEST.90) . 00 DEGREES FEE 42.5 20.29 16.69 1.72 696. .6 .
STORAGE C A P A C I T Y ............................. .
3 1 5 00 KJ/C-HZ MAR 64.6 27.87 14.39 1.91 599. 0 .
........................
E F F E C T I V E B U ! L D I N G UA 277.78 W/C APR 82.1 25.61 7.88 1.85 328. 7 .
CONSTANT D A I L Y BLOG H E A T G E N E R A T I O N .......... . 00 KJ/DAY HAY 99.7 27.77 3.96 1.91 165. 13 .
...... JUN 100.0 29.43 .
96 1.85 40. i9 .
...
( E P S I L O N ) ( C M I N ) / ( E F F E C T I V E B U l L D l N G UA) 2.00
HOT WATER USAGE .............................. 300.00 L/DAY JUL 100.0 31.46 .19 1.91 8 21 .
WATER S E T TEMPERATURE ........................ 60.00 C AUG 100.0 30.01 .
52 1.91 22 20 .
WATER M A I N TEMPERATURE ....................... 11.00 C SEP 100.0 29.21 2.31 1.85 96 I5 .
.
C I T Y C A L L NUMBER ............................. 88.00 OCT 90.4 26.10 6.32 1.91 263.
.
10
.
THERMAL P R I N T OUT E!Y MONTH=!. ......
BY YEAR=2 .
1 00 NOV 40.5 i6.57 12.12 1.85 505
.
1
.
.
USE OPTMZJ COLLECTCR AREA=! .
ECONOMIC A N A L Y S I S ? Y E S X I . N O 1 2 ..............
. SPECFD . AREA=Z
.
I 00 OEC
YR
32.5
56.0
17.89
301 3 6 . 17.81
103.07
1.31
22.48
742
4294.
-5
2.00
SOLAR SYSTEM THERMAL PERFORMANCE D E G R A D A T I O N . -00 $/YR
P E R I O D OF THE ECONOMIC A N A L Y S I S .............. 20.00 YEARS **"ECONOMIC ANALYSIS****
.
COLLECTOR A R E A DEPENDENT SYSTEM COSTS ........ 100.00 S/P2 C O L L . S P E C I F I E D COLLECTOR AREA = 5 0 M2
CONSTANT SOLAR COSTS . ........................ iOO0.00 5 I N I T I A L COST OF SOLAR SYSTEM = 1 6000 .
.......
DOWN P A Y M E N T ( % O F O R I G I N A L I N Y E S T M E N T I T H E ANNUAL MORTGAGE PAYMENT FOR 2 0 YEARS = f 750.
ANNUAL I N T E R E S T ? A T E ON MORTGAGE ............. THE DISCOUNTED BAYBACK P i R l C C I S ( Y R ) 12.
TERM OF HORTGAGE ............................. YRS U N T I L C U M U L A T I V E SAVINGS=MORTGAGE P R I N C I P L E 15.
.........
ANNUAL N O M I N A L < M A R K E T ) D I S C O U N T R A T E P R E S E N T WORTH OF YEARLY T O T A L COSTS W I T H SOLAR = $
P R E S E N T WORTH OF YEARLY T O T A L COSTS W/O SOLAR = S
14378.
16699.
EXTRA INSUR.,MAINT. I N YEAR I ( % OF O R I G - I N V . )
..........
ANNUAL % I N C R E A S E I N AeOVE E X P E N S E S PRESENT WORTH OF C U M U L A T I V E SOLAR S A V I N G S = 5 2322.
P R E S E N T COST OF SOLAR B A C K U P F U E L ( B F ) .......
B F R I S E : $ / Y R = I . SEQUENCE OF V A L U E S - 2 ......... TYPE I N CODE NUMBER AND NEW V A L U E
I F 1. WHAT I S T H E ANNUAL R A T E 3 F B F R I S E .....
P R E S E N T COST OF C O N V E N T I O N A L F U E L ( C F ) ....... 18 1
CF R I S E : % / Y R = l . SEOUENCE OF V A L U E S - 2 ......... TYPE I N CODE NUMBER A N 0 NEW V A L U E
I F 1. WHAT I S THE ANNUAL R A T E OF C F R I S E ..... 35 1
ECONOMIC P R l N T OUT B Y Y E A R = I . C U M U L A T I V E = 2 ... TYPE I N CODE NUMBER AND NEW V A L U E
E F F E C T I V E F E D E R A L - S T A T E INCOME T A X R A T E ...... 39 1
..
.
TRUE PROP T A X R A T E PER f OF O R I G I N A L I N V E S T . T Y P E I N CODE NUMBER AND NEW V A L U E
ANNUAL I I N C R E A S E I N PROPERTY T A X R A T E ........
CALC.RT. OF RETURN ON SOLAR I N V T M T ? Y E S = l . NO-2
SALVAGE VALUE ( % OF O R I G I N A L I N V E S T M E N T ) .....
INCOME P R O D U C I N G B U I L D I N G ? YES.1. ........
NO=Z
I N CODE NUMSER AND NEW V A L U E
 R
WHAT I S THE COLLECTOR MODULE S l Z E f F T 2 OR M Z ) ?
I
MA0 l SO14 W I 43.08

