STP169-EB - Test & Properties of Conc

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Signi~canceof
TESTS A N D PROPERTIES
of
CONCRETE AND
CONCRETE AGGREGATES
A R&um6 of Present Information on the Significance of the Prop-
erties of Concrete and Concrete Aggregates and the Tests by Which
They are Studied and Determined.
@
Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.
~ISTM Special Technical Publication No. z6 9
Price List To Members

Paper Cover $5.25 $4.00
Cloth Cover $6.00 $4.75
Published by the
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
Philadelphia, Pa.
Copyright, 1956
by the
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
Printed in Baltimore, U.S.A.

December, 1955
FOREWORD
This publication represents the culmination of several years of concerted

effort on the part of a number of individuals and constitutes a worthy succes-
sor to the previous Report on Significance of Tests of Concrete and Concrete
Aggregates. As indicated in the Introduction, the coverage has been con-
siderably broadened and includes a discussion of the significance of the
properties as well as of the tests themselves. The approach has been to have
the separate chapters prepared by individuals, but the whole has been in-
tegrated by careful review under the supervision of a special committee
appointed for the purpose of organizing the compilation. Advantage was
taken of the Annual Meeting of the Society during the past few years to
have a number of the papers presented for purposes of discussion. Such dis-
cussion was helpful to the authors in the preparation of the final manuscript.
The publication is being issued under the sponsorship of Committee C-9
on Concrete and Concrete Aggregates; the special committee in charge
consists of: L. E. Gregg, Kentucky State Highway Dept., Lexington, Ky.,
Chairman; Bryant Mather, Waterways Experiment Station, Jackson, Miss.;
Walter Price, United States Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo.; L. W.
Teller, Bureau of Public R.oads, Washington, D. C.; and K. B. Woods,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.
iii
N o ~ . - - T h e Society is not responsible, as a body, for the statements
and opinions advanced in the publication.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction--L. E. Gregg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
PART I - - G ~ A L
Concrete a n d Concrete Aggregates
Techniques, Procedures and Practices of Sampling--C. E. Proudley . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Size and N u m b e r of Samples and Statistical Considerations in Sampling--W. A.
Cordon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Evaluation of Test Results--H. A. Pratt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Needed Research--A. T. Goldbeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
PART II--TEsTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
Freshly M i x e d Concrete
Uniformity, Segregation and Bleeding--I. L. Tyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Denseness and Unit Weight--M~ A. Swayze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Workability and Plasticity--Fred Hubbard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Setting T i m e - - E . W. Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Air C o n t e n t - - F . F. Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Hardened Concrete
Petrographic Examination--K. Mather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Static and Fatigue Strength--C. E. Kesler and C. P. Seiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Elastic Properties--L. W. Teller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Dynamic T e s t s - - E . A. Whitehurst and W. E. Parker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Volume Changes and Creep--G. W. Washa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Thermal Properties--L. J. Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Pore Structure--G. J. Verbeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Bond with Reinforcing Steel--H. J. Gilkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Abrasion Resistance--H. L. Kennedy and M. E. Prior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Resistance to Weathering--General Aspects--C. H. Scholer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Resistance to Weathering--Freezing and T h a w i n g - - T . C. Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Resistance to Chemical Attack--L. H. Tuthill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Resistance to Fire and Radiatlon--P. H. Peterson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Air Content and Unit Weight--S. B. Helms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Cement C o n t e n t - - H . F. Kriege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Special Categories
Ready-Mixed Concrete--Stanton Walker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Lightweight Concrete and Aggregates--R. E. Davis and J. W. Kelly . . . . . . . . . . 238
PART III--TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AGGREGATES
Concrete Aggregates
Petrographic Examination--R. C. Mielenz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Grading and Surface Area--W. H. Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Shape, Surface Texture, and Coatings--B. Mather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Weight, Density, Absorption, and Surface Moisture--A. G. Timms . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Porosity and Absorption--D. W. Lewis and W. L. Dolch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Toughness, Hardness, Abrasion, Strength, and Elastic Properties--D. O. Woolf. 314
Thermal Properties--H. K. Cook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Chemical Reactions--W. Lerch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Soundness and Deleterious Substances--D. L. Bloem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
PART IV--TEsTS AND PROPERTIES OF OTHER MATERIALS
Other Materials
Water for Mixing and Curing Concrete--W. J. McCoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Curing Materials--J. H. Swanberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Air-Entraining Admixtures--C. E. Wuerpel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Mineral Admixtures--H. S. Meissner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
INTRODUCTION
The usefulness of a material in serving selves these do not vitiate the effort
a given purpose is dependent upon its or hinder evaluation of the materials;
properties, or conversely the properties the hindrance arises only when the
of a material determine the purposes it limitations as well as the applications of
can usefully serve. Although this is the results are not realized--when the
axiomatic and thus requires only passing significance of the test is not known.
attention by those dealing with ma- In a similar way tests for certain proper-
terials, the manner in which properties ties of a material may be established and
are determined and expressed warrants performed needlessly if the properties
the greatest of care and attention. that are evaluated have no significance
This is evident in the existence of the in the intended use of the material.
American Society for Testing Materials, In recognition of these circumstances,
which for a period of more than half a Committee C-9 on Concrete and Con-
century has been devoted to such pur- crete Aggregates first compiled a Report
poses. Through years of organized effort on Significance of Tests of Concrete and
and constantly expanding activity, the Concrete Aggregates in 1935. Because of
Society has provided all segments of changes and additions in ASTM test
business and industry with dependable methods, plus the increased understand-
standards for test methods, with defini- ing of some features of concrete and
tions by which characteristics of ma- concrete aggregates during the inter-
terials can be described and universally vening years, an enlarged and revised
understood, and with specifications stat- version of the report was compiled and
ing the level of accomplishment that issued in 1943. Still greater expansion
can be reasonably expected from ma- of ASTM activity and numerous innova-
terials in certain uses. tions in concrete technology during the
Inherent in the process of developing next ten years emphasized the need for
such services is the need for determining a new Significance Publication with
the significance of a test or a property appropriate revisions and having a much
for which a test method has been or broader scope. Hence, a committee for
might be devised. Often certain recog- that purpose was appointed in 1953.
nized properties of materials are not Through the work of that committee,
amenable to measurement and expression but more through the efforts of individual
in fundamental physical units, and in authors writing on the designated sub-
some cases direct measurement of a jects, this new report was carried to
property may not be practicable at all. completion.
As a result, many arbitrary and em- Subject matter has been divided into
pirical methods of test have become four principal groups, starting with those
standards upon which the merits of some of a general nature, continuing with
materials are judged. Within them- tests of concrete followed by tests of
Copyright* 1956 by ASTM International
www.astm.org
2 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
concrete aggregates, and closing with to ensure quality of the product, and
tests of other materials having a direct that reason plus the particular atten-
bearing on some uses of concrete. Al- tion given to sampling the material
though three of the section headings account for its being classed in a special
refer only to tests of the materials, the category.
significance of properties is given as Two timely subjects not represented
much emphasis as the significance of heretofore in such a compilation are con-
tests, and frequently the discussions tained in the section on Freshly Mixed
indicate areas in which the development Concrete. A discussion of setting time
of new methods suitable for expression brings out the viewpoints represented in
of the properties is desirable. various approaches to the measurement
Through four papers of a general na- of this property that have evolved from
ture, viewpoints basic to all evaluations research in the past few years. Similarly,
of concrete and concrete aggregates are extensive research on methods of meas-
given. Separate aspects of sampling are urement and realistic interpretations of
presented in two papers, one dealing air content of freshly mixed concrete
with the techniques and practices and are considered in another paper. Besides
the other summarizing considerations of these, a fresh look at several properties
size and number of samples that must long recognized through standard tests
be taken if the results of a testing pro- is presented in three papers covering the
gram are to be statistically significant. A general areas of uniformity, workability,
third paper brings out more fully the and yield.
role of statistical methods in the evalua- Much progress in methods of analysis
tion of results, and a fourth analyzes the and marked increases in the number of
present state of knowledge in order to features of hardened concrete requiring
focus attention on several phases of con- evaluation are evident in the papers
crete and concrete aggregates where dealing with this category of concrete.
research is needed. Almost haK the subjects are treated for
In the section on tests of concrete, a the first time in this publication. Among
logical subdivision of topics into freshly these are Petrographic Examination,
mixed, hardened, and special categories Thermal Properties, Bond with Rein-
of concrete is made. The last group, forcing Steel, Resistance to Chemical
considered separately in a Significance Attack, and Resistance to Fire and
Publication for the first time, includes Radiation. Added to these are several--
the subjects of ready-mixed concrete and such as Static and Fatigue Strength,
light-weight concrete and aggregates, 9Dynamic Tests, Pore Structure, Re-
the latter combination of materials being sistance to Weathering, and Air Content
made for convenience of discussion. and Unit Weight--representing much-
Viewed strictly from the standpoint of expanded or entirely new concepts of the
the concrete produced, its general uses, properties and their importance in the
and the tests applicable to the deter- utilization and performance of concrete.
mination of its properties, ready-mixed Even in the cases of subjects such as
concrete might not be regarded as a Elastic Properties, Volume Changes,
special class of concrete. However, many Abrasion Resistance, and Cement Con-
of the features involved in the mixing, tent, which in the past have often been
transportation, and discharge of ready- regarded as prosaic and subject to little
mixed concrete require special attention or no change, renewed emphasis on the
INTRODUCTION 3
effects and some new possibilities for shape and surface texture; elastic proper-
test procedures are brought out in the ties with toughness, hardness, abrasion,
discussions. and strength. Three outstanding ad-
Extensive research on the durability ditions not considered in significance
of concrete during the past few years, compilations heretofore are Petrographic
and particularly recent developments in Examination, Thermal Properties, and
the theories pertaining to the physical Chemical Reactions. It is interesting to
processes by which failures occur in note that in essence all three have
freezing and thawing, occasioned a two- gained recognition with respect to both
fold treatment of the subject of Re- aggregates and hardened concrete, al-
sistance to Weathering. With regard to though in many cases the points of
the general aspects of the subject, a interest are not identical.
broad picture of durability testing, Subject matter covered by the four
including new procedures for combined papers in the concluding section ranges
wetting and drying and heating and from Water for Mixing and Curing of
cooling, is given. This represents an en- Concrete to Mineral Admixtures. For con-
largement of the scope of a paper en- venience the group of papers is designated
titled "Durability of Concrete," which by section heading as "Other Materials,"
was prepared for the 1943 edition of the a title to merely separate these materials
Report on Significance of Tests of Con- from the other groups yet not to detract
crete and Concrete Aggregates. The from their significance in the preparation
second paper on Resistance to Weather- and use of large volumes of concrete
ing analyzes the mechanics of deteriora- each year. For example, the proper
tion of concrete subjected to freezing selection of water for mixing and curing
and thawing, evaluates prevailing test has been recognized since the first
methods in the light of precise measure- applications of scientific methods to
ments of temperature-moisture relations evaluate concrete, but pertinent data
within samples during controlled tests, and observation from research on the
rationalizes the processes, and presents subject have remained scattered. The
theories on which realistic approaches to paper on this subject serves an interest-
testing might be built. Recommendations ing and valuable purpose in bringing
for alternative procedures of test and the information together for the first
interpretation are included, and un- time in a brief form. Similarly, the sum-
doubtedly these will serve as guides to marizing of a large volume of informa-
further profitable research and possibly tion on curing materials, which repre-
to revisions in ASTM test methods as sents years of development, is a valuable
sufficient data are accumulated. contribution to the literature.
A broad picture of the significant The need at the present time for
properties of concrete aggregates is given appraising the significance of both air-
in the third section. Methods of test entraining and mineral admixtures is
having prestige through long standing obvious. Most of the admixtures and the
are reviewed in the light of the proper- recognition of their uses have originated
ties measured. As a result, features that within the past fifteen to twenty years.
were of little or no concern a few years Research has been wktespread and uses
ago enter into the discussions of veteran have mounted. Two papers on these
subjects--for example, surface area with subjects discuss the purposes which
particle size and grading; coatings with different classes of admixtures serve,
their properties which can be measured particular point, provided the discus-
by tests on the materials themselves, sions were brief. Throughout the publica-
means for introduction and control, and tion, however, the main consideration
ways of evaluating the effectiveness of was to make each paper complete within
the admixtures in producing the desired itself, in order that the objective of
properties in the concrete. Interesting individual treatment of a property, test,
historical background is provided also. or group of related properties and tests
This method of assembling papers for could be maintained.
a comprehensive report on the signifi- While the statements that are made
cance of tests and properties has the represent the views of the individual
advantage of presenting interpretations authors, all the manuscripts were avail-
by outstanding authorities in the phases able for review by the entire membership
of concrete and concrete aggregates of Committee C-9, and by letter ballot
that are represented. In view of simi- the membership approved the material
larities in some subjects and the fact that as a Society publication under the spon-
the papers were prepared separately, a sorship of the Committee.
certain amount of overlapping was un-
avoidable. A portion of the overlapping Subcommittee in Charge,
material in original versions was elimi- L. E. GREGG, Chairman
nated through reviews and reconsidera- BRYANT MATtIER
tion by the authors. More often it was WALTER PRICE
considered an advantage to have the L. W. TELLER
views of more than one individual on a K. B. WOODS
PART I
General
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete and Concrete Aggregates
TECHNIQUES, PROCEDURES, AND PRACTICES OF SAMPLING

BY C. E. P R O U D L E Y I
Because a sample must be representa- and importance of concrete as a con-

tive to be of any value, the method of struction material and the realization of
sampling is of major importance in the influence of characteristics of ag-
testing and inspection. Much time and gregates upon the quality of concrete
description is devoted to the details of have directed the light of investigation
test methods, but almost no exacting on the matter of sampling but have not
instructions have been prepared covering resulted in an adequate appreciation of
the correct procedure for securing the problem by all who should be con-
representative samples. The reason for cerned.
this deficiency is primarily that the There are methods for sampling
conditions and situations involved in concrete and concrete aggregates that
taking samples in the field are so varied have been accepted as adequate proce-
that complete and detailed instructions dures to be followed when taking samples
would necessarily be too voluminous to be used for referee purposes. These
and complex. In this paper some of the methods are given in the ASTM Meth-
conditions and situations are described ods of Sampling Stone, Slag, Gravel,
a n d some general precautions stated. Sand, and Stone Block for Use as High-
Equipment for sampling is discussed. way Materials (D 75) ~ and the ASTM
Sampling carries a burden of responsi- Method of Sampling Fresh Concrete
bility which is not generally realized (C 172)?
until, upon testing, it is found that the The standard method for sampling
samples d0 not meet the requirements of aggregates is valuable as a guide for
the specifications. Perhaps it is too late sampling at various locations such as
to secure another sample of the material quarries, pits, railroad cars, bins, and
in question, and it is not uncommon to stockpiles for either quality or gradation
circumvent the unfortunate situation or both. It is quite definite regarding
by assuming that the "sample was not the quantities to be used as samples for
representative." This predicament is various test purposes. Throughout the
encountered more frequently in the
methods for sampling, the sampler is
inspection of bulky, nonhomogeneous
cautioned or instructed to observe
materials such as portland-cement con-
conditions which may affect the uni-
crete and concrete aggregates than in
sampling more homogeneous materials formity of the product, such as apparent
such as liquids, gases, or manufactured variations in characteristics of strata in a
identical units. The growth in volume quarry, changing depths of overburden
in pits, or changes in color and particle
1Chief Materials and Test Engineer, North
Carolina State Highway and PuNic Works
Commission, Raleigh, N. C. 2 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
www.astm.org
g TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
size; and he is required to take a suffi- the consistency, the air content, or other
cient number of samples to cover all features of the fresh mix. Here again it
variations in the material. After a becomes apparent that the job of sam-
thorough study of the methods for pling must not be delegated to the un-
sampling aggregates, the reader should trained or the careless.
be aware that, although not so stated,
SAMPLING CONCRETE
the methods require the use of an
AGGREGATES
experienced, alert, and energetic person
as a sampler if the purposes of the meth- Whether the samples of aggregate are
ods are to be realized. for the preliminary design of concrete
Samples of fresh concrete are generally mixtures or for the control of uniformity
of greater importance than samples of of the materials being used for the pro-
aggregates because the product is of duction of concrete for a structure, it is
greater economic value and also because essential that they be representative.
the sample is of an end product. Samples For mix design purposes, the quality,
of concrete are taken more frequently cleanness, and particle shape is of special
than are samples of aggregate-that is, concern, since it is possible in the labora-
each sample usually represents a com- tory to correct the gradation to comply
paratively small quantity of concrete-- with specifications; in fact, it is custom-
except in jobs of great magnitude where ary to separate and recombine coarse
the quality and grading of aggregates aggregates when they are to be used in
are closely controlled and all ingredients laboratory-mixed concrete. For control
are proportioned to yield the utmost purposes during construction, the grada-
uniformity. Greater frequency of sam- tion is of primary concern, the quality
pling will give greater accuracy only if being checked by visual observations ex-
each sample is taken with the same cept for occasional samples sent to the
careful consideration for representa- laboratory for quality tests. Securing
tiveness. control samples that are representative
Time becomes an especially important of the gradation involves more planning
consideration when sampling fresh con- than is customary among the average
crete, since the properties of the concrete inspection agencies.
are constantly changing and the charac- Consider first the samples that are to
teristics which the sample will show when demonstrate whether a deposit will yield
subjected to tests may be affected cor- aggregates which, after processing, will
respondingly. When it is desired that have economic value for portland-cement
strength test specimens made from a concrete. If the deposit has not been de-
sample of fresh concrete have identically veloped, a survey must be made first to
the same physical properties as the struc- show the range in quality and, in the
ture which they represent, continued case of gravel deposits, the gradation
care and attention are required over the that will be encountered. A procedure
entire sampling period--from the time for the exploration of aggregate deposits
the fresh concrete from the mixer or is described in considerable detail in the
transporting vehicle is discharged to "Concrete Manual" of the U. S. Bureau
the time that the specimens are turned of Reclamation (1),~ by Rockwood (2),
over to the laboratory for testing. and in trade publications. Power equip-
The same general rules for sampling
3 The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
fresh concrete apply when the samples to the list of references appended to this paper,
are taken for the purpose of determining see p. 13.
PROUDLEY ON SAMPLING 9
ment for this purpose has been improved essing and the precautions regarding the
in recent years, simplifying the job of taking of them in each instance are men-
digging test pits. Subsurface exploration tioned in ASTM Methods D 75, the
by the electrical resistivity method (3) tools, except for the sand sampling tube,
and by the seismic method (4) expedites are not described. Some mention of suit-
securing valuable information on the able tools, containers, and equipment is
amount of overburden. made by the author in a paper on sam-
Whenever possible, Several truckloads pling mineral aggregates (5). The coal
or more of the aggregates representing industry has problems of sampling that
the minimum quality that will be pro- are analogous in many ways to those of
duced or permitted should be processed the aggregates industry, and a number of
by a full-scale crushing and screening studies (6) which have been made in plant
procedure. The plant to which they are sampling of coal could easily be applied
taken for preparation must be cleaned to concrete aggregate plants. A few gen-
out from crushers to loadout in order to eral directions, however, can be given
eliminate the possibility of contamina- here for the sampling of concrete aggre-
tion. Designing concrete mixes using the gates.
material thus processed will generally The most desirable point at which to
give a close approximation of the charac- take a sample at a plant is at the dis-
teristics of the concrete which may be charge end of a belt conveyor, with care
expected when production is established. being exercised to collect the entire dis-
There may be variations in quality over charge from the full width of the con-
the entire deposit, and the distribution veyor. The belt conveyor nearest in the
of these variations, as it may affect the line of handling the aggregate prior to
resultant concrete, will dictate the num- the point of proportioning into concrete
ber of samples to be sent to the labora- should give the most representative sam-
tory for preliminary study. ple. Each time aggregate is handled there
Established aggregate plants for which may be changes in gradation due to
there are no data on concrete mix design abrasion and segregation; this would sug-
and performance should be studied in gest that if unusual accuracy is required
much the same way as the undeveloped of a sample it should be taken from the
operation; some history on the variations gate at the bottom of the batching bin.
in quality and gradation of the material For some purposes this is feasible. Usu-
which has been produced is usually avail- ally, however, it will be necessary to take
able, however. If such data are not avail- the acceptance samples from a point
able, a schedule for sampling the output somewhat earlier in the sequence of han-
of the plant must be set up to establish dling.
the fluctuations in the product caused Stockpiles are the most difficult to
by periodic fluctuations in the over-all sample because segregation in all likeli-
plant operation. The design of such a hood has occurred. A dragline, power
schedule is included in a paper by Cordon shovel, or other means for digging
in this publication. 4 through to the center of the pile is an ab-
Although the points at which samples solute necessity, although ASTM Meth-
of aggregates can be taken after proc- ods D 75 indicate the taking of samples
from the outer surface only.
4 William Cordon, "Size and N u m b e r of Re- Although seldom recommended, it is
quirements for Statistical Considerations of
Sampling Concrete and Concrete Aggregates," p. advisable to take at least three samples
14, this publication. for sieve analyses, so spaced as to indi-
cate the range of variation in gradation. as the uniformity of the methods of pro-
Such information will indicate the pos- duction.
sible need for remixing the delivered ag- An examination of the method for sam-
gregates before using them. pling concrete (ASTM Method C 172) 2
Shovels for taking samples should be reveals that the size of the sample and
scoop-shaped to minimize the amount of the point from which it is to be selected
material that will roll off when the shovel are included in the method, but the appa-
is lifted. For the same reason, containers ratus is generalized as a receptacle and a
used for catching samples by swinging shovel. As in the case of sampling con-
them through the discharge from a belt crete aggregates, these two items of
or chute must be deep enough to prevent equipment will have to be varied to meet
running over when the sample has been the specific conditions encountered.
secured. More coarse than fine aggregate Should fuller descriptions and dimensions
is lost when the scoop or container over- be given, it is quite certain that for the
flOWS. vast majority of conditions a durable
Typical designs of sampling equip- 12-qt galvanized-iron water bucket
ment for one-man handling might be of would be permitted and a large-size,
some value, but the exact dimensions rugged, flour or sugar scoop included, as
would have to be varied to suit the size well as the shovel required for remixing.
of aggregate and, probably, the size of Whether the shovel has a round or square
the man. point and a long or short handle will de-
pend upon individual preference; how-
SAMPLING FRESH CONCRETE ever, for remixing the concrete sample on
Design data and a file of test data for a flat surface, a square point is essential
a series of concrete mixtures are very for efficiency. Since the sampling method
handy for establishing a basis for com- calls for 1 c u f t of concrete when strength
parison for subsequent testing. There can tests are to be made, at least three 12-qt
be no assurance that the desired charac- buckets must be available.
teristics are being attained consistently, The recommended methods for sam-
however, except through tests of repre- pling from stationary mixers, paving
sentative samples taken at regular inter- mixers, revolving drum truck mixers,
vals from batches as they are produced. open-top truck mixers, agitators, and
If comparisons of the current test results dump trucks are taken separately but
with the earlier tests are to be of any may be summarized as follows: (a) the
value, the entire testing procedure must sample is taken from the discharge chute
be the same for all specimens; this in- of the mixer by passing a receptacle com-
cludes taking the samples of concrete, pletely through the discharge stream or
making the specimens, and the subse- diverting the entire stream into the re-
quent handling of them. Haphazard ceptacle, being sure that the sample is
methods will cause variations in quality taken at about the middle of the batch
which may not actually exist in the con- as it is discharged from the mixer; or (b)
crete. The confidence limits, or the spread if the chute is not readily accessible, as
in strength test results to be expected, are in paving mixers or open-top mixers, the
of considerable economic interest to the sample is taken by scooping up portions
producer of concrete selling on a guaran- from various spots in the batch which
teed strength basis. This range in test re- can be easily reached.
sults will depend on the uniformity of the In all cases the concrete is required to
test methods, including sampling, as well be remixed immediately before it is
PROUDLEY ON SAMPLING ii
placed in the molds or apparatus. This is cement have been approved. It is then
to obtain uniformity in the sample and necessary for the inspector only to ill-
overcome any segregation that may have quire or determine for himself the propor-
been present or any initial stiffening of tions of materials, the moisture contained
the consistency that may occur between in the aggregates, and the amount of
sampling and molding. Except for the added water, thereby acquiring informa-
possibility of a false set of the cement, tion on the water-cement ratio, the yield
there should be no noticeable stiffening of concrete, and other factors which
during the 15 rain allowed by ASTM should be included in the report of com-
Methods C 172, and if the concrete has pression tests. On this job the concrete is
been satisfactorily designed, propor- being mixed in a stationary mixer and
tioned, and mixed, there should be no ob- transported in wheelbarrows or buggies.
servable segregation. Therefore, the mini- If there is time to do so, he will watch
mum mixing time to insure uniformity several batches proportioned, mixed, and
should be very brief to fulfill this require- discharged to obtain some idea of the
ment of the method. Unless there is a uniformity of the operations. If the next
field laboratory very close to the opera- batch looks the same as its predecessors
tions, this remixing could do more harm when the first buggy is filled from the
than good. The sampler should be cau- mixer, he will wait until the middle of the
tioned that if the sample is dumped on a batch is reached (knowing how many
fiat surface or in some mixing device such buggies will be filled in the process of dis-
equipment should be moistened, drafts charging). Then if the foreman is agree-
minimized, the concrete shaded and pro- able, the buggy will be rolled over to the
tected from temperature changes, and all place where the concrete specimens are
operations performed with the utmost to be made; otherwise, the inspector will
expedition. fill his buckets with concrete scooped out
Any change in the characteristics of of the buggy. Taking concrete from each
the concrete due to sampling and subse- of the three buckets will constitute a
quent handling works favorably or un- minimum of remixing as he prepares to
favorably for the producer of the con- make an air-content determination when
crete and the reverse for the user (7). the concrete contains air purposely en-
Therefore, the sampler should recognize trained. As soon as the air determination
the influence of every operation he per- is completed, he will begin filling his
forms and seek to avoid conditions that molds, taking concrete from each of the
may be unfair to one or the other. three buckets and distributing it among
As stated before, the possible combina- the molds which he is to fill, rodding and
tions of conditions that will affect the molding in the prescribed manner. If he
method to be used to sample concrete is a trained and conscientious inspector,
properly are almost limitless; however, he will have finished all of these opera-
the extremes are seldom encountered and tions within 15 rain after the concrete
the average prevails a high proportion of was discharged into the buggy. Since it
the time. A description of the procedure would be asking too much of one inspec-
that can usually be followed may be of tor to add a slump determination to the
benefit. foregoing tests within the prescribed
Assume that an inspector visits a job time, it should be permissible for him to
for the purpose of securing compression make the slump test on another batch
test specimens. In this instance let us also which appears to him to have the same
assume that the aggregates and portland consistency. Although specific instruc-
tions are not included in the procedure sample after it has been dumped on the
for sampling fresh concrete (ASTM grade where it is easily accessible. The
Method C 172), the inspector cannot be procedure and responsibilities are the
said to have performed the operation same as before, but the inspector will ob-
satisfactorily until he has seen that the tain the sample by using his shovel or
specimens are protected from moisture hand scoop. In sampling the pile, points
loss and temperature changes beyond the that appear to have a concentration of
60 to 80 F range specified in the ASTM mortar or coarse aggregate must be
Method of Making and Curing Concrete avoided and average spots chosen for in-
Compression and Flexure Test Speci- serting the scoop or shovel. The remixing
mens in the Field (C 31) ~ and are other- will be done as b e f o r e - - b y taking con-
wise safeguarded from harm by vibration crete from each container and by pushing
or premature handling. the hand scoop all the way to the bottom
Ready-mixed concrete may be the of the bucket and lifting it out with a
source of supply for the structure, in mixing motion. Keeping the scoops, shov-
which case the inspector can follow the els, and containers clean and free from
same procedure described in the preced- accumulations of hardened concrete and
ing paragraph. His sample must repre- free from major leaks, dents, and distor-
sent the concrete as it is being placed in tion will make the inspector's job less
the forms; this means that it must be difficult.
taken after it is discharged from the There will be many variations of these
mixer and before it is placed in the forms. simple descriptions, but the competent
Only if the forms are of large dimensions inspector will be resourceful in arranging
and any steel present is so located as not to secure samples having the same pro-
to interfere with scooping up a sample portions of ingredients, the same consist-
should sampling from the forms be al- ency, the same air content, the same
lowed. Even then the possibility of water- amount of mixing, and the same tempera-
gain (bleeding) can readily make the ture conditions as the batch of concrete
sample nonrepresentative. The sample from which it was taken will have at the
can be taken from the discharge chute of time it is placed in the forms.
the mixer either by swinging the chute to
N E E D E D IMPROVEMENTS IN M E T H O D S
one side to fill the buckets--provided
OF SAMPLING
the entire stream of concrete in the chute
flows into the sample b u c k e t - - o r by It will have been noted in this discus-
passing the bucket under the chute in sion, as ill some of the references on the
such a manner as to collect a cross-sec- subject, that there is a lack of detail in
tion of the concrete in the chute. Al- the requirements for sampling concrete
though it seems easier to scoop the con- and concrete aggregates. The Manual
crete from the chute by means of a for Concrete Testing, which is in prepara-
small hand scoop, this must never be tion by ASTM Committee C-9, may sup-
done, since a certain amount of segrega- ply this need, but it will not have the full
tion occurs in the chute and is ex- authority of a standard method.
tremely difficult to overcome except by In addition to the need for additional
allowing the full stream to reach the end definition in the matter of sampling,
of the chute and drop off into a container. there is still another aspect of the prob-
Next let us assume that the inspector lem which should be given thought: re-
visits a concrete paving job where a paver quirements for the sampler, even specifi-
is being used. His job is relatively simple cations or certification, would not be
in this case because he can secure his unreasonable, in spite of the general
PROUDLEu ON SAY__PLING 13
agreement that sampling is a very dif- plicit to good advantage. Before being
ficult undertaking even for the most ex- intrusted with the duties of securing
perienced materials engineer, there still samples, the person taking the samples
exists the weak policy of sending the should read all available literature per-
quickly trained and untried employee to taining to the methods for sampling the
bring in the samples. Automation m a y materials and should observe correct
eventually solve the problem of how to methods as performed by a competent
secure representative samples, but even sampler.
there the need for judgment by an under- Nonuniformity of the material, which
standing technician will exist. m a y be the result of segregation as well
Much of the inaccuracy, which is prac- as methods of production, should be rec-
tically unavoidable in the sampling proc- ognized, since this is the major factor
esses, can be offset b y statistical studies, entering into the difficulty of securing
and to the recommendations already representative samples.
given is added the advice that records of Efforts should be made to establish a
the samplers, as well as of the samples, plan or system of sampling based on
be made and analyzed. statistical methods which will yield in-
formation on the reliability of individual
SUMMARY samples as an indicator of the character-
Sampling is generally the most neg- istics of the product being sampled. 5
glected of the important testing opera-
tions. Sampling methods for aggregates Recommended Practice for Probability
Sampling of Materials (E 105), 1955 Book of
and concrete could be made more ex- ASTM Standards, Part 3.
REFERENCES
(1) "Concrete Manual," U. S. Department of (5) C. E. Proudley, "Sampling of Mineral Ag-

