H (I-4) Oil Displacement Concepts PDF

Basics of Reservoir Engineering Module I
I.4 Oil Displacement Concepts
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Primary Recovery
Hydrocarbon production resulting from natural reservoir

energy
Natural reservoir energy sources
Rock and fluid expansion
Solution gas drive
Gravity drainage
Water influx

Conventional Improved Recovery (IOR)
Injection of immiscible fluid

Water injection
Nitrogen injection
Casinghead gas reinjection
Often used in secondary recovery

Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
Using chemical, biological, or thermal action to improve oil

recovery
Steam, CO2, or hydrocarbon gas injection
Polymer and/or micellar injection
Microbe solution injection
Usually used in tertiary recovery

Waterflooding
Injection of water into a reservoir

Increases reservoir energy
Sweeps oil towards producing wells
Most widely applied secondary recovery method
Accounts for about 50% of U.S. oil production

History of Waterflooding
~
~
1865 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
* First recorded waterflood
Waterflood projects in Oklahoma and Texas
Widescale waterflood
implementation
Infill drilling
Tertiary
recovery
Goal of Waterflooding
Increase the amount of oil recovered from the reservoir by
Maintaining reservoir pressure
Displacing (sweeping) oil with water

Pressure Maintenance
Gas
Water treatment
plant Oil
Production
well Sealing
fault
Water
injection
OWC

Gas Phase Effects
Reduction in reservoir pressure can cause

Gas-cap expansion
Secondary gas cap creation
Gas saturation creation in pore spaces
Water injection can prevent or reverse these effects

Reservoir Performance
Too depleted for

WF success
pi
Gas saturation
GOR
Gas/oil ratio
pb
Pressure
Pressure Gas
saturation
Rsi
Cumulative oil production

Primary Drive Mechanisms
Most applicable:
Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Weak water drive
Gravity drainage
Not applicable
Strong water drive

Example 1
Rate as good or fair or poor reservoirs as to the

applicability of waterflooding

Example 1 Solution
1. Fair
2. Fair
3. Poor
4. Good
5. Poor
6. Good
7. Fair

Water Injection To Sweep Oil
Five - spot
Production well
Injection well
Future inj. well
Peripheral Flooding
Injectors
Producers

Line Drive Patterns
Injection
Well
Production
Well
No-flow
Boundary
Direct Drive Staggered Drive

5-Spot Pattern
Injection well
Production
well
No-flow
boundary

7-Spot Pattern
Injection
Well
Production
Well
No-flow
Boundary
Normal Inverted

9-Spot Pattern
Injection
Well
Production
Well
No-flow
Boundary
Normal Inverted
Nine - Spot Nine - Spot

Typical Initial Oil Field Development
1 Mile
1 Mile
Producing well
Dry hole

Typical Peripheral Waterflood Development
Producing well
Dry hole
Injection well

Typical Center-Line Injection Waterflood
Development
Producing well
Dry hole
Injection well

Typical 160-Acre Inverted 9-Spot Waterflood
Development
Producing well
Dry hole
Injection well

Typical 80-Acre 5-Spot Development
Producing well
Dry hole
Existing injection
well
New conversion
to injection
Typical Infill Drilled
40-Acre 5-Spot Development
New infill
producing well
Dry hole
Existing
injection well
New conversion
to injection
Typical Infill Drilled 40-Acre Direct
Line Drive Development
New infill
producing well
Dry hole
Existing
injection well
New conversion
to injection
Existing
producing well
Factors in Pattern Selection
Current well locations

Fracture azimuths
Permeability anisotropy
Field geometry
Injectivity
Infill drilling plans
Casing integrity of conversion injection candidates
Adjacent lease considerations

Pattern Orientation
Permeability
or
fracture
orientation
Favorable Unfavorable
orientation orientation

Pattern Selection/Orientation Problem
N
NW NE
W E
SW SE
S
Existing
producer
Existing
injector
New
producer
New
injector
Convert to
injector
Solution - Pattern Selection/Orientation Problem
N
NW NE
W E
SW SE
S
Existing
producer
Existing
injector
New
producer
New
injector
Convert to
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Frontal Advance Theory
Piston - like displacement
Sor
Water Oil
Swi
Connate water

Leaky piston
Water
Initial oil
Injected saturation Oil
Saturation
water
bank
Connate water
Distance