***wTHERMAi. A N A L Y S I S * * * #
TIME PERCENT 1NCIDENT HEATING WATER DEGREE AW8lENT
SOLAR SOLAR LOAD LOAD DAYS TEMP
L (GJ) (GJ) ( G J ) (C-DAY) (C)
JAN 26.3 14.93 19.92 1.91 830. -7.
COO E VARIABLE DESCRIPTION VALUE UNITS FEB 34.7 15.83 16.69 1.72 696. -5.
MAR 54.2 21.74 14.39 1.91 599. 0.
1 A I R SYSTEM=I,LIQUID SYSTEM=2... .............. 2.00 APR 71.8 19.98 7.88 1.85 328. 7.
2 COLLECTOR AREA............................... 50.00 M2 MAY 95.9 21.66 3.96 1.91 165. 13.
3 FRPRIME-TAU-ALPHA PRODUCT(N0RMAL INCIDENCE).. .70 JUN 100.0 22.95 .96 1.8: 40. 19.
4 FRPRIME-UL PRODUCT........................... 4.72 W/C-HZ JUL 100.0 24.52 .19 1.91 8. 21.
5 NUMBER OF TRANSPARENT COVERS.................. 2.00 AUG 100.0 23.41 -52 1.91 22. 20.
6
7
COLLECTOR SLOPE...........................
AZIMUTH ANGLE (E.G. SOUTH=O, WEST=90)........
.... 43.00 DEGREES SEP 100.0 22.79 I 8 96. 15.
.OO DEGREES OCT 81.3 20.36 6.32 1.91 263. 10.
8 STORAGE CAPACITY............................. 315.00 KJ/C-HZ NOV 33.2 12.92 12.12 1.85 505. I.
9 EFFECTIVE B U I L D I N G UA........................ 277.78 W/C DEC 26.3 13-96 17.81 1.91 742. -5.
10 CONSTANT DAILY BLDG HEAT GENERATION.......... -00 KJ/OAY YR 49.1 235.06 103.07 22.48 4294.
I 1 (EPSILON)(CMIN)/(EFFECTlVE BUILDING UA)......
12
13
HOT WATER USAGE ..............................
WATER SET TEMPERATURE........................
2.00
300.00
60.00
L/DAY
C
***VCONOMIC ANALYSIS****
OPTIMIZED COLLECTOR AREA = 3 9 . M2
I 4 WATER MAIN TEMPERATIIRE....................... 11.00 C I N l T l A L COST OF SOLAR SYSTEM = 1 4900.
15 C I T Y CALL NUMBER............................. 88.00 THE ANNUAL MORTGAGE PAYMENT FOR 20 YEARS S
16 THERMAL PRINT OUT BY MONTH=!, BY YEAR=2...... 1 .oo
17 ECONOMIC AtlALYSIS ? YES=!, N0=2.............. 1 .oo END PROP I NC BACKUP INSUR, COST SAVNGS PW OF
18 USE OPTMZD. COLLECTOR AREA.1, SPECFD. AREA.2. 1 .oo INTRST OF YR DEPRC TAX TAX FUEL MA I NT W l TH WlTH SOLAR
19 SOLAR SYSTEM THERMAL PERFORMANCE DEGRADATION. .OO S/YR YR P A I D PRlNC DEDUCT D A I D SAVED COST COST SOLAR SOLAR SAVNG?
20 PERIOD OF THE ECONOMIC ANALYSIS.............. 20.00 YEARS 1 352 4313 0 98 157 383 49 1312 -558 -573
21 COLLECTOR AREA DEPENDENT SYSTEM COSTS........
22
23
CONSTANT SOLAR COSTS.........................