the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Den- gregates," Symposium on Mineral Aggre-
ver, Colo., 5th Ed., revised reprint (1951). gates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 74 (1948).
(2) Nathan C. Rockwood, "Production and (Issued as separate publication A S T M STP
Manufacture of Fine and Coarse Aggre- Yo. 83.)
gates," Symposium on Mineral Aggregates, (6) R. L. Coryell, F. J. Schwerd, and E. J.
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 88 (1948). (Is- Parente, "Tests of Accuracy of a Mechanical
sued as separate publication A S T M ST]=' Coal Sampler"; A. O. Blatter, "A Test on a
No. 83.) Slotted Revolving Cylinder Coal Sampler;"
(3) R. Woodward Moore, "Geophysical Meth- W. M. Bertholf and W. L. Webb, "Tests of
ods of Subsurface Exploration in Highway the Geary-Jennlngs Sampler at Cabin
Construction," Public Roads, Vol. 26, No. 3, Creek," Symposium on Coal Sampling, Am.
August, 1950, pp. 49-64; Bulletin No. 28, Soc. Testing Mats., pp. 72, 57, and 83,
Highway Research Board, November, 1950, respectively (1955). (Issued as separate
pp. 73-98. publication A S T M S T P No. 16Z.)
(4) E. R. Shephard, "The Seismic Method of (7) "Recommended Practices for Sampling and
Exploration Applied to Construction Proj- Testing Ready Mixed Concrete," Engineer-
ects," The Military Engineer, Vol. 31, No. ing Division, National Ready Mixed Con-
179, September-October, 1939. crete Assn., Washington, D. C.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
SIZE AND N U M B E R OF SAMPLES AND STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

I N SAMPLING
B Y WILLIAM A. C O R D O N I
Samples of concrete and concrete ag- desired properties. Only sufficient tests
gregates should portray accurately the are required to provide a reliable esti-
characteristics of the material being mate of these properties. Even general
tested, but variations in these materials averages have little significance since the
make it difficult to obtain samples with average of a deposit may be acceptable
the assurance that they are completely while certain sections represented by in-
representative. Test results are more re- dividual samples may not.
liable as the number and size of samples Tests of concrete on the other hand will
increase, but additional samples or sam- generally fall into one of the three fol-
ples of greater size increase the cost of lowing classifications:
testing. 1. Acceptance and performance tests,
It is necessary, therefore, to establish 2. Construction control tests, and
the accuracy desired in each case, com- 3. Special investigations and research.
mensurate with funds and facilities The number of samples required and
available. statistical considerations are different in
The use of statistical methods makes each case and will be discussed sep-
it possible to obtain reliable estimates of arately.
the potential quality of concrete from a
minimum number of samples. ACCEPTANCE AND PERFORMANCE TESTS
Except for problems related to aggre- Concrete Aggregates:
gate processing such as size distribution, Acceptance tests for concrete aggre-
quantity of silt, and moisture control, the gates establish the suitability of a de-
properties of a given concrete aggregate
posit or source. During preliminary
are not subject to change. The charac-
reconnaissance of available deposits, ag-
teristics of concrete on the other hand are gregate quality may be based on test
subiect to numerous variables which can results of a composite sample. This is
be controlled to provide a desired balance possible since general characteristics of
between quality, workability, and cost. aggregate quality are usually compara-
Tests for concrete aggregates can be tively uniform throughout a deposit.
generally classified as acceptance and Mter preliminary analysis, the charac-
performance tests and have limited teristics of the most promising source
statistical significance since a given can be established with samples from
source either possesses or does not possess locations throughout the area and depth
of the deposit.
1 Research Engineer, Portland Cement Assn., As a general rule, aggregate samples
Chicago, IlL, formerly with the U. S. Bureau of
Reclamation. need only be large enough to be repre-
14
www.astm.org
CORDON ON STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 15
sentative and to provide ample material their influence on durability and alkali
for all tests contemplated as specified by reactivity, only an occasional check of
standard test procedures3 The size and these properties is usually required. Ag-
number of samples will naturally vary gregate grading and the quantity of silt
with the size of the deposit and the maxi- and inferior material which can be con-
mum size of aggregate occurring in the trolled by processing will probably vary
deposit. For gradation analysis, for ex- as each different section of a deposit is
ample, samples should be large enough to excavated. Daily checks of these proper-
assure occurrence of particles of the ties may be desirable, and where the
largest dimension in sufficient number so variation in sand grading is excessive or
that the inclusion or exclusion of one of is controlled by classifiers, continual
these large particles will not affect the checks may be necessary. Each shipment
grading. of aggregate from a commercial source
Acceptance tests, which are gaining will require check tests unless its quality
favor in determining the suitability of and uniformity have been previously es-
concrete aggregates, are based on com- tablished.
parative performance of concrete ag- Free moisture in concrete aggregates,
gregates in standard concrete or mortar particularly the sand, is a major source
specimens. This type of test is particu- of variation in concrete strength. Unless
larly valuable in determining the influ- the amount of moisture in the aggregate
ence of aggregates on the resistance of is uniform, frequent tests for moisture
concrete to freezing-and-thawing action content are essential for uniform opera-
and the disruptive expansion caused by tion of a mixing plant. Success has been
the reaction between certain aggregates experienced with equipment that indi-
and the alkalies in cements. These tests cates instantaneously the moisture con-
require much larger samples, containing tent of sand. This equipment is valuable
as much as 600 lb of graded aggregates. in adjusting the water content of con-
It is not necessary to make such tests for crete mixes, although frequent calibra-
each sample obtained, however, and, as tion tests by standard methods may be
previously mentioned, generally one set required.
of tests is sufficient to indicate the gen-
eral character of each source of aggregate. Concrete:
Acceptance of an aggregate source does Acceptance and performance of con-
not automatically approve all aggregates crete are determined by tests of fresh
from that source, and check tests (per- concrete and the strength of hardened
formance tests) are required periodically concrete. Tests of fresh concrete provide
as the aggregates are received for com- a means of checking the proportions and
pliance with specification requirements. properties of the concrete mixture. The
The number of tests required to control slump test for consistency indicates the
properly the quality and uniformity of water content and water-cement ratio
concrete aggregates during construction of a given mixture and may be used to
will depend to a large extent on the varia- reject concretes having excessive water.
tions encountered. Since aggregates from The measurement of the quantity of en-
a given source are comparatively uniform trained air controls the use of air-en-
with respect to specific gravity, absorp- training agents. The density or unit
tion, soundness, abrasion resistance, and weight of the concrete is used to correct
2See paper by Proudley, p. 7, this publica- the proportions of ingredients of fresh
tion. concrete based on the volume of concrete
16 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E A_!WD AGGREGATES
produced (1).3 L i k e acceptance tests of basis for action, a n d it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t

concrete aggregates, the n u m b e r of tests statistical consideration of the accuracy
of fresh concrete required wilt depend of a n observed average be known. I t is
u p o n the u n i f o r m i t y of production, a n d n o t within the scope of this paper to
the concrete mix will generally be ac- present a discussion of the limits of un-
cepted or corrected on the basis of indi- certainty of observed averages, b u t the
vidual tests. As in the case of aggregate reliability of standard tests for concrete
acceptance tests, tests of fresh concrete will be mentioned.
have limited statistical considerations The m a x i m u m error, for a given prob-
since individual tests provide a basis ability level, b y which a n average of a
for action. given n u m b e r of tests m a y differ from
I n the final analysis, the performance the true, unbiased average based on un-
of concrete is generally measured b y the limited tests can be found as follows:
tv
TABLE I.--VALUES OF "STUDENT'S" t F~ = - - (1)
AT VARIOUS PROBABILITY LEVELS.
Numberof ProbabilityLevel where:

Specimens E = m a x i m u m error of the average of
-- 1a
70 80 90 95 99 the sample, per cent,
1 . . . . . 1. 963 3. 078 6. 314 2.706 63. 657 t = " S t u d e n t ' s " t for n - 1 degrees of
2 . . . . 1.386 1. 886 2. 920 4.303 9. 925 freedom at a specific probability
3 . . . . 1.250 1. 638 2. 353 3.182 5. 841 level (Table I),
4 . . . . 1.190 1.533 2.132 2.77(~ 4. 604
5 . . . . 1.156 1.476 2.015 2.571 4.032 V = coefficient of variation, per cent
10 . . . . 1.093 1.372 1.812 2. 228 3.169 (Eq 5), and
15 . . . . 1. 074 1. 341 1.753 2.131 2. 947 n = n u m b e r of tests.
20 . . . . 1. 064 1. 325 1.725 2.08(] 2. 845
25. .. 1.058 1.31(] 1. 708 2.06C 2. 787 Since most specifications for concrete
30. .. 1. 055 1.31(] 1. 697 2. 042 2. 750 require three 6 b y 12-in. cylinders to be
1. 036 1.282 1. 645 1. 960 2. 576 broken in compression at 28 days, the
a Degrees of freedom. reliability of the average of such tests
Now~.--Values of t originally presented by will be computed. Assuming a probabil-
R. A. Fisher and F. Yates (8). ity level of 90 per cent a n d the coefficient
of variation between the three cylinders
strength of 6 b y 12-in. cylinders broken
as 5 per cent, and s u b s t i t u t i n g in E q 1 :
in compression after 28 days of moist
curing, although the flexural strength of 2.920 X 5
E %/~ 8.5 per cent
beams is also used extensively for pave-
ments.
I t is assumed the samples taken each I n other words, for tests of three spec-
day represent the concrete placed during imens alone, the error of the average will
t h a t day, and like other performance n o t exceed 8.5 per cent 90 per cent of the
tests the acceptance of concrete is based time. As the value of V becomes more
on these tests. Due to the m a n y factors reliable with an increased n u m b e r of
that influence the strength of concrete tests, the value of t is reduced, a n d if V
a n d the variations that m u s t be expected, can be established from a large n u m b e r
individual tests are n o t reliable as a of tests, the value of t equals 1.645 for 90
per cent probability, and:
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer 1.645 x 5
to the list of references appended to this paper, E - ~ 4.8 per cent
see p. 20.
I t has been established by Committee In establishing an average strength of

214 of the American Concrete Inst. (2) concrete in a portion of a structure, three
that for good control the coefficient of cylinders taken at different times with
variation between companion specimens a coefficient of variation of 15 per cent
from the same batch should not exceed 5 would give an average whose error could
per cent. It can be assumed then that be expected to be less than:
where control is good, three cylinders
2.920 X 15
will indicate the average strength of a
TABLE II.--CORRELATION COEFFI-

E - 25 p e r c e n t 9 0 p e r c e n t of t h e t i m e ,
CIENTS AT THE 5 AND 1 PER CENT
LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANCE.
Or if V is established from a large num-
Number 5 1 Number 5 1 ber of tests:
of__T e2sat s per c e n t p e r cent ~ p e r cent per c e n t
1.645 X 15
E = %/~ = 14 per cent
1 0.997 1.OOG 24 0.388 0.496
2. 0.950 0.99G 25 0.381' 0.487
3 0.878 0.952 26 0.374~ 0.478 The question of how many concrete
4 .... 0.811 0.917 27 0.367 0.470 tests are required in general construction
5 .... 0.754 0.874 28 0.361f 0.463
to provide a reliable estimate of the av-
6 ...... 0.707 0.834 29 0.35,~ 0.456 erage can be estimated by using the es-
7 ..... 0.666 0.798 30 0.340 0.449 tablished values for good control, that is,
8 .... 0.632 0.765 35 0.32! 0.418
9 ..... 0.602 0.735 40 0.304 0.393 V equals 5 per cent for within-batch
10 ..... 0.576 0.708 45 0.288 0.372 variation and 15 per cent for over-all
11 ..... 0.553 0.684 50 0.273 0.354
variation. It can also be assumed that the
12 ..... 0.532 0.661 60 0.250 0.325 error of average should not exceed 5 per
13 ..... 0.514 0.641 70 0.232 0.302 cent 90 per cent of the time.
14 ..... 0.497 0.623 80 0.217 0.283
15 ..... 0.482 0.606 90 0.205 0.267
A reliable average for a batch of con-
crete will require:
16 . . . . . 0.468 0.59( 100 0.195 0.254
17 . . . . . 0.45r 0.57~ 125 0.174 0.228 /tV\ 2
18 . . . . . 0.444 0.56] 150 0.159 0.208
19. 0.433 0.54~ 200 0.138 0.181
20. 0.423 0.537 300 0.113 0.148
21. 0.413 0.52( 400 0.098 0.128
22. 0.404 0.51~ 500 0.088 0.115
23. 0.396 0.50~ 1,000 0.062 0.081
n = 2.7 o r 3 c y l i n d e r s f r o m o n e b a t c h ,
a D e g r e e s of f r e e d o m .
NoT~.--This table was taken from Snedeeor and a reliable average for concrete pro-
(6). P o r t i o n s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y f r o m F i s h e r (7).
duced from day to day will require:
batch of concrete with a maximum error
of 4.8 per cent 90 per cent of the time.
One batch of concrete does not neces-
n = 24.4 or 25 cylinders from different batches.
sarily represent all concrete for a struc-
ture or even the concrete produced in According to these data, three cylin-
any day. Variations between batches are ders are sufficient to provide a reliable
much greater than those within the estimate of a single batch of concrete,
batch, and for over-all variations, a co- but, because of the unreliability of one
efficient of variation of 15 per cent can batch, one cylinder from each of 25
be expected for good control (2, Table II). batches would be required to establish
the over-all concrete strength. More than maintain uniform slump, air content,
one cylinder from each batch would not grading, and moisture content and as
significantly increase the accuracy of the such assist in the control of concrete but
average. This illustrates the necessity of are not a measure of over-all concrete
establishing the strength of concrete control. Since all variations of materials
from the pattern of repeated tests as dis- and proportions are reflected in the
cussed in the following section on Con- strength of concrete, concrete control
struction Control Tests. can be established on that basis.
These methods may also be applied in The usual objection to the use of 28-
establishing the properties of fresh con- day strength tests to control concrete
crete and concrete aggregates but have quality is the fact that a great deal of
limited significance except to determine poor concrete can be placed in a structure
the reliability of test methods. This can before test results are available. The re-
be accomplished by measuring the uni- liability of the 28-day strength tests does
formity of repeated tests of the same not come from tests made the day con-
material (3). crete is placed but is based on the reli-
Reliable average test values are com- ability of the project or mixing plant to
paratively unimportant for fresh con- produce good concrete, as established
crete and concrete aggregates since in- from previous tests. Once the reliability
dividual tests largely control acceptance of control is established, it is possible to
or rejection. obtain a reasonable estimate of potential
concrete quality. Variations from estab-
CONSTRUCTION CONTROL TESTS lished control can be detected as addi-
After the suitability of concrete and tional test results become available. In
concrete aggregates is established some instances, particularly when im-
through acceptance and performance portant structural concrete is involved,
tests, control tests made throughout it is desirable to include performance
construction will ensure production of tests taken at the structure in addition to
uniform concrete of desired strength and regular control tests. Until the reliability
quality. Control tests provide an ex- of control is established, or as changes
cellent opportunity for the application occur, control tests broken at 7 days or
of statistical methods since it is possible earlier are desirable in order to obtain
to consider the pattern of tests results early information on the potential
over a period of time rather than in- strength of the concrete.
dividual samples as in the case of accept- Variations in tests of concrete on con-
ance and performance tests. As the trolled projects can be assumed to fall
control standard for a project or mixing into some pattern of the normal fre-
plant is established, reliable estimates of quency distribution curve (4). Where
the potential strength and uniformity of there is good control, test values are
future production can be made. bunched close to the average, but if there
Concrete control is generally estab- are variations in test results, the values
lished by the strength of 6 by 12-in. spread.
cylinders broken in compression after The amount of dispersion of test re-
moist curing for 28 days. Tests of fresh sults is measured best by the standard
concrete and certain aggregate tests such deviation ~, which is the square root of
as moisture content and gradation may the mean of the squared deviations of the
be considered control tests, but these are individual tests from their average. The
essentially check tests performed to symbol ~ generally denotes the standard
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorized
deviations computed from large samples formly and initial adjustments of the
(theoretically when the number of sam- mix have been made, samples of concrete
ples equals infinity) and s denotes the taken each day for each type of concrete
standard deviation of small samples (S), will provide a reliable pattern of uni-
although the difference is negligible when formity. For large jobs, samples taken
the number of tests is o v e r 30. The each shift witl be desirable. Although one
method of computing the standard de- test cylinder from each sample will pro-
viation is as follows: vide reliable information on the over-all
variations of concrete strength over a
/ (xl - 2)~ + (x~ - 2)~ + period of time, companion cylinders
r = ,/ - . . + (X~--2)~..(3) from each sample will provide additional
information on the "within-batch" varia-
tions:
/ ( x , - 2)~ + (x2 + 2)~ + ioo
S ./ 9 .. + (x,- j ? ) 2 . . (4) V1
.Xd2 "
. (6)
]/ (,- 1)
where:
where: V, = within-batch coefficient of varia-
321, X2 ,. 9 9X~ = individual tests, tion,
X = average of all tests, = average range between companion
and specimens,
n = number of tests. X = average strength, and
The standard deviation expressed as a d2 = a constant depending on the num-
percentage of the average strength, X, is ber of companion specimens (4).
called the coefficient of variation, V: (For two companion cylinders
d2 = 1.128; for three companion
100~
v ............... (5) cylinders d2 = 1.693.)
x Within-batch variations are useful
and: since it can be assumed that variations
100s between companion specimens from the
v .............. (Sa) same sample are caused by discrepancies
x
in handling and testing the test cylin-
The value of control tests (taken over ders (2).
a period of time) in evaluating concrete
quality compared to performance tests SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS AND RESEARCH
(one day) is the number of specimens Laboratory or field studies of concrete
involved. Tests each day provide suffi- and concrete materials involving groups
cient data in one month so that, when the of tests to establish the relationship be-
pattern of tests is analyzed and the av- tween variables do not involve a reliable
erage and coefficient of variation are estimate of the average as do acceptance
known, the data can be used as a reliable and performance tests nor do they in-
basis for refining mix proportions, speci- volve uniformity of repeated tests as do
fications, and design criteria (2). control tests. The number of tests re-
The size of the project, types and quired will depend upon how apparent
amount of concrete produced, and the and pronounced the relationship is be-
degree of control desired will dictate the tween the variables.
number of specimens required. M t e r For example, the relation between
concrete operations are progressing uni- concrete strength and cement content
20 TESTS AND PROPERTIES 0~" CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
usually determined in trial mixes for mix apparent relationships between two vari-
proportioning can be estimated with rel- ables based on the number of tests in-
atively few tests, since the correlation volved. If the computed correlation co-
between these variables is very high. If efficient is greater than the corresponding
the correlation is not good, too few tests 1 per cent level of significance, the corre-
may not indicate the trend. lation is said to be highly significant, and
The relationship and correlation be- if the correlation coefficient is greater
tween variables can be established by than the 5 per cent level, the trend is
computing the linear regression which significant. A correlation coefficient be-
represents a "best fit" of a straight line low the 5 per cent level is not considered
to the data (6). If the relationship is obvi- significant. This does not mean there is
ously a curve, methods of computing proof of no correlation between variables,
curvilinear regressions can be found in but it does indicate insufficient data to
most textbooks on statistical methods. establish a trend. It is a warning that
Linear regression is the simplest rela- there is no reasonable assurance that the
tionship between two variables and will sample is not from noncorrelated data (6).
give a good approximation in most cases
SUMMARY
for a limited section of a curve. The
straight-line equation is computed as Tests of concrete and concrete aggre-
follows: gates will generally fall into the following
general classifications: (a) acceptance
~(xr) - n~
Y=~+ (x-2). (7) and performance tests involving the re-
~X 2 n2~
- -
liability of individual tests and a reliable

