Lighting Theory

What is Light?
The light is medium where visual perception is possible.

Everything in order to be seen has to be lighted although the

light itself is invisible.

Eye as an organ of sight accepts 80% of all information that

our body receives.

Lighting is a dynamic and exciting synthesis of art and

science. Working together with shape and form, light brings
life to the managed environment.
Light is a language in itself, encompassing the entire field of
human emotions - it can be harnessed to soothe, excite,
enhance, inspire, befriend, create a sense of community. 1
 Physics of Light

Light is a natural phenomenon, vital to our very existence,

which we probably take for granted in every day life. But the
quality and intensity of light around us totally affects our
visual appreciation and understanding of our surroundings.

Basically its an emission of energy called electromagnetic

radiation.

Electromagnetic radiation occurs in many forms and the

whole spectrum is measured in wavelengths. The radio
waves at the top end have wavelengths of many kilometers,
while the gamma rays at the other have wavelengths smaller
than the size of atoms.
2
 Radiation Spectrum

Light represents only a small section of this whole spectrum

and are the only ray visible to the human eye.
Visual Spectrum

3
 Radiometry

Is the science of quantifying the phenomena of electromagnetic

radiation.
In the context of the light, the limited range of electromagnetic
radiation that is visible to the human eye, sometimes extended
to the areas of infrared and ultraviolet and to measure the
physiologically perceivable effects. For that purpose, we often
refer to the related field of photometry.

Photometry

Photometry is the science of measuring visible light in units

that are weighted according to the sensitivity of the human
eye. 4
The characteristic energetic parameters of light are the
radiometric quantities which can be analysed by light
measurement system:
Radiant Power [W]
Radiant Intensity [W/sr]
Irradiance [W/m]
Radiance [W/msr]

For the visible part of the spectrum (380nm - 780nm) a

separate set of parameters is defined. These photometric
values derive from the radiometric quantities by weighting
them with the spectral response function for intensity of the
human eye.
Luminous Flux [lm]
Luminous Intensity [lm/sr = cd]
Illuminance [lm/m = lux]
Luminance [cd/m] 5
 Photometric terms and units

In lighting technology a number of technical terms and units

are used to describe the properties of light sources and the
effects that are produced.

6
 Luminous flux

Luminous flux describes the total amount of light emitted by

a light source or received by a surface

[] = Lumen (lm)

7
 Luminous efficacy

Luminous efficacy describes the luminous flux of a lamp in

relation to its power consumption and is therefore expressed
in lumen per watt (lm/W). The maximum value theoretically
attainable when the total radiant power is transformed into
visible light is 683 lm/W. Luminous efficacy varies from light
source to light source, but always remains well below this
optimum value.

lm
= =
P W

8
 Quantity of light

The quantity of light, or luminous energy, is a product of the

luminous flux emitted multiplied by time; luminous energy is
generally expressed in klmh.

Q = t (lmh)

9
 Luminous intensity
An ideal point-source lamp radiates luminous flux uniformly
into the space in all directions; its luminous intensity is the
same in all directions.
In practice, however, luminous flux is not distributed uniformly.
This results partly from the design of the light source, and
partly on the way the light is intentionally directed.
It makes sense, therefore, to have a way of presenting the
spatial distribution of luminous flux, i.e. the luminous intensity
distribution of the light source.
Luminous intensity is the
luminous flux radiating
in a given direction per
solid angle .

10
 luminous flux lm
luminous intensity = ; = = cd
spatial angle sr

Luminous flux is power that is radiated from a source in all

directions (lm)
Luminous intensity is power that is radiated from a source in
specific direction (cd)

Typical values for luminous intensity

LED 0.005 cd
Candle 1 cd
100W incandescent bulb 150 cd
Automobile headlamp (high beam) 10000 cd
Lighthouse 300000 cd
11
Flash tube (peak value) 1000000 cd
The unit for measuring luminous intensity is candela (cd). The
candela is the primary basic unit in lighting technology from
which all others are derived. The candela was originally defined
by the luminous intensity of a standardized candle.
Later thorium powder at the temperature of the solidification of
platinum was de-fined as the standard; since 1979 the candela
has been defined by a source of radiation that radiates 1/683 W
per steradian at a frequency of 540 1012 Hz.

12
Spatial (solid) angle or steradian

= [ lm = cd sr]
r = 1 (m)
A = 4r2 = 4 (m2)
= A/r2 = 4 (sr)
= = 1 4 = 4 = 12.57 [lm]

The maximum solid angle is

~12.57, corresponding to the
full area of the unit sphere,
which is 4.

13
 A2
A1

= 1 cd

r1
r2

= A1/r12 = A2/ r22 (sr)

If a uniform point light source of 1 cd luminous intensity ()

about the intensity of a normal wax candle is positioned at
the center of a sphere of 1 m radius, then every area of 1 m2
on the inside of that sphere will receive a luminous flux of 1 lm.
14
 Distribution of the luminous intensity

The distribution of the luminous intensity of a light source

throughout a space produces a three-dimensional graph.
A section through this graph results in a luminous intensity
distribution curve, which describes the luminous intensity on
one plane. The luminous intensity is usually indicated in a
polar coordinate system as the function of the beam angle.
To allow comparison between different light sources to be
made, the light distribution curves are based on an output of
1000 lm. In the case of symmetrical luminaries one light
distribution curve is sufficient to describe one luminaire,
axially symmetrical luminaries require two curves, which are
usually depicted in one diagram.

15
Luminous intensity distribution of a light source having
rotational symmetry.

Luminous intensity distribution body and diagram (for planes

0/180 and 90/270)of an axially symmetrical luminaire.

16
 Conversion of 1000 lm-related luminous intensity I to
effective luminous intensity l.

= '
[] = cd
['] = cd / kIm
[] = kIm

@ 00 170 cd / 1000 lm

If TLD 36W gives flux of 2350lm, then = 0.17 2350 = 400 cd

17
 Illuminance
Illuminance is the means of evaluating the density of luminous
flux. It indicates the amount of luminous flux from a light
source falling on a given area. Illuminance need not
necessarily be related to a real surface. It can be measured at
any point within a space. Illuminance can be determined
from the luminous intensity of the light source. Illuminance
decreases with the square of the distance from the light
source (inverse square law).

lm
E= = = lx
A m2

18
Horizontal illuminance Eh and vertical illuminnance Ev in
interior spaces.

Average illuminance Em is calculated from

the luminous flux falling on the given
surface A.
E = / A [ lm/m2 = lx ]
E = / A = I (A/r2) / A
E = / r2 [ cd/m2 ]
19
The illuminance of a surface The illuminance of a point

`
r
h
Ev
Eh E

E` = `/A E = /r2
E` = cos /A Eh = Ecos = ( /r2)cos
E` = Ecos Ev = Esin = ( /r2)sin
is the angle between
N Ei
illuminated surface and the Mean value Em =
i=1 N 20
plane perpendicular to light
 Light source Example: I = 20000 cd
H=8m
r 350

300
h

illumination (lx)
250
200
150
y x 100
50
0
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71
angle

cos
Ey = Ex = The illuminance of any surface
h2 r2 varies as the cosine of the
h h angle of incidence. The angle
cos = r= of incidence is the angle
r cos
between the normal angle to
cos3 the surface and the direction of
Ex = the incident light.
h2 21
 Inverse Square Law
If a source emits the same luminous flux in all directions, then
the luminous intensity is the same in each direction, but for
most sources, the flux emitted in each direction is not the
same.

The area has increased in

proportion to the square of
the distance from the light
source, and the illuminance
has changed inversely with
the square of the distance.

22
The illuminance at a point Ep
is calculated from the
luminous intensity and the
distance a between the light
source and the given point.

Ep = / a 2

@ 00 170 cd / 1000 lm

If TLD 36W gives flux of

2350lm, then = 0.17 2350
= 400 cd on 2 m distance
there would be illuminance of
E = / a2 = 100lx 23
 Phot 1 ph = 10'000 lx

Typical illuminance values of Illuminance [ lx ]

Illumination of surgical table 20000 120000
Sunny summer day 60000 100000
Cloudy summer day 20000
Cloudy winter day 3000
Good illuminated work place 500 700
Pedestrian area 50 100
Street lighting 10
Full moon night 0.25
24
 Typical illuminance levels in interior spaces.