DOWN PAYMENT(% OF ORIGINAL INVESTMENT).......
100.00
1000.00
10.00
$/M2 COLL.
$
s
2
3
4
345
336
327
4209
4097
3975
0
0
0
103
1 !O
1 1'6
157
156
422
464
51
55
869
922
979
-A l
- 10
-59
- n
155 510 58 23 11
24 ANkUAL INTEREST RATE ON MORTGAGE..........,.. 8.00 5 3844 0 1041 4 1
25 TERM OF MCRTGAGE ............................. 20.00 YEARS
5
6
318
307 3703
123
0 #I31
154
153
56 1
61 7
61
65 1110
61
102 r, n
26 ANNUAL NOMINAL(MARKET) DISCOUNT RATE......... 8.00 s 7 296 3550 0 139 152 679 69 1184 149 fb I
27 EXTRA INSUR..YAINT. I N YEAR I ( $ OF 0 R I G . I N V . ) 1.00 5 8 284 3384 0 147 150 747 73 1266 20 1 1011
28 ANNUAL S INCREASE I N ABOVE EXPENSES.......... . 6.00 $ 9 270 3206 0 156 149 822 78 1356 258 1 ?'>
29 PRESENT COST OF SOLAR BACKUP FUEL (PF)....... 6.00 S/GJ 10 256 301 3 0 165 147 904 82 1454 321 14')
30 BF RISE: $/YR=l,SEFUENCE OF VALUES=Z......... 1 .oo 11 241 2805 0 175 145 995 87 1561 392 168
31 I F 1, WHAT I S THE ANNUAL RATE OF BF RISE..... 10.00 I 12 224 258 1 0 186 143 1094 93 1679 470 186
32 PRESENT COST OF CONVENTIONAL FUEL (CF)....... 6.00 S/GJ 13 206 2338 0 197 141 1204 98 1807 556 204
33 CF RISE: S/YR=l,SEOUENCE OF VALUES=2......... 1-00 14 187 2076 0 209 138 1324 104 1948 652 222
34 I F 1, WHAT I S THE ANNUAL RATE OF CF RISE..... 10.00 15 166 1793 0 221 135 1456 110 2102 757 238
35 ECONOMIC PRINT OUT BY YEAR-1, CUHULATIVE=2... 1-00 16 143 1487 0 234 132 1602 117 2271 87 5 255
36 EFFECTIYE FEDERAL-STATE INCOME TAX RATE ...... 35.00 $ 17 119 1157 0 248 128 1762 124 2456 1004 27 1
37 TRUE PROP. TAX RATE PER S OF ORIGINAL INVEST. I
38
39
ANNUAL I INCREASE I N PROPERTY TAX RATE...
CALC.RT. OF RETURN ON SOLAR INVTMT?YES=I,NO=2
.... 2.00
6.00 I
18
19
92
64
800
415
0
0
263
279
124
120
1939
2133
131
139
2659
2 8 8 1
1148
1306
287
502
1-00 20 33 0 0 296 115 2346 148 3124 1482 SIR
SALVAGE VALUE ( I OF ORIGINAL INVESTWENT).....
40
41
TYPE
INCOME PRODUCING BUILDING? YES=l,NO=Z..
I N CODE NUMBER AND NEW VALUE
...... -00
2.00
$ THE DISCOUNTED RATE OF RETURN ON THE SOLAR INVESTMENT($)= 22.5
THE DlSCOUNTED PAYBACK PER19D ISCYR) 11.
YRS U N T I L CUMULATIVE SAVINGS=MORTGAGE PRINCIPLE 14.
PRESENT WORTH OF YEARLY TOTAL COSTS WITH SOLAR = L 14244.
PRESENT WORTH OF YEARLY TOTAL COSTS W/O SOLAR = S 16699.
PRESENT WORTH OF CUMULATIVE SOLAR SAVINGS = S 2456.

