Unit-2

REVIEW OF TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS

2.1 Introduction
Measurement and control system are important subsystem of a Mechatronics system. Its main function is to
collect the information on system status and to feed it to the micro-processors for controlling the whole system.
Measurement and control system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal processing devices. Sensors
and transducers are the heart of any mechatronics systems. Without sense organs there is no life, and so there is no
mechatronics system without sensors and transducers. For a mechatronics system designer it is quite difficult to
choose suitable sensors/transducers for the desired applications. It is therefore essential to learn the principle of
working of commonly used sensors/transducers.
Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out the production operations as
well as process monitoring activities. Sensor technology has the following important advantages in transforming a
conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one.
1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub units of manufacturing system. It helps
operators to reduce the downtime of complete manufacturing system by carrying out the preventative measures.
2. Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labors.
3. Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.

Sensor
Sensor is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being measured. (Or)
Sensor can also be defined as A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand. Here,
the output is usually an electrical quantity and measurand is a physical quantity, property or condition which is to
be measured. Thus in the case of an electrical resistance temperature element, the quantity being measured is
temperature and sensor transforms an input of temperature into a change in resistance.

Transducer
It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a related change. (Or)
It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to another form.
2.2.1 Performance terminology of transducers:
The following terms are used to define the performance of transducers, and often measurement systems as a whole.
1. Range:
The range of a transducer is the minimum and maximum limits between which the input can vary. For example, a
thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of 25-225 C.

2. Span:
The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input. Thus, for the above-mentioned
thermocouple will have a span of 200 C.

3. Error:
Error is the difference between the measured and the true value of the quantity being measured. A sensor might
give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is 0.2 mm.

4. Accuracy:
The accuracy is the closeness of a measured value with the true value of the measurand. (or) Accuracy is the extent
to which the value indicated by the measurement system would be wrong. For example, a thermocouple has an
accuracy of 1C. This means that reading given by the thermocouple can be expected to lie within +1C (or) -1C of
the true value.

5. Sensitivity:
The sensitivity is the relationship showing how much output we can get per unit input, i.e Sensitivity is defined as the
ratio of change in output value to unit change in input value that causes the output change. For example, a general
purpose thermocouple may have a sensitivity of 41V/C.

6. Nonlinearity:
A linear relationship is assumed between the input and output and hence, a straight line is drawn in the graph as
shown here. Some transducers do not have linear relationship and errors occur as a result of the assumption of
linearity. The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a transducer from the
ideal curve.
7. Hysteresis:
Transducers can give different outputs from the same value of quantity being
measured according to whether that value has been reached by a
continuously increasing change or a continuously decreasing change. This
effect is called hysteresis. The two output readings obtained usually differ
from each other. This is because of a certain amount of internal (or) external
friction in the response of the sensing element. The maximum difference in
between any part of output readings so obtained is known as hysteresis error.

8. Resolution:
Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be detected in the output
signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the full-scale reading or in absolute terms. For example,
if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm and it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100
then the resolution of the sensor device is 0.2 mm.

9. Stability:
Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a constant input over a period of
time. The term drift is used to indicate the change in output that occurs over a period of time. When the transducer
gives some output for zero input, it is called zero drift. Stability should not be confused with precision or
reproducibility.

10. Dead band/time:

The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is no output. The dead time
of a transducer device is the time duration from the application of an input until the output begins to respond or
change.

11. Repeatability/ Reproducibility:

It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications for same input value.

2.2.2 Static and dynamic characteristics

The static characteristics refer to the behaviour of transducers under steady-state condition, i.e. the values
given when the transducer has settled down after having received some input.
The dynamic characteristics refer to the behaviour between the time that the input value changes and the
time that the value given by the transducer settles down to the steady-state value.

The following terminologies are associated with static and dynamic characteristics of a transducer:
1 Response time:
The time taken by the transducer to come to steady-state condition after the change in input or application of input
is called response time.
2 Speed of Response/Time constant
Time constant is a measure of the inertia of the transducer. It is the measure of how fast a transducer reacts to
change in its input. Therefore, the bigger the time constant, the slower is its reaction to a changing input.