The correlation coefficient r , which is a estimate of average; (b) construction
measure of the degree of correlation be- control tests based on the uniformity of
tween variables, is equal to: repeated tests; and (c) research con-
ducted to establish relationships between
z(xr) - n2F variables. The majority of aggregate
... (8)
r = %/(y.X 2_ nX2)(ZY 2 _ n Y ~) tests are acceptance and performance
tests. Concrete tests may be adapted to
where: performance, control, or research.
Y = values of the dependent variable, The size and number of samples will
plotted on the ordinate, vary with the size of the job, quantity of
X --- values of the independent variable, concrete, maximum size of aggregate,
plotted on the abscissa, funds and testing facilities available, and
X = mean of X values, and the accuracy desired. Large samples and
= mean of Y values. numerous tests will increase accuracy but
The independent variable is usually may not be practical.
selected--such as cement content, for Statistical methods provide valuable
example--and the dependent or un- assistance in evaluating the strengths
known variable is established by tests and uniformity of concrete but have
such as strength. limited significance in evaluating con-
Table I I indicates the significance of crete aggregates.
REFERENCES
(1) "Concrete Manual," U. S. Bureau of (2) Report of ACI Committee 214, "Evalua-
Reclamation, 6th Ed. (1955). tion of Compression Test Results of Field
Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Nostrand Co., Inc., New York, N. Y. (1953).
November, 1955; Proceedings, Vol. 52, p. (6) George W. Snedecor, "Statistical Meth-
241. ods," Iowa State College Press (1940).
(3) R. W. Crum and H. W. Leavitt, "The (7) R. A. Fisher, "Statistical Methods for
Numbers of Specimens or Tests of Con- Research Workers," Oliver and Boyd,
crete and Concrete Aggregates Required
Edinburgh (1937).
for Reasonable Accuracy of the Average,"
Report on Significance of Tests of Con- (8) R. A. Fisher and F. Yates, "Statistical
crete and Concrete Aggregates, Am. Soc. Tables for Biological, Agricultural and
Testing Mats., p. 163 (1943). (Issued as Medical Research," Oliver and Boyd,
separate publication A S T M S T P No. Edinburgh (1938).
ZZ-A .) (9) Stanton Walker, "Control of Quality of
(4) ASTM Manual on Quality Control of Ma- Ready-Mixed Concrete," Publication 2?0.
terials, Am. Soc. Testing Mats. (1951). 44, Nat. Ready Mixed Concrete Assn.
(Issued as separate publication A S T M (1953).
S T P No. 15-C.) (10) Niels M. Plum, "Quality Control of Con-
(5) C. G. Paradine and B. H. P. Rivett, crete," Proceedings, Part 1, Vol. 2, Inst.
"Statistics for Technologists," D. Van Civil Engrs., p. 311 (1953).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
E V A L U A T I O N OF T E S T RESULTS
B Y HORACE A. PRATT ~
The testing of concrete and concrete measured for the portion from which the
aggregates that has been carried on for sample was drawn.
many years has resulted in the accumula-
tion of a great quantity of data. Workers Types of Data:
in the field of concrete have attempted to
There are two general types of data
develop from this information improved dealing with sets of n observations of a
methods of test and sounder specification single variable (1):3 the first deals with a
limits which would result in better con-
series of n observations representing
stituent materials and, in turn, better single measurements of the same quality
concrete. This paper will attempt to characteristic of n similar things; the
assist in the evaluation of such data by second deals with n observations repre-
pointing out some pertinent factors that senting n measurements of the same
should be kept in mind and by discussing quality characteristic of one thing. D a t a
briefly certain applicable procedures. of the second type are commonly
The ASTM has a large number of gathered to furnish information regard-
standards pertaining to concrete and ing the errors of measurement for a par-
concrete aggregates. Obviously, a de- ticular test method. Most of the data
tailed discussion of data relating to each obtained from tests of concrete and con-
of these tests cannot be made here. In- crete aggregates are data of the first type
stead, it is intended to make some gen- which provide information regarding the
eral comments that will apply to the distribution of the quality of the material
various test methods, then to show one itself.
or two applications to specific test re-
sults. Number of Tests:
A test or a series of tests is made on
samples of concrete or concrete aggre- If only one test measurement is made,
gates to obtain quantitative information there can be little idea of its accuracy,
on certain measurable characteristics of unless data previously obtained from
those samples--for example, the com- similar tests on similar materials are
pressive strength of concrete, the resist- available. If two measurements are made,
ance to abrasion of a coarse aggregate, although the two results will undoubt-
the air content of a mortar, or the sulfate edly differ, there is some indication of the
soundness of an aggregate. The data ob- variation to be expected. If several
tained are evaluated to determine how measurements are made, the average
nearly the test results represent the true provides a better estimate of the true
value of the quality characteristic being
1 Secretary and Engineer, Maine Technology to the list of references appended to this paper,
Experiment Station, Orono, Me. see p. 25.
22
Copyright* 1956 by ASTM International www.astm.org
PRATT ON ]7~VALUATION OF TEST RESULTS 23
value of the characteristic being meas- concrete may be due to such things as:
ured, and the range in results gives a good (1) changes in water-cement ratio result-
idea of the variations to be expected. If ing from poor control of the water con-
still more measurements are made, still tent; (2) lack of uniformity of grading of
more information is obtainable by sta- the aggregates; (3) variations in the
tistical methods, and it is possible to characteristics of the aggregates or the
describe with greater accuracy than be- cement; or (4) variation in temperature
fore the reliability of the average meas- and curing during the mixing and harden-
urement and the probability that the ing period.
true value of the characteristic being Variations due to discrepancies in
measured will be included within ally testing methods may be caused by fac-
specified range above and below the tors such as: (1) inconsistent sampling
mean. procedures; (2) lack of uniformity in
It is evident, therefore, that the methods of making the test specimens;
greater the number of tests made, and (3) changes in curing conditions; (4)
the smaller the variation among results, poor capping and testing procedures; or
the greater will be the accuracy of the (5) faulty testing machines. Obviously,
averagea and the more reliable the con- causes of variation should be kept to a
clusions. minimum in order to produce the most
reliable results.
Variation: From a consideration of these possible
In any set of observations of a single sources of variation in the compressive
variable, there are certain to be differ- strengths of concrete cylinders, it be-
ences among the various measurements comes evident that it would be very un-
(1). This variation is inevitable and must likely that the average of a set of strength
be accepted. It should be kept in mind test results for a certain class of concrete
that all test results have value. If the would represent the true strength of that
differences are significantly large, they concrete. Rather, it is only an approxi-
should be examined critically to deter- mate value. How close it may be to the
mine the causes, which may then, per- true-value may be estimated by means
haps, be eliminated. of statistical procedures.
In addition to random variation, the
results of such tests are generally subject Presentation of Data:
to two main causes of variation (2): (1) The ASTM Manual on Quality Con-
variations in the properties of the ma- trol of Materials (1) describes very well
terial being tested, and (2) discrepancies the method for summarizing and pre-
in the testing methods. Consider, for senting test data to provide the essential
example, some of the possible causes of information. Since this paper will not
variation in the results of one particular attempt to reproduce the instructions
type of test, namely, the test for the com- found in that Manual, the reader is re-
pressive strength of portland-cement con- ferred to it for details of condensing the
crete. information contained in a set of ob-
Variations in the properties of the servations and presenting the essential
a The numbez of specimens or tests required
information in a concise form.
for reasonable accuracy of the average is dis- The Manual recommends that, given
cussed by Cordon, p. 14, this publication. Part a set of observations of a single variable
2 of the ASTM Manual on Quality Control of
Materials deals further with the uncertainty of obtained under essentially the same con-
an observed average. ditions, the average, the standard devia-
24 TESTS AND ~IROPERTIES O:F C O N C R E T E AND AGGREGATES
tion (or the coefficient of variation), and deviation 258 psi, and the coefficient of
the number of observations should be variation, v, 11.0 per cent. According to
presented as a minimum. These pro- the theoretical distribution (1), 68.27 per
cedures would apply to the compressive cent of the test results should fall within
strength of concrete or the abrasion test a range of one standard deviation, ~,
of a coarse aggregate, to the air contents above and below the average, and 95.45
of concrete or the mortar-making proper- per cent should fall within a range of
ties of sand. No matter which test is 2e above and below the average. The
being evaluated, the same principles results shown in Fig. 1 conform quite
hold. The average measurement of the closely to these percentages.
series, the standard deviation, and the The coefficient of variation, v, ex-
i
95.45 per cent
15" I~t 2o" 2o" ~1
6 8 . 2 7 per cent I
"l I
I I
I 9
"~ Io-
,Zoo~
l o
o
o
_N
o \i
I I
I
oo / oo oO o o ek I
E
5" o o o o d\o I
z
/ p o o o o d N. I
/o p o o o o d o~o I
o o o o o o d o "b,.!o
o o o o o o q o o ~
i i i, I I ' i i
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O D 0 0 0 0
~}" u3 ~o ~- 10o ~ 0
oJ oJ cd
Day Compressive Strength, psi
7-
FIo. 1.--Frequency Diagram Showing Distribution of 7-Day Strength Data from 68 Tests Super-
imposed on the Normal Distribution Curve.
number of observations will enable a con- presses the standard deviation of a set of
cise summary of the data to be formed observations as a percentage of the aver-
and an estimate of the true value of the age of the series. By comparing, coeffi-
characteristic being measured to be cients of variation, it is possible to com-
made. pare variations in different series regard-
For all practical purposes, a set of ob- less of the units in which the test results
servations of a single variable pertaining are measured.
to concrete or concrete aggregates can be
Practical Uses:
assumed to fall into some pattern of the
normal frequency distribution curve (5) The evaluation of test results and the
as illustrated in Fig. 1. This diagram determination of the variations in a
shows the frequency distribution of 68 series can be useful in many ways. A
7-day strength tests. The average study of the variations provides a means
strength was 2350 psi, the standard of determining whether those variations
PRATT ON EVALUATION O]? TEST RESULTS 25
are reasonable, in comparison with vari- The application of statistical methods

ations that occur under controlled condi- to the evaluation of data, particularly
tions. with reference to quality control in day-
Controlling the quality of a material to-day production, is becoming more and
under production conditions necessitates more widespread. For example, the U. S.
a comparison of the variations obtained Bureau of Reclamation has, for many
from day to day with the normal varia- years, applied these methods to the
tion established from previous tests. control of concrete used in its huge dams
This comparison provides a means for and has issued annual reports summariz-
determining extraneous results, or ing the data (5).
changes in level, which should be investi- This paper has been concerned with
gated. the evaluation of series of tests such as
In determining whether a material those that might be made in the normal,
conforms to specification requirements,
routine, day-to-day testing of materials
the variation in a series of test results
for a certain project. When laboratory
provides a means for deciding whether
the number of results greater than the tests are made to determine the effects
specified minimum is sufficient for the of several variables, the proper design
entire lot of material to be considered of the experiment can often produce a
acceptable, or whether enough of the test great deal of information with a mini-
values fall below the required minimum mum amount of testing. The subject of
for the material to be rejected. experiment design has many aspects. In
A knowledge of the variation to be order to take full advantage of the possi-
expected in concrete strengths is useful bilities, those who are not very familiar
in determining the level of design so that with the subject might well consider con-
a specified proportion of results will lie sultation with a competent statistician
above a certain minimum value. before starting on a large series of tests.
Before a new test method is adopted
as standard, it is important that ade- CONCLUSION
quate test data be acquired to determine
the reproducibility of results obtainable No matter what degree of control is
by the method. Only in this way can maintained in the production of con-
proper specification limits be established. crete and concrete aggregates, some vari-
As indicated before, any set of obser- ations in the qualities of the materials
vations, to be useful for measuring some will remain and must be accepted. By
quality characteristic, should be made means of an adequate testing program
under essentially the same test conditions and the proper evaluation of the test
on a material or product all of which has results, variations may be held to a mini-
been produced under essentially the same mum and the reliability of the results
conditions. adequately known.
REFERENCES
(1) ASTM Manual on Quality Control of Ma- neerlng Data: Some Observations," 28th
terials, Am. Soc.Testing Mats. (1951). Edgar Marburg Lecture, Proceedings, Am.
(2) "Evaluation of Compression Tests of Field Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 54, p. 603 (1954).
Concrete," Report of ACI Committee 214, (5) "Concrete Manual," U. S. Bureau of Recla-
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., November, mation, 6th Ed. (1955).
1955; Proceedings, Vol. 52, p. 241.
(3) GeorgeW. Snedecor,"Statistical Methods," (6) Truman Lee Kelley, "The Kelley Statistical
Iowa State CollegePress (1940). Tables," The MacMillan Co., New York,
(4) Harold F. Dodge, "Interpretation of Engi- N. Y. (1938).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
N E E D E D RESEARCH
BY A. T. GOLDBECK1
For many years concrete and concrete ice when exposed to weathering similar
aggregates have been the subjects of to that to be encountered. ''3 Other state-
numerous researches covering a wide ments revealing uncertainties in specifi-
variety of topics--researches whose ob- cations are to be found, together with
jectives have been to provide the in- ambiguous language engendered by lack
formation needed to make concrete a of definite knowledge. Thus, it is stated
material of ever greater and ever more that coarse aggregate not having a
certain usefulness. It will be neither demonstrable service record and not
feasible nor desirable to attempt to con- meeting the sodium or magnesium sul-
sider all of the needed research in this fate test may be used if it gives "satis-
field since a mere listing (1, 2)2of the titles factory" results in freezing-and-thawing
of such projects being undertaken in the tests, etc. What is meant by satis-
various laboratories of this country and factory? And what kind of freezing-and-
abroad would cover many pages. How- thawing tests are intended?
ever, a useful purpose might be served Such specification items as these point
by mentioning some of the more im- to a few of the more obvious researches
portant problems, if only in sufficient which should be made, but there are
detail to indicate their nature and their many more, some of which will be cort-
application. sidered in this paper.
One need only read the usual specifi-
cations for aggregates to realize that un- NEEDED RESEARCH IN CONCRETE
certainty exists regarding some of the Durability:
requirements. The following phrases are Freezing-and-Thawing Tests:--Fore-
typical: "shall be reasonably free from most of the properties desired of concrete
flat and elongated pieces"; "Coarse exposed to the weather is high durability
aggregate failing to meet the require- or resistance to freezing and thawing.
ments of Paragraph (a) [referring to the In the laboratory an attempt is made to
sodium and magnesium sulfate sound- determine the durability of concrete by
ness tests] may be accepted, provided means of freezing-and-thawing tests, but
that concrete of comparable properties, different laboratories, because of the
made from similar aggregate from the nature of their equipment, perform the
same source, has given satisfactory serv- test in different ways. The ASTM has
1Engineering Director, National Crushed four tentative test methods for making
Stone Assn., Washington, D. C. this test: C 290, Rapid Freezing and
to the llst of references appended to this paper, Specifications for Concrete Aggregates (C
see p. 34. 33), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
26
www.astm.org
GOLDBECK ON NEEDED RESEARCH 27
Thawing in Water4; C 291, Rapid Freez- freezing in air by preventing evaporation,

ing in Air and Thawing in Water~; for it has become recognized that the
C 292, Slow Freezing and Thawing in degree of pore saturation (4) has a very
Water or BrineS; C 310, Slow Freezing significant influence on the results of a
in Air and Thawing in Water. 7 It is freezing-and-thawing test. 8
quite proper that these four different In some weather-exposed structures,
methods be used, but research is needed freezing may take place in a manner
to determine if they can be correlated differing from that produced by any of
and, if so, how they compare so that the four ASTM methods. For illustra-
proper limits may be used in specification, water may continue to be supplied
tions. by capillarity while the freezing action
Quick cycles of freezing and thawing, is taking place on the surface---so-called
such as freezing and thawing in water, directional freezing--and other varia-
are suspected of imposing harmful and tions in the freezing mechanism likewise
unrealistic thermal shock on the speci- exist. A freezing test is intended to be an
mens. This point should be resolved by accelerated test of the durability of con-
investigation. crete and of aggregates, and any one test
Certain difficulties attend the method may not simulate actual field conditions.
of freezing in water, such as the some- This probably is not important so long
times rapid destruction of the metal as the test simulates, reasonably well, the
container due to the expansion of the freezing effect of the weather. Much
freezing immersion water. Some labora- remains to be done to determine the
tories believe they have overcome this correlation between freezing tests and
difficulty, but others have not. Freezing weather resistance. Wherever possible
concrete in water likewise produces a such a comparison should be made with
rapid surface disintegration possibly due the various types of freezing tests now
to forces set up when the specimen being employed, some of which are not
freezes to the sides of the container. included in the ASTM methods--for
Objection has been raised to rapid instance, directional freezing and freez-
freezing in air on the ground that there ing in a weak alcohol solution2
is evaporation of water from the speci- Percentage of Saturation=--The per-
men which reduces the percentage of centage of saturation of aggregates or of
saturation and thus the effectiveness of concrete used for freezing tests is an im-
the method. If true, perhaps wrapping portant item controlling the effect of
the specimen in aluminum foil (3) will freezing. Obviously if the pores are
increase the disintegrating effect of entirely filled with water and freezing
Method of Test for Resistance of*Concrete takes place, a very great disrupting force
Specimens to Rapid Freezing and Thawing in can result. If the pores are only partially
Water (C 290), 1955 Book of ASTM Stand- filled, there is space for the ice to form or
ards, Part 3.
Method of Test for Resistance of Concrete for the internal water to move, and the
Specimens to Rapid Freezing in Air and Thaw- freezing effect under these conditions is
ingin Water (C 291), 1955 Book of ASTM less severe. Accordingly, the nature of
Standards, Part 3.
6 Method of Test for Resistance of Concrete the treatment of the concrete before
Specimens to Slow Freezing and Thawing i~1 freezing is most important.
Water or Brine (C 292), 1955 Book of A S T M
Standards, Part 3. s For a more detailed discussion refer to the
Method of Test for Resistance of Concrete paper by T. C. Powers, p. 182 of this publi-
Specimens to Slow Freezing in Air and Thaw- cation.
ing in Water (C310), 1955 Book of ASTM 9 Specifications of Iowa State Highway
Standards, Part 3. Dept.
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authori
Effect of Air Entrainment:--Concrete been growing until now even certain

containing entrained air is known to be forms of quartz are suspected of causing
very much more resistant to freezing trouble. The list of aggregates usually
than nonair-entrained concrete. A hy- considered reactive (7) is as follows:
pothesis (see Powers (S) and p. 182 of opaline cherts, chalcedonic cherts, silice-
this Symposium) offers an explanation ous limestones, rhyotites and rhyolite
for this, but more remains to be done to tufts, dacites and dacite tufts, andesite
study the effects of percentage of air, and andesite tufts, phyllites.
size of air voids, their spacing, and their Cements having more than 0.6 per
relationship to one another, as these may cent of sodium and potassium oxide, ex-
influence the freezing resistance of the pressed as sodium oxide, are considered
concrete. Air entrainment may reduce to be particularly troublesome with re-
the strength as well as increase dura- active aggregates, but apparently some
bility, and a choice must be made as to expansion has been encountered in struc-
the optimum percentage of air. tures in which the cement has had a very
Effect of Air Entrainment on Concrete low percentage of sodium oxide. Tests by
Containing Unsound Aggrega~es.--Cer- Hester and Smith (8) and Conrow (9)
rain aggregates are known to produce seem to indicate that calcium hydroxide
unsound concrete when subjected to may play an important part in this
freezing conditions. However, there are phenomenon of chemical reactivity.
indications that air entrainment is Various laboratory tests have been
beneficial for certain aggregates although devised to determine whether an ag-
not for others. This is an important gregate is apt to cause excessive ex-
phenomenon, and definite information pansion in concrete due to chemical
is needed to determine the characteris- reactivity. There is a quick chemical
tics of those unsound aggregates which method for determining potential re-
may behave satisfactorily in concrete activity of aggregates, ASTM Method
containing entrained air and those which C 289, l~ and several different forms of
continue to produce unsound concrete physical tests, including the mortar
despite the presence of entrained air. bar test, n in which a mortar bar speci-
Some unsound sands produce durable men is subjected to 100 per cent humid-
concrete when air entrainment is used. ity continuously; expansion measure-
How universally applicable is this bene- ments are then taken and used as a
ficial effect of air entrainment? Are criterion of reactivity. Other tests in-
unsound aggregates safe when protected clude alternating temperatures under
by air entrainment? the action of a spray of water (10), and
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction~Much re- various.other exposures (9).
search has been carried out on the sub- These various tests do not necessarily
ject of the alkali-aggregate reaction give the same indications, and one can-
phenomenon which appears to have not help wondering what these indica-
been first pointed out by Stanton (6) in tions really mean. Probably they can be
1942. Expansion takes place in concrete used as danger signals more than as
as the result of a reaction between the
cement and certain types of aggregates. 10 M e t h o d of Test for Potential Reactivity
This expansion phenomenon has been of Aggregates (Chemical Method) (C 289), 1955
attributed to the reaction between the Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3.
n Method of Test for Potential Alkali Re-
alkalies in the cement and certain sili- activity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations
ceous aggregates, the list of which has (C 227), 1955 Book of A S T M Standards, Part 3.
absolute proof that a particular ag- permitted only 8 per cent of tricalcium
gregate-cement combination will have aluminate, and these should prove satis-
excessive expansion of concrete in serv- factory. However, the work on this
ice. A great deal of work has been done particular problem should continue, in-
on the chemical reactivity problem, but cluding the use of pozzolanic materials,
surely more is necessary before any for many concrete structures must with-
particular test can be accepted with as- stand the action of sea water.
surance. Thermal Compatibility (14).---In recent
The use of additives in the concrete years much has been written on the
and possibly also in the cement gives question of thermal incompatibility, as it
promise of overcoming the expansion has sometimes been called. The idea has
difficulty due to alkali-aggregate reac- been expressed that, if the thermal
tivity. A number of laboratories are con- characteristics of the mortar differ to any
tinuing investigation of the alkali-ag- great extent from those of the coarse
gregate reaction problem, and certain aggregate, there will be differential
excessive expansion preventives seem to movement during times of change in
have been developed, notably pozzolanic temperature, with a tendency for a re-
(11) material as a replacement for a given lease of bond between the mortar and the
amount of portland cement. A great deal coarse aggregate and, therefore, with the
of progress has been made in the use of possibility of lack of durability. The
these pozzolanic materials, and in some subject has received considerable at-
cases the addition of relatively soft tention, but the test results and the con-
limestone (12) coarse aggregate to reac- clusions drawn therefrom have been
tive sand-gravel aggregates has appeared criticized on the ground that there are
to prevent undue expansion in the con- many individual deviations from the
crete. The explanation of why limestone alleged fact that the mortar and the
additions are beneficial has not as yet coarse aggregate must have approxi-
been forthcoming. By no means is the mately the same thermal properties.
entire problem of alkali-aggregate reac- Perhaps there are other forces acting,
tion solved, and research on this problem such as shrinkage of the mortar due to
gives promise of high reward. drying, which likewise bring about a
Sea Water Exposure.--Research on the differential movement between the mor-
durability of concrete exposed to sea tar and the coarse aggregate. In any
water has been in progress for many event, the need for more research is in-
years. There are definite indications dicated.
that sea water is particularly harmful
to concretes made with cement having a Strength Properties:
high percentage of tricalcium aluminate. What .Principle Governs the Strength of
Cook (13) has pointed out that in con- Air-Entrained Concrete?--The water-
crete specimens immersed in sea water cement ratio-compressive strength re-
at St. Augustine, Fla., most of the fail- lationship as applied to given concrete
ures took place where the cement con- materials has been fairly well estab-
tained more than 12 per cent of tri- lished (15), but now that air entrainment
calcium aluminate. Apparently one of is used, this relationship no longer holds,
the cures for excessive concrete expansion for another variable, percentage of air,
in sea water exposure is the use of ce- has been introduced.
ment having a low percentage of tri- The rule which governs the strength of
calcium aluminate. Type I I cements are concrete containing entrained air, al-
though determined approximately, Plastic Flow and Stress Release Under

should be established with greater cer- Sustained Loads and Variable Con-
tainty. ditions of Moisture:
Eject of Size of Aggregate on the Com- Concrete is not a perfectly elastic
pressive Strength and Beam Strength.--No material. I t flows under sustained
doubt the majority of compressive load--to a very small degree under small
strength determinations of concrete are loads but to a much greater degree as
made with the usual 6 by 12-in. cylinder internal stress is increased. Much work
and, according to the standard method has been done on this phenomenon in
of making the compression test, the the past, generally, however, with the
6-in. cylinder mold is suitable for ag- concrete stored under a more or less con-
gregates having a nominal maximum stant condition of moisture. Flow of con-
size of 2 in. However, there are indica- crete has become increasingly important
tions that strength values which are too with the advent of prestressed or post-
low are obtained when 2-in. or even stressed concrete, because, as flow of the
189 maximum size aggregates are concrete takes place, there is a relaxa-
used in a 6-in. specimen (16). If this is tion of the tensile stress in the steel.
true, then the need is indicated either What is the effect of alternating loads,
for a larger specimen or for a reduction variations in temperature, and varia-
in strength requirements when large ag- tions in moisture on the plastic flow of
gregate concrete is tested in the form of concrete and on the relaxation of stress
6-in. cylinders. In any event, the size of in the reinforcing steel? What must be
specimens required to give a true indica- the strength of the concrete to prevent
tion of the strength of concrete with excessive stress relaxation in the course
different sizes of aggregates should be of time when the concrete is subjected
further investigated. to these variable conditions?
Modulus of Rupture:Modulus of Abrasion Resistance.--Concrete floors
rupture is a measure of beam strength. are subjected to the abrasive action of
In determining this property, reliance traffic. This may consist of a scuffing
should not be placed on the assumption action from pedestrian traffic, or the
that there is a relationship between com- action of steel-tired industrial trucks
pressive strength and modulus of rup- carrying heavy loads. A steel tire pre-
ture, since a constant relationship does not sents little contact area where it rests
exist between them (17). Some investiga- on the concrete surface and hence
tors have found that for a given cement there may be very high intensity of
factor, higher beam strengths are ob- pressure at such areas, crushing of the
tained with a small size coarse aggregate projecting points may take place, and,
than with a large size (18). But, just as indeed, in some cases crushing of the
in the case of compression tests, it may entire surfacing material has occurred.
well be that the restriction to the proper Tests are now under way to develop a
placement of the large aggregate con- satisfactory measure of abrasion re-
crete in the molds is the explanation for sistance, and no doubt these investiga-
this apparent anomaly. To those in- tions will result in the development of a
terested in the scientific aspects of this suitable test for this property of concrete.
matter, here is a very interesting investi- Slipperiness.--The problem of slippery
gation. concrete pavements is a very intriguing
GOLDBECK ON NEEDED RESEARCII 31
one. Traffic on our highways has been method is set up for determining average
moving with increased speed, and the thickness, however, so it is necessary for
rubber now used in tire treads is differ- inspectors to make an estimate as to
ent from that in use some years ago. what the average thickness of any
Stopping distance tests made with auto- particle is, and on such an estimate the
mobiles running at a given speed are product of a producer must stand or fall.
frequently made, and this probably is Clearly the subject needs serious in-
the most popular method of making vestigation including: (1) the setting up
slipperiness tests. In a modification of of a method for measuring conveniently
this test, the rate of deceleration is the shape of the particle; (2) the deter-
measured. One of the oldest forms of mination of the ratios of length to width
slipperiness tests is that employed by and width to thickness that constitute
Moyer in which a trailer is towed whose reasonable limitations for defining elon-
axis is inclined to direction of travel. gated and fiat pieces; (3) the determina-
The force required to keep the trailer tion of the tolerance of poorly shaped
at a given angle with the direction of material that is permissible in aggre-
travel is a measure of skid resistance. gates for use in concrete. For the meas-
These tests (19) have been fairly well urement of shape, ingenious calipers have
developed, and the main problem would been devised, TM one of them so arranged
seem to be that of so constructing the as to measure all three dimensions of
pavement that it will remain in a rela- the particle.
tively nonskid condition. It is im- Particle shape is thought to control
portant that this problem of excessive the workability, strength, and finishing
slipperiness be solved. Fortunately, most characteristics of concrete and, before
concrete pavements are not slippery. the days of air entrainment, the question
of durability was also involved.
NEEDED RESEARCH IN AGGREGATES
Some thought should be given to the
As in the case of concrete, specifica- possible desirability of determining the
tions for aggregates are written in such shape of particles in a sample in terms
a way that they reveal the many un- of the average maximum length of all
certainties which exist in the minds of the pieces, the average maximum width,
specification writers. and the average maximum thickness.
These values may be obtained by ar-
Flat and Elongated Pieces: ranging the particles in a continuous
The problem of shape of particle has train, measuring the over-all length, and
been troubling engineers for many years. dividing by the number of pieces. Simi-
The ASTM now has defined an elongated larly, average maximum width and aver-
piece in terms of the ratio of its length age maximum thickness may be de-
to its width, and a fiat piece in terms of termined.
the ratio of its width to its thickness, Deleterious Materials:
but so far there is no standard way of
making these determinations, nor is There are a number of deleterious ma-
there a specification for flat and elon- terials in aggregates. Lists of such ma-
gated pieces as applied to aggregates for terials have been under compilation by
use in concrete. One very prominent a subcommittee of ASTM Committee
specification has defined fiat and elon- 12 M6todo de Determinacao da Yorma de
gated pieces in terms of the ratio of the Fragmentos de Pedra Britada, Departamento
de Estradas de Rodagem do Estado de Sao
length to the "average" thickness. No Paulo.
32 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O]~ C O N C R E T E AND AGGREGATES
C-9 on Concrete and Concrete Ag- effect of freezing and thawing. The per-
gregates, and no doubt will shortly centage of saturation may well be in-
appear in a forthcoming report. The fluenced by the pore size and also the
effects of many deleterious materials are structure of these pores. The shape and
known, as in the case of porous chert size of pores have much to do with the
having low gravity, but in many other difficulty of saturating a specimen and
cases their effects should be investi- also with the movement of water through
gated in the light of their use in air-en- the pores. The size of pores likewise in-
trained concrete, before reaching any fluences the degree of temperature nec-
conclusion as to what the specification essary to bring about freezing. These
limits should be. matters are not well understood, a n d
basic research is being conducted to
Soundness Tests: show how the pore characteristics of a
Sodium and magnesium sulfate sound- rock structure influence durability. In
ness tests on aggregates have been under this connection the strength of the rock
fire for many years. I t frequently hap- must not be overlooked because the
pens that different laboratories obtain strength of a rock has to do with the re-
widely different results using these tests, sistance offered by the rock against the
due in all probability to some variation destructive forces set up b y the freezing
in the method of conducting them in the cycle.
different laboratories. I t would seem I t frequently has been observed that
highly desirable that research be ac- certain aggregates when used immedi-
tively pursued along other lines, such as ately after production and containing
rapid freezing-and-thawing tests, to de- saturated pores are prone to be much
termine if some more certain method of less resistant to the weather than those
detecting unsound aggregates might be same aggregates after they have been
devised. With the new rapid freezers allowed to lose some of their contained
now in use in a number of laboratories, water, either by evaporation or by free
eight or ten freezing cycles per day may draining. In some structures the con-
be obtained. I t is claimed by one labora- crete never does become fully saturated,
tory that at least three weeks are re- while in others complete saturation is
quired to perform properly the five-cycle the normal condition. Such matters
sodium sulfate test; surely that takes should be considered in setting up freez-
this test out of the realm of rapid de- ing test specification limits.
terminations. In investigating the sound-
Gradation:
ness of aggregates for the purpose of de-
veloping a suitable test, investigations The plant production of aggregate to
should not be conducted on the aggre- a given gradation is largely a matter of
gates alone, but also on the concrete in economics. By separating the aggregate
which the aggregates will be used. into different sizes and recombining these
sizes, almost any desired gradation may
Relationship Between Durability and Pore be produced. But the cost of such meticu-
Size and Pore Volume, Absorption, Per- lous production may not be warranted,
centage of Saturation, and Strength and for most construction work a con-
Characteristics: tinuous, straight-line, gradation curve 1~, 14
I t has already been mentioned that laSimplified Practice Recommendation R
163 - 48, U. S. Dept. of Commerce.
the percentage of saturation of a ma- 14 Specifications for Concrete Aggregates
terial greatly influences the deleterious (C 33), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
with appropriate tolerances seems to structures in which saving in weight is