TYPE I N CODE NUMBER AND NEW VALUE

 BIBLIOGRAPHY 191

Hesseischwert, A.L., "Performance of t h e MIT S o l a r

House," Proceedlngs o f t h e Symposium o n ? p a c e
Heating w l t h S o l a r E n e r g y , M a s s a c h u s e t t s l n s t l i t u t s
ASHRAE GUIDE AND DATA BOOK, HANDBOOK OF FUNDAMENTALS,
o f Technology (1950) I
A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f H e a t l n g , R e f r l g ~ a t l n gand A i r
C o n d i t i o n i n g E n g i n e e r s , New Y o r k ( 1 9 7 2 ) G.E., Gelst, ).E.,
H I I I , J.E.,Streed,E.R.,Kelly,
of
ASHRAE GUIDE AND DATA BOOK, ------
of Heating,
SYSTEMS, A m e r l c a n S o c l e t y
R e f r l g e r a t l n g and A l r
E n g l n e e r s , New Y o r k ( 1 9 7 3 )
Condltlonlng -
a n d Kusada, T.,

Devices, T e c h n l c a l
Development
f o r T e s t i n g S o l a r C o l l e c t o r s and T h e r m a l
N o t e 899,Natlonal
S t a n d a r d s , Wash l n g t o n D.C. (1976)
+
Proposed Standards
Stora a
Bureau o
I
Beck E . J . a n d F i e l d R.L., Solar Heatlng - of Buildlngs
Hlse, E.C. a n d Holman, A.S., Heat Balance I and
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a n d Domest Walater, Technlcal ~ G o r t R835,
1.
Efficiency Measurements of C e n t r a l ~ o r c e d - k l r
N a v a l F a c l l i t i e s E n g i n e e r i n g Command ( 1 9 7 6 )
R. e-
s i ..
~
d e n t i a l Gas F u r n a c e s . R e p o r t ORNL-NSF-EP-88.
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B e n n e t t , I., " M o n t h l y Maps o f Mean D a l l y Insolat!on

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FI a t - p l a t e Col l e c t o r Performance," Trans. of the
(1965)
Conference on the of S o l a r E n e r g y , V o i I I ,
Therma 1 Processes, 74, Un I v e r s i t y o f ~r I dona,
I
B l i s s , R.W., Jr., "The D e r i v a t i o n o f Several 'Plate
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Jennlngs, B.H., d ~ v i r o n m e n t a l EnglneerincJ,
F l a t - P l a t e S o l a r collector^,^ S o l a r E n e r g y , V o l - 3, I
t l o n a l T e x t b o o k Company ( 1 9 7 0 )
55 (1959) I
C a r r i e r C o r p c r a t l o n , System D e s l g n Manual, Vol. I,
K l e l n , S.A. e t al.,
l a t i o n Program,
TRNSYS
User's
-
A T r a n s l e n t System Sllmu-
Manual, Report 838,
L o a d E s t i m a t l o n , S y r a c u s e , New Y o r k ( 1 9 7 2 )
Engineering Experiment Statlon, University of
Wlsconsln - Madison (1973) I
d e W i n t e r , F., " H e a t E x c h a n g e r P e n a l t i e s i n t h e D o u b l e
Loop S o l a r Water H e a t i n g Systems," S o l a r E n e r g y , I
K l e l n , S.A., "A DesIgn P r o c e d u r e f o r S o l a r Heajtlng
V o i . 17, 335, ( 1 9 7 5 ) Systems," Ph.0 Thesls, U n l v e r s i t y o f Wlsconslln -
Madlson (1976) I
D u f f l e , J.A. a n d Beckman, W.A., S o l a r Energy Thermal
P r o c e s s e s , W l l e y I n t e r s c i e n c e , New Y o r k ( 1 9 7 4 )
K l e l n , S.A., Beckman, W.A., and D u f f l e ,
Design Procedure f o r Solar Heatlng
Engebretson, C.D., "The Use o f S o l a r E n e r g y f o r Space
E n e r g y , V o l . 18, I 1 3 ( 1 9 7 6 )
Heating: M I T S o l a r House I V , " Proceedln~s of the I
U N c o n f e r e n c e On New S o u r c e s of E n e r g y , v o l . 5, UN,
- K l e l n , S.A., Beckman, W.A., end D u f f l e , J.A.,I "A
New Y o r k , 1 5 9 ( 1 9 6 4 )
Deslgn Procedure f o r Solar A i r Heating ~ ~ s t e h s ,
S o l a r Energy, Vol .19,509( 1 9 7 7 )
 192 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 173