3 Rise time
This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified percentage of the steady-state output. Often the rise
time refers to the time taken for the output to rise from 10% of the steady-state value to 90 or 95% of the steady-
state value.

4 Settling time
This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some percentage of its steady state value, e.g. 2%, of the
steady-state value.

2.3 Classification of Transducer:

The transducers are broadly classified on basis of following factors:
1. Based on its nature of contact with the system.
2. Based on nature and type of output signal.
3. Based on whether they are self generated or externally powered.

1. Based on its nature of contact with the system:

a. Primary transducer
b. Secondary transducer
a. Primary transducer: The transducer which does the first stage of energy conversion is called primary
transducer. Primary transducers must be in direct contact with the system for which the properties are to be
measured. Mostly primary transducers are coupled with the secondary transducers to convert primary
transducers output into some other quantity. Example: Thermocouple, load cell etc.
b. Secondary transducer: The transducer which receives input from the primary transducers and converts it
into some other form is called secondary transducer. This produces the final form of the energy conversion.
Secondary transducers may or may not have direct contact with system for which the properties are to be
measured. Secondary transducers can be used individually without primary transducers. Example: inductive,
capacitive transducers, LVDT and strain gauges.

2. Based on nature and type of output signal:

a. Analog transducer
b. Digital transducer
a. Analog transducer: are those which convert physical phenomenon into an analogous output which is a
continuous function of time for example electrical voltage or current. The output of the transducer appears
by using traditional instrumentation such as potentiometer, oscilloscope etc.
Example: Strain gauges, Thermistors, LVDT, Etc.
 b. Digital transducer: are those which convert physical phenomenon into an electrical output which is in the
form of pulses that can be counted. Mostly the output of digital transducers appears by using LEDs, CRTs etc.
Example: Angular digital encoders and digital level transducers.

3. Based on whether they are self generated or externally powered:

a. Active transducer
b. Passive transducer
a. Active transducer: are those which develop their own power to producing output signal. They are also
known as self generating transducers. Examples: thermocouples, photo-voltaic cell etc
b. Passive transducer: are those which require external power producing output signal. They are also known as
externally powered transducers. However they absorb some energy from the physical phenomenon being
measured. Example: photo emissive cell, Thermistors, resistance thermometers, etc.

2.4 Difference between Transducer and Sensors:

Transducers
The transducer converts energy from one form to
another
The transducer provides the means of conversion
between two physical variables
The active element of the sensor is referred as a
transducer.
Example: An accelerometer provides output voltage that
is proportional to the mechanical motion of an object
Sensors
A sensor is an element that acquires a physical
parameter and changes it into a signal.
Most sensors work by converting some physical
parameter into an electrical signal.
The sensor consists of transducer and other signal
conversion mechanism.
Example: A thermocouple senses the change in
temperature.

2.5 Difference between Active and Passive Transducers:

Active transducers Passive transducers
These develop their own power to produce output These require external power to produce output signal
signal
Active transducers are also called as self-generating Passive transducers are also called as externally
transducers. powered transducers.
Accuracy is less. Accuracy is more.
They cannot be directly coupled with digital devices. They can be directly coupled with digital devices.
Some examples are resistive, inductive, capacitive some examples are thermometers, tachogenerators,
transducers, strain gauge. thermocouples, photovoltaic cells
2.6 Difference between Analog and Digital Transducers:
Analog transducers
The input and output of the transducers are analog in
nature.
The output of transducers appears by using
traditional instrumentation such as potentiometer computers, CRTs, etc.
oscilloscope, springs etc.
The transducer might need signal processor to
convert the analog signal to the digital signal
Accuracy is less.
Output signals cannot be transmitted from one place
to other without any distortion.
Digital transducers
The input may be analog but output of the transducers is
digital in nature.
Mostly, the output of transducers appears by using LEDs,
The transducer does not require signal processor
Accuracy is more.
Output signals can be transmitted over long distance
without any distortion.