E (lx)
20 Minimum value in interior spaces, excluding
working areas
Illuminance level required for recognizing facial
features
200 Minimum illuminance for workplaces in continuous
use
2 000 Maximum illuminance at standard workplaces
20 000 Illuminance level for special visual tasks
e.g. in operating theatres

25
 Recommended illuminance levels for various activities.
E (lx)
2050 Paths and working areas outdoors
50100 Orientation in short-stay spaces
100200 Workrooms that are not in continuous use
200500 Simple visual tasks
300750 Visual tasks of average degree of difficulty
5001000 Difficult visual tasks, e.g. office work
7501000 Complicated visual tasks, e.g. precision
assembly work
10002000 Extremely complicated visual tasks,
e.g. inspection and control
> 2000 Additional lighting for difficult and complicated
tasks 26
 Exposure

Is the quantity of light over area or the product of the

illuminance by the time that is maintained. It is the time
integral of illuminance.
H = E t (lx s)

27
 Luminance
Whereas illuminance indicates the amount of luminous flux
falling on a given surface, luminance describes the brightness
of an illuminated or luminous surface. Luminance is defined as
the ratio of luminous intensity of a surface (cd) to the projected
area of this surface (m2).
cd
L= = nit
Ap m2

Lu [cd
m /m
in 2 ]
an
ce
In terms of visual perception, we anc
e
n
perceive luminance. It is an mi
lI lu [lx]
approximate measure of how bright
a surface appears when we view it 28
from given direction.
Light source Average luminance
Solar disk at noon 1.6 109 cd/m2
Xenon cinema bulb 0.2 5 109 cd/m2
Clear incandescent bulb 2 106 2 107 cd/m2
Fluorescent bulb 1.2 104 cd/m2
White cloud 1 104 cd/m2
Candela 7500 cd/m2
Clear sky 3000 5000 cd/m2
Moon 2500 cd/m2
Internal comfortable light 50 500 cd/m2
White paper at 500 lx 100 cd/m2
White paper at 5 lx 1 cd/m2
Night sky 10-3 cd/m2
29
In the case of illumination the light can be reflected by the
surface or transmitted through the surface. In the case of
diffuse reflecting (matt) and diffuse transmitting (opaque)
materials luminance can be calculated from the illuminance
and the reflectance or transmittance.
Luminance is the basis for describing perceived brightness;
the actual brightness is, still influenced by the state of
adaptation of the eye, the surrounding contrast ratios and the
information content of the perceived surface.
Glare excessive brightness
that may be caused by either
direct or indirect viewing of a
light source; any brightness
or brightness relationship that
annoys, distracts or reduces
visibility. 30
 Reflectance
When light strikes an opaque surface, and by opaque we
mean a surface that will not transmit light, some of the light is
absorbed and some reflected. The ratio of the luminous flux
reflected to the luminous flux received is know as reflectance.

If a small element of the surface receives 100 lumens and

reflects 70 lumens, then the reflectance is 0.7, or it can be
expressed as a percentage as 70%. The remaining 0.3 or 30%
would be absorbed.

31
 Diffuse Reflectance
Different surfaces also reflect light in different ways. For
example, surfaces such as paper, emulsion paint, carpets
and so on, exhibit what we call matt or diffuse reflection, that
is, the light reflected from the surface is scattered in all
directions.

32
 Specular Reflection
At the other extreme is mirror or specular reflection exhibited
by shiny metal surfaces such as chrome, silver or pure
aluminum.
It is most important to realize that although specular reflections
produce a clear image in the surface of the material, the actual
amount of light reflected may be deceptively low.

A matt white painted surface,

for instance, has a reflectance
of 85% to 90% compared with
only 60% specular reflectance
from a polished stainless steel
surface, while polished
aluminium will be
approximately 85%. 33
 Mixed Reflection

Many surfaces such as gloss paint, wood, plastic and so on,

exhibit a combination of these two types of reflection.

Gloss paint, for example scatters most of the light that it

reflects, but also produces a specular reflection in the surface
of the paint.

34
 Diffuse Transmittance

Certain materials have the ability to transmit and diffuse

light. This principle is known as diffuse transmission and
occurs with opal glass and opal plastic diffuser luminaires.

When a ray of light falls on

translucent (light transmitting)
opal material, some light is
reflected and some light passes
through the material. This light is
scattered and diffused, thus
spreading the brightness of the
bare lamp over a wider area.

35
The area of illuminated brightness is therefore enlarged
and for a given number of lumens coming from the luminaire,
the lumens per unit area or candelas per unit area are
reduced, which in turn reduces the brightness, i.e. glare from
the luminaire is reduced.
The amount of light that is emitted from a material, after
passing through it, as a fraction or percentage of the light
falling on the material is called the transmittance.

36
 Refraction
When light passes from one transparent medium to another
of different density, it bends. This is known as refraction,
e.g. from air to glass the light bends towards the
perpendicular to the surface. When light passes from a dense
to a rarer medium, e.g. glass to air, the reverse occurs. If light
is passed through a triangular glass prism, it is deflected from
its original path.

Prisms, in glass or plastic, can

be designed to control light.
Plastics are used extensively in
prismatic controllers for both
interior luminaires and street
lighting lanterns.
37
 4 mm

glass

= / reflection coefficient (0.08)

= / absorption coefficient (0.02)

= / transmission coefficient (0.90)

38
 Light and light sources
Technical lamps

Thermal radiators Discharge lamps

Low-pressure High-pressure
lamps lamps

Incandescent lamps Halogen lamps Mercury

Fluorescent
lamps
lamps

Compact
Low-voltage Metal halide
fluorescent lamps
halogen lamps lamps

Low-pressure
High-pressure
sodium
sodium lamps
lamps sodium lamps
39
 Thermal radiators

Radiation Wave length

UV - C 100 - 280nm
UV B 280 - 315nm Violet 380-436
UV A 315 - 380nm Blue 436-495
Optical 380 - 780nm Green 495-566
radiation Yellow 566-589
IR A 780nm - 1.4um Orange 589-627
IR B 1.4 - 3um Red 627-780
IR C 3um - 1 mm

40
 Wien's Displacement
Law tells us that objects
of different temperature
emit spectrum that peak
6300 K
at different wavelengths.
(cm)
( ) T(K) = 0.29
Hotter objects emit most
of their radiation at shorter
wavelengths; hence they
5100 K will appear to be bluer .
Cooler objects emit most
of their radiation at longer
wavelengths; hence they
will appear to be redder.
Furthermore, at any
wavelength, a hotter
object radiates more (is
more luminous) than a
41
cooler one.
42
Spectrum

43
 Incandescent lamps

Insulated contact for

Screw cap to secure
connection to the phase
lamp mechanically, also
serves as a contact
to the neutral conductor

Glass stem, with insulated

filament supports
The inside of the lamp
is either evacuated Filament, usually a
or filled with inert gas double coil of tungsten
wire
Clear, matt or colored
glass bulb. Parts of the
glass bulb can be provided
with a silver coating
44
to form a reflector
The incandescent lamp is a thermal radiator. The filament
wire begins to glow when it is heated to a sufficiently high
temperature by an electric current. As the temperature
increases the spectrum of the radiated light shifts towards
the shorter wavelength range the red heat of the filament
shifts to the warm white light of the incandescent lamp.
Depending on lamp type and wattage the temperature of the
filament can reach up to 3000 K, in the case of halogen
lamps over 3000 K.
Lack of a suitable material (high melting point, low evaporation
rate) for the filament means that it is not possible to increase
the temperature further, which would increase the luminous
efficacy and produce a cool white luminous colour.

45
Nowadays practically only tungsten is used for the
manufacture of filament wires, because it only melts at a
temperature of 3653 K and has a low evaporation rate. The
tungsten is made into fine wires and is wound to make single
or double coiled filaments.

46
The filament is located inside a soft glass bulb, which is
relatively large in order to keep light loss, due to deposits of
evaporated tungsten (blackening), to a minimum. To prevent
the filament from oxidizing the outer envelope is evacuated for
low wattages and filled with nitrogen or a nitrogen-based inert
gas mixture for higher wattages. The inert gases predominantly
used are argon and krypton. The krypton permits a higher
operating temperature and greater luminous efficacy. Due to
the fact that it is so expensive, krypton is only used in special
applications.
A characteristic feature of incandescent lamps is their low
colour temperature - the light they produce is warm in
comparison to daylight. The continuous colour spectrum of
the incandescent lamp provides excellent colour rendition.