be suitable. For very large structures desired. The physical characteristics of
such as dams, the possibility of the slight these aggregates affect the strength of
saving in cement per cubic yard which, the concrete, its absorption properties,
over all, may mean a saving of a million and its shrinkage tendencies. Excessive
dollars or more in the cost of the struc- shrinkage of concrete has been reported,
ture, warrants a large amount of re- not only with lightweight aggregates but
search. with other concretes as well. Such shrink-
Similarly, by means of suitable pro- age produces excessive deflection in con-
duction methods, fine aggregates may be crete beams, with resultant cracking in
graded within limits, 14 but care must be walls and other parts of the structure
used to prevent the waste of aggregates supported by these excessively deflected
because, plentiful as aggregates seem to beams. This shrinkage may not be due
be, aggregate supplies are not inexhaust- entirely to the aggregates, but to the
ible. Gradation specification limits on cement as well, and it is a defect which
both fine and coarse aggregates are now might be overcome by research.
well established, and b y slight changes
in proportioning of the concrete, satis- OTHER IMPORTANT PROBLEMS
factory concrete is being obtained within
these limits of gradation. If it is impos- Undoubtedly there are hundreds of
sible to obtain aggregates graded accord- other research problems which are im-
ing to established limits, then certainly portant and which should be undertaken
investigation is indicated to determine by those interested in concrete; and ob-
whether satisfactory concrete may be viously, all cannot be discussed within
made using nonconforming aggregates. practical space limitations of this paper.
For particular purposes, as in pump- However, some of them of greater impor-
crete, for example, constancy of grada- tance are in the following list:
tion becomes highly important as do also
other aggregate characteristics such as L Effect of set-retarding admixtures.
shape of particle. Special studies might 2. Study of pozzolanic materials.
3. Innumerable problems in reinforced
be made for uses such as this. Likewise, and in prestressed concrete.
in the manufacture of certain products 4. Effect of ice-removing salts in the scal-
such as concrete pipes, etc., the study ing of concrete and means for overcoming
of aggregate gradation would seem to be this scaling difficulty.
well worth while. 5. Hardeners for concrete surfaces.
The question of fine material, such as 6. Antiskid materials for concrete sur-
dust, in the fine aggregate could profit faces.
from more research. Reports indicate 7. Fire resistance of concrete as it is af-
that dust, even in the form of dust coat- fected by aggregates, their size, and their
moisture condition.
ings, affects the concrete only to the
8. Measurement of form pressures due to
extent to which it affects the water-ce-
freshly deposited concrete.
ment ratio; but other effects--shrinkage 9. Studies of the possibility of using addi-
properties of the concrete for instance--- tives to render concrete (a) more plastic, and
should also be investigated. (b) more resistant to water penetration un-
der pressure.
Physical Characteristics: 10. Effect of steam curing on strength and
Lightweight aggregates are coming durability of concrete.
rapidly into production and are used for 11. Soniscope tests of structural concrete.
12. Permeability and absorption re- In view of the research needed in the
searches. concrete field, one might get the impres-
13. Electrical curing of concrete. sion that concrete is a very imperfect
material requiring much research to
CONCLUSION make it entirely satisfactory, but such is
not the case. In general, concrete is
This discussion merely skims the sur-
givingexcellent service as a structural
face of needed research in concrete and
material, due to the careful and persis-
concrete aggregates. Perhaps some im-
tent research work performed in past
portant research projects have been
years. But concrete technicians have
omitted, but enough have been men- ever been on the alert to improve their
tioned to demonstrate the fact that the product, if only to the slightest extent.
field of concrete and aggregate research If definite answers can be obtained to
is an enormous one which offers great the many questions typified b y those
possibilities for accomplishment and which have been discussed here, contin-
which will require the services of com- ued improvement in the performance of
petent investigators for many years. concrete will be possible.
REFERENCES 15
(1) Unpublished listing of research projects by (10) C. H. Scholer and G. M. Smith, "A Rapid
Committee ll5--Research, Am. Concrete Accelerated Test for Cement-Aggregate
Inst. (1955). Reaction," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
(2) British Magazine of Concrete Research, Mats., Vol. 54, p. 1165 (1954).
(1955). (11) C. H. Scholer and G. M. Smith, "Use of
(3) J. M. Rice, discussion of paper by Lewis, Chicago Fly Ash in Reducing Cement-
Dolch, and Woods, Proceedings, Am. Soc. Aggregate Reaction," Journal, Am. Con-
Testing Mats., VoL 53, p. 959 (1953). crete Inst., February, 1952; Proceedings,
(4) H. S. Sweet and K. B. Woods, "A Study Vol. 48, p. 457.
of Chert as a Deleterious Constituent in (12) C. H. Scholer and W. E. Gibson, "Effect of
Aggregates," Research Series 86, Purdue Various Coarse Aggregates Upon the Ce-
University, Lafayette, Ind. (1942). ment-Aggregate Reaction," Journal, Am.
(5) T. C. Powers, "Void Spacing as a Basis Concrete Inst., June, 1948; Proceedings,
for Producing Mr-Entrained Concrete," VoI. 44, p. 1009.
Bulletin No. 49, Research Dept., Portland (13) Herbert K. Cook, "Experimental Expo-
Cement Assn. reprinted from Journal, Am. sure of Concrete to Natural Weathering in
Concrete Inst., May, 1954. Marine Locations," Proceedings, Am. Soc.
(6) Thomas E. Stanton, "Expansion of Con- Testing Mats., Vol. 52, p. 1169 (1952).
crete Through Reaction Between Cement
and Aggregate," Proceedings, Am. Soc. (14) Edwin J. Callan, "Thermal Expansion of
Civil Engrs., Vol. 66, p. 1781 (1940). Aggregates and Concrete Durability," Jour-
(7) R. C. Mielenz and L. P. Witte, "Tests nal, Am. Concrete Inst., February, 1952;
Used by the Bureau of Reclamation for Proceedings, Vol. 48, p. 485.
Identifying Reactive Concrete Aggre- (15) D. A. Abrams, "Design of Concrete,"
gates," Proceedings, Am. Soci Testing Bulletin No. 1, Lewis Inst., Chicago, Ill.
Mats., Vol. 48, p. 1071 (1948). (1918).
(8) J. A. Hester and O. F. Smith, "Alkali-Ag- (16) Unpublished tests by National Crushed
gregate Phase of Chemical Reactivity in Stone Assn.
Concrete," Proceedings, 32nd Annual (17) W. F. Kellerman, "Designing Concrete
Meeting of Highway Research Board, Mixtures for Pavements," Proceedings, Am.
Vol. 32, p. 306. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 40, p. 1055 (1940).
(9) A. D. Conrow, "Studies of Abnormal Ex- (18) W. F. Kellerman, "Effect of Size of Speci-
pansion of Portland Cement Concrete," men, Size of Aggregate, and Method of
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. Loading Upon the Uniformity of Flexural
52, p. 1218 (1952). Strength Tests," Public Roads, Vol. XlII,
15The references given here are typical ones. No. 11, January, 1933, p. 177.
Concrete research literature is so extensive that (19) "Roughness and Skid Resistance", BuUekin
Copyright
a complete by bibliography
ASTM Int'l (all isrights reserved); Tue Apr 23 22:24:1137,
impracticable. EDT 2013 Research Board (1951).
Highway
PART II
Tests and Properties of Concrete
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions aut
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Freshly Mixed Concrete
UNIFORMITY, SEGREGATION, AND B L E E D I N G

BY I. L. TYLER1
UNIFORMITY OF CONCRETE that concrete is not always a uniform

product.
Specifications for concrete structures
It is the properties of concrete in the
are intended to insure that properties of
finished structure that are of primary
the hardened concrete shall be suitable
importance. Consequently, tests of fresh
for the proposed service. It is not difficult
concrete are valuable only to the extent
to determine what is required in terms of
that they may be indicative of uniform-
strength, modulus of elasticity, permea- ity in the finished product or that they
bility, and durability of the finished may be useful for control of operations
structure. But it is difficult, if not impos-
during construction. Experience has
sible, to specify and maintain exactly
shown that properties of concrete in
the properties of fresh concrete such as
both its fresh and hardened stages vary
water-cement ratio, cement content,
with changes in proportions of the in-
type and grading of aggregates, and the
gredients used, in particular with the
construction procedures of mixing, han-
relative amounts of fine and coarse ag-
dling, placing, and curing that will result
gregate particles. Placeability, a property
in hardened concrete of the desired prop-
of immediate concern during construc-
erties. The problem is one of establishing
tion and often associated with the final
standards for materials and procedures
properties of concrete, is similarly af-
that will keep deviations in properties
fected by the relative amounts of fine
of the hardened concrete within pre-
and coarse aggregate. From the need for
dictable limits. The difficulty in estab-
information regarding the quantities of
lishing limits for these deviations is due
constituent materials in different parts
to the many variables that are involved
of a batch of concrete or the effects of
in the manufacture of concrete. The
different handling operations on dis-
materials, particularly the aggregates,
tribution of the materials in the structure
have wide ranges in physical and chemi-
itself have come the washdown tests
cal properties and grading. Equipment
proposed by Dunagan (1)~ and others
for mixing, transporting, and placing
(2, 3). They provide useful information
concrete is seldom alike on different proj-
regarding potentialities of the concrete
ects, and construction procedures for
at the time it is made.
carrying out the different operations have
The production of uniform concrete
not been standardized. Small wonder
requires materials of uniform character-
1 Manager, Field Research Section, Portland The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
Cement Assn., Research and Development Lab- to the list of references appended to this paper,
oratories, Skokie, Ill. see p. 41.
37
www.astm.org
istics, accurate batching, and thorough many things that can happen to concrete
mixing. The extent to which these factors to affect its final properties. The time of
deviate from perfection establishes a pat- form stripping and the temperature and
tern of nonuniformity of concrete as dis- humidity of the surrounding air, even
charged from the mixer. After mixing, the size and shape of the structure itself,
every operation involved in the transpor- affect the hydration of the cement and
tation of concrete to the forms affords hence the properties of the concrete.
further opportunity for segregation and Cracking of a structure may result from
loss of uniformity. Filling and emptying unfavorable temperature or moisture
of hoppers, discharging from chutes, belt changes within the concrete.
conveyers, or buckets, and placing of Thus the uniformity of concrete is in-
concrete in the forms by hand methods or fluenced by many factors: the variations
by vibration all tend to cause segrega- arising from nonuniformity of raw ma-
tion. Observance of well-established, terials and the variations brought about
good construction practices will mini- by conditions inherent in present-day
mize segregation but can hardly elimi- construction procedures. It is these
nate it. causes for nonuniformity with which
In general, concrete of intermediate this paper deals. What happens after
consistency, 2 to 4-in. slump, shows less concrete has started to harden, perhaps
segregation by common handling meth- of equal importance, is considered else-
ods than do stiffer or more fluid mixes. where in this publication. So far as the
Air entrainment usually reduces segrega- owner of a structure is concerned, the
tion because the cement paste in air- uniformity of the completed structure is
entrained concrete is stiffer and more of prime importance, and the builder
cohesive than in nonair-entrained con- must consider every step along the way
crete. in order that the completed product may
Segregation is not confined to the meet requirements.
solids in a concrete mix. Mixing water
SIGNIFICANCE OF TESTS FOR
also tends to segregate as the heavier
SEGREGATION
solid particles of aggregate and cement
settle through it. The tendency for settle- Segregation in concrete is commonly
ment is present from the time of mixing thought of as separations of some size
but is seldom noticeable until the con- groups of aggregates from the mortar in
crete reaches its final position in the isolated locations with corresponding
forms. There the settlement can proceed deficiencies of these materials in other
more or less undisturbed until the solid locations. When such concentrations
particles come into contact with each occur, it is obvious that a concrete mix
other or until stiffening of the cement proportioned on the basis of uniform
paste interrupts the process. Accumula- distribution of all particle sizes is no
tion of water at the surface (bleeding) is longer adequate, and redesign of the
the visible evidence of this phenomenon. mixture is necessary in order to provide
At different depths in a concrete lift, the for the least favored regions the desired
effects of bleeding are likely to be dif- properties of workability, strength, im-
ferent, but unless there is remixing, as permeability, etc. This redesign inevi-
with surface finishing or other manipula- tably requires an increase in the mortar
tion, the normal result is a lowering of (and the cement and water), an unfavor-
the initial water-cement ratio. able situation from many standpoints.
After initial hardening, there are still For this reason segregation due to poor
TYLER ON UNIFORMITY, SEGREGATION, AND BLEEDING 39
mixing or improper handling is highly used or a nearly perfect sampling

undesirable and should be kept to a mini- method has been developed. As fineness
mum in all concreting operations. of the products of grinding may be
Most of the causes and many of the comparable to that of cement, the two
results of segregation in concrete are materials cannot be separated physically
dearly visible on the average construc- in the test.
tion project without the aid of elaborate It is generally agreed that one of the
tests. A large proportion of the problems most urgently needed tests for fresh con-
due to segregation could be eliminated crete is one for determining cement con-
by careful attention to details that should tent. In addition to its main purpose of
be obvious to the experienced producer determining cement content only, such a
and user of concrete. test would greatly extend the usefulness
The washdown tests give fairly re- of washdown tests as used for studies of
liable quantitative information on segre- mixer efficiency, grinding of aggregates
gation. Most of these tests are similar to during mixing, and segregation in han-
the test proposed by Dunagan (1), some dling and placing concrete.
being modified to permit more accurate Since the meaning of test results from
estimates of cement content. They re- fresh concrete are so dependent upon the
quire wet screening of aggregates through accuracy of sampling, it is suggested
sieves of selected sizes and removal of that investigators in this field give par-
materials of approximate cement fineness ticular attention to the papers in this
by careful washing through a No. 100 publication dealing with sampling before
sieve. Such tests are useful in studying they undertake any major program of
the performance of concrete mixers, tests for uniformity or grinding during
mainly because they show with consider- mixing. Since the tests are difficult to
able reliability the distribution of coarse make, requiring tedious and painstaking
aggregate in different portions of the procedures and, above all, almost perfect
mixer discharge. They are less useful in sampling, they are seldom justified,
showing variations in cement content and except in research projects or in large
water-cement ratio. If segregation data construction operations where the in-
and strength-test data are used together, formation gained from them can be used
useful and reliable information may be to advantage in improving the concrete
obtained. construction or in reducing costs.
Attempts to study grinding of aggre-
gates during the mixing operation by SIGNIFICANCE OF TESTS FOR BLEEDING
means of washdown tests have been suc- Bleeding is a kind of segregation--
cessful to some degree. However, sam- the mixing water moves upward due to
pling errors, troublesome enough when settlement of aggregate and cement par-
only the coarse aggregate-mortar rela- ticles. Whether or not bleeding is desir-
tion is under study, become of major able depends upon the type of construc-
importance when these tests are extended tion and the atmospheric conditions at
to studies of cement content and grinding the bleeding surface. Bleeding is con-
of aggregates during mixing. The quanti- trolled mostly by physical and chemical
ties sought are relatively small and must properties of the cement though physical
be determined by differences between properties of the aggregates may have
larger quantities. Sampling errors are appreciable effects, particularly the size
likely to be larger than the quantities fraction finer than No. I00 sieve. Tem-
sought unless very large samples are perature of the concrete affects chemical
40 TESTS AND I)ROPERTIES 012 C O N C R E T E AND AGGREGATES
reactions in the cement and viscosity water--there should be no increase of

of the water and thus the bleeding. Air water-cement ratio by the bleeding
entrainment generally reduces bleed- process.
ing. Atmospheric conditions may have From this viewpoint alone, bleeding
marked effects, particularly if the rate would seem beneficial. In fact, bleeding
of evaporation from the bleeding surface in some amount is almost necessary for
exceeds the normal bleeding rate, re- the successful finishing of some types of
sulting in some cases in unsightly "plastic horizontal surfaces except under unusual
shrinkage cracking" on surfaces exposed atmospheric conditions. However, there
to these conditions. is often a remixing of the bleeding water
Two phases of the bleeding phenome- resulting in the weakened "fill planes"
non, not necessarily closely related, are so common to construction using over-
of interest to users of concrete: (1) the wet mixes or in poorly finished surfaces
bleeding rate and (2) the bleeding ca- of excessively high water-cement ratio.
pacity. The bleeding rate is measured by For concrete which must withstand
the initial rate at which water accumu- water pressure, another effect of bleeding
lates at the concrete surface (no evapo- should be considered--its effect on per-
ration) or by the initial rate of subsidence meability. It has been shown that the
of the concrete surface. Bleeding ca- bleeding process produces weakened
pacity is measured by the total amount areas on the underside of aggregate
of water appearing at the surface or by particles. For large particles, these
the total subsidence of the surface. Both weakened areas may become fine visible
are affected by temperature of the con- openings extending in a generally hori-
crete. zontal direction adjacent to the under
Were it not for stiffening of the surface of the particle. They are un-
cement paste, sedimentation (and bleed- doubtedly present to some degree under
ing) would continue until contact be- small aggregate particles as well, prob-
tween solid particles completed the proc- ably as thin regions of high water-
ess with slightly more intimate contact cement ratio paste. Oriented as they are
between particles at the bottom of a lift in a generally horizontal direction, the
than at the top and with an accumulation normal direction of flow of percolating
of water at the surface. This could ac- water in a hydraulic structure, these
tually be the case with thin layers of regions probably account, at least in
concrete such as pavements. In deeper part, for differences that have been
lifts of concrete, the sedimentation proc- found between the permeability of ce-
ess does not usually go to completion ment paste and that of concrete.
because stiffening of the paste interferes. Tests such as ASTM Tentative
Under these conditions, sedimentation Method of Test for Bleeding of Concrete
with resulting compaction and loss of (C 232) t are helpful in studying bleeding
water may be completed in the bottom of concrete. This method describes a
portion of a lift of concrete while at the means for measuring bleeding capacity.
top the aggregate and cement particles For the measurement of bleeding rate,
may still be separated by about the same a more elaborate method of test is re-
distances that prevailed before bleeding quired (4).
started. If bleeding is undisturbed--that
is, if there is no remixing of the surface 3 1955 Book of A S T M S t a nda rds , P a r t 3.
TYLER ON UNIFORMITY, SEGREGATION, AND BLEEDING 4i
REFERENCES
(I) W. M. Dunagan, "A Study of the Analysis of Inst., September, 1942; Proceedings Vol. 39,
Fresh Concrete," _Proceedings, Am. Soc. p. 9.
Testing Mats., Vol. 31, Part 1, p. 362. (4) T. C. Powers, "The Bleeding of Portland
(2) O. G. Patch, "Mixer Efficiency or Mortar- Cement Paste, Mortar, and Concrete,"
Mix Tests," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1939;
Proceedings Vol. 35, p. 465.
January, 1939; Proceedings Vol. 35, p. 173. (5) W. G. Hime and R. A. Willis, "A Method for
(3) W. R. Waugh, "Effect of Grinding in the the Determination of the Cement Content
Large Mixers on Aggregate Grading at of Plastic Concrete," ASTM BULLETnq,No.
Hiwassee Dam," Journal, Am. Concrete 209, October, 1955, p. 37(TP191).
STP 169-EB/Jan. 1956
DENSENESS AND UNIT WEIGHT

BY M. A. SWAYZE1
The terms "denseness" or degree of field measures, it is suggested that a

compaction and "unit weight" in this range of unit weights for water corrected
paper are confined to freshly mixed con- for temperature be employed. Table I
crete in which reaction of cement and gives these corrections.
water has not begun or is insignificant in To compensate for thermal expansion
amount. Denseness of concrete may be in the measure itself, water of tempera-
defined as the ratio of solid volume to ture close to that of the concrete should
total volume of a given mass, or the per- be used for calibrating. In the calibra-
centage of a certain volume of concrete tion, the use of a plane glass plate laid
that is solid material. Unit weight is the
rodded weight in pounds per cubic foot TABLE I.--EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
ON UNIT WEIGHT OF DISTILLED
of a representative concrete sample, un- WATER.
less otherwise specified.
Temperature, Water, lb Correction
Consideration of these definitions deg Fahr per c u f t Factor
makes it evident that the two terms in
some respects are concerned with com- 39.2 ............ 62.43 1.00000
50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.41 0.99973
mon properties; in others variations in 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.37 0.99905
properties of the concrete components 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.355 0.99886
may affect the values in opposite direc- 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.30 0.99800
80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.21 0.99663
tions. For example, in a batch of concrete 90, 62.11 0.99499
in which the liquid and solid components 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.99 0.99293
have been proportioned by weight, an
increase in air content will decrease both
on top of the measure is of material
denseness and unit weight. Both dense-
assistance in bringing the water level
ness and unit weight of concrete are in-
flush with the top of the measure, pro-
creased by increasing the degree of com-
vided the top edge is true.
paction, which decreases the trapped air No ASTM method exists for calcula-
voids. tion of denseness, Mthough recent devel-
Determination of unit weight is a rela-
opments in concrete technology would
tively simple matter, either in laboratory
seem to warrant consideration of such a
or field tests and is well covered in ASTM
step. The use of cements or concretes
Method of Test C 1387 Since water at
containing admixtures that increase the
62 F is rarely available in calibrating
air content of concrete makes a standard
method for calculation of density ad-
i Director of Research, Lone Star Cement
Corp., New York, N. Y.
visable.
2 M e t h o d of T e s t for W e i g h t p e r C u b i c F o o t , The effect of these admixtures is not
Yield, a n d A i r C o n t e n t ( G r a v i m e t r i e ) of C o n - constant but varies with changes in ce-
c r e t e (C 138), 1955 B o o k of A S T M S t a n d a r d s ,
P a r t 3.
ment content, water-cement ratio, and
42
Copyright
9 by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 23 22:24:11 EDT 2013
Copyrigh~ 1956 by ASTM Intemational www.astm.org
SWAYZE ON DENSENESS AND UNIT WEIGHT 43
consistency of concrete. An example of considered as impermeable material and

these variations is given in Table II. the apparent volume calculated from its
The two cements used were identical ex- specific gravity as determined in ASTM
cept that one contained an air-entraining Method C 188. 3 The results so obtained
addition. Proportions of dry materials will be slightly high, due to the insolu-
were by weight and were constant for bility of unhydrated cement in kerosine
each mix. Water was varied to produce and its slight solubility in water. How-
the desired slump. The data are averages ever, in the face of other unavoidable
of three determinations in each case. variations, this error is negligible.
These data show that the air-entrain- The apparent absolute volume of
ing addition increases air content least cement at 39.2 F is:
in the richer and drier mixes. I t should W
rc =
also be noted that the air acts as a sub- Gr )< 62.43 >~ Ft
TABLE II.--EFFECT OF AIR ENTRAINMENT ON CONCRETE DENSENESS.
Mix, sacks per cu yd Water, c u f t per yd Air, cu ft per yd Denseness, per cent
Air- Air- Air- Normal Air-