Ruegg, R.T., Solar Heatlng Cooling - I n Bulldlngs:

Kleln, S.A., "Cslculatlon of ~ ~ n t h l yA v e r a g e
M e t h o d s of Econornlc
l n s o l a t l o n on T l l t e d Surfaces,"
19,325(1977)
S o l a r Energy ,Vol . Evaluation, U . S .
Commerce, N E S ! FF T F - 7 1 2 , J u l y ( 1 9 7 5 )
Dept. ot

Kleln, S.A., Beckman, W.A., a n d D u f f l e , J.A., Monthly Shurcllff, W.A., Solar Heated B u l l d l n g s -
A Brlef
Average S o l a r R a d l a t l o n on
I n c l i n e d Surfaces for Survey, 13th e d l t l o n , Cambridge,' Mass. (197?)--
-
I71 -
~ o r t h A m e r l c a n Cltles, Report No. 44,
U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Cllmatlc Atlas of the
Engineering Experlrnent Station. Unlverslty of
Wlsconsln -
Madison (1977) Un It e d States, Environmental
V t e d by N a t i o n a l O c e a n i c
DT
service,
a n d Atmospheric
Llu, B.Y.H. and J o r d a n , R.C.,"The lnterreiatlonshlp A d m l n l s t r a t l o n (1974)
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a n d T o t a l S o l a r R a d l a t l o n , S o l a r E.nergy, V o l . 4, 1 , S. .
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(No. 3, 1 9 6 0 ) and
~ e m ~ e r a t u r eP r e c l p l t a t l o n , H e a t l n g and C o o l l G
Degree-Days (1941-19701, National 0ceanlc and
L l u , B.Y.H. and Jordan, R.C., "Dally l n s o l a t l o n on A t m o s p h e r Ic Admlnlstratlon, Cllmatography o f tho
Surfaces Tllted Toward the Equator," Trans. U n l t e d S t a t e s No. 81 ( b y s t a t e )
ASHRAE, 526 ( 1 9 6 2 )
I Ward, J.C. and Lof, G.O.G., "Long-term (18 years)
L o f , G.O.G., Duffle J.A., and Smlth, C.O., World Performance df a Solar H e a t l n g System," Solar
D l s t r l b u t i o n of Solar R a d l a t l o n , R e p o r t No. 21, Energy, V a l . 18, 301 ( 1 9 7 6 )
Engineering Experiment Station, Unlverslty of
Wlsconsln - Madison (1966)

Lof, G.O.G., El-Wakll, #., a n d C h l o u , J.P., "Deslgn

-.. and Performance o f Dornestlc Heating Systems
Employing Solar Heated A i r -
t h e Colorado Solar
H o u ~ e , P~r ~oceedings of t h e UN C o n f e r e n c e o n New
S o u r c e s o f E n e r g y , V o l . 5, UKNew Y o r k , 1 8 5 7 1 9 6 4 )

Lof, G.O.G. a n d T y b o u t , R.A., " C o s t o f House H e a t l n g

w l t h S o l a r Energy," Solar Energy, Vol. 19, 253
(1973)

National Assoclatlon of Home B u i l d e r s R e s e a r c h

Foundat Ion, l n s u l a t i o n Manual for Homes and
A p a r t m e n t s , Rockv 1 l l e , Mary l a n d ( 1 9 7 1 )

Pettlt, R . 8 . a n d S o w e l l , R.P., "Solar A b s o r p t a n c e and

E m l t t a n c e P r o p e r t l e ~ , J~o~u r n a l of Vacuum Sclence
T e c h n o l o g y , V o l . 13, ( 1 9 7 6 )
 NOMENCLATURE

rate of solar radlatlon 1nclden.k on a tilted

surface per u n i t area [ ~ / m 2 , ~ ~ ~ / h r - f t ~ ]