47
Effect of over-voltage and under-voltage on relative
luminous flux , luminous efficacy , electrical power P
and lamp life t.

48
General service lamps (A lamps) are available in a variety of
shapes and sizes. The glass bulbs are clear, matt or opal.
Special forms are available for critical applications (e.g. rooms
subject to the danger of explosion, or lamps exposed to
mechanical loads), as well as a wide range of special models
available for decorative purposes.

A second basic model is the reflector lamp (R lamp). The bulbs

of these lamps are also blown from soft glass, although, in
contrast with the A lamps, which radiate light in all directions,
the R lamps control the light via their form and a partly silvered
area inside the lamp. Another range of incandescent are the
PAR (parabolic reflector) lamps. The PAR lamp is made of
pressed glass to provide a higher resistance to changes in
temperature and a more exact form; the parabolic reflector
produces a well-defined beam spread.
49
 PAR (parabolic reflector) lamps
PAR lamp with dichroic cool-
beam reflector. Visible light is
reflected, infrared radiation
transmitted, thereby reducing
the thermal load on the
illuminated objects.
Incandescent lamp with glass
bulb coated with dichroic
material (hot mirror). This
allows visible light to be
transmitted; infrared radiation
is reflected back to the
filament. The increase in the
temperature of the
filament results in increased
luminous efficacy.
50
Proportion of operating lamps N and luminous flux of total
installation A (as the product of both values) as a function
of the operating time t.

51
 Screw cap

Description Code

Edison Screw E27/27

Goliath Edison Screw E40/45

Small Edison Screw E14/23

Miniature Edison Screw E10/13

Lilliput Edison Screw E5/9

Bayonet Cap B22/25*26

Small bayonet cap B15/24*17

Miniature Centre BA 9s/14

Contact 52
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low purchasing price Low efficacy
Excellent colour rendering Short life
No ballast or control gear required Needs regular attention
Immediate full light when switched on High running cost
Ease of dimming High heat output
Sparkle lighting effect can be created
Operates in any plane universal
operating position

53
 Halogen lamps
Halogen lamps are high pressure, incandescent lamps that
contain halogen gases such as iodine and bromine that allow
filaments to work at higher temperatures and higher
efficiencies. Halogen lamps consist of a tungsten filament
inside a quartz envelope that is filled with halogen gas. In
halogen lamps, the quartz envelope is closer to the filament
than the glass used in conventional light bulbs. Heating the
filament to a high temperature causes the tungsten atoms to
evaporate and combine with the halogen gas. These heavier
molecules are then deposited back on the filament surface.
This recycling process increases the life of the tungsten
filament and enables the halogen lamp to produce more light
per units of energy. Consequently, halogen lamps are used in
a variety of applications, including automobile headlights.
54
For the Tungsten halogen cycle to work, the bulb has to be on
long enough to heat up completely and keep the glass at over
250 0C.

55
The lamp's compact shape not only enables the temperature
to increase but also allows an increase in the gas pressure,
which reduces the tungsten's rate of evaporation. As the
temperature increases the light spectrum shifts towards the
short wavelength range. The tungsten halogen reflector lamp
emits a continuous spectrum and thus produces an excellent
colour rendition.

HALOGEN GROUP
five non-metallic elements:
solid - iodine, astatine
liquid bromine
gas - fluorine, chlorine

56
Compared with the conventional incandescent the halogen
lamp gives a whiter light a result of its higher operating
temperature of 3000 to 3300 K; its luminous colour is still in
the warm white range. The luminous efficacy of halogen
lamps is well above that of conventional incandescent
especially in the low-voltage range.

From left to right: tungsten

halogen lamp for nominal
voltage with E27 fixing and
enveloping capsule, with
bayonet fixing, with double-
ended fixing. Low-voltage
halogen lamp with axial
filament.
57
Like almost all conventional
incandescent lamps, halogen
lamps can be run on mains
voltage. They usually have
special caps, but some are
equipped with an E 27 screw
cap and an additional glass
envelope and can be used in
the same way as
conventional incandescent.

58
 Halogen lamp energy performance

10% visible light

20% heat loss due to gas charge
convection and diffusion
10% el. resistance of filament

60% infra red radiation

New technology enables

an improvement with
IRC infra red coating, a Warning
reflective layer which a FIRE RISK
part of IR radiation
direct back to the
filament. 59
 Halogen lamp luminous efficacy

Power Light Luminous Power Light Luminous

output efficacy output efficacy
W lm lm/W W lm lm/W

300 5000 16.7 20 (6V) 350 17.5

500 9500 19 20 (12V) 450 22.5

750 15000 20 50 (12V) 900 18.0

1000 21000 21 100(12V) 2150 21.5

1500 33000 22 250 (24V) 5750 23

2000 44000 22 300(240V) 5000 16.7

60
ADVANTAGES
Higher efficacy then conventional
tungsten filament lamps
Excellent colour rendering
Brighter, wither light
Immediate full light when switched
on
Can be dimmed
Longer life then conventional
tungsten filament lamps up to 5000
h limited to horizontal
Sparkle lighting effect can be
created
DISADVANTAGES
Transformer required for
ELV lamps
Low energy efficiency
Requires careful handling
High heat output
Operating positions of
double ended types is
61
 The different lamp technologies

INCANDESCENCE
ARTIFICIAL
ELECTRICAL
LUMINOUS
ENERGY RADIATION
ELECTROLUMINESCENCE

62
 The following kinds of luminescence are known to exist:

Chemoluminescence (including Bioluminescence)

Crystalloluminescence
Electroluminescence
Cathodoluminescence
Photoluminescence
Phosphorescence
Fluorescence
Radioluminescence
Sonoluminescence
Thermoluminescence
Triboluminescence

63
Luminescent radiation

64
When an atom gains or loses energy, the change is
expressed by the movement of electrons. When something
passes energy on to an atom -- heat, for example -- an
electron may be temporarily boosted to a higher orbital
(farther away from the nucleus).
The electron only holds this position for a tiny fraction of a
second; almost immediately, it is drawn back toward the
nucleus, to its original orbital. As it returns to its original
orbital, the electron releases the extra energy in the form
of a photon, in some cases a light photon.
The wavelength of the emitted light depends on how much
energy is released, which depends on the particular position of
the electron. Consequently, different sorts of atoms will
release different sorts of light photons. In other words, the
color of the light is determined by what kind of atom is
excited. 65
 Photon
The quantum of electromagnetic energy, regarded as a
discrete particle having zero mass, no electric charge, and an
indefinitely long lifetime. Like electrons, photons appear as
both waves and particles at the same time. Quite often, a
photon is said to be a "particle of light;" however, radio
transmission, X-rays and gamma rays are also made up of
particles. Although they may not always be called photons,
they are the same phenomena at different frequencies.

66
INCANDESCENCE is the generation of light through
temperature elevation. The most common example is a
filament heated to white state by the circulation of electrical
current. The supplied el. energy is transformed into heat by
Joule effect and into visible part of spectrum.
LUMINESCENCE is the phenomena of emission by a material
of visible or almost visible luminous radiation.
PHOTOLUMINESCENCE is the luminescence of material
exposed to visible or almost visible radiation (ultraviolet,
infrared).

FLUORESCENCE is when substance absorbs UV radiation

and emits visible radiation.

67
 Technically, color temperature refers to the temperature to
which one would have to heat a theoretical "black body"
source to produce light of the same visual color.

1500 K Candlelight 4500-

Xenon lamp/light arc
5000 K
2680 K 40 W incandescent lamp
5500 K Sunny daylight around noon
3000 K 200 W incandescent lamp
5500-
Electronic photo flash
3200 K Sunrise/sunset 5600 K
6500-
3400 K Tungsten lamp Overcast sky
7500 K
9000-
3400 K 1 hour from dusk/dawn Blue sky
12000 K

68
 Discharge lamps

In contrast to incandescent lamps, light from discharge lamps

is not produced by heating a filament, but by exciting gases
or metal vapors. This is effected by applying voltage between
two electrodes located in a discharge tube filled with inert
gases or metal vapors. Through the voltage, current is
produced between the two electrodes. On their way through
the discharge tube, the electrons collide with gas atoms,
which are in turn excited to radiate light, when the electrons
are traveling at a sufficiently high speed. For every type of
gas there is a certain wavelength combination; radiation, i.e.
light, is produced from one or several narrow frequency
ranges.