Normal Entraining Normal Entraining Normal Entraining Entraining
Calculated Mix Cement Cement Cement Cement Cement Cement Cement Cement
2-II~. SLUMP CO~Cl~ET~
3.5 ............... 3.46 3.32 4.49 3.62 1.00 2.72 79.6 76.5
4.25 .............. 4.24 4.10 4.30 3.51 0.84 2.48 81.0 77.8
5.0 ............... 5.02 4.81 4.06 3.62 0.84 2.24 81.9 78.3
6.0 ............... 6.01 5.76 4.06 3.82 0.62 1.78 82.6 79.3
7.5 ............... 7.54 7.11 4.25 4.14 0.49 1.38 82.5 79.6
6-IIV. SLIIMI' COI~CRETE
3.5 ................ 3.42 3.23 4.87 3.74 0.92 3.21 78.5 74.3
4.25 ............... 4.21 3.90 4.65 3.65 0.78 3.10 79.9 75.0
5.0 ................ 4.94 4.65 4.51 3.70 0.76 2.86 80.5 75.7
6.0 ................ 5.94 5.54 4.29 3.86 0.62 2.56 81.8 76.2
7.5 ................ 7.40 6.95 4.56 4.35 0.54 2.16 81.1' 75.9
stitute for water, although somewhat where:

inefficiently, as density of the concrete is V~ = apparent absolute volume of ce-
decreased. ment in cubic feet,
W = weight of cement in pounds,
A P P A R E N T A B S O L U T E V O L U M E OF Gr -- specific gravity of cement (Method
CONCRETE MATERIALS of Test C 188), 3 and
Ft = water-temperature factor.
The term "apparent absolute volume" As pointed out in remarks covering cali-
may need definition, volume usually be- bration of field measures, the tempera-
ing considered without qualification. ture factor for unit weight of water
Apparent absolute volume of a permeable should be employed to relate concrete
material is the volume of the imperme- temperature to cement volume.
able portion, including impermeable
3 M e t h o d of T e s t for Specific G r a v i t y of H y -
pores or voids. For purposes of calcula-
d r a u l i c C e m e n t (C 188), 1955 B o o k of A S T M
tion, portland-cement grains may be S t a n d a r d s , P a r t 3.
44 TESTS A N D PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E A N D A G G R E G A T E S
Determination of apparent absolute cluding the amount required to fill per-

volumes of aggregates requires some brief meable voids in the aggregate. The per-
consideration of subjects discussed by centage of water available in any
other authors in this publication. aggregate will be:
The moisture content of any aggregate
(c - A)
is a relative quantity, ranging from the M X 100
c
oven-dry state to one in which free
moisture is present. Intermediate stages, where:
such as the "room-dry" and "saturated M = percentage of water in aggregate,
surface-dry" conditions, are dependent C = weight of aggregate sample as
on temperature, relative humidity, or used, and
judgment of the tester. Since the oven- A = weight of oven-dried aggregate
dry state is the most uniform condition, sample.
its selection as the basis for calculations The volume occupied by water in a
seems preferable. The calculations for batch of concrete is then as follows:
aggregate volume which follow are ac-
cordingly on that basis. The use of W, X M ~ + WcA X Mca
WMW +
"bulk" specific gravity involves deter- 100 100
Vw =
mination of moisture in the saturated 62.43 X Ft
surface-dry condition, which is fre- where:
quently difficult in field laboratory WM~r = weight of mixing water,
operations. W8 = weight of sand,
The apparent absolute volume of an Wc~ = weight of coarse aggregate,
aggregate may be determined by means M8 = percentage of water in sand,
of the following formula: and
C(100 -- ~o total water) Mea = percentage of water in coarse
V~= aggregate.
100 X G~ X 62.43 XF,
The weights of aggregates are in the as-
where: used condition.
Va -- apparent absolute volume of ag-
gregate in cubic feet, TOTAL VOLUME AND AIR CONTENT
C = weight of aggregate as used, and OF C O N C R E T E
Ga --- apparent specific gravity (ASTM A S T M Method C 1382 provides for
Methods C 1274 and C 1285). the determination of total volume of a
The total apparent volume of solids in concrete batch. This is obtained by di-
a mass of concrete then becomes: viding the total weight of the batch, with
Vtot~t = Vc + V~(sand)
aggregates in the as-used condition, by
the unit weight of the mixed concrete.
+ V~(coarseaggregate) In field work the compaction of the unit
weight sample should approximate that
VOLUME 01~ WATER IN CONCRETE
of the concrete being placed. Therefore,
The volume of water in concrete con- instructions in both Methods C 138 and
sidered in these calculations is the total C 29 ~ for compaction should not be taken
quantity present from all sources, in: too literally. The tester should strive
4 Method of Test for Specific Gravity and instead to reach the same degree of com-
Absorption of Coarse Aggregate (C 127), 1955 paction as in the actual work by a corn-
Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
5 Method of Test for Specific Gravity and 6 Method of Test for Unit Weight of Aggre-
Absorption of Fine Aggregate (C 128), 1955 gate (C 29), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards,
Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. Part 3.
SWAYZE ON DENSENESS AND UNIT WEIGHT 45
bination of rodding, jigging, or even of concrete---denseness, strength, per-

vibration. meability, and resistance to frost action
The air content of concrete may be P h a s been so thoroughly studied as to
calculated according to Method C 138 need no comment here. Likewise it seems
or determined directly on representative unnecessary to point out that for a given
samples of concrete by either Method C cement content and concrete consistency
1737 or Method C 231. s The lattermethod the proportions of fine and coarse ag-
is preferred for normal aggregates but is gregates which yield the greatest degree
not applicable to concrete containing of compaction for the conditions of place-
lightweight aggregates, since much of the ment will generally yield the best results
air in the interior of these materials in the hardened product.
registers as entrained air in the paste. The effects of the entrained air content
Method C 173 is adequate for concrete in fresh concrete on the physical proper-
with porous aggregates except when ties of both the fresh and hardened con-
water-repellant organic materials are crete are very pronounced when they
present in the batch. The air cells result- are compared With the minute amounts
ing from these additions are very difficult of air-entraining agents required to pro-
to dislodge from the cement and aggre- duce them. The properties affected, in
gate grains. addition to the denseness and unit weight
of concrete, are plasticity, tendency to
DETEI~mNATION OF CONCl~E~E segregate, and bleeding of fresh concrete,
DENSENESS and, for hardened concrete, strength,
Denseness may be calculated either permeability, and resistance to scaling
from the sum of apparent absolute vol- from the action of frost or additions of
umes of the solid components or from salts for removal of ice.
the difference between total volume and Increased plasticity and decreased
the sum of air content and total water tendencies to segregate and to bleed can
volume. The formulas, respectively, are: be attained with considerably less en-
trained air in concrete than is required
Denseness, per cent
to protect against scaling. The quantity
100(V. + V~(sand) of air-entraining agent for such purposes
+ V~(coarse aggregate)) need be only one third to one fourth of
total volume of batch that required to control scaling.
The strengths of concretes with minor
or quantities of air are frequently equal to
Denseness, per cent or better than those in identical mixes to
which no air-entraining agent has been
100(V,ot~t- Vw- Vair) added. This is especially true of the
Wtotal leaner mixes, where air lowers the water-
cement ratio to a greater extent.
SIGNIFICANCE OF DATA
Where the full complement of en-
In the design of concrete mixes, the trained air is needed for scale protection,
effect of water content on the properties the result can be obtained either by use
7 Method of Test for Air Content (Volu- of air-entraining cement or additions of
metric) of Freshly Mixed Concrete (C 173), appropriate amounts of air-entraining
1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. admixtures to the mixer. For such con-
s Method of Test for Air Content of Freshly
Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method crete, the proportions of fine to coarse
(C 231), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. aggregate normal for plain concrete
46 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O F CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
should be lowered; otherwise oversanded crete for durability vary with maximum
mixes will be obtained. In general, the size and proportion of coarse aggregate.
increase in air content from plain to air- Therefore, specifications for air content
entrained concrete should be accom- of concrete based on percentages of the
panied by an equal decrease in absolute whole batch may provide inadequate
volume of sand. With such an adjust- amounts of air in cases of small maxi-
ment of mix proportions, losses in mum sizes and excessive amounts when
strength of concrete due to the presence larger size coarse aggregates are used.
of air are minimized. In the range of the If the limits for air content were set on
leaner mixes, strengths may even ex- the mortar portion of concretes, a more
ceed that of similar plain concrete, due to equable condition would be set up. In
lowering of the water requirement by the general, 9 to 11 per cent of air in the
decreased sand content and also to the mortar portion of any concrete will pro-
effect of entrained air. vide the optimum air content for frost or
The optimum quantities of air in con- scaling resistance.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
WORKABILITY AND PLASTICITY

BY FRED HUBBARDt
Probably no other characteristics of It goes without saying that proper

freshly mixed concrete are given as much workability and plasticity of freshly
consideration as workability and plas- mixed concrete are fundamental requi-
ticity. Concrete having poor workability sites for good quality.
is subject to criticism, not only by the
workmen who have to place and finish it, FACTORS AFFECTING WORKABILITY AND
but also by those who are responsible for PLASTICITY
the finished structure in which the con- Some of the factors that affect the
crete is being used. workability of concrete are quantity of
The terms "workability" and "plas- cement (or sand-cement ratio), charac-
ticity" are not truly synonomous. It is teristics of the cement, consistency (or
of course imperative that concrete have a degree of wetness of the concrete as af-
certain degree of plasticity in order to be fected by the amount of water used),
workable. Yet, under certain unusual grading of fine aggregate, shape of sand
conditions the concrete may be very grains, grading of coarse aggregate, shape
plastic, or jelly-like, and still not be of coarse aggregate pieces, mix composi-
workable or easily placed in forms or tion (or the proportion of fine to coarse
finished when placed in a floor slab or aggregate), the amount of air entrained
pavement surface. The terms "work- in the concrete, and the amount and
ability" and "plasticity" are closely re- characteristics of admixture used.
lated, however, and for the purpose of
this discussion, they will be used more or Quantity of Cement:
less synonomously. It is a well known and established fact
Workability is a term used every day, that, other things being equal, the ce-
yet one that is very difficult to define. ment content of concrete affects its work-
Powers (1)5 defines workability and plas- ability and plasticity, the richer mixes
ticity as follows: being the more workable. Very lean mixes
"Workability is that property of the plas- tend to produce harsh, poor-working
ic concrete mixture which determines the concrete, due undoubtedly to lack of
,ase with which it can be placed and the material of cement fineness. The work-
egree to which it resists segregation. ability of low-cement concrete mixtures
"Plasticity is that property of a material can be greatly improved by air entrain-
y virtue of which it may undergo the proc- ment or the use of finely divided mineral
~s of molding without losing its continu- admixtures, such as a very fine sand.
g--without rupture."
Characteristics of Cement:
1 Director of Research, National Slag Assn.,
mngstown, Ohio. The characteristics of the cement, such
the list of references appended to this paper,
as the fineness of grinding, the shape of
p.. 52. particles, and the kinds of materials of
47
www.astm.org
which it is composed, have an influence Grading of Fine Aggregate:

on the plasticity and workability of the
The characteristics of the sand affect
resulting concrete (2).
the workability of concrete to a much
greater degree than do those of coarse
Consistency: aggregate. Properly graded sand is of
The amount of water used, or degree great importance in producing a work-
of wetness of the concrete, affects its able mixture; the amount of material
plasticity and workability. This does not passing the Nos. 50 and 100 sieves hav-
necessarily mean that the wetter the mix ing a marked influence. The uniform
the more workable it is; in fact, just the grading of sand from fine to coarse is an
opposite may be the case. Too much important factor, since an excess of any
water in concrete causes segregation of one size fraction may destroy workabil-
the coarse aggregate and mortar and ity. The trend in sand specification writ-
makes concrete difficult to place in forms ing to provide reasonable limitations on
and to finish. In other words, it loses its the amount permitted between any two
workability. consecutive sieves is commendable. The
On the other hand, concrete can be necessity for a generous amount of fines
mixed so dry that it is very difficult to in the sand is not nearly so important if
place. Concrete having a medium con- air entrainment is used; in the latter case
sistency--say, from 2 to 4-in. slumFw-is the small spheres of air introduced tend
usually the most workable under average to promote workability.
placing conditions.
There is a difference between work- Shape of Fine AggregateGrains:
ability and consistency. Consistency, as It is a well established fact that the
applied to concrete, usually refers to the shape of sand grains has a marked effect
degree of wetness, whereas workability on the workability and plasticity of
refers to mobility, or the ease with which mortar and concrete. Natural sand made
the concrete can be moved and placed in up of rounded grains produces much
forms without segregation. A compara- more workable concrete than does
tively dry mix (less than 2-in. slump) crushed sand made up of sharply angular
might be sufficiently workable if placed and sometimes flat or elongated pieces.
in concrete pavement with a power One of the major problems in the produc-
finishing machine or in mass concrete for tion of crushed sand is to secure a ma-
large structures, but the same concrete terial that is well shaped and free from
might be termed unworkable if placed in fiat or elongated pieces. Sand with poorly
highly reinforced, thin sections. If the shaped grains usually has a high per-
mixture is fundamentally workable or centage of voids, and when used as con-
plastic, it can be made satisfactory for crete aggregate it not only results in
either condition by varying slightly the poor workability but also may cause ex-
amount of water used, thus affecting the cessive bleeding, or water gain, in the
consistency. This statement is, of course, concrete.
contingent upon the size of the aggregate
being suitable for placing in thin sec- Grading of Coarse Aggregate:
tions. If a concrete mixture is funda-
mentally workable and plastic, a com- The grading of coarse aggregate also
paratively dry mix can be satisfactorily has a definite effect on the workability of
placed under normal conditions (3). the resulting concrete. Here again, the
H U B B A R D ON WORKABILITY AND PLASTICITY 49
grading should be uniform from fine to or angular. However, spherical shape of

coarse, free from an excessive amount of coarse aggregate pieces tends to promote
any one size fraction. Recommendation workability in concrete, although angu-
163 of the Division of Simplified Practice lar or crushed coarse aggregate, well
of the National Bt~reau of Standards graded and combined with the proper
proposes gradings for coarse aggregate amount of fine aggregate, produces con-
which have been found very satisfactory. ~ crete that is entirely satisfactory from
So-called "gap" gradings, or gradings in the standpoint of workability and plas-
which one or more of the intermediate ticity. Thin, flat, and elongated pieces in
size fractions is largely eliminated; have coarse aggregate are objectionable for
sometimes been recommended as desir- they interfere with the ready inter-
able, although their advantage has not mingling of the coarse aggregate pieces
been conclusively demonstrated. The with the mortar.
production of aggregate having a gap
grading is not usually practical in com- Size of Coarse Aggregate:
mercial processing plants, and the use of In order to produce concrete that is
such gradings is not common. placeable under the many varying condi-
I t may, however, be desirable to have tions in which it will be used, it is neces-
a slight gap in the grading between fine sary to select coarse aggregate of such
and coarse aggregate, since this may pro- maximum size as to be practical for the
mote workability in the concrete. As in specific placing conditions under con-
the case of the fine and coarse aggregates, sideration. For instance, a 3-in. maxi-
there should not be an excessive amount mum size coarse aggregate would not
of material between any two consecutive produce concrete that would be work-
sieves in the combined aggregates as used able or placeable in a satisfactory manner
in the concrete. An excessive amount in in an 8-in. reinforced concrete wall, yet
the ~ in. to No. 4 sieve size might result the same aggregate might be entirely
if the coarse aggregate contained up to satisfactory and produce workable plas-
the maximum amount permitted by tic concrete for placing in a heavy mass
specifications to pass the ~ in. sieve and foundation of considerable size. Thus, the
were combined with a sand having the maximum size of coarse aggregate af-
maximum permitted to be retained on fects the workability or placeability of
the No. 4 sieve. Such a condition as this concrete in relation to any specific con-
would tend to produce an excessive struction condition.
amount of ~ in. to No. 4 size in the mix-
ture, causing particle interference that Mix Proportions:
would result in poor workability. Probably the most usual cause of poor
workability in concrete is improper pro-
Shape of Coarse Aggregate Pieces: portioning. In any concrete mixture there
The shape of the pieces of coarse ag- should be adequate mortar consisting of
gregate has an effect like that of fine cement, fine aggregate, water, and air to
aggregate on the workability of the con- fill the voids in the coarse aggregate, plus
crete, although workability is affected a sufficient amount to allow the pieces of
much more by the condition of the mor- coarse aggregate to move in the mortar
tar than by the shape of the coarse ag- without undue resistance and permit the
gregate pieces, whether they are rounded mass to be placed readily in forms, around
8 Coarse Aggregates: Simplified Practice Rec- reinforcement, or in floor or pavement
ommendation R 163, U. S. Dept. of Commerce. slabs. Rounded aggregate of a given
grading contains less void space than does use of admixtures should not be frowned
crushed aggregate of the same grading. upon nor scorned. On the contrary, their
Therefore, to promote workability, more development and study should be com-
mortar is required in crushed aggregate mended and fostered."
concrete than in concrete containing The following discussion deals primar-
rounded aggregate. ily with only those admixtures which
This requires the use of more sand per have a marked effect on the workability
unit volume of concrete with crushed and plasticity of resulting concrete.
aggregate mixtures than with rounded
material, the quantity of cement and Air Entrainment (6, 7):
coarse aggregate by dry compact volume Air entrainment was originally con-
remaining constant. The effect of mix sidered because of its beneficial effect on
proportions on workability is readily the durability of concrete, especially
indicated by observing the difference be- when exposed to severe weathering con-
tween the smoothness or ease of manipu- ditions. The effect of air entrainment on
lation of an oversanded mixture com- the workability of concrete is so pro-
pared with one that is undersanded. The nounced that it logically should be con-
correctly proportioned concrete mixture sidered in any discussion of workability
is one with the least amount of sand reagents. Probably the greatest boon to
quired to produce a workable and readily satisfactory workability of concrete in
placeable concrete under the conditions recent years has been the advent of air
in which it is being used. Undersanding entrainment, whether obtained by the
results in harsh mixtures, causing segre- use of air-entraining cement or an air-
gation and honeycombing in the struc- entraining admixture.
ture, and is much more harmful to the Air entrainment alters the properties of
concrete than oversanding. Present-day both plastic and hardened concrete due
trends are to design concrete mix propor- to the incorporation of minute air bub-
tions on the basis of a given volume of bles in the cement paste. I t tends to pre-
dry, rodded, coarse aggregate (crushed vent segregation during the handling and
or uncrushed) per unit volume of con- placing of concrete and also to prevent
crete; this tends to produce properly pro- bleeding or water gain, thus promoting
portioned concrete having uniform ce- uniformity and durability.
ment content and workability as well as The benefits in workability derived
uniformity in other desirable characteris- from air entrainment are much more pro-
tics, such as strength and durability when nounced in the leaner mixes, or in mixes
exposed to weathering action. with a tendency to be harsh and unwork-
able. There has been in some localized
ADMIXTURES areas objection to the use of air-entrained
The use of admixtures in portland ce- concrete for floors that are to be finished
ment concrete to promote workability by means of steel trowels to a very dense,
and otherwise change some of the char- smooth surface. This objection has been
acteristics of the concrete was not looked directed to the actual troweling opera-
upon with favor in the past, especially tion and not to the workability of the
b y cement manufacturers. However, in concrete as the term is usually applied.
recent years the use of admixtures under
Cementitious Materials:
certain specific conditions has been quite
generally accepted (4). With reference to Natural cements, hydrated lime, and
admixtures P. H. Bates (5) states: "The slag cement (mixtures of blast furnace
HUBBARD ON WORKABILITY AND PLASTICITY 51
slag and lime) are included in the cate- Powers Remolding Test (1, 13):
gory of cementitious materials. The use This test method is designed to meas-
of these admixtures in concrete generally ure "the relative effort required to
improves the workability, decreases change a mass of concrete from one
bleeding and segregation, and lowers the definite shape to another by means of
heat of hydration. The improvement in jigging." This method has not found
workability is much more pronounced widespread use and has not been formal-
in the leaner concrete, as is the case with ized into a standard procedure.
other admixtures (8).
Flow Test:
Pozzolanic Materials:
The ASTM Method of Test of Flow of
A pozzolanic material is defined in Portland Cement Concrete by Use of the
ASTM Specification C 129 ~- as "A sili- Flow Table (C 124) 8 has been used quite
ceous or siliceous and aluminous material extensively, especially in the laboratory
which in itself possesses little or no ce- for the control of consistency (14).
mentitious value but will, in finely di-
vided form and in the presence of mois- Slump Test:
ture, chemically react with calcium
hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to The ASTM Method of Test for Slump
form compounds possessing cementitious of Portland Cement Concrete (C 143) 4
properties." In this category are included was the first method to meet with general
such materials as fly ash, volcanic ash, application as a means of measuring the
heat-treated diatomaceous earth, and consistency of concrete. This test un-
heat-treated or raw shales and clays. The doubtedly is used to a greater extent than
use of pozzolanic materials improves any other method in both laboratory and
workability, especially in concrete orig- field for determining the consistency or
inally deficient in fines. degree of wetness of freshly mixed con-
crete. The determination of slump is a
METHODS OF MEASURING simple operation, requiring only easily
WORKABILITY (O, 10, 11) handled equipment, and lends itself
Various methods for measuring the readily to field use. Although the flow
workability of concrete have been sug- and slump tests may, in a way, measure
gested, none of which have been found some differences in workability, two con-
entirely satisfactory (12). Powers and crete mixtures may have the same flow
Wiler state: "The term workability is or slump and yet be entirely different
qualitative only. I t represents a quality from the standpoint of workability. Nei-
that cannot be measured in the funda- ther method could be accepted as a suit-
mental units of mass, length, and time. able measure of the quality of workabil-
ity (14, 1S).
Therefore it has no universally recognized
meaning. It is intrinsically vague" (13).
Ball Penetration Test:
The following methods which have been
proposed--and some of them standard- The ASTlVl Method of Test for BaH
ized--for measuring characteristics of Penetration in Fresh Portland Cement
freshly mixed concrete relate, at least to Concrete (C 360) 4 determines the con-
a certain degree, to that elusive charac- sistency of freshly mixed concrete.
teristic, workability. This method measures some properties of
concrete similar to slump but is not a
4 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. true measure of workability. Roughly,
twice the penetration is equal to the the handling devices, in the forms, as in
slump, although this relationship is not the case of structural concrete, or in a
constant under different conditions. p a v e m e n t slab. I n a s m u c h as it takes only
Some of the advantages of the Ball seconds to per/orm this test, it is reason-
p e n e t r a t i o n method are the short time able to expect t h a t more tests would be
required to m a k e the test and its a d a p t - m a d e t h a n with other devices, with more
a b i l i t y to use on undisturbed concrete in accurate field control resulting (16, 17, 18).
REFERENCES
(1) T. C. Powers, "Studies of Workability of Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 35, p. 38
Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., (1935).
February, 1932; Proceedings, Vol. 28, p. (I0) R. F. Blanks, E. N. Vidal, W. H. Price,
419.. and F. M. Russell, "The Properties of
(2) P. H. Bates, "Variations in Standard Port- Concrete Mixes," Journal, Am. Concrete
land Cement," Report of Committee 202, Inst., April, 1940; Proceedings, Vol. 36,
Am. Concrete Inst., Journal, Am. Concrete p. 433.
Inst., November, 1929; Proceedings, Vol. (11) George A. Smith, "The Measurement of
26, p. 65. Workability of Concrete," Proceedings,
(3) Emory D. Roberts, "Determining Charac- Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 28, Part II,
teristics of Concrete in the Mixer Drum," p. 505 (1928).
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., September, (12) W. H. Herschel and E. A. Pisapia, "Fac-
1931; Proceedings, Vot. 28, p. 59, tors of Workability of Portland Cement
(4) Willis T. Moran, "Admixtures for Con- Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
crete," Report of Committee 212, Am. May-June, 1936; Proceedings, Vol. 32, p.
Concrete Inst., Journal, Am. Concrete 641.
Inst., October, 1954; Proceedings, VoL 51, (13) T. C. Powers and E. M. Witer, "A Device
p. 113. for Studying the Workability of Concrete,"
(5) P. H. Bates, "Portland Cement, Theories Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
(Proven and Otherwise) and Specifica- 41, p. 1003 (1941).
tions," Fifteenth Edgar Marburg Lecture, (14) Inge Lyse and W. R. Johnson, "A Study of
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. Slump and Flow of Concrete," Journal,
40, p. 469 (1940). Am. Concrete Inst., January, 1931; Pro-
(6) W. A. Cordon, "Entrained Air--A Factor ceedings, Vol. 27, p. 439.
in the Design of Concrete Mixes," Journal, (15) George A. Smith and Sanford W. Benham,
Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1946; Pro- "A Study of the Flow Table and the Slump
ceedings, Vol. 42, p. 605. Test," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Janu-
(7) Ralph W. Kluge, Morris M. Sparks, and ary, 1931; Proceedings, Vol. 27, p. 420.
Edward C. Tuma, "Lightweight-Aggre- (16) J. W. Kelly and Norman E. Haavik, "A
gate Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Simple Field Test for Consistency of Con-
Inst., May, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. 45, crete," ASTM BULLETIN, No. 163, Janu-
p. 625. ary, 1950, p. 70 (TP20).
(8) J. C. Pierson and F. A. Hitchcock, "A (17) E. L. Howard and George Leavitt, "Kelly
Penetration Test for the Workability of Ball versus Slump Cone." Comparative
Concrete Mixtures with Particular Refer- Tests of Samples Taken at Travis Air Base,
ence to the Effect of Certain Powdered Ad- Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., December,
mixtures," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing 1951. Proceedings, Vol. 48, p. 353.
Mats., Vol. 23, Part II, p. 276 (1923). (18) J. W. Kelly and Milos Polivka, "Ball Test
(9) J. C. Pearson, "Workability of Concrete," for Field Control of Concrete Consis-
Report on Significance of Tests on Con- tency," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May,
crete and Concrete Aggregates, Proceedings, 1955; Proceedings, Vol. 51, p. 881.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
SETTING TIME*
BY E. W. SCRn~:ruRE, JR. I
SYNOPSIS
This paper discusses suggestions for a definition of the setting time of con-
crete and attempts to arrive at a meaningful interpretation. Various suggested
methods of testing concrete to determine its setting time are described. Reasons
for eliminating certain of these methods from further consideration are given.
Where data obtained by the various methods are available, examples are given.
It is concluded that several test methods show promise but that the available
data do not permit a definite selection. It seems probable that one test method
will not satisfactorily determine the setting time of concrete for all types of
mixes and for all purposes.
I t might be assumed that the setting DEFINITION

time of cement would adequately define The first problem is to define what is
the setting time of concrete, but this is meant by the setting time of concrete.
not the case, especially where ingredients The established definition for the setting
other than cement, aggregate, and water time of cement is really not a definition
are introduced. A material which may be at all. I t is simply one or two points in
an accelerator in a neat cement paste time defined by results obtained by a
may be a retarder in a concrete mix. It piece of apparatus, either the Gillmore
has even been found that a change in needles or the Vicat needle. What the
aggregate, from quartz to basalt for ex- setting time of concrete means appears to
ample, radically affects the behavior of depend to a considerable extent on the
the concrete as determined by heat needs and interests of the particular in-
evolution measurements. Specifically for dividual. Such diverse definitions have
the evaluation of accelerators and re- been suggested as loss of workability be-
tarders, but also for other purposes such fore placing, impairment of bond of
as time for floor finishing, timing of suc- freshly placed concrete to concrete in
cessive lifts, and time for form stripping,
place, time of finishing for floors, ability
an attempt has been made to establish to strip forms, and early strength gain.
a method of test for the setting time of After considering the various suggested
concrete.
definitions it appears that no one of these
criteria represents the setting time of
*Presented at the Fifty-seventh Annual concrete. As soon as concrete has any ap-
Meeting of the Society, June 13-18, 1954. preciable strength it is certainly set.
i Vice President in Charge of Research, The
Master Builders Co., Cleveland, Ohio. Conversely, as long as concrete maintains
53
54 TESTS OF CONCRETE AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
any significant degree of workability, it is time of concrete, has been fairly exten-
not set. It appears, therefore, that one or sive, using both direct and alternating
more points between these two extremes currents. Typical curves illustrating such
~epresent t h e setting time of concrete a method of measurement are given in
and, like the setting time of cement, will Fig. 1. For a concrete mix without any
jf_o._.
necessarily have to be defined by a par- addition, the electrical resistance in-
ticular test method and apparatus. creases fairly steadily until it reaches a
II000
10000--
O Ploin Mix
A 3 % Co CI2 Mix
9000--
8000
7000
O
6000
J
o 5000
c
2
9~ 4 0 0 0
2000
1000
00 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 q0
Time,hours
FIr 1.--Change in Resistance with Time (Embedded Electrodes).
METHODS OF TEST point at which the curve levels off. This

point in time corresponds with the an-
Among the methods of test that have ticipated setting time of the cement it-
been suggested are electrical measure- self. Unfortunately, however, when
ments, consistency measurements, veloc- calcium chloride is added to the mix, a
ity or frequency measurements, bleed- level curve at a very low resistance
ing, heat evolution, volume change, develops almost immediately. Obviously
strength, and deformation measure- the same thing would occur with any
ments. other electrolyte added to the mix. This
Electrical M easurements.--Work on defeats the main purpose envisioned in
electrical measurements as a means of developing a method of test for the set-
determining primarily the course of ting,time of concrete, namely, to es-
hardening and incidentally the setting tablish a method which will show the el-
Sc~rP~trRE ON SETTING TIME 55
TABLE I.--SETTING TIME DETERM- needles, rod penetration, the Kelly ball,
INATIONS.
PENETR&TION--GILLMORE AND VICAT NEEDLES and a 3-point Kelly ball3 It was found
generally that the penetration methods
Initial Final were unsatisfactory due to the inter-
ference of large pieces of aggregate. In
N e a t Cement P a t s one case it has been reported that field
tests comparing Kelly ball penetration
Gillmore... i i 4 hr 15 min 7 hr 20 min
Gillmore. 4 hr 15 rain 7 hr 20 min measurements with finishing time de-
terminations show some degree of corre-
M o r t a r P a t s (concrete sieved through No. 8 lation. If penetration tests are applied to
sieve) a mortar screened through a No. 8
sieve, more reproducible results than
those from neat cement are obtained,
Gillmore.. 5 hr 15 m m 9 hr 45 m i n
Gillmore.. 5 hr 15 min 9 hr 45 rain but it may be doubted that they really
represent the setting time of the con-
Concrete crete as a whole, especially in view of the
discrepancy between the setting times
Finishing time of neat cement pats and mortar pats.
(by trowel). 10 hr 25 rain Some typical results using these methods
are given in Table I. Where there is any
ROD PENETRATION AND FINISHING TIME a
penetration with any of these pieces of
apparatus, the concrete obviously is not
Rod Penetration Finishing (by trowel)
set; it becomes necessary to determine
8hr36min 9hr 6rain the point at which penetration just
9 hr 12 mh l 9 hr 36 rain ceases to occur, and this is not a deter-
7 hr 30 rain 10 hr mination that can be readily reproduced.
9 hr 6 rain 9 hr 18 rain
Another method depending on the
KELLY BALL
consistency of the concrete is to deter-
mine the point at which it is just possible
I Depth of to finish the surface of the concrete by
Time [ Penetration, Diameter of steel trowelling. This method gives
m. Mark, in.
reasonably reproducible results, though
1 hr 30 mln . . . . . . . . . . somewhat subject to personal factors;
3 hr 30 rain . . . . . . . . . . ~ 1~ it may be questioned, however, whether
5 hr .................... 1
5 hr 30 min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 it really measures the setting time of con-
7 hr 20 rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 crete for those interested in anything
except floor finishing. Some data on this
a Same m i x on four separate days; three
different operators. method are included in Table I.
Velocity and Frequency Measurements.
--Among the methods depending on
fects of accelerators and retarders.
measurement of velocity or frequency
Electrical measurements can, therefore,
are the soniscope method and the use of
be dismissed as unsuitable for the pur-
pose. the usual sonic apparatus, employing a
mix confined within a metal tube. Two
Consistency Measurements.--Various objections to the soniscope method are
types of consistency measurements have
also been suggested, such as the Vebe 2 P r i v a t e communication, Glenway Maxon,
Consulting Engineer, Milwaukee, Wis., October
apparatus, modified Gillmore and Vicar 16, 1952.
the high cost of the apparatus and the of determining the bleeding characteris-
rather delicate technique required. It tics of concrete. No data are available on
seems doubtful that this would be a this method with respect to setting times,
practical method for general use. Some but it seems doubtful that determination
success has been reported using the sonic of this property would be indicative of
2.0 ,.~
I I I I
/ Initial Temperature 53 F
Type 1-r Cement
~ 1.6 / e 'l
,~~ 5.2 Socks Cement per cu yd
,, I I I
0.8
"4, " "--.