2.7 Difference between Primary and Secondary Transducers:

Primary transducers Secondary transducers
The transducer which does the first stage of energy The transducer which receives input from the primary
conversion is called primary transducer. transducers and converts it into some other form is called
secondary transducer
Primary transducers must be in direct contact with the Secondary transducers may or may not have direct
system for which the properties are to be measured. contact with the system for which the properties are to
be measured.
Mostly primary transducers are coupled with the Secondary transducers can be used individually without
secondary transducers to convert primary transducers primary transducers
output into some other quantity.
These transducers do not require an external power Many secondary transducers require an external power
supply to give an output. supply to give an output
Output signals are mechanical or electrical in nature. Digital signals can be produced.
They cannot be directly coupled with digital devices. They can be directly coupled with digital devices.
Some examples are load cells, manometers, orifice Some examples are resistive, inductive, capacitive
meters, venturimeters, thermometers. transducers and strain gauges.

2.8 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:

Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of the amount by which some object has been moved;.
Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the position of some object in relation to some reference
point. Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and are used to determine when an object has moved to
within some particular critical distance of the sensor.
2.8.1 Eddy current Proximity Sensors (Inductive Proximity Sensors):

These non-contact proximity sensors to detect ferrous targets, ideally mild steel thicker than one millimeter. They
consist of four major components: a ferrite core with coils, an oscillator, a Schmitt trigger, and an output amplifier.
When an alternating current is passed through this coil the oscillator creates a symmetrical, oscillating magnetic field
that radiates from the ferrite core and coil array at the sensing face. When a ferrous target enters this magnetic
field, small independent electrical currents called eddy currents are induced on the metals surface. These eddy
currents create their own magnetic field
which distorts the magnetic field
responsible for their generation. As a
result, impedance of the coil changes
and so the reluctance (natural
frequency) of the magnetic circuit, which
in turn reduces the oscillation amplitude.
As more metal enters the sensing field
the oscillation amplitude shrinks, and
eventually collapses. The Schmitt trigger responds to these amplitude changes, and adjusts sensor output. When the
target finally moves from the sensors range, the circuit begins to oscillate again, and the Schmitt trigger returns the
sensor to its previous output.
Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly reliable and have high
sensitivity for small displacements.
2.8.2 Capacitive Proximity Sensors:

Capacitive proximity sensors can detect both metallic and non-metallic targets in powder, granulate, liquid, and solid
form. This, along with their ability to sense through nonferrous materials, makes them ideal for sight glass
monitoring, tank liquid level detection, and hopper powder level recognition.
Capacitive sensors use the variation of capacitance between the sensor and the object being detected.
When the object at a preset distance from the
sensitive side of the sensor, an electronic circuit
inside the sensor begins to oscillate, the rise and fall
of such oscillation is identified by a threshold circuit
that drives an amplifier of an external load.
In capacitive sensors, the two conduction
plates (at different potentials) are housed in the
sensing head and positioned to operate like an open
capacitor. Air acts as an insulator; at rest there is
little capacitance between the two plates. Like inductive sensors, these plates are linked to an oscillator, a Schmitt
trigger, and an output amplifier. As a target enters the sensing zone the capacitance of the two plates increases,
causing oscillator amplitude to change, in turn changing the Schmitt trigger state, and creating an output signal.
Note the difference between the inductive and capacitive sensors: inductive sensors oscillate until the
target is present and capacitive sensors oscillate when the target is present.

2.8.3 Magnetic Type Proximity Sensor (Reed switch):

Magnet based Reed switches are used as proximity switches. When a
magnet attached to an object brought close to the switch, the magnetic
reeds attract to each other and close the switch contacts.
Magnetic proximity sensors are actuated by the presence of a
permanent magnet. It uses a reed contact which consists of two low
reluctance Ferro-magnetic thin plates enclosed hermetically in a glass bulb containing inert gas. The presence of
magnetic field makes the thin plates flex and touch each other causing an electric contact. The plate`s surface has
been treated with a special material particularly suitable for low current or high inductive circuits.