A c o l i e c t o r a r e a Cm2, ft2J factor d e f l n e d i n e q u a t l o n 2.*5

CF prlce o f fuel [$/GJ, I/MMBTU] ratio of monthly average actual to extra-

t e r r e s t r i a l solar radiation
Cmln minlmum c a p a c i t a n c e rate In a h e a t exchanger
[W/C, BTU/F] m o n t h l y t o t a l space and/or water heatlng load
[J/month, B~U/month]
Cp s p e c l f l c h e a t [J/kg-C, BTU/lbm-F]
m o n t h l y space h e a t l n g l o a d [J/month, BTU/month]
d discount r a t e
monthly water h e a t i n g l o a d [J/month, BTU/monthl
DD m o n t h l y degree-days [C-day, F-day]
collector air f l o w r a t e per u n i t c o l l e c t o r area
E total a u x i l l a r y energy CJ, BTU] [ I /s-m2, c f rn/ft2]

f fraction of monthly load supplied by solar s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y per square meter of collector

energy a r e a [l/mZ, gal/ft2]

F fraction of t h e annual load supplied by solar day o f t h e year, Jan l = i , Dec 31=365

FR c o l l e c t o r h e a t removal e f f i c i e n c y factor number o f d a y s l ' n a m o n t h o r number o f y e a r s

FR' col !ector-heat exchanger e f f l c l e n c y factor unit of fuel 4

G collector mass f l o w r a t e p e r u n i t c o l l e c t o r a r e a t o t a l energy c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g a month [J, BTU]

[kg/s, I bm/hr]
ra:e o f u s e f u l energy c o l l e c t i o n [W, eTU/hr]
HF . heating value o f fuel [J/unlt]
ratio of monthly average d a i l y t o t a l r a d i a t i o n
T7 monthly average dai!y total radiation o n a on a t i l t e d s u r f a c e to that on a horizontal
horizontal surface per u n i t a r e a C~/month-m2, s u r f ace
B~~/rnonth-ft2]
r a t i o o f m o n t h l y a v e r a g e d a i l y beam r a d l a t l o n on
gd monthly average d a i l y diffuse r a d i a t l o n on a a t i l t e d s u r f a c e t o t h a t o n a horizontal s u r f a c e
horizontal surface per u n i t a r e a month-m2,
B~~/rnonth-ft2] angle between the plane o f t h e c o l l e c t o r and
h o r i z o n t a l ['I
UT monthly average daily total radiation on a
tilted surface per unit area mo month-mz, a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e [C, F]
~ ~ ~ / r n o n t h - f t ~ ]
m o n t h l y a v e r a g e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e [C, F]
i n f l a t i o n r a t e [%/lOC]
average c o i l e c t o r f l u i d temperature[c, F]
 NOMENCLATURE NOMENCLATURE

I
temperature of a c o l d s t r e a m e n t e r i n g a h e s t ex-
I AU change I n i n t e r n a l e n e r g y o f storage In month
c h a n g e r [C, F] 1 [J, BTul
i
temperature o f
c h a n g e r [C, F ]

temperature of
a hot stream e n t e r l n g a heat

f l u i d entering a solar collector

ex-
Ii E

c
h e a t exchanger

effectlveness
changer
effectiveness,

of the cot lector-tank h e a t ex-

LC, F l I EL effectlveness o f the l o a d h e a t exchanger

t e m p e r a t u r e o f rnalns s u p p l y w a t e r [CJ F7
rl collector efflclency
temperature o f fluid leaving a solar collector
KC, F l rlF furnaceefficiency
-
r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e [I00 C, 212 FJ ! Bb a v e r a g e l n c i d e n c e a n g l e f o r beam r a d l a t i o n
I
acceptable temperature for domestic h o t water P ground r e f l e c t a n c e
Cc, ~1 i
T transmittance o f t h e c o l l e c t o r cover system
building overall energy loss coefficient-area
p r o d u c t [W/C, BTU/hr-F] n normal lncidence transmittance

collector energy loss co~fflclent [w/C, ('a), transmittance-absorptance p r o d u c t f o r radlatlon