69
If the speed of the electrons increases, the gas atoms are no
longer excited on collision, but ionized; the gas atom is
decomposed to create a free electron and a positively charged
ion. The number of electrically charged, effective particles in
the discharge tube is accordingly increased, giving rise to a
corresponding increase in radiation.
To ignite a discharge lamp there must be sufficient electron
current in the discharge tube. As the gas that is to be excited
is not ionized before ignition, these electrons must be made
available via a special starting device.
Once the discharge lamp has been ignited there is an
avalanche like ionization of the excited gases, which in turn
leads to a continuously increasing operating current, which
would increase and destroy the lamp in a relatively short time.
To prevent this from happening the operating current must be
controlled by means of a ballast.
70
 Low pressure discharge lamps
These lamps contain inert gases or a mixture of inert gas and
metal vapour at a pressure well below 1 bar. Due to the low
pressure inside the discharge tube there is hardly any
interaction between the gas molecules. The result is a pure
line spectrum.
The luminous efficacy of low-pressure discharge lamps is
mainly dependent on lamp volume. To attain adequate
luminous power the lamps must have large discharge tubes.

71
 Fluorescent lamps

The fluorescent lamp is a low-pressure discharge lamp using

mercury vapour. It has an elongated discharge tube with an
electrode at each end. The gas used to fill the tube
comprises inert gas (argon), which ignites easily and controls
the discharge, plus a small amount of mercury, the vapour of
which produces ultraviolet radiation when excited. The inner
surface of the discharge tube is coated with a fluorescent
substance that transforms the ultraviolet radiation produced
by the lamp into visible light by means of fluorescence.
To facilitate ignition of the fluorescent lamp the electrodes
usually take the form of wire filaments and are coated with
metallic oxide (emissive material) that promotes the flow of
electrons. The electrodes are preheated at the ignition stage,
the lamp ignites when the voltage is applied.
72
 Glowing starter

ballast

L N 73
There is a stream of electrons flowing between the electrodes
(1) at both ends of the fluorescent bulb. The electrons (2)
interact with mercury vapour atoms (3) floating inside the
bulb. The mercury electrons (4) become excited, and when
they return to an unexcited state they release photons (5) of
light in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. These ultraviolet
photons collide with the fluorescent phosphor coating (6) the
inside of the
bulb, and the
phosphor
converts UV
radiation into
visible light (7).
The phosphor
fluoresces to
produce light.
74
Different luminous colours can be achieved through the
combination of appropriate fluorescent materials. To achieve
different luminous, the substances are frequently combined,
which, when mixed together, produce white light.
Depending on the composition of the luminous substances, a
warm white, neutral white or daylight white colour is produced.

In contrast to point sources The diffuse light of the

(incandescent lamps) the
light from fluorescent sources
is radiated from a larger
surface area. The light is
predominantly diffuse,
making it more suitable for
the uniform illumination of
larger areas than for accent
lighting.
fluorescent lamp gives rise to
soft shadows. There are no
sparkling effects on glossy
surfaces.
Spatial forms and material
qualities are therefore not
emphasized.
75
 Spectrum

Fluorescent lamps produce a

spectrum, which is not
continuous, which means that
they have different colour
rendering compared with
incandescent lamps. It is
possible to produce white
light of any colour
temperature by combining
fewer fluorescent materials,
but this light still has poorer
colour rendering properties
than light with a continuous
spectrum due to the missing
spectral components. 76
A ballast is a device used to start a gas discharge lamp, and,
once the lamp is started, to limit the flow of electric current.
Gas discharge lamps are sometimes described as having
negative resistance and, as such, are unable to limit the flow
of current through themselves.
An electromagnetic lamp ballast uses electromagnetic
induction to provide the proper starting and operating
electrical condition to power a fluorescent lamp, neon lamp or
high intensity discharge (HID) lamp.
An electronic lamp ballast uses solid state electronics
circuitry. They are generally smaller, lighter, and more efficient
(and thus run cooler) than magnetic ballasts. El. ballasts
usually change the frequency of the power from the standard
mains frequency to 20,kHz or higher, substantially eliminating
the stroboscopic effect line frequency (50 or 60Hz) flicker
associated with fluorescent lighting and lamps actually operate
at about 9% higher efficiency above approximately 10KHz. 77
There are three starting methods available for electronic
ballasts

Instant Start
Starts lamps without heating the lamp end heaters at all using
a high voltage (around 600V). It is the most energy efficient
type, but gives the least number of starts from a lamp. This is
the best type for installations where lamps are not turned on
and off very often.

Rapid Start
Applies voltage and heats the filament simultaneously.
Provides superior lamp life and more cycle life, but uses
slightly more energy for lamp and heaters.

78
Programmed Start
More advanced version of rapid start. Applies filament power
first, then applies voltage to the lamps. Gives the best life and
most starts from lamps. This is the preferred type of ballast for
applications with very frequent power cycling such as vision
examination rooms and restrooms with a motion detector
switch.

Fluorescent lamps are usually tubular in shape, whereby the

length of the lamp is dependent on the wattage. U-shaped or
ring-shaped fluorescents are available for special applications.

79
Lamp life t as a function of
switching frequency per day
N.
Nominal lamp life of 100 %
is achieved at a switching
rate of 8 times every 24
hours.

The effect of ambient

temperature T on lamp
lumens .

80
As fluorescent technology has Lamp type
Power Including
advanced, the lamps have (Watts) ballast

become smaller in diameter. The 600 x 38 mm 20 26

38 mm lamp (known as a T12
lamp) was superseded 20 years 600 x 26 mm 18 24
ago by the 26 mm lamp (known as 550 x 16 mm 14 17
a T8 lamp), which required 10%
less power to produce the same 850 x 16 mm 21 24
light output. Phosphors have also
improved, with the latest version 1200 x 38 mm 40 46
of the triphosphor lamp producing
1200 x 26 mm 36 42
50% more light at the end of its life
than the cool white monophosphor 1150 x 16 mm 28 31
lamp it replaced. The light is also
of considerably better quality. 1500 x 38 mm 65 74
Most recently, new buildings are
1500 x 26 mm 58 67
installing 16mm lamps (known as
T5 lamps) which provide even 1450 x 16 mm 35 39
81
greater efficiency.
 Efficacy

Type Overall Overall

luminous efficacy luminous efficiency
(lm/W)
5-24 W compact 45-60 6.6%-8.8%
fluorescent

34 W fluorescent tube 50 7%
(T12)

32 W fluorescent tube 60 9%
(T8)

28 W fluorescent tube up to 93 up to 14%

(T5)

82
 Fluorescent lamp energy performance

75% heat
45%
38% heat

Fluorescent coating
conduction
Gas discharge

37% heat 30% IR

radiation

25% visible lights

60% UV radiation 23% visible
light
25% visible
2% visible light light

83
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low running cost Excessive switching shortens life
High efficacy Ballast required
Long life in normal use Can be dimmed but requires
special ballast and dimmer
Very good to excellent colour
rendering
Prompt start and restart and
quick run up to full light output
Universal operating position

84
Question: True or false?
Fluorescent lamps use so much energy on start-up that
they shouldn't be turned off.

Answer:
False. The energy used on startup is actually quite small, and
certainly no justification for leaving the lights on. Indeed the
main reason for not turning fluorescent lights on and off the
same way you would a normal light bulb is lamp life. The life-
span of a fluorescent lamp is affected by the number of times
it is switched on and off. Thus a frequently switched tube will
fail sooner than one that is switched rarely. However, lamps
are cheap and the energy use of a tube during its lifetime is
well over ten times its purchase cost. Taking all of these
factors into account, you should turn off fluorescent lamps if
you don't need them for 10 minutes or more. 85
 Energy efficiency opportunities
The main methods for saving energy with fluorescent fittings
are, in approximate order of cost-effectiveness, as follows:

1. Reduce light levels where these exceed the requirements

of the relevant standard.
2. Turn the lamps off when not needed.
3. Upgrade the lamps (i.e. lamps) to better units.
4. Refurbish the fittings to improve efficiency.
5. Replace the fittings to improve efficiency.
6. Add in control systems to automatically turn off lights, on
the basis of daylight levels or occupancy.