2.8.4 Pneumatic Proximity Sensors:

Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to sense the proximity of an object close
to it. The displacement and proximity are transformed into change in air pressure. Figure shows a schematic of
construction and working of such a sensor. It comprises of three ports. Low pressure air is allowed to escape through
port A. In the absence of any obstacle / object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the pressure in
the port B. However when an object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output port B.
This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch. These sensors are used in
robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC machine tools.

2.8.5 Optical Proximity Sensor:

Optical proximity sensors are also called as photoelectric proximity sensors use light sensitive elements to
detect objects. Photo proximity sensors use a beam of light to detect the
presence of objects that block or reflect the light beam. A beam of light
passes from the light source and a phototransistor detects the presence or
absence of light source. Incandescent lamps and/or infrared LEDs may be
used as the light source. To make the light sensing system foolproof, most
optical proximity sensor light sources pulses the infra-red light on and off
at a fixed frequency.
Photoelectric sensors are so versatile that they solve the bulk of
problems put to industrial sensing. Because photoelectric technology has
so rapidly advanced, they now commonly detect targets less than 1 mm in
diameter, or from 60 m away.
Classified by the method in which light is emitted and delivered to
the receiver, many photoelectric configurations are available.
Four types of optical proximity sensors commonly used are:
1. Direct reflection type (diffused)
2. Retro-reflective type (Reflection with retro reflector)
3. Polarized reflection with reflection.
4. Through-beam type.

1. Direct reflection type (diffused):

In this type both emitter and receiver are homed together in a single unit and use the light reflected directly back
from the target or object for detection. Distance of sensing is depends upon the color and type of surface of the
object.

2. Retro-reflective type (Reflection with retro reflector)

In this type both emitter and receiver are homed together in a single unit and requires reflector. An object detected
when it interrupts the light beam between the sensor and the reflector. They detect target that reflect light back to
the sensor.
3. Polarized reflection with reflection.
It is similar to Retro-reflective type. In this type both emitter and receiver are homed together in a single unit and
requires reflector. An object detected when it interrupts the light beam between the sensor and the reflector but
uses an anti-reflex device, which bases its functioning on a polarized band of light, offers considerable advantages
and secure readings even when the object to be sensed has a very shiny surface.

4. Through-beam type.
In this type both emitter and receiver are housed separately. An object detected when it interrupts the light beam
between the emitter and the receiver. These sensors allow for longest distance sensing.

2.8.6 Hall Effect Sensors:

Figure shows the principle of working of Hall Effect sensor.
Hall Effect sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge
particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles
and the current beam is deflected from its straight line path. Thus
one side of the disc/conductor will become negatively charged and
the other side will be of positive charge. This charge separation
generates a potential difference which is the measure of distance of
magnetic field from the disc/conductor carrying current.
When the current I is passed through the conduction and
the same conductor is placed in magnetic field B perpendicular to
the current flow then a voltage called hall voltage is generated
perpendicular to the both current and magnetic field. This is known
as Hall Effect.
 The hall voltage Vh is directly proportional to the magnetic field B and intensity of current I and inversely
proportional to the thickness t of the edge of the conductor.
Mathematically,

Such sensors can be used as position, displacement and

proximity sensors if the object being sensed is fitted with a small
permanent magnet. The typical application of Hall Effect sensor can be
used to determine the level of fuel in an automobile fuel tank. A magnet
is attached to a float and an electric circuit with a current carrying disc is
mounted in the casing, as the level of fuel changes so the float distance
from the Hall sensor changes. The result is a Hall voltage output which is
a measure of the distance of the float from the sensor and hence the
level of fuel in the tank.

2.8.7 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT):

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for measurement of linear
displacement with an input range of about 2 to 400 mm in general. Figure shows the construction of a LVDT
sensor. It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil and the other
two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other.
A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the insulated
tube.

Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs) are
generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion in each of the
secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced from the central, say more in
secondary coil 1 than in coil 2, then more emf is generated in coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage
from the coils. If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of
resultant voltage increases in proportion with the displacement.
Figure shows how the size and phase of the output change with the
displacement of the core. Same amplitude output voltage is produced for two
different displacements (i.e., if the core is displaced to same distance towards
coil 1 or towards coil 2). To give an output voltage which is unique to each value
of displacement we need to distinguish between where the amplitudes are the
same but there is a phase difference of 180. A phase-sensitive demodulator,
with a low-pass filter, is used to convert the output into a d.c. voltage which
gives a unique value for each displacement
LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an absolute position sensor. Since
there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly reliable. These sensors are
completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms, automated measurement in machine tools.
A Rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of rotation. It operates
on the same principle as the LVDT. The core is a cardioid-shaped piece of magnetic material and rotation causes
more of it to pass into one secondary coil than the other. The range of operation is typically 400.

Applications of LVDT sensors

Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
2.8.8 Optical encoders:
An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a result of a linear or angular displacement. Position
encoders can be grouped into two categories: incremental encoders that detect changes in rotation from some
datum position and absolute encoders which give the actual angular position.
A digital optical encoder is a device that converts motion into a sequence of digital pulses. By counting a
single bit or decoding a set of bits, the pulses can be converted to relative or absolute position measurements.
Encoders have both linear and rotary configurations, but the most common type is rotary.
Rotary encoders are manufactured in two basic forms :
(i) Absolute encoder - Here a unique digital word corresponds to each rotational position of the shaft.
(ii) lncremental encoder - Here digital pulses are produced as the shaft rotates, allowing measurement of relative
displacement of the shaft.
Most rotary encoders are composed of a glass or plastic code disc with a photographically deposited radial
pattern organized in tracks. As radial lines in each track interrupt the beam between a photo emitter - detector pair,
digital pulses are produced. The optical disc of absolute encoder is designed to produce a digital word that
distinguishes N distinct positions of the shaft.
 I. Incremental Encoders:

The incremental encoder sometimes called a relative encoder and is simpler in design than the absolute
encoder. Incremental encoders provide more resolution at lower cost than absolute encoders, but they measure
only relative motion and do not provide absolute position directly.
Incremental Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are
widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts. Above figure shows the construction of an
incremental encoder. It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three light sensors
are employed to detect the light passing through the holes. These sensors produce electric pulses which give the
angular displacement of the mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track
has just one hole which is used locate the home position of the disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the
holes of the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction of rotation to
be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner
track; in counter clockwise direction the pulses in the inner track lead those in the outer track. The resolution can be
determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be,
360/100 = 3.6.

II. Absolute Encoders:

Absolute encoders are chosen in applications where establishing a reference position is impractical or undesirable.
Figure shows the basic form of an absolute encoder for the measurement of angular displacement. This gives an
output in the form of a binary number of several digits, each such number representing a particular angular position.
The rotating disc has three concentric circles of slots and three sensors to detect the light pulses. The slots are
arranged in such a way that the sequential output from the sensors is a number in the binary code. Typical encoders
tend to have up to 10 or 12 tracks. The number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the number of tracks.
Thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number of positions that can be detected is 210, i.e. 1024
positions with a resolution of 360/1024 = 0.35.

2.8.9 Light sensor:

Sensor which senses the presence of light are called light sensors of photo sensors. These are also known as
photo electric transducers because when light falls on these sensors, there will be change in their electrical property.
i.e., light signals induce change in electrical properties of conductance, resistance, inductance, etc., of the material.
The most common materials used in manufacturing of light sensors are cadmium sulphide, cadmium sulpho-
solenide, and semi conductors.
Principles of photo electric transducer:
Whenever light falls on a material the entire light energy is given to the electrons of the material, whose
kinetic energy increases. The electrical property of a material depends on its valence electrons and the energy
of these electrons change resulting in change in the electrical property of the material. This phenomenon is
known as photo electric effect.
There are three such effects: photo emissive, photo conductive, photo voltaic effect.
 Bases on these effects, there are three transducers namely,
1. Photo emissive transducer or photo tube cells.
2. Photo conductive transducers.
3. Photo voltaic transducers.