0.4
i
0
0 2 4
Age, days
FTO. 2.--Change in Rate of Heat Liberation with Time.
Courtesy of the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation
+30
_ +20
E "" = . . , . - C o1n c r e t e C o n t a i n i n g A d m i x It u r e " V "'
~ +10
-= 0 ~.Ool
~ . ~ , - ~ " -_ FI - " F I- - II - - - i "' - -
.r - I0
~, - 2 0 Co,,,~ ! , , ~ I
-30 ~: 4drn/Xtur e " p ,,
-40 l I
-50 I
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time, d a y s
FIG. &--Change in Volume of Concrete with Time.
apparatus, but an attempt to reproduce setting time over a wide variety of mixes
this work in another laboratory resultedwhich would include mixes which either
in determining only the frequency char- do not bleed at all or bleed to a negligible
acteristics of the metal container and not
extent.
that of the concrete. Further work on Heat of Hydration.--One method which
this method might be productive. has been attempted is the determination
Bleeding Characteristics.--Another of the heat of hydration. A typical graph
method which has been suggested is that from this type of measurement is shown
SCRIPTURE O N SETTING "rl3~LE 57
in Fig. 2. The curves do show sharp merit would be expected are secured.
changes where the setting time of the This method is open to the same objec-
cement would be expected. This method, tions as those stated in connection with
however, measures a chemical property heat of hydration determinations, and it
of the cement rather than setting of the probably depends on the same phenom-
concrete as a whole. It appears that the enon.
15000
I I t I
6"X 12" Cylinders in
14 0 0 0 - - C o r d b o o r d Molds
13 0 0 0 -- c] Ploin Series "IT"
12000 -- 9 Series I
IIOOO _ 02percent CoCI 2
& Admixture "A"

IOOO0
.(3
w
9 ooo Dry Sund Mold
._1
8 000
7 ooo I/iW i I
Q.
E
o
(D
6 000, I|nmi
5 000
4 000
3 000 J
/
2 000
1000
,,I
Empty Mold
I,I !
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II
Time, hr
FIG. 4.--Change in Compressive Strength with Time.
shape of the curve can be completely Strength Determinations.--Another

changed by modifying the gypsum con- group of test methods employs strength
tent of the cement without actually determinations. One such method con-
changing the setting time of the cement sists in casting specimens in flexible
or concrete. containers and determining deflection.
A similar method is the measurement Some work has been done on both com-
of the volume change of the setting con- pressive (Fig. 4) and flexural (Fig. 5)
crete in a dilatometer. A typical graph determinations, but sufficient reliable
obtained by this means is given in Fig. 3. data have not yet been secured to show
Here, again, definite points correspond- that these methods are suitable. Some
ing to those at which setting of the ce- work has been done on a tension test
method using rigid molds. The limited ciently rigid to resist deformation by the
results (Fig. 6) available at the present air pressure commonly used in this type
time indicate some promise, as a fairly of meter. Surprisingly enough, this point
sharp break in the curve appears to oc- in time corresponds very closely to the
cur at a definite time. Triaxial loading points determined by the two electrical
methods have also been suggested, but resistance methods. The addition of cal-
no work is known to have been done on cium chloride shows the expected ac-
these. If a simple test of this type could celerating setting of the concrete, and
be worked out, it would probably come the addition of the electrolyte does not
35 700
/
A
30 600
A
o
25
c
Zo. 500
>
a~ 20 ~, "~ 400
[D
15
I0
~, ~ 300
0 Cl
mr 200 vo
Z
S I00!
0
5 10 15 20
Time A f t e r Plocing Until 8 r e o k
Cement
Factor, Net Water-
sacks CementRa-
Cement per rio, gal per
Aggregate Type yd sack
3/8"Gravel llI 6.9 6.25
o 3/8t'Gravel IlIA 6.8 5.9
A 3/8t~Gr~vel IlIA 6.8 6.25
FIG. 5.--Change in Flexural Strength with Time.
Courtesy of the Lehigh Portland Cement Co.
closer than any other method to measur- adversely affect the test as it does in the
ing a practiCal setting time of concrete, case of electrical methods of measure-
namely, the point at which concrete just ment.
ceases to be plastic and just begins to
acquire strength. CONCLIISION
Deformability Changes.--Another sug- Progress so far has not been such that
gested method is the determination of the definite conclusions can be drawn. From
change in deformability of the concrete the information gathered, however, it
by entrained-air tests in a Washington- does seem possible to get a picture of the
type air meter. These tests (Fig. 7) show problem and to discern the direction or
very definite points of inflection when, directions which further study of this
obviously, the concrete becomes suffi- subject should take.
SCRIPTURE ON SETTING T I M E 59
With respect to a definition of the set- plications; that is, more than one defini-
ting time of concrete, it is evident that tion of the setting time of concrete will
this term means something different to be needed. Second, any definition will
'~ 5
6.4 Sks Type TW Cement
W/C 6 . 0 gol per Sk "
/ 0
o.
2 in Slump
c
o
~
g4
O4
g'3
04
c
~162
ID
X} ~
ID
p-
u,.,r ~ I ~
I 2 3 4. 5 6
Time After Mixing and Placing in Mold, hr
FIG. 6 . - - C h a n g e in Tensile Strength with Time,
C~urtesy of the Lehigh Portland Cement Co
31 ,--,. p/o,
a. 2 ~ v
0
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0
Time, hr
Fie. 7 . - - C h a n g e in Re~lings of W a s h i n g t o n - T y p e Air M e t e r with Time.
each individual, depending on the specific probably be in terms of a maximum

application for which it is intended. This change in some physical rather than
leads to two tentative conclusions. First, chemical property of the concrete deter-
it probably will not be possible to define mined by a particular test method. Any
the setting time of concrete in terms that definition, therefore, awaits establish-
will be applicable to all mixes for all ap- ment of a suitable test method.
Of the test methods which have been ful that it could be made applicable to
suggested and tentatively examined, general or routine testing. The conven-
some offer little promise for one reason tional sonic apparatus would be more
or another. Electrical methods seem use- practical, but development of its use for
less since the addition in any quantity of this purpose is in a preliminary stage.
an electrolyte to the mix completely Strength data are limited but show some
nullifies the value of the observations. promise. D a t a on deformation tests are
Consistency measurements, from the still very meager, but all of those so far
data so far secured, do not seem applica- secured offer at least some hope.
ble unless it can be shown that tests on While the outlook for a single test
mortar sieved from a concrete mix will method suitable for all applications and
correlate with the behavior of the con- all types of concrete mixes, and conse-
crete itself. I t is difficult to see how quently for a single definition of the
bleeding tests can be made applicable setting time of concrete, is rather dis-
over even a moderate range of mixes. couraging, the situation is not entirely
Volume change and heat evolution meas- hopeless. It would seem possible, without
urements, since they reflect the chemical too extended a study, to develop one or
changes of the cement, would not be ex- more test methods for specific purposes;
pected to reflect the behavior of the for example, by selecting one particular
concrete which depends on physical as concrete mix, as has been done in the
well as chemical phenomena. method of test for air-entraining admix-
This leaves the velocity or frequency tures, it should be possible to devise a
measurements, strength, and the de- method of test for evaluating accelera-
formation tests as offering some promise. tors and retarders with respect to their
The available velocity measurement data effects on the setting time of concrete.
are encouraging, but this type of test Subsequently other methods and defini-
suffers from two disadvantages, the ex- tions might be developed which would be
pensive apparatus required and the suitable criteria for otheI applications
delicacy of the techniques of measure- such as floor finishing, and slip-form
ment. The test m a y well be eminently work, where setting time is an important
suitable for research, but it seems doubt- factor.
]~IBLIOGRAPHY
(1) J. Calleja, "New Techniques in the Study Sonic Apparatus," Corps of Engineers, U.S.
of Setting and Hardening of Hydraulic Ma- Army (private communication).
terials," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., March, (5) H. A. Neville and H. C. Jones, "The Study
1952; Proceedings, Vol. 48, p. 525. of Hydration Changes by a Volume Change
(2) J. Calleja, "Effect of Current Frequency on Method," Lehigh University, Colloid Sym-
Measurement of Electrical Resistance of posium Monograph.
Cement Pastes," Journal, Am. Concrete (6) W. Lerch and C. L. Ford, "Long-Time
Inst., December, 1952; Proceedings, Vol. Study of Cement Performance in Concrete,
49, p. 329. Chapter 3--Chemical and Physical Tests of
(3) E. A. Whitehurst, "Use of the Soniscope for the Cements," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Measuring Setting Time of Concrete," April, 1948; Proceedings, Vol. 44, p. 745.
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testings Mats., Vol. (7) W. Lerch, "The Influence of Gypsum on the
51, p. 1166 (1951). Discussion p. 1176. Hydration and Properties of Portland Ce-
(4) Edwin J. Callan, "Determination of Wave ment Paste," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Velocity in Concrete Prisms Using Present Mats., Vol. 46, p. 1252 (1946).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
AIR CONTENT
BY FRED F. BARTEL1
Tests for air content of fresh concrete Gravimetric Method: ~

are of relatively recent development, When the gravimetric procedure for
having first appeared in the publications determining air content of fresh concrete
of the ASTM in 1942. The first method, is used, the unit weight of concrete is de-
a volumetric procedure, followed closely termined and is compared with the the-
the discovery of possible beneficial effects oretical unit weight of air-free concrete.
of small amounts of air in concrete on the The theoretical unit weight is calculated
resistance of pavements to scaling when from the weight and bulk specific gravity
salt is used for ice removal. Since that of each ingredient in the concrete mix-
time purposeful entrainment of air in ture. Details of the calculations involved
concrete has gained such stature that it are outlined in ASTM Method C 1382
has been described as the greatest ad- Concrete containing aggregate graded up
vancement in concrete technology since to 2 in. may be tested in a 89 ft con-
the promulgation of the water-cement tainer; where larger aggregate is used,
ratio theory by Abrams (1)2 in 1918. Tests the 1-cu ft measure shall be employed.
for air content are now probably the The gravimetric method for determin-
third most commonly made tests of coning air content has serious limitations as
crete, ranking only behind slump and a field test. An accurate knowledge of
compressive strength tests. batch proportions, specific gravities, and
moisture contents of aggregates is essen-
TEST METHODS
tial. For example, an error of 2 per cent
Three tests for air content of fresh con- in the moisture content of sand in an
crete, using gravimetric, pressure, or average concrete mix, in which a con-
volumetric methods, currently are stand- stant amount of water is added at the
ards of the ASTM. Each of the proce- mixer, will result in an error of 1 per-
dures has its advantages and disadvan- centage point in computed air content.
tages, and it is expected that the method In the field where moisture contents of
most appropriate for the conditions and aggregates are seldom determined and
materials will be used. consistency is controlled by varying
water added at the mixer to maintain
1Civil Engineer, Tews Lime and Cement Co.,
Milwaukee, Wis. 3Method of Test for Weight per Cubic Foot,
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Con-
to the list of references appended to this paper, crete (C 138), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards,
see p. 66. Part 3.
61
62 TESTS AND PROPERTIES Ol~ CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
slump, the gravimetric method should interstices of nonsaturated, porous ag-

probably not be relied upon for accurate gregates, and a higher than true air con-
results. Also, an error of 0.02 in the spe- tent of concrete may thus be indicated.
cific gravity of the aggregates will result This complication may be compensated
in an error of about one-half percentage for by determining a correction factor for
point in air content computed under this the air within the aggregate as outlined
method. Thus, where lightweight ag- in Method C 231. In the case of slag or
gregates are used and an accurate deter- other relatively porous lightweight ag-
mination of specific gravity is exceed- gregates, however, this aggregate cor-
ingly difficult, it is not recommended rection factor may be quite large and
that the gravimetfic procedure be used. difficult to determine accurately. The
In the laboratory, however, where spe- ASTM method provides for three sizes
cific gravities and moisture contents are of containers, 0.20, 0.40, and 2.50 c u f t ,
accurately known, reliable results can be for testing concrete having aggregate of
obtained for concrete containing natural 2-, 3-, and 6-in. maximum size, respec-
aggregates. Furthermore, the concrete tively.
used in the test need not be discarded, as The major advantage of the pressure
in other procedures; it can be used for method is that no knowledge of specific
other tests or in the manufacture of speci- gravities, moisture contents, or batch
mens. Valuable information on yield and quantities of the concrete mixture need
actual cement factor may also be ob- be known to determine its air content.
tained from the unit weight test made in Possible inaccuracies when porous or
the gravimetric procedure. nonsaturated aggregates are used have
been referred to previously. Samples of
Pressure Method# concrete tested in this apparatus must,
The pressure method for determining of course, be discarded and cannot be
air content of fresh concrete is based on used in specimens or for further testing
the fact that, in most concrete mixes, the because of the contact of concrete with
only compressible ingredient is the air water in the test.
entrained or entrapped in the mixture. A modification of the ASTM standard
Klein and Walker (2) applied Boyle's law, pressure apparatus, which was proposed
involving the relationship of pressure and by Klein and Walker (2) and refined by
volume of gases, to the determination of Menzel (3), has been developed by the
air content of fresh concrete. Washington State Highway Department
In ASTM Method C 231, 4 a predeter- (4). In this apparatus, a known volume
mined pressure is applied to a column of of air at an established pressure is re-
water above a sample of concrete in a leased to contact concrete in a sealed con-
container of known volume. When the tainer; the drop in pressure provides a
proper pressure is applied, the drop in measure of the amount of air within the
water level in the neck of the calibrated concrete. The apparatus, currently avail-
apparatus indicates the air content of the able from some commercial equipment
concrete directly. The instrument must manufacturers, has the advantage of not
be calibrated for use at various localities requiring the use of water in the test and
if differences in altitude are considerable. of not having test results influenced by
A complicating feature of the test is that changes in barometric pressure. Com-
the pressure may compress air within the pressibility of air within the aggregate
must be taken into account in test results
4 Method of Test for Air Content of Freshly as it must be with results from the Klein-
Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
(C 231), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. Walker apparatus. A disadvantage is
BARTEL ON AIR CONTENT 63
that small errors in striking off the sam- routine work, the volume of concrete
ple of concrete to a known volume may tested is small but not inconsistent with
produce relatively large errors in meas- the findings of Pearson and Helms (5) on
ured air content. This disadvantage has the effect of sampling errors in air-con-
been eliminated by a more recently de- tent tests.
veloped apparatus which provides for Other volumetric procedures, such as
filling the space over the sample of con- the roiling method developed by Menzel
crete with water. (3), the hook-gage or "Indiana Method"
described by Miesenhelder (6), and the
Volumetric Method: "Ohio Method" (7) using a hook-gage,
Inaccuracies in determining air con- test larger samples of concrete. With
tent of fresh concrete containing porous Menzel's apparatus the quantity of wa-
aggregates by the gravimetric and pres- ter added to compensate for air removed
sure methods have been described. The from a known volume of concrete by
volumetric procedure, however, can be mixing with water (on a rolling appa-
used with such materials to obtain ac- ratus) provides a measure of the air con-
curate measurements of air content. Fur- tent. In the "Indiana Method," air is
ther, as with the pressure method, no removed from a known weight of con-
knowledge of specific gravities or mois- crete by stirring in water; the air content
ture contents of ingredients need be is computed from the unit weight of air-
known. free concrete determined in the test and
With the apparatus described in the unit weight measured prior to re-
ASTM Method C 173, 5 water is filled to moval of the air. Miesenhelder (6) re-
a certain mark over a sample of concrete ported the disadvantages of the latter
in a container of known volume The ap- method to be the difficulty in maintain-
paratus is sealed; then concrete and ing the necessary accuracy of scales under
water are intermingled and agitated field conditions and the possibility of in-
until the air in the concrete is removed. complete removal of air because of the
The drop in water level from its original physical exertion required in the stirring
mark provides a direct measure of the process.
air content of the concrete. In the test,
COMPARISON OF T E S T RESULTS
mixing of water and concrete is repeated
several times until no further drop in There have been many studies made to
water level indicates the removal of all correlate the results of air-content tests
air from the mixture. The method re- made by the different methods. In the
quires the use of a container for concrete ASTM Symposium on Measurement of
of not less than 0.2 c u f t when aggregates Entrained Air in Concrete (8), the results
up to 2 in. are used; however, for routine presented by the various authors are in
work, a bowl of not less than 0.075 cu ft substantial agreement. Results of gravi-
may be used. metric tests agreed with other procedures
The chief disadvantage of the volumet- as long as specific gravities and moisture
ric method is in the physical effort re- contents of ingredients were known; pres-
quired to agitate water and concrete suf- sure method test results were in accord
ficiently to remove the air. Accordingly, with other data when concrete was made
in the ASTM apparatus permitted for with dense aggregates; and volumetric
procedures gave substantially the same
5 Tentative Me~hod of T e s t for Air Content air contents as did the other methods as
of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric
Method (C 173), 1955 Book of A S T M Stand- long as all of the air was removed from
ards, Part 3. the sample tested.
Comparative results of air-content concrete mixtures to secure the full bene-

tests using the three current ASTM profit of increased resistance to freezing and
cedures were obtained by Britton (9) and thawing. On the other hand, tests by the
are summarized in Table I. He reported Portland Cement Assn. (n) and the Na-
that on the basis of these results " . . . it tional Sand and Gravel Assn. (12) indi-
is apparent that any of the methods used cate that, for a given water-cement ratio,
in this series of tests will give relatively each per cent of entrained air reduces
accurate results when carefully con- compressive strength about 5 per cent.
ducted." I t was on the basis of these data This reduction in strength, however, can
that ASTM Committee C-9 on Concrete be counteracted by redesigning the mix
and Concrete Aggregates recommended by reducing water and sand contents to
adoption of the volumetric flask and pro- maintain the slump and volume of mor-
cedures outlined in Method C 173 - 55 T tar in the concrete. Thus, by redesign of
as an ASTM Method of Test. the mix, it is possible that the strength of
TABLE L--RESULTS OF COMPARATIVE TESTS FOR AIR CONTENT OF FRESH

CONCRETE MADE WITH VARIOUS COARSE AGGREGATES.
Tests by R. E. Britton (9).
Limestone Slag Gravel

ASTM Test Method
Test Test Test I Test Test ] Test
N~ N~ _' N~ L No. I No. 2
G r a v l m e t r i c (C 1 3 8 - 44) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.vl 4.4 6.o I 5.2 3.5 4.0

P r e s s u r e m e t e r (C 231 - 54) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 3.8 5.5 I 5.1 3.3 3.1
V o l u m e t r i c flask (C 173 - 55 T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 / 3.6 5.4 I 4.8 2.9 3.0
SIGNI]~ICANCE OF TEST IZESUI~S lean, air-entrained concrete mixtures

Tests for air content of fresh concrete (containing up to about 5 bags of cement
are most commonly made in the field on per cubic yard) may actually be greater
concrete that is assumed to contain en- than that of normal concrete. In the
trained air. Such air is obtained by using case of rich mixtures, the reduction in
an air-entraining cement or by adding an strength may be only 10 to 15 per cent
air-entraining admixture to concrete instead of the 20 to 25 per cent which
made with standard cement. Numerous could be expected were the mix not re-
tests have demonstrated that purpose- designed. I t is from this background of
fully entrained air increases the resist- information that most specifications re-
quire 3 to 6 per cent air in fresh air-en-
ance of concrete to destructive agencies
such as freezing and thawing, sea water, trained concrete.
There are exceptions, however, where
and salts used for removal of ice from
pavements. Along with these beneficial the 3 to 6 per cent limits on air content
should not be applied. In mass concrete,
effects, however, there is usually an un-
fortunate decrease in the strength of con- for example, in which cobbles of aggre-
crete. Thus, the problem in the case of gate 6 in. or more in diameter are used,
air-entrained concrete is to control the these limits may be applicable to that
air content to ensure the beneficial effects portion of the concrete which would pass
without unduly reducing its strength. a 2- or 3-in. sieve, but they would be too
Studies by Wuerpel (10), Gonnerman high for the concrete as a whole. As a
(11), and others show the need for a mini- matter of fact, the Corps of Engineers
mum of about 3 per cent entrained air in (13) wet-screens its concrete containing a
BARTEL ON AIR CONTENT 65
nominal maximum size aggregate of 3 or 6 have shown air content to increase during
in. through a 189 or 3-in. sieve before test- about the first 12 mill of mixing and then
ing for air content. The Bureau of Recla- slowly to decrease (19). The grading of
mation generally requires removal of the aggregate, particularly that of the
larger sizes of coarse aggregate by hand- sand, also has its effect on air content;
picking before a test for air content is Walker and Bloem (17) found that the
made. In concrete mixtures used in Kan- air content of concrete increased as the
sas pavements in which the maximum quantity of sand in the No. 30 to No. 50
size of aggregate is about ~ in., the 3 to size increased.
6 per cent limits on air content should So far discussion has been confined to
probably be raised. air content of fresh concrete. However,
The above discussion of exceptions to handling and placing of concrete on the
the usual specification limitations on air job can affect the air content of concrete
content indicates that the air content of iv place. And, of course, it is the air in
the mortar or cement paste portion of the the hardened concrete which secures the
concrete should be of concern. Wuerpel beneficial effects attributed to air-
(14) has pointed out that the optimum entrained concrete. There are indications
air content for the mortar phase of con- that pumping concrete may remove some
crete should be 8.5 to 9.5 per cent. Powers air from certain mixtures. It would be
(lS) and Klieger (16) have suggested that expected that repeated handling and
the air content of fresh concrete should agitation of concrete prior to placing
be governed by the spacing and size of might well cause a loss of air content.
voids in the cement paste. It is felt that Vibration in consolidating concrete in
in concrete having a given air content the forms may also remove air from the
numerous small air bubbles closely mass (20). It should not be overlooked
spaced throughout the mass may be that the air in the lower portion of a deep
more effective in securing the beneficial section will be compressed by the weight
effects of air entrainment than a smaller of concrete above it; this will affect the
number of relatively large voids. volume of air but probably not the spac-
It should be pointed out that the air ing or number of air voids or the dura-
content of concrete containing a fixed bility of the concrete.
amount of air-entraining admixture Nevertheless, at this stage of develop-
added at the mixer, or addition inter- ment of the art, tests of fresh concrete for
ground with the cement, varies with air content by the ASTM Methods
many factors. It is important that the described here represent the best means
effects of these factors be understood so for controlling the end result in the field.
that test results obtained may be evalu- These test methods, coupled with in-
ated and adjustments made to secure telligently prepared specifications limits,
compliance with specifications. Less air should ensure the desirable properties of
will be entrained in rich mixtures than air-entrained concrete.
in lean ones. Wet concrete will ordinarily Air content determinations are some-
entrain more air than dry mixes. The times made to ensure that concrete is
temperature of the concrete is important "normal"--that it does not contain
in that more air is entrained at 70 F than more than about 1 to 1.5 per cent of air.
at 100 F and more at 40"F than at 70 F This is particularly necessary for mix-
(17, 18). The quantity of air will increase tures for heavy-duty floors or for very
with mixing up to a point and then will high-strength concrete which might be
gradually decrease; in transit-mixed used in prestressed designs or heavy-
ready-mixed concrete, for example, tests load carrying columns. Many manu-
facturers of metallic aggregates for that for which the mix was designed
heavy-duty floors, for example, recom- may account for some discrepancies in
mend that their products not be used yield.
with air-entrained concrete. The dif-
SUMMARY
ficulty of producing high compressive
strengths (5000 psi, for example) with Tests for air content of fresh con-
air-entrained concrete points to the crete, carefully made in accordance with
desirability of making an air-content the appropriate A S T M test method, will
test, at the time high-strength concrete yield a n accurate m e a s u r e m e n t of the
is placed, to ensure that air is not being a m o u n t of air in fresh concrete. Such
inadvertently entrained. tests should be coupled with intelligently
Air-content tests also provide rough prepared specification limits on air con-
checks on the yield of concrete. In the tent for the purpose for which the con-
case of pavements, where close checks crete is to be used. If this is done, the
are made on the quantity of concrete beneficial effects of using entrained air,
being used by contractors, a variation or ensuring its absence, can be depended
of several percentage points of air from u p o n in well-designed concrete mixtures.
REFERENCES
(1) Duff A. Abrams, "Design of Concrete Mix- (9) R. E. Britton, "Report o~ Investigation of
tures," Bulletin 7Vo. 1, Structural Material Different Methods for Determining the
Research Laboratory, Lewis Institute Amount of Air Entrained in Fresh Con-
(1918). crete." Report prepared by Pennsylvania
(2) W. H. Klein and Stanton Walker, "A Slag Assn., April 11, 1949.
Method for Direct Measurement of En- (10) C. E. Wuerpel, "Laboratory Studies of
trained Air in Concrete," Jcn~rnal, Am. Concrete Containing Air-Entrainlng Ad-
Concrete Inst., June, 1946; Proceedings, mixtures," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Vol. 42, p. 657. February, 1946; Proceedings, Vol. 42, p.
(3) Carl A. Menzel, "Procedures for Deter- 305.
mining the Air Content of Freshly-Mixed (11) H. F. Gonnerman, "Tests of Concrete Con-
Concrete by the Rolling and Pressure taining Air-Entraining Portland Cements
Methods," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing or Air-Entraining Materials Added to
Mats., Vol. 47, p. 833 (1947). Batch at Mixer," Journal, Am. Concrete
(4) Bailey Tremper and W. L. Gooding, Inst., June, 1944; Proceedings, Vol. 40, p.
"Washington Method of Determining Air 477.
in Fresh Concrete," Proceedings, Highway (12) Stanton Walker and D. L. Bloem, "Con-
Research Board, Vol. 28, p. 210 (1948). trol of Quantity of Entrained Air in Con-
(5) j'. C. Pearson and S. B. Helms, "The Ef- crete," Nat. Ready Mixed Concrete Assn.
fect of Sampling Errors on Unit Weight (1950).
and Air Determinations in Concrete," (13) "Investigation of Field Methods for Deter-
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vo]. mining Air Content of Mass Concrete,"
47, p. 914 (1947). Technical Memorandum No. 6-352, Corps
(6) P. D. Miesenhelder, "Indiana Method for of Engineers, U. S. Army, Waterways Ex-
Measuring Entrained Air in Fresh Con- periment Station, November, 1952.
crete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., (14) C. E. Wuerpel, "Purposeful Entrainment of
Vol. 47, p. 865 (1947). Air in Concrete," Marquette Cement
(7) J. F. Barbee, "The Ohio Method of De- Manufacturing Co. (1953).
termining the Amount of Air Entrained in (15) T. C. Powers, "Void Spacing as a Basis for
Portland Cement Concrete," Proceedings, Producing Air-Entrained Concrete," Jour-
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 47, p. 901 nal, Am. Concrete Inst., May. 1954; Pro-
(1947). ceedings, Vol. 50, p. 741.
(8) Symposium o n Measurement of Entrained (16) Paul Kleiger, "Effect of Entrained Air on
Air in Concrete, Proceedings, Am. Soc. Concretes Made with So-Called 'Sand-
Testing Mats., Vol. 47, p. 832 (1947). Gravel' Aggregates," Journal, Am. Con-
]~A_RT~EL ON AIR CONTENT 67
crete Inst., October, 1948; Proceedings, (19) R. P. Mumford, "Effect of Time of Mix-
Vol. 45, p. 149. ing," Technical Information Letter No. 28,
(17) Stanton Walker and D. L. Bloem, "Studies Nat. Ready Mixed Concrete Assn., ~ep-
of Concrete Containing Entrained Air," tember, 1946.
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1946;
Proceedings, Vol. 42, p. 629. (20) Walter O. Crawley, "Effect of Vibration on
(18) Symposium on Entrained Air in Concrete, Air Content of Mass Concrete," Journal,
Proceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., Vol. 46 Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1953; Proceed-
pp. 601-699 (1946). ings, Vol. 49, p. 909.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
BY K A T H A R I N E M A T H E R I
This discussion is intended to show relation between samples and materials