86
 Compact fluorescent lamps
Compact fluorescent lamps do not function any differently
from conventional fluorescent lamps, but they do have a more
compact shape and consist of either one curved discharge
tube or the combination of several short ones.
Compact fluorescent lamps
basically have the same properties
as conventional fluorescents, that is
to say, above all, high luminous
efficacy and a long lamp life.
Their luminous efficiency is,
however, limited due to the
relatively small volume of the
discharge tube. The compact form
does offer a new set of qualities
and fields of application. 87
The starter and ballast functions are provided by an electronic
circuit integrated in the lamp. CFL were developed to replace
incandescent lamps. They offer significant savings and
increased service life. ( 15W against 75W for the same level
of brightness).
Some of these lamps have an additional cylindrical or
spherical glass bulb or cover to make them look more like
incandescent lamps. If these lamps are used in luminaires
designed to take incandescent lamps it should be noted that
the luminaire characteristics will be compromised by the
greater volume of the
lamp.

88
 In contrast to conventional
fluorescent lamps, in the case
of compact fluorescents both
ends of the discharge tube(s)
are mounted on a single cap.

Compact Four-pin plug-in Screw cap with

fluorescent lamps cap for integral ballast for
with two-pin plug-in operation on mains operation
cap and integral electronic
starting device control gear
89
Comparison of sizes of standard TC, TC-D TC-T and TC-L
compact fluorescent lamps.

90
Compact fluorescent lamps offer many advantages over
incandescent lighting, including 10 times longer life and 90%
less heat output. Today's technology enables CFLs to use up
to 75% less energy than a standard incandescent bulb and
last longer. This means that over the life of one CFL, you can
avoid replacing up to 13 incandescent bulbs. For example, a
13-watt CFL has the approximate lumen equivalence of a 60-
watt incandescent, saving 47 watts of energy.

W 5 9 13 18 26 40
Lm 210 600 860 1250 1800 3500
Lm/W 42 67 66 69 69 87.5

91
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low running cost Relatively high capital cost
Replacement for tungsten lamp When cold full light not obtain
immediately
5/6 times the efficacy of Excessive switching shortens
equivalent tungsten lamps at 70 life
Lm/W
Average life 8000 to 12000 h
Good colour rendering with Ballast required ( in some types
most lamps build in)
Prompt start and restart
Four pin lamps can be dimmed Direct replacement might not be
with suitable ballast and dimmer possible to some luminaries
Sparkle lighting effect can be
created 92
Low-pressure sodium lamps ( SOX )

93
Present style LPS lamps are known as the SOX type
Temp: 260 0C
The construction of a typical SOX lamp Press: 0.7 Pa

Low-pressure sodium lamp with U-shaped discharge tube in a

dichroic glass bulb. The infrared radiation produced by the
lamp is reflected back into the discharge tube via the dichroic
coating on the glass, thereby cutting down the time required to
94
reach operating temperature.
Low-pressure sodium lamps are comparable to fluorescent
lamps in the way they are constructed and how they operate. In
this case sodium vapour is excited instead of mercury vapour.
At room temperature, sodium is solid and there is insufficient
vapour present for the lamp to be started at a practical
voltage. Filling the discharge tube with a mixture of 1% argon
in neon (1.5% for the 10W and 18W sizes) appreciably lowers
the starting voltage.
When a cold lamp is switched on, the control gear provides a
high voltage kick. This generates the required number of
charge carriers inside the discharge tube for the neon gas to
become conducting as evidenced by the neon red colour of
the light immediately after switch-on. The discharge generates
some heat and after a few minutes the sodium metal begins to
melt and vaporises, and as this gradually fills the tube the light
changes to the characteristic deep yellow colour, because
95
sodium is ionised in preference to neon and argon.
Whereas mercury vapour excited at low pressure produces
mainly ultraviolet radiation, which is transformed into light with
the aid of fluorescent substances, sodium vapour produces
light directly. Low-pressure sodium lamps therefore require no
luminous substances to be added. Moreover, the luminous
efficacy of these lamps is so high that the lamp volume
required is considerably smaller than is the case for
fluorescent lamps.

Comparison of sizes of low-

pressure sodium lamps (LST).

96
Run-up characteristic: lamp Available power range from
lumens in relation to time t. 10 to 180 W

The most striking feature of low-pressure sodium lamps is

their extraordinarily high luminous efficacy. As the low-
pressure sodium lamp has a very long lamp life, between
10000 18000 h, it is the most economically efficient light
source available, 183 up to 200 Lm / W .
97
 Spectrum
Low-pressure sodium vapour only produces light in two
spectral lines which are very close together; the light radiated
by the lamp is monochrome yellow.
The obvious disadvantage of
these lamps with regard to
the advantages mentioned
above is their exceptionally
poor colour rendering quality.
Low-pressure sodium lamps
have therefore been
replaced by high-pressure
sodium lamps to a great
extent, especially in their
main field of application:
street lighting. 98
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Very high efficacy High purchase cost
Very low running cost Pure colour rendering restrict
application
Long average life 5000 h Requires up to 6 minutes to run
up to full output
Delayed restart when hot on
most lamps

99
High-pressure mercury lamps

100
High-pressure mercury
lamps have a short
quartz glass discharge Electrodes are positioned at
tube that contains a both ends of the discharge tube.
mixture of inert gas In close proximity to one of the
(traces of Argon) and electrodes there is an additional
a few milligrams of auxiliary electrode for the
metallic Mercury. ignition of the lamp. 101
When the lamp is ignited, there is an initial luminous Argon
glow discharge from the auxiliary electrode which gradually
extends to the second main electrode after a sufficient
number of Mercury atoms have been ionized . When the gas
has been ionised in this way, there is an arc discharge
between the two main electrodes, which, at this point in time,
is the equivalent of a low-pressure discharge. Only when all
the mercury has been evaporated via the arc discharge and
the resulting heat has produced sufficient excess pressure,
roughly 200 400 kPa and temperature cca1600 degrees
Celsius, does high-pressure discharge take place and the
lamp produce full power.
Un

102
High-pressure mercury lamps have moderate luminous
efficacy and a very long lamp life.
The light produced by high-pressure mercury lamps is
bluish-white in colour due to the lack of the red spectral
range.
Colour rendering is poor, but remains constant throughout
the entire lamp life. A neutral white or warm white colour
appearance and improved colour rendering properties are
achieved by the addition of fluorescent materials.

103
The lamp emits all the visible spectrum of mercury and some
UV. The radiation from the inner tube is particularly
dangerous to eyes and skin, as such radiation includes lines
in the short wave UV and can cause severe eye and skin
burns, including conjunctivitis and skin damage. Prolonged
exposure to such radiation, may cause blindness and skin
cancer.

NEVER operate a Mercury vapor lamp, if the outer bulb is

broken.

104
Due to the integrated auxiliary electrode there is no need for
high-pressure mercury lamps to have an igniter, but they do
have to be run on a ballast. High-pressure mercury lamps
require a run up time of some minutes and a longer cooling
time before re-striking. There are no restrictions as to the
burning position.

Run-up
characteristic:
lamp lumens
in relation to
time t.

105
 Self-ballasted mercury lamps

Self-ballasted
mercury lamps are
basically constructed
in the same way as
high-pressure
mercury lamps.
They have an additional filament in the outer glass bulb,
however, which is connected in series with the discharge
tube. The filament takes on the role of a current limiter,
making an external ballast unnecessary. The warm white
light produced by the filament complements the missing red
content in the mercury spectrum, which improves the colour
rendering. Self-ballasted mercury lamps usually contain
additional fluorescent material to enhance the luminous
106
colour and improve the luminous efficacy.
Self-ballasted mercury lamps have similar qualities to high-
pressure mercury lamps. Luminous efficacy and lamp life
rates are not so good. Since they require no igniter or
control gear and are produced with an E 27 cap, self-
ballasted mercury lamps can be used as incandescent
lamps.
The filament in self-ballasted
mercury lamps radiates light
immediately on ignition. After
a few minutes the
incandescent component
diminishes and the mercury
vapour discharge reaches full
power.
Run-up characteristic:
lamp lumens in relation
107
to time t.
Relative spectral distribution Se () of a self-ballasted
mercury lamp with the combination of the spectra produced
by the high-pressure mercury discharge and the filament.