1. Photo emission effect:

Whenever light fall on a cathode the free valence electrons on the cathode absorbs the light energy, resulting in
increase in kinetic energy. These electrons ejected from the cathode are attracted towards the anode constituting
anode current which is proportional to the intensity of light.
Photo tube cell or photo emissive cell:

This is consists of cathode and anode placed in highly evacuated glass or quartz tube as shown in figure. When light
strikes on cathode, the free valence electrons on the cathode absorb the light energy, resulting in increase in kinetic
energy. These electrons ejected from the cathode are attracted towards the anode constituting anode current.
There by their electrical properties are changes.

2. Photoconductive cell:
It uses a semiconductor material whose resistance changes in accordance with the radiant energy received. Figure
shows simplest form of such cell using cadmium selenide (CdSe) or doped germanium, they are provided with two
electrodes along with semiconductor material. As soon as light falls on it, resistance decreases and current through
the circuit becomes large. The shape of semiconductor material is made as to obtain a large ratio of dark to light
resistance.
3. Photovoltaic cell:
Generation of potential difference when the light strikes a junction of two dissimilar metals is called photovoltaic
effect. The cell which works on this principle is called photovoltaic cell. It consists of metal base plate, a non metal
semi conductor and thin transparent metallic layer. When a light falls in between the junction a potential difference
is generated. Photo voltaic cell is an active transducer and need not be operated in vacuum or gas filled tube.
(Note: Only for your reference)

Strain Gauge Load Cell as force Sensor:

Strain gauge based sensors work on the principle
of change in electrical resistance. When, a mechanical
element subjects to a tension or a compression the
electric resistance of the material changes. This is used to
measure the force acted upon the element.
Figure shows a strain gauge load cell. It comprises
of cylindrical tube to which strain gauges are attached. A
load applied on the top collar of the cylinder compress
the strain gauge element which changes its electrical
resistance. Generally strain gauges are used to measure
forces up to 10 MN. The non-linearity and repeatability errors of this transducer are 0.03% and 0.02% respectively.

Strain Gauge and Diaphragms to sense Fluid pressure:

Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor fluid pressure. Various types of instruments
such as diaphragms, capsules, and bellows are used to monitor the fluid pressure. Specially designed strain gauges
doped in diaphragms are generally used to measure the inlet manifold pressure in applications such as automobiles.
A typical arrangement of strain gauges on a diaphragm is shown in figure. Application of pressurized fluid displaces
the diaphragm. This displacement is measured by the stain gauges in terms of radial and/or lateral strains. These
strain gauges are connected to form the arms of a Wheatstone bridge.

Capsule is formed by combining two corrugated diaphragms. It has enhanced sensitivity in comparison with that of
diaphragms. Figure shows a schematic of a Capsule and a Bellow. A stack of capsules is called as Bellows. Bellows
with a LVDT sensor measures the fluid pressure in terms of change in resultant voltage across the secondary coils of
LVDT.
 Assignment Questions:
1. Explain the Static and Dynamic characteristics of Sensor.
2. Define the following terms:
I. Hysteresis Error
II. Repeatability
III. Non-Linearity Error
IV. Accuracy
V. Sensitivity
VI. Time constant
3. How Transducers are classified?
4. Distinguish between sensor and transducer.
5. Distinguish between primary and secondary transducer.
6. Distinguish between active and passive transducer.
7. Illustrate following type of proximity sensors:
I. Capacitive type
II. Eddy current type
III. Pneumatic type
8. What are position sensors? Explain the working of Hall Effect sensors. How it can be used to determine the
level of fuel in an automobile fuel tank and mention the advantages of it.
9. Explain the operation of a linear variable differential transformer.
10. Explain how sensing is achieved by absolute optical encoder.
11. Explain how sensing is achieved by incremental optical encoder. Write its applications.
12. Write a note on Light sensors. Explain the following:
I. Photo emissive cell
II. Photo conductive cell
III. Photo voltaic cell