that petrographic examination of hard- in use and judging whether the two are
ened concrete is relevant to concrete comparable in fact.
testing, to note the problems inherent
in its use, to outline what it involves, to METHOD
describe the kind of information it can The techniques of petrographic exam-
produce, and to show how this informa- ination are not described here; a partial
tion may be applied. historical review and discussion may be
found in an earlier paper (1)3 A wide
Relevance to Concrete Testing: variety of techniques has been applied
The question that materials testing and produced useful results (2-1~).
tries to answer is "How will this material Petrographic examination does not
behave in use?" Practically, testing necessarily imply that a microscope is
construction materials amounts to ob- used; it does imply examination to
taining certain kinds of information discover what recognizable individual
about certain samples in specified con- constituents are present and how they
ditions, and extrapolating to the con- are arranged in space. Petrographic
ditions of the intended use insofar as examination of concrete is not a standard
they can be predicted. Petrographic method, but it is a trouble-shooting and
examination of concrete should be in- research procedure of considerable pres-
cluded among the subjects discussed in a ent and much greater potential value.
publication on significance of tests and The ASTM methods of test requiring
properties of concrete and concrete aggre- observations of "type of failure and
gates if it helps to improve the extra- appearance of the concrete" (C 116) 3 or
polation from test results to perform- "type of fracture if other than the usual
ance in the structure. The object of this cone" (C39) 3 already require partial
discussion is to demonstrate that petro- petrographic examination--the part
graphic examination of concrete does dealing with defects and departures
improve extrapolations by offering direct from the norm.
observational information on what is The Specifications for Concrete Sewer
being tested and what is in the structure, Pipe (C 14), ~ Reinforced-Concrete Sewer
which gives another way of appraising the Pipe (C 75), ~ Reinforced-Concrete Cul-
1 Geologist (Engineering Petrography) ; Chief, -~T h e boldface n u m b e r s in parentheses refer
P e t r o g r a p h y Section, Concrete Division, W a t e r - to t h e list of references appended to this paper,
ways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, see p. 79.
U. S. A r m y , Jackson, Miss. 31955 Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3.
68
www.astm.org
M A T H E R ON PETROGRAPHIC ]~XAMINATION 69
vert Pipe (C 76), 3 and Concrete Irriga- PURPOSE AND SCOPE

tion Pipe (C 118) ~ have most interesting Composition and Fabric:
requirements for visual examination.
Tables I and I I give outlines of such A petrographic examination attempts
procedures. to answer two objective questions:
what is the composition? and how is
Communication Problems: it put together? The first question refers
to the recognizable individual constitu-
A petrographic examination of con- ents that are present. The second question
crete ordinarily begins and ends with a refers to "structural fabric," that is
problem of communication between the the articulation or arrangement in space
person who requests the examination of the component elements that make
(usually an engineer) and the person up any sort of external form (17). Both
who makes it (usually a petrographer). questions may be answered on any scale
Unless the two succeed in producing that is useful by selecting techniques
a clear, mutually understood statement with the appropriate resolving power.
of the problem, they cannot expect a Fabric includes all of the structural
clear, useful answer economically ob- elements ranging in scale from gross to
tained. atomic; it includes both structure and
The engineer who asks for an exami- texture as those terms are used in rock
nation of a particular concrete suspects description. In concrete, the fabric may
that the concrete is unusual; the more be considered on the scale of the lift or
clearly he defines the peculiarity, the course or batch, or the scale of the
more he directs the petrographer toward coarse aggregate, or the scale of the sand
the important aspects. The engineer is grains and air voids in the mortar, or on
not familiar with petrographic techniques the scale of the residual unhydrated ce-
and approach; the petrographer does not ment or calcium hydroxide crystals, on
realize the engineer's responsibility for de- the scale of the fibrous hydrous calcium
cision and action, does not find out all the silicates (10) and 100-/~ spherical aggre-
engineer could tell him about the con- gates (10, 18) in the hydrated cement
crete, and may not realize which petro- paste, or on the scale of the atomic
graphic findings are useful and relevant. structure of any crystal forming a part
The petrographer should not expect pet- of any of the structural components
rographic results to be taken on faith un- mentioned. Rocks, fabricated metals,
less the rationality of the techniques pro- and yeast-raised bread are other ex-
ducing them is demonstrated. Both should amples of substances with fabric. 4 Com-
remember that the essentials of petro- position and fabric together define,
graphic examination of concrete are prac- characterize, and form the basis of the
ticed anytime anyone looks intelligently descriptive classification of solid multi-
at concrete either in a structure or as a component substances. The value of
specimen and tries to relate what he can investigating composition and fabric is
see to the past or future performance of that of particularized and unique defi-
the concrete. On this basis, it is clear that nition of the thing being tested--the
many most useful petrographic examina- 4The closest naturally occurring analogy
tions are made by inspectors, engineers, among rocks to the fabric of concrete is gray-
chemists, physicists--anyone concerned wacke conglomerate with abundant matrix. The
closest naturally occurring analogue to hardened
with the production or use of concrete. dement paste is silty clay.
T A B L E I . - - O U T L I N E F O R E X A M I N A T I O N OF C O N C R E T E WITH EYE AND HAND LENS.
Coarse Aggregate q- Fine Aggregate -1- Matrix q- Air -{- Steel
CONSTITUENTS
llaximum dimension, in inches, in t h e Type: Color, by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h More than 3 per cent of total, Type
range >d >--__a 1. N a t u r a l sand N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h Coun- predominantly in spherical
~"ype: 2. M a n u f a c t u r e d s a nd cil R o c k Color C h a r t voids
1. G r a v e l 3. M ix ed (1948) Less than 3 per cent of total,
2. Crushed stone 4. Other Color distribution: abundant nonspherical voids
3. Mi xed 1 a nd 2 5. Mixed 1 q-/ or 2 + / o r 1. M o t t l e d Color differences between voids
4. Other (name) 4 2. E v e n and mortar?
5. M ixe d 1 + / o r 2 + / o r 4 If 1, 2, or 4, homogeneous 3. Gradational changes
[f 1, 2, or 4, homogeneous or hetero- or heterogeneous
geneous
bithologictypes Voids e mpt y, filled, lined, or

~2oarse a gg re gat e more t h a n 20, 30, p a r t l y filled
40, 50 per cent of t o t a l
FABRIC
Shape Distribution Distribution S ha pe Voids below horizon-

Distribution P ar tic l e shape 1 as Distribution t a l or low-angle re-
Packing Grading kpercept- G r a d i n g (as perceptible) inforcement
G r a d i n g (even, uneven, excess, or de- Preferred [i bl e P a r a l l e l i s m of long axes of ir-
ficiency of size or sizes) orientation) re gul a r voids or sheets of
Parallelism of flat sides or long axes voids: w i t h each other; w i t h
of exposed sections, normal to flat sides or long axes of coarse
direction of p l a c e m e n t + / o r par- aggregate
allel to formed and finished sur-
faces b
CONDITION
D o e s it ring w h e n hit lightly with a h a m m e r or does it give a dull, flat sound? Cracks? H o w distributed? Crack fillings?W i t h cores R u s t y or clean? Put
or sawed specimens: did aggregate tear out in drilling or sawing? in rusty or cor-
roded later?
A s u b s t a n t i a l portion of t he coarse aggregate has m a x i m u m dimensions in t he ra nge shown as m e a s u r e d on sawed or broken surfaces.
b Sections sawed or drilled close to and parallel to formed surfaces appear to show loom t u r b u l e n c e as a result of s p a d i n g or rod d in g close to the form. Sec-
ti on s sawed in the plane of bedding (normM to the direction of placement) are l i k e l y to h a v e inconspicuous orientation. Sections b r o k e n n o r m a l to p l a c e m e n t
in conventionMly placed concrete w it h normal bond tend to have aggregate knobs a b u n d a n t on t h e b o t t o m of t he uppe r piece as cas t an d sockets a b u n d a n t
on the
Copyright by top
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rights east.
as reserved); Tue Apr 23 22:24:11 EDT 2013
T A B L E I I . - - O U T L I N E F O R E X A M I N A T I O N OF C O N C R E T E W I T H A S T E R E O M I C I % O S C O P E .
Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Matrix Voids
i tho lo gic t y p e s and m i n e r a l o g y as per- Lithologic types and miner- Color Grading
ceptible alogy as perceptible F r a c t u r e around or t h r o u g h a ggre ga t e P r o p o r t i o n of spherical to nonspherical
Surface t e x t u r e Shape C o n t a c t of m a t r i x w i t h a ggre ga t e : Nonspherical, ellipsoidal, irregular, disk-
7ithin the piece: Surface t e x t u r e close, no opening visible on sawed shaped
g r a i n shape Grading or b r o k e n surface; a g g r e g a t e not Color change from in ter io r surface to
g r a i n s i z e - - e x t r e m e range observed, Distribution dislodged w i t h fingers or probe; matrix
mm b o u n d a r y openings frequent, com- I n t e r i o r surface luster like rest of m a t r i x
m e d i a n w i t h i n r an ge to mm mon, ra re dull, shining
te xtu r eles s (%00 fine to resolve) width Li ni ngs ill voids absent, rare, common,
u ni fo rm or v a r i a b l e w i t h i n th e piece empty i n most, complete, p ar tial, color-
rom piece to piece: filled less, colored, s ilk y tufts, hexagonal
i n t e r g r a n u l a r bond C ra c ks present, absent, re sul t of speci- t a b l e t s , gel, other
p o r o s i t y and a b s o r p t i o n a me n preparation, preeedng speci- U nde rsi de voids or sheets of voids un-
concrete b r e a k s t h r o u g h aggregate, me n p r e p a r a t i o n common, small, common, a b u n d a n t
t h r o u g h how m u c h of w h a t kind? Fly ash b
b o u n d a r y voids, along w h a t ki nd of
aggregate? All? All of one kind?
More t h a n 50 per cent of one kind?
Several kinds?
a Pore visible to t h e n a k e d eye, or at X , or sucks in w a t e r t h a t is dropped on it.

b D a r k solid spheres or hollow-centered spheres of glass + / o r m a g n e t i t e recognizable a t X 9 on sawed or broken surfaces. Other m i n e r a l a d m i x t u r e s
w i t h cha ra cter is ti c p a r t i c l e s visible a t low magnification should be recognizable.
Condition: W h e n it is e xa mi ne d a t X 6 to X 10 under good light, t h e freshly broken surface of a concrete in good p h y s i c a l condition t h a t s till r e t a i n s mo s t
of its n a t u r a l m o i s t u r e content has a luster t h a t in mineralogical t e r m s is s u b t r a n s l u c e n t gl i mme ri ng v i t r e o u s ) T h i n edges of splinters of th e p a s t e t r a n s m i t
l i g h t ; reflections a p p e a r to come from m a n y mi nut e points on t he surface, and the q u a l i t y of l ust e r is like t h a t from b r o k e n glass but less intense. Concrete
i n less good p h y s i c a l condition is more opaque on a freshly broken surface, a nd t he l us t e r is dull, v i t r e o u s going t o w a r d chalky. A properly cured l a b o r a t o r y
s p ecim e n from a concrete m i x t u r e of norma l proportions cured 28 d a y s t h a t ha s shown norma l compressive or flexural s t r e n g t h and t h a t is broken w i t h a
h a m m e r a nd ex am i ne d on a ne w b re ak wi thi n a week of the t i m e t h a t it finished curing should provide an example of concrete in good p h y s i c a l condition,
Under t he same conditions of examination, when there is reasonable assurance t h a t t h e concrete does not c ont a i n w hi t e por tlan d cement or slag cement,
t h e color of t h e m a t r i x of concrete in good physical condition is definitely g r a y or definitely tan, except a d j o i n i n g old c ra c ks or original surfaces.
1 E. S. Dana, " T e x t b o o k of M i n e r a l o g y , " John W i l e y & Sons, N e w York, N. Y., 4t h Ed., pp. 273-274 (1932). Re vi se d by W. E. Ford.
72 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E A N D A G G R E G A T E S
value of knowing what you are talking tions, materials, age, and curing history
about. The standard tests do not always offer the logical basis for comparison and
supply information that permits dis- extrapolation; laboratory specimens
crimination between one piece of con- made to be examined or salvaged just
crete and another, but direct obser- after compression tests provide a good
vation on the relevant scale does supply source of such comparative material.
it. There are n possible concretes all Specimens exposed to laboratory air out-
having 2-in. slumps determined ac- side the moist room or curing tank for
cording to ASTM Method C 143, * with more than a few hours are not suitable,
air contents of 5 per cent determined because specimens that are cracked or
according to ASTM Method C 231, a with that have slender cross-sections some-
4500-psi compressive strength at 28 times carbonate very rapidly. Specimens
days determined according to ASTM exposed to simulated weathering tests,
Method C 39, 3 but the No. 2 cylinder in or wetting-and-drying cycles, or pro-
the set of 3 broken on day A in labora- longed drying, even at room temperature,
tory B is unique, perceptibly and logi- should not be considered as representa-
cally, from Nos. 1 and 3, and from tive of standard curing or natural
all the members of the other possible weathering.
sets, and the top is different from the
bottom as cast. The salient lesson from INTERPRETATIONOF OBSERVATIONS
the study of composition and fabric of
Normal Concrete:
concrete is the individuality and unique-
ness of each structure or part of a struc- The most valuable information that
ture, of each specimen, of each thin can be obtained by petrographic exam-
section; this individual combination of ination of concrete comes from the
fabric and composition reflects the his- examination of normal concrete; only b y
tory and uniquely conditions the future comparison with the range of constitu-
of the concrete. I t should be clear that ents and fabrics in normal concrete can
what is investigated at any time is that which differs from the normal be
particular concrete, not concrete in gen- recognized and specified. Unless it can
eral. Each structure and each part of a be demonstrated that the constituents,
Structure is unique in terms of contents, or the proportions of constituents, or the
fabric, history, and exposure. fabric, depart from those found in
serviceable concrete of the age and class
Comparisons: in the region, there is no logical basis
To say that each structure and speci- for assuming any connection between
men is unique does not mean that com- constituents, or proportions, or fabric,
parisons are useless or impossible; they and service behavior. Even when it can
are essential, and concretes can be be shown that a concrete has a peculiar
rationally grouped and usefully com- service record and some unique feature
pared within classes and between classes, or features not shared by a dozen others
if the basis for the grouping is obiective. of comparable class, age, and prove-
Each comparison is an abstraction that nance, it remains to be seen whether the
leaves out of account some character- unique feature and the peculiar service
istics of the things compared, so that it is record are causally connected, or whether
necessary to bear in mind that the both are related to some third or nth
accidentally or deliberately omitted fac- factor that is the effective cause of the
tors may prove to be important. Paste, behavior.
mortar, or concrete of known propor- For this discussion, "normal" con-
MATItER ON PETROGRAPHIC ]~XAMINATION 73
stituents and fabrics are defined as age is known or unless one has younger
those present in serviceable concrete of and older concretes of otherwise com-
the class and age in the region. "Ser- parable characteristics, so that the age
viceable" is used instead of "unde- of the unknown may be estimated in
teriorated" because it {s possible to tell relation to the knowns, it may be im-
whether concrete in a structure is serv- possible to judge the significance of
ing as it was intended to, but the criteria observations. As an example, in one case
that distinguish inevitable chemical and calcium sulfoaluminate was found in
physical changes from deterioration in many voids as far as 5 in. from the outer
concrete 20 or 50 years old have not surfaces of a concrete pavement of high
been established. flexural and compressive strength and of
unknown age. In other field concrete
Class of Concrete: from the region, calcium sulfoaluminate
The restriction to concrete of one is commonly present in concrete over
class is necessary because changes in five years old made with type I or type
cement content, water-cement ratio, and I I I cement, but it is not abundant and
maximum size of aggregate large enough is confined to voids near outer surfaces.
to change the class entail such large If the concrete of unknown age is in
changes in properties that no close com- fact five or seven years old, it differs
parison will be significant. If, for ex- conspicuously from others of compa-
ample, the criteria for paving concrete rable age and class in the region and the
are applied to mass concrete, it would difference probably justifies some con-
appear that all mass concrete is very cern about its future; if it is 15 years old,
inferior, which it is not for the purpose it is peculiar but the peculiarity is
it is intended to serve. Class of con- probably of less practical importance.
crete is important in the definition as it
implies relative homogeneity in mixture Provenance of Concrete:
proportions, particularly in water-ce- Restriction to one region promotes
ment ratio, cement factor, and maxi- rational comparison from several points
mum size of aggregate. I t is possible by of view. The aggregates economically
microscopic methods to sort mass con- available in an area are determined by
cretes that are fairly homogeneous in the regional geology and consequently
cement content and water-cement ratio show some homogeneity of composition
into order of increasing age, or it is resulting from similarity of origin and
possible to sort mass concretes fairly history. In a particular region, cements
homogeneous in age in order of increas- and aggregates economically available
ing cement content. In terms of the are made into concrete and exposed to
ability to sort mass concrete micro- the climate characteristic of the region--
scopically, fairly homogeneous in cement the prevailing temperature range and
content and water-cement ratio means a temperature frequency distribution and
maximum difference in cement content the characteristic amount and sequence
of about 0.5 bags per cu yd, and 0.1 by of precipitation. The extent of a region
weight or 1.13 gal per bag in water- of comparable concrete m a y vary from
cement ratio. a few square miles to many thousands,
Age of Concrete: depending on variation in: (1) regional
geology as it determines quantity and
Some restriction on the ages of con- uniformity of aggregate supply; (2)
cretes compared is necessary unless age topography---a region of low relief and
is the variable being studied. Unless the generally uniform slope such as the
74 TESTS AND !PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
Great Plains, or the Atlantic or Gulf A. What process or processes could

Coastal Plain, has widespread, essentially produce the described results?
comparable range and distribution of B. What observable traces could the
temperature and precipitation, but in a process or processes leave in the con-
region of high relief and broken slopes, crete?
temperature varies considerably with C. Would such traces be unique and
altitude, and precipitation with orienta- specific evidence of what is supposed to
tion to prevailing winds, making im- have happened?
portant differences in exposure over Let us consider, for example, two 6 by
short distances~ and (3) patterns of dis- 12-in. cylinders made at a field project
tribution of aggregates and cement from during the winter; the 28-day strengths
competitive sources. were 885 and 1025 psi, less than 25 per
An additional influence that may ap- cent of the strengths obtained from
pear is a prevailing engineering opinion, earlier and later cylinders made, cured,
in an organization placing concrete in a and tested under presumably similar
large area, on what is desirable in mix- conditions; the resident engineer sus-
ture proportions or methods of placing pects an overdose of air-entraining
or consolidation. In building gravity agent.
dams the Corps of Engineers restricts
the height of a single lift to 5 to 789ft (19), A. Processes That Could Produce Results:
while the Hydroelectric Power Com- (1) Excessive air-content does lower
mission of Ontario has placed gravity compressive strength; this reduction is so
dams up to 70 ft high in one continuous drastic as to require an excess of great
operation (2o). The intention in the magnitude as a sufficient cause. Mis-
first case is to minimize generation of takes in batching, such as (2) too little
heat and in the second to eliminate cement, (3) too much water, and (4)
horizontal construction joints. Such early freezing are other obvious possibil-
differences in emphasis entail differences ities.
in mixture proportions, plant, and con-
struction practice that are bound to B. Traces That These Processes Could
affect the fabric and character of the Leave:
concrete. The existence of satisfactory (1) Excessive air content can be
structures built in many different ways recognized at low magnification, and
underlines the need to define "normal" verified and quantified by comparison
concrete in objective and restricted with concrete of known air content and
terms. by count. (2) Too little cement can be
demonstrated by comparing thin or
E~MPLE polished sections from cylinders of nor-
Although the author considers that real strength and the same mixture and
the most important kind of petro- age, with sections from these cylinders,
graphic examination of concrete is the and finding substantially less cement in
examination of normal concrete, usually the low-strength cylinders. (3) Too much
the concrete that a petrographer is water should produce sedimentation,
asked to examine has behaved in an uneven in air-entrained concrete, and can
expected way. Before and during the be demonstrated by comparing thin
early stages of the examination, it is sections cut parallel with the placing
useful to sum up the information on direction from cylinders of normal
the history and behavior and ask: strength, of the same mixture and age,
FIG. 1.--Void Size and Distribution in the Cement Paste Just Inside the Surface Skin, Bottom o!
Low-Strength Cylinder ( X 6).
This is the surface as received, with most of the surface skin rubbed off in handling. The void
wails can be broken with a fingernail. The sides of the cylinder show the same condition with filler
bubbles in some areas.
Fla. 2.--This Diamond-Sawed and Ground Slice of Air-Entrained Concrete ( X 6) Provides a