108
 High pressure mercury

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low cost compared with sodium Poor colour rendering unless
lamps de luxe lamps are used
Long life 12000 h Light output fails with age,
reducing efficacy

109
Metal halide lamps

110
Metal halide lamps are a further development of mercury
lamps and are therefore similar to these with regard to
construction and function. Apart from mercury they also
contain a mixture of halides of metals such as sodium,
scandium, indium, and dysprosium. A metal halide lamp may
have a phosphor coating. In contrast to pure metals, halogen
compounds have the advantage that they melt at a
considerably lower temperature.

By adding metal halides, luminous efficacy is improved and,

above all, colour rendering enhanced. If the metal
combinations are correct then multi-line spectra can be
produced, similar to those of fluorescent lamps; by using
specific combinations it is possible to create a practically
continuous spectrum consisting of numerous of spectral lines.
Additional fluorescent substances to enhance colour rendering
are not necessary. 111
The mercury component primarily serves as an ignition aid
and to stabilize the discharge process; when the metal
halides have been evaporated via the initial mercury vapour
discharge, these metal vapours essentially produce light.
The presence of halogens inside the lamp bulb means that
auxiliary electrodes are not required as part of a starting
device. Metal halide lamps require external control gear.

3-6kV

112
To operate metal halide lamps both an igniter and a ballast
are required. They require a run-up time of some minutes and
a longer cooling time before restarting. Instant re-ignition is
possible in the case of some double-ended types, but special
igniters or an electronic ballast is necessary. As a rule metal
halide lamps cannot dimmed. The burning position is usually
restricted.

Metal halide lamps are

available in warm white,
neutral white and daylight
white, as single or double-
ended tubular lamps, as
elliptical lamps and as
reflector lamps.
Run-up characteristic:
113
lamp lumens in relation to time t.
Standard metal halide lamps, single-ended (HIT) and
double-ended versions (HIT-DE), plus elliptical version (HIE)
and metal halide reflector lamp (HIPAR).

114
 Metal halide

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
High efficacy Long restrike time
Good colour rendering High cost compared with
standard mercury lamps
Long average life 6000 to 8000 h

115
High-pressure sodium lamps ( SON )

116
Similar to mercury lamps, the spectrum produced by sodium
lamps can also be extended by increasing the pressure. If the
pressure is sufficiently high the spectrum produced is
practically continuous with the resultant enhanced colour
rendering properties. Instead of the monochrome yellow light
produced by the low pressure sodium lamp, with the extremely
poor colour rendering properties, the light produced is
yellowish to warm white producing average to good colour
rendering. These high efficiency lights
produce a golden white color
and are used for interior
industrial applications, such
as in warehouses and
manufacturing, and for
security, street, and area
lighting, the most common
type of outdoor lighting. 117
The improvement in colour rendering is, however, at the cost
of luminous efficacy. High-pressure sodium lamps are
comparable to mercury lamps with regard to their
construction and function. They also have a small discharge
tube, which is in turn surrounded by a glass envelope.
Whereas the discharge tube in high-pressure mercury lamps
is made of quartz glass, the discharge tube in high-pressure
sodium lamps is made of alumina ceramic, since high-
pressure sodium vapours have an aggressive effect on
glass.
The lamps are filled with inert
gases and an amalgam of
mercury and sodium, such
that the rare gas and mercury
component serve to ignite the
lamp and stabilize the
118
discharge process.
High-pressure sodium lamps are run on a ballast and require
an ignition device. They require a run-up time of some
minutes and cooling time before re-starting. Instant re-ignition
is possible in the case of some double-ended types, but
special ignition devices or an electronic ballast is necessary.
As a rule there are no restrictions as to the burning position.

Run-up characteristic:
119
lamp lumens in relation to time t.
High-pressure sodium lamps are available as clear glass
tubular lamps or with specially coated ellipsoidal bulbs.
They are also available as compact, double-ended linear
type lamps,
Standard high-pressure
sodium lamps, single ended
elliptical (HSE), tubular
(HST), and
double-ended tubular
(HST-DE).

120
 High-pressure sodium lamps

ADVANTAGES
Very low running cost
Very high efficacy
Very long average life up to 30000 h
Wide range of lamp outputs
Can operate on low temperature -40 0C
Universal operating position
DISADVANTAGES
High purchase cost
Pure colour rendering
Requires up to 6 minutes
to run up to full output
Delayed restart when hot
on most lamps

121
122
 Light output from lamps and luminaries
Suppose a luminaire housing a lamp giving 1000 lumens has a
light output of 300 lumens above the horizontal and 400
lumens below (see diagram).
Light output ratio
LOR = light from luminaire / light from lamp
= (300 + 400) / 1000 = 0.7 or 70%.
Upward light output ratio
ULOR = 300 / 1000 = 0.3 or 30%
Downward light output ratio
DLOR = 400 / 1000 = 0.4 or 40%.
Upper flux fraction = Upward light / Total light from luminaire
= 300 / (300 + 400) = 3/7 or 43%
Lower flux fraction = Downward light / Total light from luminaire
= 400 / (300 + 400) = 4/7 or 57%
Flux fraction ratio (fff)
123
= Upper flux ratio / Lower flux ratio = 43/57 = 0.75
 Light calculations

When planning a lighting installation it is necessary to perform

a series of calculations. In general, these refer to the average
illuminance required or exact illuminance levels in specific
parts of the space. It may also be of significance to calculate
the luminance of specific parts of the space, or different
lighting qualities, such as shadow formation and contrast
rendition, or the costs for a lighting installation.

124
Internal Lighting Schemes

125
 Lumen Method Calculations

The lumen method is used to acquire a rough estimation of

the dimensioning of a lighting installation; it allows the
designer to determine the number of luminaries required to
produce the defined illuminance on the working plane, or vice
versa, the illuminance on the working plane produced by a
given number of luminaries.
This method does not provide exact illuminance at specific
points in the space, which means that other methods must be
applied to calculate the uniformity of a lighting installation or
to determine illuminance levels at specific points.

126
The lumen method is based on the fact that the average
horizontal illuminance for a space of a given size can be
calculated from the overall luminous flux produced by the
luminaries installed, the light output ratio and the utilisation. In
general terms, it describes the portion of luminous flux emitted
by the light sources, which falls on the working plane after
interaction with luminaries and room surfaces.
The deciding factor in this calculation is the utilisation, which
is derived from the geometry of the space, the reflectance of
the room surfaces and the efficiency and the distribution
characteristics of the luminaries used.
To be able to calculate the appropriate utilance in each
individual case, there are tables available, which contain the
utilance of a standardised space with changing room
geometry, changing reflection factors and luminaries with a
variety of distribution characteristics. 127
The lumen method formula is easiest to appreciate in the
following form.
n N UF LLF
E= (lux)
A

E = average illuminance over the horizontal working plane

n = number of lamps in each luminaire
N = number of luminaire
= lighting design lumens per lamp, i.e. initial bare lamp
luminous flux (lm)
UF = utilisation factor for the horizontal working plane
LLF = light loss factor (maintenance factor)
128
A = area of the horizontal working plane
 Utilisation Factor
Utilisation factor (UF) is the proportion of the luminous flux
emitted by the lamps which reaches the working plane. It is a
measure of the effectiveness of the lighting scheme. Factors
that affect the value of UF are as follows:

(a) light output ratio of luminaire

(b) flux distribution of luminaire
(c) room proportions
(d) room reflectances
(e) spacing/mounting height ratio

129
Light output ratio of luminaire (LOR) takes into account for
the loss of light energy both inside and by transmission
through light fittings. It is given by the following expression.

Output of luminaire
LOR =
Output of lamp

Flux Fraction of Various Luminaires 130

 Light output ratio LOR: ratio of
the luminous flux emitted by a
luminair Le under operating
conditions to the luminous flux
of the lamp La.
Le
LOR =
La
Typical light Luminair Lamp type LOR
output ratios Louvered luminaire 30 T26 0.650.75
LOR for Louvered luminaire 40 T26 0.550.65
direct Louvered lumin. square TC 0.500.70
luminaries Downlight 30 TC 0.600.70
with various Downlight 40 TC 0.500.60
cut-off Downlight 30 A/QT 0.700.75
angles and Downlight 40 A/QT 0.600.70
131
lamp types.
 Flux Distribution of Luminaire
Direct ratio is the proportion of the total downward luminous
flux from a conventional installation of luminaires which has
directly incident on the working plane. It is used to assess the
flux distribution of luminaire. Since the intensity distribution
pattern of the light radiated from a luminaire in the lower
hemisphere will affect:
(a) the quantity of the downward flux falls directly on the
working plane and
(b) the quantity of flux available for reflection from the walls in
a given room,
Direct ratio depends on both the room proportions and the
luminaires. Direct ratio has a low value with a narrow room
(small room index) and a luminaire which emits most of its light
sideways, and on the contrary, a high value with a wide room
(large room index) and a luminaire which emits most of its light
132
downwards.
 Room Proportion

The room index RI describes the influence of the room

geometry on the utilisation factor. It is calculated from the
length and width of the room, and the height h above the
working plane under direct luminaries and height Hm above
the working plane under predominantly indirect luminaries.