Water Oil Unaffected

bank bank reservoir
Trapped gas
Saturation
Initial
Oil
Water free gas
Connate water
Distance

Fractional Flow Equation
1.127 x 10 3 A ko Pc
1+ 0.433 sin
qt o L
fw =
w ko
1+
o k w

1.127 x 10 3 A ko Pc
1+ 0.433 sin
(qo + qw ) o L
fw =
w ko
1+
o kw

Capillary pressure term 1.127 x 10 3 A ko Pc

(usually ignored) (qo + qw ) o L
Gravity term 1.127 x 10 3 A ko

(0.433 sin )
(qro + qrw ) o

Horizontal reservoir
1
fw =
w k ro
1+
o k rw

Fractional Flow of Water is Affected by:
Increased Value Effect on Fractional

of Term Flow of Water
injection rate increase
capillary pressure gradient increase
permeability to oil decrease
ko/kw decrease
cross sectional area decrease
w/o decrease
fluid density difference decrease
dip angle decrease

Fractional Flow Curves
1.0
0.8
0.6
fW
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
SW
Information From the Fractional Flow Curve
fw=1 SwBT
Fraction of water 1 Average reservoir
flowing at the water saturation
flood front at breakthrough
fWF Tangent point
fW
e
t Lin
gen
Ta n
0
0 Swi 1-Sor Sw at the
Sw
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Example 2: Fractional Flow Curve
FRACTIONAL FLOW CURVES
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
FRACTION OF WATER FLOWING
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
WATER SATURATION (%)

Example 2
Solution
Fractional Flow Curve

1. Sw = 55%
2. fw = 82.5%
3. SwBT = 63%
0.63 0.2
4. ED = = 0.5375
1 0 .2
Waterflood
Performance Efficiencies
Recovery efficiency
ER = Ep EI ED
= Ev ED
= EA EI ED

Performance Efficiencies
Displacement efficiency (ED)
S wBT S wi
ED =
1 S wi

Areal Sweep Efficiency (EA)
Producer
EA
Water invaded
area
Injector
Fraction of the horizontal plane of the reservoir that is

behind the flood front at a point in time
Factors affecting EA
Mobility ratio
Well spacing
Pattern geometry
Areal heterogeneities

Mobility Concept
Mobility
permeability of rock to fluid

mobility =
fluid viscosity

Mobility Ratio
Mobility of Water
M=
Mobility of Oil
k k rw
w k rw * o
= =
k k ro k ro * w
o

Mobility Ratio Effects
M = 1 Water and oil move Neutral

equally well
M < 1 Favorable Oil will move easier
than water
M > 1 Unfavorable Water will move
easier than oil

Areal Sweep Efficiency
Pattern geometry influences areal sweep efficiency
Correlations exist for common pattern geometries as a

function of mobility ratio.

Vertical Sweep Efficiency
INJECTION PRODUCTION
EI =

Factors Affecting Waterflooding
Gravity
Barriers to vertical flow
Lateral pay discontinuities
Completion interval inconsistencies

Effects of Gravity
Injector Producer
Oil
Water

Barriers To Vertical Flow
Depositional
Shale streaks
Lithology changes
Evaporite streaks
Diagenesis
Cementation
Dolomitization

Lateral Pay Discontinuities
Producing Injection
well well
Trapped oil

Lateral Pay Discontinuities
Effect of infill drilling

Producing Infill Injection
well well well

Completion Interval Inconsistencies
Producing Injection
well well
Trapped oil -
lateral pay
discontinuities
Trapped
Oil - Completions
Prediction Methods
Analytical methods
Typically single-layer, single-pattern, iso-properties
Requires scale-up of answers to get full field results
(Buckley-Leverett, Stiles, Craig-Geffen-Morse, Dykstra-
Parsons)
Largely replaced by numerical methods such as 3-
dimensional, 3-phase computer reservoir simulation

Development Philosophy
Understand the reservoir

Start waterflooding early
Infill drill to reduce effects of lateral pay discontinuities
Develop field on pattern waterflood
Open all of the pay in all wells

Operating Philosophy
Keep producing wells pumped off

Inject below formation parting pressure
Inject clean water
Manage waterflood by injection well tests
Conduct a surveillance program