BTU/hr-F] a t normal lncidence

volume o f t h e acked bed p e r u n i t c o l l e c t o r a r e a (G) monthly averpge transmlttance-absorptance pro-

[m3/rn2, fr3/ft ] ? duct
d a i l y volume o f domestlc water C i ]
(Ta)b m o n t h l y average transmittance-absorptance for
d i m e n s i o n l e s s q u a n l t y d e f i n e d by e q u a t i o n 5.3 beam r a d l a t l o n

corrected value o f X ( G I d monthly alerage transrnlttance-absorptance for

diffuse radlation
d l m e n s l o n l e s s q u a n i t y d e f i n e d b y equation 5 . 4
(TO), monthly average transmittance-absorptance for
corrected value of Y reflected radiation

absorptance o f t h e c o l l e c t o r plate surface

normal lncidence absorptance w sunset hour angle f o r horizontal surface [I0]

solar declination ["I wl

S
sunset hour angle f o r t i l t e d surfaces rO]
number o f seconds I n a month [ s ]
 NDEX

SUBJECT INDEX

Economics, 4,47,Ch.6 Hot water l o a d s - sell!

E c o n o m i c optlmurn, 6,Ch.b Heating I
Econornlc a n a l y s i s , t e r m Hot water system, 3,,5,7,
A b s o r b e d e n e r g y , 13,24 57 h e a t removal e f f i c l e n - o f , I15 55,86,170 I
A b s o r b e r , 10 15,38,169 c y f a c t o r , 13,14,15, E f f e c t l v e n e s s , 22,70,132, Hour b n g l e , 172 I
A b s o r b e r s u r f a c e , 17 19.79,80,170 171 I

A b s o r p t a n c e , 13,25,39,169
A c t l v e s y s t e m s , 1,169
instantaneous perfor-
mance, 12,16,25
Experiments, s o l a r heat-
Ing, 1
Income-producing p r o e r -
t y , 97,115,118
P
A l r flowrate, 79 i n s u l a t l o n , 10 Extraterrestrial r a d l a - Inflation, 100,114
A i r flowrate correctlon l i q u i d h e a t i n g , 10,19 tlon - see R a d l a t l o n , Inflation-dlscount f h n c -
f a c t o r , 80 l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t , 13, e x t r a t e r r e s t r Iat t l o n , 100,129
A i r s y s t e m s , 5,55,74,85 14.57.170 I n s u r a n c e , 9 5 , 9 7 , 1 0 1 114
169 orientation, 5,7,11, f-chart method, 55,Ch.5, I n t e r e s t , 96,101 f
Archltecture, 1 29.38.43 171
A u x l I i a r y e n e r g y , 5.56, o u t l e t temperature, FCHART program, 171,184 L a t l t u d e , 29,41 I
169. See a l s o 16,18,20 F l u l d capacitance r a t e s L i f e - c y c l e analysls,l95,
S o l a r f r a c t i o n , annual s l o p e , 5,7,29,39,41 22,66,70,132 98,100,111,120,124 1
Auxiliary f u r n a c e , 8 t e s t , 12,15,16,38,58 F l u l d temperature L i q u i d systems, 2,55/58,
A r l m u t h a n g l e , 41 t e s t d a t a , 17,60, - a v e r a g e , 18 85,172 I
t h e o r y , 12 o u t l e t , 18 Load - see H e a t i n g l o a d
Beam radiation -see u s e f u l g a i n , 10,12,15, F r e e z i n g , 1,3,8,22,66 L o a d h e a t e x c h a n g e r . 13,
R a d l a t l o n , beam 16,174 F u e l c o s t , 95,97,115,122 65,70,132 I
B o i I l n g , 8,86 C o n t r o l s 3,8,170 break-even, 122 Load h e a t exchanger q o r -
Bui l d i n g Costs F u r n a c e e f f l c l e n c y , 49, r e c t i o n f a c t o r , 71 I
design temperature future, i28 113,115
49,170 Irregularly varying, F u t u r e c o s t s , 95,lOP Maintenance, 95,97,1ql,
UA, 4 8 , 1 6 9 12e 114
s y s t e m , 111,116 G r o u n d r e f l e c t a n c e , 26,31 Market dlscount r a t e 90
C a p a c i t a n c e r a t e - see 9 9 , 1 0 0 , l 14,126
'1
C o v e r s 10,17,3e,39 Ground-reflected radla-
F l u i d capac 1 t a c e r a t e
Co I l e c t o r
Cover t r a n s m i t t a n c e - see tlon - see R a d l a t l o n , M e t e o r o l o g l c a l data, 1 3 5
Transmlttance ground-reflected M o r t g a g e p a y m e n f s , 95',97,
a l r heatlng. i0,19 101 I
c o n c e n t r a t i n g , 11,170
e f f l c i e n c y , 12,16,169
D e c l i n a t l o n , 29,170
D e g r e e - d a y s , 48,170
Heat exchanger
le-ctor heat exchanger;
- see C o l -
P a s s l v e s y s t e m s , 1,1713
P e b b l e bed, 5,79,173 1