LW
RI =
Hm ( L+W)

L = length of room
W = width of room
Hm = mounting height, i.e. the vertical distance between the
133
working plane and the luminaire.
 Room Reflectances

The room is considered to consist of three main surfaces:

(a) the ceiling cavity,
(b) the walls, and
(c) the floor cavity (or the horizontal working plane).
The effective reflectances of the above three surfaces affect
the quantity of reflected light received by the working plane.

134
The Utilisation factor (UF) can then be read off the table from
the column showing the corresponding room index and line
showing the appropriate combination of reflectance factors of
ceiling (C), walls (W ) and floor (F) or for greater accuracy,
calculated through interpolation.

135
 Utilisation factor UF for typical interior luminaries

narrow-beam
luminaries
(A 60,DIN 5040)

136
wide-beam
luminaries
(A 40, DIN 5040)

137
Indirect luminaries
(E 12, DIN 5040)

138
 Light Loss (maintenance factor) Factor
Light loss factor (LLF) is the ratio of the illuminance produced
by the lighting installation at the some specified time to the
illuminance produced by the same installation when new. It
allows for effects such as decrease in light output caused by
(a) the fall in lamp luminous flux with hours of use,
(b) the deposition of dirt on luminaire, and
(c) reflectances of room surfaces over time.

In fact, light loss factor is the product of three other factors:

LLF = LLMF x LMF x RSMF

LLMF = lamp lumen maintenance factor

LMF = luminaire maintenance factor
RSMF = room surface maintenance factor
139
Lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF) is the proportion of
the initial light output of a lamp produced after a set time to
those produced when new. It allows for the decline in lumen
output from a lamp with age. Its value can be determined in
two ways:
(a) by consulting a lamp manufacturer's catalog for a lumen
depreciation chart, and
(b) by dividing the maintained lumens by the initial lamps
lumens.

140
Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) is the proportion of the
initial light output from a luminaire after a set time to the initial
light output from a lamp after a set time. It constitutes the
greatest loss in light output and is mainly due to the
accumulation of atmospheric dirt on luminaire. Three factors
must be considered in its determination:
(a) the type of luminaire,
(b) atmospheric conditions, and
(c) maintenance interval.

Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) is the proportion of

the illuminance provided by a lighting installation in a room
after a set time compared with that occurred when the room
was clean. It takes into account that dirt accumulates on room
surfaces and reduces surface reflectance..
141
Light loss factor LLF in relation to the degree of deterioration
in the space.

142
 The number of luminaries required to produce the
defined illuminance E (lx)

EA
nN=
UF LLF

Should a lighting installation consist of several types of

luminaire of varying classification, e. g. wide-beam lighting
provided by louvered luminaries and a narrow-beam
component provided by down-lights for incandescent lamps,
then the illuminance has to be calculated separately for each
component and then added.
143
Spacing to Height ratio (SHR or S/Hm) is defined as the ratio
of the distance between adjacent luminaires (centre to centre),
to their height above the working plane. For a rectangular
arrangement of luminaires and by approximation,

A = total floor area

N = number of luminaires
Hm = mounting height

Under a regular array of luminaires the illuminance on the

working plane is not uniform. The closer spaced the luminaires
for a given mounting height, the higher the uniformity; or the
greater the mounting height for a given spacing, the greater the
uniformity.

144
If uniformity of illuminance is to be acceptable for general
lighting,
(a) SHR should not exceed maximum spacing to height
ratio (SHRMAX) of the given luminaire as quoted by the
manufacturer, and
(b) geometric mean spacing to height ratio of the luminaire
layout should be within the range of nominal spacing to
height ratio (SHRNOM) of the given luminaire as quoted by
the manufacturer, i.e.

145
There are computer software programs available for
calculating the utilisation factor. They not only calculate the
illuminance, but also locate the appropriate tables and can
handle the complex interpolation between the individual
tables or values contained in the tables, if required.

146
147
148
149
150
151
 Calculation based on specific connected load
This method allows the calculation of the required
connected load for an average illuminance provided by a
given luminaire and light source, or vice versa, the
average illuminance that can be obtained given a
specific connected load and a light source.
Planning a lighting installation based on a specified
connected load relies on the fact that every type light source
has a specific luminous efficacy practically irrespective
of the power consumption.

152
Lighting calculations based on a specific connected load of
lamps (P*).
Formulae for calculating the nominal illuminance EN for a
given number of luminaries, or the number of luminaries
required n for a given illuminance.
f 100 n PL
EN = (lux)
P* a b
EN (lx) nominal illuminance
n number of luminaries
PL (W) connected power for one luminaire incl.
control gear
P* (W/m2 100lx) specific connected load
f correction factor
a (m) length of room
b (m) width of room 153
Standard values for specific connected load P* for different
lamp types in direct luminaries.

Lamp P* (W/m2 100lx)

A 12

QT 10

T 3

TC 4

HME 5

HIT 4

154
Correction factor f takes into account the effect of the room
geometry and the reflectance factors on the illuminance or
number of luminaries. The appropriate value is calculated
from the basic area A, the room height h and the reflectance
factor of the ceiling (C), walls (W ) and floor (F).

155
Example of a rough calculation of the illuminance for a room
with a combination of two different luminaire types.
Luminaire type 1 (A)
n = 12
PL = 100 W
P* = 12 W/m2 100 lx
Luminaire type 2 (TC)
n=9
PL = 46 W (2 18 W + ballast)
P* = 4 W/m2 100 lx

Room data: Length a = 10 m EN1 = 90 lx

Width b = 10 m EN2 = 93.2 lx
Height h = 3 m Ecom = 183.2 lx
= 0.5/0.2/0.1
156
f = 0.9
A by-product of this method of calculation is that for each
lamp type a typical value can be defined for the specific
connected load. This means, for example, that a luminous flux
of around 20000 lm can be obtained from conventional
incandescent lamps with a connected load of 1500W, without
strict regard for whether ten 150W lamps, fifteen 100W lamps
or twenty 75 W lamps are used. The connected power
required for specific lamp types can be used for rough
calculation and, above all, to enable a quick comparison to be
made of different light sources.

157
 Point illuminance

In contrast to the lumen method, which only allows average

illuminance for an entire space to be calculated, using the
inverse square law illuminance levels can be calculated for
specific points in the space. The results in this case are very
exact, errors only arise if light sources are incorrectly
presumed to be point sources.
Indirect components are not included in the calculation, but
can be included through an additional calculation. The
calculation of illuminance at specific points can be carried out
for the lighting provided by one single luminaire or for
situations where the contribution of several luminaries is to be
taken into account.

158

Eh =
h2

cos3
Eh =
h2

159
 cos3( 90-)
Ev = (lx)
d2

Formula for the rough calculation

of the indirect illuminance
components (Eind). Using the Le M
overall luminous flux produced Eind = (lx)
by all the luminaries installed in Acom (1-M)
the space Le, the average
reflectance M and the sum Acom
of all room surfaces. 160
Horizontal illuminance Eh at
point P, produced by luminous
surface A of luminance L at
angle .
LA cos4
Eh = (lx)
h2

Horizontal illuminance Eh at point

P, produced by a circular
luminous surface of luminance L,
whereby the surface extends to
an angle 2

Eh = L sin2 (lx)
161
 Lighting costs

When calculating the costs for a lighting installation it is

necessary to distinguish between the fixed costs and the
variable costs. The fixed costs comprise the amortized costs
for the luminaries, for their installation and cleaning. The
variable costs are dependent on the operating time. They
comprise costs for energy, material and wages for staff
carrying out lamp replacement. On the basis of these values it
is possible to calculate the different qualities of a lighting
installation.
It is often advisable to compare the economic efficiency of
different lamp types in the planning phase. This data can be
calculated either as annual costs or as costs for the
production of a specific quantity of light.