Producing Well Operations
Well not Well

pumped off pumped off
PWF = 1000 psi PWF = 100 psi
PR = 1500 psi
PR = 500 psi
Minimal production/crossflow Maximum production

Injection Well Operations
Inject at 50 psi below formation parting pressure

Inject clean water
Keep wellbore cleaned out
Scale
Fill
Maintain good injection conformance

Injection Water Quality
Undesirable contaminants
Dissolved, scale-forming solids
Oil and suspended solids
Dissolved oxygen
Bacteria

Injection Well Testing
Waterfloods are water injection projects
Therefore: manage the project by managing the water

injection wells

Injection Well Testing
Conduct periodic injection well tests to determine:

Skin damage
Formation parting pressure
Injection conformance

Waterflood Surveillance
Accurate data collection

Monthly 3-phase production well tests
Measure oil, water, & gas production during test
Daily injection volumes & pressures
Maintain & properly use instruments
Reservoir pressure history

References
1. Craig, F.F. Jr.: The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, SPE AIME, New York (1971).
2. Dake, L.P.: Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Oxford, NY (1978).
3. Petroleum Engineering Handbook, H. B. Bradley (ed.), Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, TX (1987).
4. Willhite, G. P.: Waterflooding, SPE Textbook Series, 3, SPE Richardson, TX (1986).
5. Driscoll, V. J.: Recovery Optimization Through Infill Drilling Concepts, Analysis, and Field Results, paper SPE 4977 presented
at the 1974 SPE AIME Annual Fall Meeting, Houston, 6-9 October.
6. Barbe, J.A. and Schnoebelen, D.J.: Quantitative Analysis of Infill Performance: Robertson Clearfork Unit, JPT (December 1987)
1502-1601.
7. Lemen, M.A., Burlas, T.C., and Roe, L.M.: Waterflood Pattern Realignment at the McElroy Field: Section 205 Case History,
paper SPE 20120 presented at the 1990 SPE Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery Conference, Midland, TX, 8-9 March.
8. Wu, C.H., Laughlin, B.A., and Jardon, M.: Infill Drilling Enhances Waterflood Recovery, JPT (October 1989) 1088-1095.
9. Suttles, D.J. and Kwan, G.W.L.: Pattern Size Reduction: A Reservoir Management Tool for Prudhoe Bay Waterfloods, paper
SPE 26117 presented at the 1993 SPE Western Regional Meeting, Anchorage, 26-28 May.
10. Kern, C.A. and Schepel, K.J.: Formation Evaluation Aids Application of Sequence Stratigraphy to Optimize Production of the
Means San Andres Unit, Andrews Co., TX, 1991 SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, 16-19 June.
11. George, C.J. and Stiles, L.H.: Improved Techniques for Evaluating Carbonate Waterfloods in West Texas, JPT (November
1978) 1547-1554.
12. Patton, C.C.: Applied Water Technology, Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, OK (1986).
13. Patton, C.C.: Water Quality Control and Its Importance in Waterflooding Operations, JPT (September 1988) 1123-1126.
14. Robertson, D.C. and Kelm, C.H.: Injection-Well Testing to Optimize Waterflood Performance, JPT (November 1975) 1337-
1342.
15. Kelldorf, W.F.N.: Radioactive Tracer Surveying A Comprehensive Report, JPT (June 1970) 661-669.

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Basics of Reservoir Engineering Module I

I.4 Oil Displacement Concepts

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Hydrocarbon production resulting from natural reservoir

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Injection of immiscible fluid

Often used in secondary recovery

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Using chemical, biological, or thermal action to improve oil

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Injection of water into a reservoir

Most widely applied secondary recovery method

Accounts for about 50% of U.S. oil production

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

1865 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

* First recorded waterflood

Waterflood projects in Oklahoma and Texas

Increase the amount of oil recovered from the reservoir by

Maintaining reservoir pressure

Displacing (sweeping) oil with water

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Reduction in reservoir pressure can cause

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Too depleted for

Cumulative oil production

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Rate as good or fair or poor reservoirs as to the

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Direct Drive Staggered Drive

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Current well locations

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Piston - like displacement

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Water Oil Unaffected

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Capillary pressure term 1.127 x 10 3 A ko Pc

Gravity term 1.127 x 10 3 A ko

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Increased Value Effect on Fractional

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fWF Tangent point

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Fractional Flow Curve

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Displacement efficiency (ED)

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