e n e r g y l o s s , 10,14,57
f l o w r a t e , 4,6,15,16,
19,65,79
h e a t e x c h a n g e r , 3,5,
132
-heat exchanger c o r -
rectlon factor 22,
57,76,170
-heat exchanger e f f l -
c i e n c y f a c t o r , 22,57
170
1
D e g r e e - d a y m e t h o d , 47 Load h e a t e x c h a n g e r
D e p r e c l a t l o n , 97,108,115, Heat removal e i f l c l e n c y Pebble bed s t o r a g e ca ac-
118 . factor - see Col l e c t o r , ity - s e e S t o r a g e ca a c -
Design recommendations, h e a t removal e f f l c l e n c y 1 t~
5,7 factor Pebble s i z e , 7 I
Discount r a t e - s e e Mar- Heating, h o t water loads, P e r f o r m a n c e o f systemb,
k e t discount r a t e 52,53 1,4,8,17,43,Ch.5 1
D i s c o u n t e d c a s h f l o w , 171 H e a t l n g l o a d , 3.47,56,61, Power r e q u i r e m e n t , 6,Q9
Down p a y m e n t , 9 9 65,72,172 Present value - s e e Pq-es-
d e s i g n , 47,49,170 e n t worth 1
t l m e o f , 45,87 P r e s e n t w o r t h . 95,99,101,
Heatlng value 49 171,173 1
 l NDEX

Properties o f rnaterlais, Tax

168 In c e n t l v e . 1 2 6
P y r a n o m e t e r , 13,173 Income, 95,97,101,114,
126
R a d l ~t I o n laws, 125
a v e r a g e , 13,25,32,39, p r o p e r t y , 95,97,101,
43,57,63,135 113,126
beam, 11,13,16,26,39, s a v l n g s , 96
169 Temperature
d l f f u s e , 11,13,16,26, mean a m b l e n t , 57,135,
39,171 172
extraterrestrial, 27, water s u p p l y , 86
135,171 Thermostat, 8
ground-reflected, 26, T r a n s m l t t a n c e , 13,25,38,
39 39,173
I n c i d e n t , 13,16 Transmittance-absorptance
Replacement c o s t , l i f e p r o d u c t , 16,25,39,57,63,
c y c l e , 129 174
R e s l d e n t l a l economlcs, TRNSYS, 55
111,118
R e t u r n on I n v e s t m e n t , U n i f o r m annual payment,
126.173 101,174
U n i t conversion tables,
S a l v a g e v a l u e , 115,118 166
Sav i n g s
d i s c o u n t e d . 122 Water h e a t i n g c o r r e c t i o n
s o l a r , 98,173 f a c t o r , 87.90
y e a r l y , 120 Windspeed, 16
S e l e c t i v e s u r f a c e , 17,40, I
173
SI u n i t s , 166
Solar savings -
s e e Sav-
Ings
Solar f r a c t i o n
a n n u a l , 43,58,65,79,
9 3 , l 16,169
m o n t h 1 y, 56,58,61,74,
87
S t o r a g e c a p a c l t y , 4,6,56,
60,65,66,76,127,173
'Storage s i z e c o r r e c t i o n
f a c t o r , 67,85
Storage tank, 2
Summer o p e r a t i o n , 6
S u n s e t h o u r a n g l e , 29
System d e s i g n , 55,Ch.5