162
Formula for calculating the costs of a lighting installation K
from the fixed costs K' and the annual operating costs K".

K = K' + K'' K (Lm/a) Annual costs for a lighting

installation
K' (Lm/a) Fixed annual costs
K" (Lm/a) Annual operating costs

K' = n (p K1 + R)

n Number of luminaries
p (1/a) Interest payments for the installation (0.10.15)
K1(Lm) Costs per luminaire incl. mounting
R (Lm/a) Annual cleaning costs per luminaire

163
K = n tB (a P + K2 / tLa)

tB (h) Annual operating time

a (Lm/kWh) Energy costs
P (kW) Wattage per luminaire
K2 (Lm) Costs per lamp incl. lamp replacement
tLa (h) Service life of a lamp

Formula for calculating the pay-back time t of a new installation.

Kl (new)
t=
K (old) - K (new)

Kl (Lm) Investment costs (nK1)

164
Comparison of the pay-back time t of two new installations,
whereby installation B has higher investment costs and
lower operating costs.

Kl (B)- Kl (A)
t=
K (A) - K (B)

The pay-back time is important in both completely new

projects and refurbishment projects, that is to say the period
of time within which the operating costs that have been
saved can be set off against the investment costs for the new
installation.

165
Lightcast Downlight
for metal halide lamps

166
Planning data

167
Lightcast Downlight
for compact fluorescent lamps

168
Planning data

169
 Planning data
Site Ceiling/wall mounted
Luminaire for CFL

170
External lighting schemes

171
 The Beam-Lumen Method

Beam Lumens (BL)

The beam-lumen method is quite similar to the method for

interior lighting except that the utilization factors must
take into consideration the fact that floodlights are not
usually perpendicular to the surface and all of the useful
light does not strike the task area.
Beam lumens are defined as the quantity of light that is
contained within the beam limits described as beam
spread. Beam lumens equal the lamp lumens multiplied
by the beam efficiency of the floodlight.

172
 Light Loss Factor (LLF)

The maintenance or light loss factor is an allowance for

depreciation of lamp output with age and floodlight
efficiency due to the collection of dirt on lamp, reflector,
and cover glass. The total factor may vary from 0.65 to 0.85
depending on the type of lamp and luminaire used, and
may include losses due to lamp orientation or tilt.

173
 Design Procedure

Step 1: Determine the level of illumination

The basic formula is:

N BL CBU LLF
E= (lux)
A

E = average maintained illuminance of an area

N = number of luminaires
A = area in square meter
BL = beam lumens
CBU = coefficient of beam utilization
LLF = light loss (maintenance) factor
174
 Step 2: Determine the type and location of floodlights

Regardless of light source there are industry standards on

beam spreads.
The following general principles apply in the choice of
beam spread:
1. The greater the distance from the floodlight to the area
to be lighted, the narrower the beam spread desired.
2. To obtain reasonable uniformity, the beams of individual
floodlights must overlap each other as well as the edge of the
surface to be lighted.
3. The percentage of beam lumens falling outside the area to
be lighted is usually lower with narrow-beam units than with
wide-beam units. Thus narrow-beam floodlights are preferable
where they will provide the necessary degree of uniformity of
illumination and the proper lux level.
175
The Beam Angle is the angle
between the two directions
opposed to each other over
the beam axis for which the
luminous intensity is half that
of the maximum luminous
intensity.

Step 3: Determine the coefficient of beam utilization

The factor, CBU, written as a decimal fraction, expressed in

the following ratio:
Utilized Lumens
CBU =
BL 176
As an approximation, the average CBU of all the floodlights in
an installation should fall within the range of 0.60 to 0.90. If
less than 60% of the beam lumens are utilized, a more
economical lighting plan should be possible by using different
locations or narrower beam floodlights. If the CBU is over 0.90
it is probable that the beam spread selected is too narrow and
the resultant illumination will be spotty. An estimated CBU can
be determined by experience, or by making calculations for
several potential aiming points and using the average figure
thus obtained.
177
Step 4: Determine the quantity of floodlights (N) required.

Re-arrange the basic formula in Step 1 as follows:

AE
N=
BL CBU LLF

178
 Measuring of illuminance
Measuring the lighting qualities of a lighting installation can
serve a number of purposes. In the case of new installations
measurements are taken to check that the planned values
have been obtained. Measurements recorded on existing
installations help the planner to decide what maintenance or
renovation work is required.
Measurements can also be taken during the planning process
for the evaluation and comparison of lighting concepts. The
factors that are measured are initially illuminance and
luminance.
To ensure that results of measurements taken are usable the
measuring equipment must be of a suitably high quality.

179
When measuring a lighting installation, a series of parameters
have to be taken into account and documented in a report.
This initially involves the recording of specific qualities of the
environment, such as reflectance factors and colours of room
surfaces, the time of day, the amount of daylight and the
actual mains voltage.

Features of the lighting installation are then recorded: the age

of the installation, the lighting layout, the types of luminaries,
the type and condition of the lamps and the overall condition
of the installation.

The type of measuring equipment and the class of accuracy

of the measuring device has to be recorded.

180
1. Measuring horizontal
illuminance on the working
plane using measuring
equipment with an integral
photo-cell
2. Measuring horizontal
illuminance using measuring
equipment with a separate
photo-cell
3. Measuring cylindrical
illuminance using
measuring equipment with
a separate photo-cell

181
To record illuminance for an entire space, a floor plan is
made of the space and has to include furniture. The
arrangement of luminaries and the points at which
measurements are to be taken are then entered. The
measuring points are the central points on a 1-2 m grid, in
the case of high rooms up to a 5 m grid.

Measurements can also be taken at individual workplaces, in

which case an overall tight measuring grid is created for the
area.

Horizontal illuminance is measured at the individual

measuring points at the height of the working plane of 0.85 m

Cylindrical illuminance for determining the formation of

shadows on a 1.2 m plane of reference.
182
Measuring illuminance on the
working plane in empty or
open furnished spaces is
made according to a regular
grid of 1 to 2 meters.

Measuring points for the

measurement of
illuminance at workplaces.

183
Formula for calculating the average illuminance E from a
measuring grid with n measuring points and the measured
values Ex.
n

1
E= Ex
n
1

Calculating the uniformity g of a lighting installation from

the lowest value Emin and the average illuminance E.

Emin
g=
E

184
 Measuring of luminance

Luminance measurements for calculating glare limitation are

carried out at workplaces in offices at eye level (1.2 or 1.6 m).

Measuring the luminance of

luminaries or room surfaces
using measuring equipment
with an integral view finder.

185
 Classification of lamps
The first letter I Incandescent lamp
indicates the light H High-pressure discharge lamp
production. L Low-pressure discharge lamp
The second letter indicates the G Glass
material of the outer envelope for Q Quartz glass
incandescent lamps, or the gas M Mercury
contained in discharge lamps. I Metal halide
S Sodium vapour

The third letter or A General

combination of E Ellipsoidal
letters indicates the PAR Parabolic reflector
form of the outer R Reflector
envelope. T Tubular
TC Compact tubes 186
General service lamp A
Parabolic reflector lamp PAR
Reflector lamp PAR
Halogen reflector lamp QR
Halogen lamp (tubular form) QT
Mercury lamp (ellipsoidal form) HME
Mercury lamp (reflector form) HMR
Metal halide lamp (ellipsoidal form) HIE
Metal halide lamp (reflector form) HIR
Metal halide lamp (tubular form) HIT
High-pressure sodium lamp (ellipsoidal form) HSE
High-pressure sodium lamp (tubular form) HST
Fluorescent lamp T
Compact fluorescent lamp TC
Low-pressure sodium lamp LST
187
Halogen lamp, double-ended QT-DE
Halogen reflector lamp, coolbeam, without cover QR-CB
Halogen reflector lamp, coolbeam, with cover QR-CBC
Metal halide lamp, double-ended HIT-DE
Compact fluorescent lamp TC
without starter for EB TC-EL
with 4 discharge tubes TC-D
with 4 discharge tubes, with integral EB TC-DSE
with 4 discharge tubes, without starter for EB TC-DEL
linear form TC-L

188