Comparison with Fig. 1.
The air content of the plastic concrete determined by pressure meter was 5.3 per cent; the air con-
tent of this hardened beam by micrometric count was 5.7 per cent. This surface is smoother than
the surfaces in the other photograph, but this concrete obviously has less than a third of the air
content of the other.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr7523 22:24:11 EDT 2013
with sections cut in the same orientation goes about asking relevant questions
from these cylinders, and finding prob- that can be answered by petrographic
ably a little less unhydrated cement, evidence. The general question in ex-
with a large development of calcium hy- amination of hardened concrete with
droxide rims along the undersides of peculiar behavior is: does this concrete
aggregate in the low strength cylinders. differ significantly from comparable nor-
(4) Freezing before final set may leave mal concrete, with respect to one or
imprints of ice crystals recognizable at more properties that may be shown to
low magnification. be causally connected with its behavior?
The generalized form of the null hy-
C. Unique and Specific Evidence: pothesis is that the concrete falls within
Lacking the necessary comparative the normal range in respect to a certain
material--cylinders of normal strength property or properties.
and similar age and history from the Of the four mechanisms considered,
same mixture--it is impossible to prove three should produce recognizable traces
petrographically that a large part of the in amounts that can at least be approxi-
cement was left out or that a large ex- mated. The freezing-before-final-set hy-
cess of water was put in. By making three pothesis was poorly defined in effects
sets of specimens from one mixture, one and their magnitude. The ability to be
set with normal proportions, one with quantitative and the ability to obtain
reduced cement, one with added water, confirmation by nonmicroscopic means
curing all three in standard conditions, differed in the three hypotheses. Air
breaking part in compression, and sec- content is specified in a numerical range,
tioning companion specimens, a strong in this case, 4 to 7 per cent measured at
presumption might be established that the mixer. Brown and Pierson (4) have
one of the two working hypotheses was shown and others confirmed that meas-
correct; it would not be conclusive urements of the air content of plastic
proof. Demonstration that the concrete concrete and micrometric determinations
froze before final set would depend on of the air content of the same concrete
finding the imprint of the ice crystals. allowed to set undisturbed agree very
Excessive air content, on the other hand, closely. If concrete with 7 per cent air
can be qualitatively and quantitatively was produced and if a generous allowance
demonstrated without ambiguity. for field and laboratory error is made, it
It is to be hoped that the resident would still be most surprising to find
engineer in our example is right, for the more than 10 per cent air in a supposedly
other possibilities that suggest them- normal cylinder from this project. The
selves would be harder to establish. low strengths were in the range of
In fact, examination of broken surfaces, strengths of moist-cured foamed neat
outer surfaces, and sawed slices showed cement (21). With this background we
that the air content of the concrete was conclude that unless the low strength
phenomenally high, around 25 per cent cylinders have an air content above 20
(Fig. 1) by comparison with concrete of per cent, the excessive air hypothesis
known air content (Fig. 2). The air con- could not be accepted as an adequate
tent was so high and the thin walls of explanation of the strengths. The hy-
paste between the air voids so fragile pothesis can be quantitatively expressed,
that the low strengths were explained and the quantities can be measured in
adequately by this evidence alone. more than one independent way; the
This example illustrates how one magnitudes involved can be distin-
MATIIER ON PETROGRAPHIC F , ~ I N A T I O N 77
guished by anyone who can see through a information, and a decrease in the con-
stereoscopic microscope and ask "What fidence that may be placed in the answer.
relation does the air content of A bear to I t does not belittle the petrographer to
the air content of C?" admit that he cannot make bricks with-
The quantitative aspects of both forms out straw; neither can the chemist or
of the batching-mistakes hypothesis be- the physicist or the engineer; sometimes
long to a realm that is not so well ex- he can recover evidence not accessible
plored and in which data are less easily by the other approaches. Several rea-
verified by independent means. The sons appear to make reconstructions of
volume of cement in the original mixture the history of deteriorated field con-
and the volume of calcium hydroxide at crete a difficult problem; in any particu-
a given stage in hydration can be calcu- lar instance it may be important, and
lated by making certain assumptions impossible in the present state of our
which in this example could not be knowledge, to decide what weight be-
confirmed. However, given comparable longs to each.
cylinders of normal strength, the First, deteriorated field concrete that
omitted-cement hypothesis could be is referred to a laboratory or to a petrog-
checked by comparing sections from the rapher is not concrete that has failed
normal concrete with sections from the for one single obvious cause; such
low-strength concrete to see whether failures can be and are explained on the
there was a difference between the spot to the satisfaction of the field forces.
amount of unhydrated cement per unit The field concrete that is examined by a
area. If the difference were to provide a petrographer is concrete that has wor-
satisfactory explanation, it would be ried some responsible person enough to
fairly large and should be perceptible to make the effort and expense of sampling
an observer able to recognize unhydrated and testing appear justified. There is a
cement in thin or polished sections. built-in bias in the sampling process.
Some petrographers might choose to Normally, the concrete that a petrog-
count a group of 300 to 500 points on a rapher sees as part of his assigned duties
section of each kind, to obtain a result is controversial concrete sent in by or-
that can be expressed as a number, with ganizations with alert conscientious con-
the understanding that the sample was crete technologists. In practice, this
not adequate; others would prefer to generally means that he sees only the
look at several areas and express the re- poor concrete produced with better than
sults as"more t h a n . . . , " "less t h a n . . . , " average control. The worst concrete is
or "no difference recognized." The pro-
rarely sampled and sent to a petrog-
cedure in checking the extra-water hy-
rapher; good concrete is rarely contro-
pothesis is similar, but would concern
versial.
the development of calcium hydroxide
Second, the older the concrete, the
rims along undersides of fine aggregate.
less information is likely to exist about
RECONSTRUCTION OF HISTORY OF FIELD materials, proportions, conditions of
CONCRETE placing, and the characteristics that un-
The transition from examinations like deteriorated comparable concrete would
the example of the two cylinders to have. Although one can deduce from
examinations of concrete that has de- the concrete that water-cement ratio
teriorated in service involves an increase was high or low, and usually that ce-
of complexity, a decrease in available ment factor was high or low or medium,
and the general quality of the workman- stored in room conditions in one labora-
ship, one cannot reconstruct the alkali tory.
content of the cement. Aggregate sources, 2. Accelerated freezing and thawing
particularly of natural sand and gravel, in water in equipment hke that re-
can be located from their composi- quired by ASTM Method C 2903 pro-
t i o n - t h e constituents present and their duces a characteristic loss of surface skin
size distribution are diagnostic of the and loss of mortar, which is not like the
region and sometimes of the particular condition of specimens exposed on the
source. mean-tide rack at Eastport, Maine (22).
Third, deteriorated field concrete usu- Some field concrete deteriorated by
ally shows superimposed traces of natural freezing and thawing develops
several processes, with at least one in an sets of subparallel cracks normal to the
advanced stage. The most advanced placing direction of the concrete; this
process may conceal the evidence of phenomenon is not reproduced in ac-
others that were more important in celerated freezing and thawing in water.
effect. Frequently the most conspicuous 3. In our experience, concrete sent in
process is carbonation of outer surfaces for examination because it is suspected
and along the borders of old cracks. of cement-aggregate reaction usually
Fourth, laboratory test exposures are has much more advanced conspicuous
simplified compared to natural expo- internal symptoms of reaction than are
sures by the exclusion of some factors found inside mortar bars of expansive
and the regulation of those retained, and combinations examined after test ac-
often are "accelerated" by altering some cording to ASTM Method C 227. On the
factor so as to remove it from the range other hand, there has been concrete
possible in nature. Consequently, a from several field instances of unex-
laboratory procedure may result in plained deterioration recognized when
symptoms different from the symptoms the concrete was over 20 years old, where
encountered in a field example of the slight and inconspicuous signs of ce-
process the test is intended to simulate. ment-aggregate reaction appeared on
As examples: careful examination, and concrete re-
1. In field concrete examined at the garded as undeteriorated in which simi-
Waterways Experiment Station, the lar inconspicuous evidence of cement-
secondary calcium carbonate near outer aggregate reaction could be found.
surfaces and old cracks has usually been Fifth, we do not yet know enough
calcite without external crystal form, but about the compounds that hold concrete
Vaterite A (spherulitic form-birefringent together. The knowledge resulting from
calcite with interstitial water) is common progress in studies of the physical prop-
on mortar bars examined after test ac- erties of cement paste (23, 24, 25) can be
cording to ASTM Method C 227, 8
integrated with the knowledge developing
and has been found on freezing-and-
from the synthesis and diagnostic charac-
thawing test beams examined after test.
ters of hydrous calcium silicates that
At present we do not know whether the
absence of Vaterite A in field concrete form below 100 C (n, 12, 13, 15, 1~, 17).
means that it is knocked off in sampling, The use of X-ray and electron diffrac-
does not form in the field, or does form tion, the electron microscope, and dif-
and gradually changes to calcite. The ferential thermal analysis in connection
spherulitic form persists at least for with the direct techniques offers the
several months in laboratory specimens chance of determining whether there are
M A T H E R ON PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION 79
qualitative differences in hydration prod- present, or differences in submicroscopic

ucts present, or q u a n t i t a t i v e differences fabric, t h a t are related to serviceable
in proportions of h y d r a t i o n products a n d deteriorated concrete.
REFERENCES
(1) K. Mather, "Applications of Light Micros- ment and Concrete Assn., London, pp. 216-
copy in Concrete Research," Symposium 236 (1954); discussion by P. M. de Wolff,
on Light Microscopy, Am. Soc. Testing L. Heller, W. H. Taylor, H. D. Megaw,
Mats., p. 51 (1953). (Issued as separate E. Thilo, A. Grudemo; A. E. Moore, R. H.
publication ASTM STP No. 143.) Bogue, F. M. Lea, and author, pp. 237-260.
(2) L. S. Brown, "Some Observations on the (11) H. F. W. Taylor, "Hydrated Calcium Sili-
Mechanics of Alkali-Aggregate Reaction," cates. Part I. Compound Formation at
ASTM BULLETIN, No. 205, April, 1955, p. Ordinary Temperatures," Journal, Chem-
40 (TP66). ical Soc. (London), December, 1950, pp.
(3) - - , and R. W. Carlson, "Petrographic 3682-3690.
Studies of Hydrated Cements," Proceed- , "Hydrated Calcium Silicates. Part V.
ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 36, The Water Content of Calcium Silicate
Part II, p. 332 (1936). Hydrate (I)," January, 1953, pp. 163-174.
(4) - - , and C. U. Pierson, "Linear Traverse (12) L. Holler and H. F. W. Taylor, "Hydrated
Technique for Measurement of Air in Calcium Silicates. Part II. Hydrothermal
Hardened Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Reactions: Lime:Silica Ratio 1:1," Jour-
Concrete Inst., Vol. 47, pp. 117-123 (1951). nal, Chemical Soc. (London), September,
T. F. Willis, K. Mather, L. S. Brown, and 1951, pp. 2397-2401.
C. U. Pierson, discussion of paper by Brown , "Hydrated Calcium Silicates. Part
and Pierson (4), ibid., pp. 124-1-124-7. III. Hydrothermal Reactions of Mixtures
T. F. Willis, "Measuring Air in Hardened of Lime:Silica Molar Ratio 3:2," March,
Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Concrete 1952, pp. 1018-1020.
Inst., Vol. 48, pp. 901-903 (1952). , "Hydrated Calcium Silicates. Part
K. Mather, "Measuring Air in Hardened IV. Hydrothermal Reactions: Lime: Silica
Concrete," Proceedings,Am. Concrete Inst., Ratios 2:1 and 3 :i," July, 1952, pp. 2535-
Vol. 49, pp. 61-64 (1953). 2541.
(5) L. T. Brownmilier, "The Microscope (13) ~[. W. Jeffery, "Apparatus and Methods
Structure of Hydrated Portland Cement," Employed in the X-ray Examination of
Proceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., Vol. 39, Cement Compounds at Birkbeck College
pp. 193-210 (1943). Research Laboratories," Magazine of Con-
(6) B. Mather, "Cracking of Concrete in the crete Research, No. 2, June, 1949, pp. 99-
106.
Tuscaloosa Lock," Proceedings, Highway
Research Board, Vol. 31, pp. 218-233 (14) J. D. Bernal, J. W. Jeffery, and H. F. W.
(1952). Taylor, "Crystallographic Research on the
Hydration of Portland Cement, a First
(7) D. McConnell, R. C. Mielenz, W. Y. Hol- Report," Magazine of Concrete Research,
land, and K. T. Greene, "Cement-Aggre- No. 11, October, 1952, pp. 49-54.
gate Reaction in Concrete," Proceedings, (15) G. L. Kalousek, "Application of Differen-
Am. Concrete Inst., Vol. 44, pp. 93-128 tial Thermal Analysis in a Study of the
(1948). System Lime-Silica-Water," Proceedings of
(8) R. D. Terzaghi, "Concrete Deterioration in the Third International Symposium on the
a Shipway," Proceedings, Am. Concrete Chemistry o/Cement, London, 1952, Cement
Inst., Vol. 44, pp. 977-1005 (1948). and Concrete Assn., London, pp. 296-311
(9) R. H. Bogue, "The Chemistry of Portland (1954).
Cement," Reinhold Publishing Co., New (16) R. W. Nurse and H. F. W. Taylor, discus-
York, N. Y., 2nd Ed. (1955). (Unpublished sion, ibid., pp. 311-318.
work by G. W. Ward, pp. 607-615.) (17) E. B. Knopf, "Structural Petrology," Mem-
(10) J. D. Bernal, "The Structures of Cement oir 6, Geological Society of America,"
Hydration Compounds," Proceedings of the New York, N. Y., p. 12 (1938). (Trans-
Third International Symposium on the lated from Bruno Sander, "Gefugekunde
Chemistry of Cement, London, (1952), Co- der Gesteine.")
(18) T. C. Powers, discussion, Proceedingsof the Treat Island, Maine," Proceedings, Am.
Third International Symposium on the Concrete Inst., Vol. 50, pp. 141-172 (1953).
Chemistry of Cement, London, 1952, Cement (23) T. C. Powers and T. L. Brownyard,
and Concrete Assn., London, pp. 426427 "Studies of the Physical Properties of
(1954). Hardened Portland Cement Paste," Pro-
(19) Corps of Engineers, Office, Chief of En- ceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., Vol. 43, pp.
gineers, "Standard Practice for Concrete" 101-132, 249-336, 469-504, 549-602, 669-
(Preliminary), Chapter 5, p. 86 (1953). 712, 845-880, 933-992 (1947).
(20) R. B. Young, "Frost-Resistant Concrete," (24) T. C. Powers, "The Air-Requirement of
Proceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., Vol. 36, Frost-Resistant Concrete," Proceedings,
pp. 477-490 (1940). Highway Research Board, %7ol.29, pp. 184-
(21) R. C. Valore, Jr., "Cellular Concretes 202 (1949).
Part 2," Proceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., (25) T. C. Powers and R. A. Helmuth, "Theory
Vol. 50, p. 820 (1954). of Volume Changes in Hardened Portland
(22) T. B. Kennedy, and K. Mather, "Correla- Cement Paste During Freezing," Proceed-
tion Between Laboratory Accelerated ings, Highway Research Board, Vol. 32,
Freezing and Thawing and Weathering at p. 285 (1953).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
STATIC AND FATIGUE S T R E N G T H

BY CLYDE E. KESLER1 AND CHESTER l3. SIESS1
Tests to determine strength are un- or durability. And finally, the concrete-
doubtedly the most common type made making properties of the various in-
to evaluate the properties of hardened gredients of the mix are usually measured
concrete. There are three reasons for this: in terms of the compressive strength.
(a) The strength of concrete, in com-
pression, tension, shear, or a combination Test Specimens:
of these, has in most cases a direct in- Test specimens to determine the com-
fluence on the load-carrying capacity of pressive strength of concrete are gener-
both plain and reinforced structures. ally obtained from four different sources:
(b) Of all the properties of hardened con- (a) cylinders made in the laboratory, (b)
crete, those concerning strength can cylinders made in the field, (c) cores of
usually be determined most easily. (c) hardened concrete cut from structures,
By means of correlations with other more and (d) portions of beams broken in
complicated tests, the results of strength flexure (modified cubes). Each type of
tests can be used as a qualitative indica- test specimen has a specific purpose or
tion of other important properties of purposes.
hardened concrete. Cylinders made in the laboratory
constitute a large portion of the com-
COgPI~ESSlVE STRENGa'E pression test specimens. Their purpose
Significance of Compressive Strength: is twofold: first, in research, to determine
the effect of variations in materials or
The compressive strength of concrete conditions of manufacture, storage, or
is one of its most important and useful testing on the strength and other prop-
properties and one of the most easily erties of concrete; and, second, as con-
determined. In most structural applica- trol tests in conjunction with (a) tests
tions, concrete is employed primarily to on plain or reinforced concrete members
resist compressive stresses. In those or structures, or (b) tests to determine
cases where strength i n tension or in other properties of hardened concrete.
shear is of primary importance, the com- The ASTM Method of Making and
pressive strength is frequently used as Curing Concrete Compression and
a measure of these properties. Similarly, Flexure Test Specimens in the Labora-
the compressive strength is used as a tory (C 192) 2 describes in detail methods
measure of the over-all quality of the for preparation and examination of the
concrete and thus as an indication of constituent material; proportioning and
other properties relating to deformations mixing of concrete; determining the con-
sistency of the mix; and molding, curing,
1Associate Professor of Theoretical and Ap- and capping of the specimens. The
plied Mechanics, and Research Professor of
Civil Engineering, respectively, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
81
www.astm.org
standard test specimen is a cylinder to determine the modulus of rupture,

having a height twice its diameter. as in highway construction, since the
The procedure for making standard broken portions of these beams may be
cylinders in the field is described in the used to determine the compressive
ASTM Standard Method of Making strength. The ASTM Standard Method
and Curing Concrete Compression and of Test for Compressive Strength of
Flexure Test Specimens in the Field Concrete Using Portions of Beams
(C 31). 2 The purpose of cylinders made Broken in Flexure (C 116) 2. describes
in the field may be to check the adequacy the procedure and apparatus necessary
of the laboratory mix design, to de- to determine compressive strength by
termine when a structure may be put in what is called the modified cube method.
service, or to measure and control the The projection of the beam beyond the
quality of the concrete. The curing used loading plates in the modified cube test
will depend on the purpose of the test. may affect the strength, yielding a lower
Cores are often drilled from hardened value if the projection is less than 2 in.;
concrete when the results of the standard if the projection is greater than 2 in.,
test cylinders are unsatisfactory or when there will probably be no significant
investigations are made of old structures. effect. It would be desirable to have a
The ASTM Standard Method of Secur- correction factor which could be applied
ing, Preparing, and Testing Specimens to the modified cube strength to give
from Hardened Concrete for Compres- the cylinder strength. Although results
sive and Flexural Strengths (C 42) 2 of investigations in general do not agree
covers the procedure for securing and on any one correction factor (4), it should
testing the cylindrical cores which are be possible, for a specific set of circum-
most commonly used for determining stances, to obtain and use a specific cor-
compressive strength. The core should be rection factor.
cut in such a manner that when the test
Making Test Specimens:
load is applied it wiU act in the same
direction as the service load. The ratio The compressive strength is affected
of height to diameter of cores may vary, by many variables encountered in the
and only seldom will it be possible to making of test specimens. These include
obtain a height to diameter ratio of two. size of aggregate, size and shape of test
ASTM Method C 42 gives correction specimen, compaction of concrete, type
factors for converting the strength of of mold, capping procedure and material,
a test core to that of a standard cylinder curing, temperature, and moisture con-
with a height to diameter ratio of two. tent at the time of test.
It should be realized that the magnitude It is generally accepted that the di-
of this correction may depend on the age, ameter of the test specimen should be
strength, mL,:, and moisture content of at least three times the nominal size of
the core at the time of test (1, 2, 3).3 the coarse aggregate. A 6 by 12-in. cyl-
The modified cube test is the most inder is the standard for aggregate
recent of the various test methods for smaller than 2 in. If the aggregate is too
determining the compressive strength of large for the size of mold available, the
concrete. It is particularly useful in oversize aggregate may be removed by
cases where beam specimens are made wet screening (5, 6). If a mold having
a diameter less than three times the
8 The boldface numbers in parentheses refer maximum size of the aggregate is used,
to the list of references appended to this paper,
see p. 91. the compressive strength will be lowered.
KESLER AND SIESS ON STATIC AND FATIGUE STRENGTH 83
However, a larger mold may be used; required for each mix, depending mainly
in some cases molds as large as 36 in. on its workability.
in diameter have been used for con- Capping is one of the most important
cretes containing very large aggregates, steps in the preparation of test speci-
such as those used in dam construction. mens. The capping material may be neat
Attention must be called to the fact portland-cement paste, high-strength
that the size of the cylinder itself affects gypsum plaster, or sulfur compounds
the observed compressive strength; for (51); in some cases the ends of the speci-
example, the strength of a cylinder 36 mens may be ground to a smooth surface.
in. in diameter by 72 in. high may be The cap should be as thin as possible
only about 82 per cent of that of a stand- and must be at least as strong as the
ard 6 by 12-in. cylinder. A reduction in concrete. After capping, the ends of the
the size of the specimen below that of the specimen should be parallel, perpendic-
standard 6 by 12-in. cylinder will yield ular to the axis of the specimen, and
a somewhat greater compressive strength plane. If the ends are more than 3 deg
(1, ~). out of parallel, the strength may be
Cylinder molds should be of non- adversely affected, and only a slight
absorbent material and are generally of amount of convexity or concavity of the
steel; however, cardboard molds are ends is sufficient to cause a decrease in
quite often used in the field. Although strength of the test specimen (9, lO).
the cardboard is heavily paraffined, in Modified cube specimens are tested with
most cases it absorbs part of the water the load applied vertically to the speci-
in the concrete mixture. The use of men in the as-cast position; for this
cardboard molds may lower the com- reason the specimen should be capped
pressive strength on the average about on both top and bottom.
3 per cent, and reductions as great as Concrete can gain in strength only as
9 per cent have been noted (7, 8). The long as moisture is available and used
exact reason for this is not known, al- for hydration (11). The standard curing
though it may be due partly to expansion conditions require that the specimen be
of the mold during the setting period of held at a temperature of 65 to 75 F and
the concrete as the result of absorption in the "moist condition" until the time
by the cardboard of water from the mix. of the test. "Moist condition" is defined
Other things being equal, a test cyl- as that in which free water is maintained
inder of poorly compacted concrete will on the surfaces of the specimen. Any
have a lower strength than one that is variation from this procedure may pro-
properly compacted. Thus, it is neces- duce a specimen having a different
sary for the standard methods to specify strength from that which would be pro-
procedures for rodding or compacting duced under standard conditions.
the concrete in the test mold. The Cylinders to be used for quality con-
methods specify that the concrete should trol should be cured according to the
be placed in the mold in three layers, standard conditions; however, cylinders
each layer being rodded with 25 strokes made in the field and tested to measure
of a }-in. diameter rod. This procedure the strength of the concrete in the struc-
is not expected to produce optimum ture may be cured in the same manner
compaction but is used in order to permit as the structure. Concrete cores are
reproducibility of results by different generally taken from partially dry con-
technicians. To obtain optimum com- crete, but the moisture content may vary
paction, a different procedure would be considerably. To obtain a degree of uni-
formity in the test specimen at the time is required on one end, and the specimen
of test, Method C 422 requires that cores should be carefully centered on this bear-
be soaked in water at room temperature ing block. Any eccentricity will tend to
for 40 to 48 hr immediately prior to being decrease the strength of the test speci-
tested and that they be tested wet. The men, the amount of decrease being
standard test for cylinders, C 39~, re- greater for low-strength than for high-
quires that they be tested wet also. If strength concretes (9).
other conditions are equal, the compres- The temperature at the time of test
sive strength of concrete cylinders or infuences the compressive strength. As
cores tested dry will be greater than that the temperature is increased, the strength
of comparable specimens tested wet (12), obtained in the test is decreased (18).
Curing temperature affects the rate For the range of temperature normally
of hydration of concrete; therefore, the encountered indoors, however, this effect
temperature of curing under standard is probably negligible.
conditions is specified as mentioned
previously. Generally speaking, low Significance of Results:
temperatures tend to give low strengths The compressive strength of concrete
whereas high temperatures give higher as determined from a standard cylinder
strengths, provided the specimens are which may be cured in the same manner
cast at the curing temperature. If the as the concrete in the structure will give
concrete is cast at a temperature lower an indication of the quality of the con-
than the curing temperature, the result- crete in the structure but not necessarily
ing strength will be higher than that the strength. The strength of concrete
obtained if both temperatures are the in a structure may be different from
same, and vice v e r s a (13, 14). that of the same concrete in a test cyl-
inder because of differences in size,
Test Procedure: shape, position of casting, degree of
Once the test specimen is made, the compaction, and conditions of restraint.
method by which it is tested may further Lack of knowledge regarding the re-
affect the strength obtained. Some of the lationship between the strengths of con-
more important influences are the rate crete in a cylinder and in a structure
of loading, the eccentricity of loading, requires the use of a larger factor of
and the temperature at the time of test. safety than would otherwise be necessary.
The strength of concrete increases as The compressive strength of concrete
the rate of loading is increased (15, 16, under long-sustained load is less than
17). For this reason the ASTM Standard that determined by the standard test
Method of Test for Compressive Strength method (19). Tests indicate also that
of Molded Concrete Cylinders (C 39), 2 a sustained stress less than about 70
which applies also to tests of cores, per cent of the short-time strength will
specifies that the rate of loading /or have little effect on the compressive
screw-powered machines shall be 0.05 strength developed in a subsequent
in. per rain and for hydraulic machines short-time static test (20).
20 to 50 psi per sec. However, the first Compressive strength may be used
half of the load may be applied at a faster also as a qualitative measure of other
rate. properties of hardened concrete. No
To insure that a central and uniformly exact quantitative relationships between
distributed load is applied to the speci- compressive strength and flexural
men, a spherically seated bearing block strength, tensile strength, modulus of
elasticity, wear resistance, fire resistance, dimensions might be desirable in some

or permeability have been established, cases. Because of the large size of speci-
nor are they likely to be. However, ap- men used, the large testing machines re-
proximate or statistical relationships quired are usually capable of applying
(21) in some cases have been established, load at a rate ranging from only a few
and these give much useful information cycles a day to 500 cpm. Thus it takes
to the engineer. It should be emphasized a minimum of two weeks to several
that the compressive strength gives only months to apply as many as 10 million
an approximation to the values of these cycles of load. Because of the time in-
properties and that other tests specifi- volved, the specimens are generally aged
cally designed to determine these prop- and air-dried before being tested in
erties should be used if more precise order to prevent gain of strength during
results are required. the test.
Compressive tests aid in the selection
TENSILE AND FLEXURAL STRENGTIt
of ingredients that may be used in mak-
ing concrete. Compressive strength is Significance of Tensile and Flexural
a measure of the effect of admixtures Strength:
which may be beneficial for one purpose, Flexural tension is most commonly
such as waterproofing, but may be detri- developed in beams and slabs as the
mental to strength and perhaps to result of loads, temperature changes,
durability. In evaluating the efficiency shrinkage, and in some cases moisture
of concrete mixers, the compressive changes. The case of simple uniaxial
strength test is frequently the principal tension is rarely encountered in struc-
criterion used, and sometimes the only tures or members, and can be obtained
one. in laboratory tests only with difficulty.
Fatigue Strength: However, significant principal tension
stresses may be associated with multi-
Concrete will, when subjected to re- axial states of stress in walls, shells, or
peated load, fail at a load smaller than deep beams.
its static strength. The fatigue strength Concrete is weak in tension, the tensile
of air-dry concrete in compression, at strength usually being between one-
about 1 to 2 million cycles of load, is eighth and one-twelfth the compressive
between 50 and 55 per cent of the static strength. Cracks occurring in concrete
strength (22, 23). There is evidence from are caused by tensile failures, and this
tests on mortars that if the concrete alone makes the tensile strength of con-
were saturated with water the fatigue crete quite important. Failures in non-
strength would be lower than for air-dry reinforced concrete beams are necessarily
concrete (24). The above value is for tensile failures.
a range of stress from zero to a maximum;
decreasing the range will increase the Test Specimens:
fatigue strength (25). No standard test has been developed
Tests for fatigue of concrete should for axial tension tests of concrete. How-
be made on specimens as large as pos- ever, for research purposes, concrete
sible in order to decrease the influence has been tested for tension in many ways:
of lack of homogeneity. The ClOSS- in the form of large briquets (26, 27),
section of the specimen should be at with clamps on the ends of cylindrical
least three times the maximum nominal specimens (28) or on specimens with
size of the aggregate, and even larger enlarged ends (zg, 30), and with the load
applied to the concrete through em- dimension at least three times the
bedded bars (31). Doubt about the uni- maximum nominal size of the coarse
formity of stress distribution in many aggregate. The span of the specimen
of these tests causes the results to be re- should be at least three times the maxi-
garded with suspicion. Tension tests mum dimension of the cross-section. A
made by the methods indicated are dif- commonly used specimen is 6 by 6 in.
ficult to perform, and the individual in cross-section, 21 in. long, and is tested
results may vary considerably. The beam under third-point loading on a span of
test for flexural tension is probably the 18 in. As the depth of the beam is in-
simplest procedure for obtaining an creased, there will be a decrease in the
indication of the tensile strength. modulus of rupture (32, 33, 34).
Flexural tension tests may be made in The method by which the concrete
several ways, the most common being is compacted may affect its strength
the ASTM Standard Method of Test for (3S); consequently the ASTM standard
Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using methods specify the manner in which
Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading) the concrete should be placed in the
(C 78), 2 and the ASTM Tentative molds. Nevertheless, test specimens in-
Method of Test for Flexural Strength tended to represent the concrete in the
of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with structure have sometimes been com-
Center-Point Loading) (C 293). 2 The pacted by vibration when this method of
second method is for small specimens placement was used in the actual con-
and is not an alternate to the first which struction.
is normally for beams 6 by 6 in. or larger Curing affects the tensile strength in
in cross-section. The results of the flex- much the same manner as it affects the
ural tests are expressed by the formula: compressive strength (28). A beam which
has been allowed to dry during the curing
MG or storage period will have tensile
I stresses in the outer fibers as a result of
where: differential volume changes due to non-
uniform drying (36). For this reason,
R =the modulus of rupture, beams tested "dry" usually yield lower
M =the maximum bending moment, flexural strengths than those tested in
c =one half the depth of the beam, and the saturated condition. Consequently,
I ---
the moment of inertia of the cross- in tests to determine or control the
section. quality of concrete, uniformity of results
This expression is based on the assump- will be assured only if the beams are
tion that the stress varies linearly across cured in the standard manner and tested
the cross-section. Such is not the case, wet. Beams tested to determine when
however, and the modulus of rupture a structure should be put into service
computed from the formula is always should be cured as nearly as practicable
greater than the actual stress. in the same manner as the structure.
Making Test Specimens: Test Procedure:

ASTM Methods C 1922 and C 312 The arrangement of the loading device
prescribe the procedures for making and beam supports in the flexure test
flexural test specimens in the laboratory must be such that only transverse loads
and in the field. The specimens should are applied (37).
have a cross-section with a minimum Beams may be tested under either
K E S L E R AND SIESS ON STATIC AND FATIGUE STRENGTI-I 87
center-point or third-point loading. they should be turned on their sides

Third-point loading invariably gives before testing and will usually require
lower strengths than center-point load- capping because of the irregularity of
ing. Tests indicate the following order the sawn surfaces. In special cases where
of decreasing magnitude of the strengths sawn beams are tested to provide specific
obtained: (1) center loading, with mo- information regarding the strength or
ment computed at center; (2) center behavior of members from which they
loading, with moment computed at are obtained, it may be desirable to test
point of fracture; and (3) third-point them in the as-cast or inverted position
loading (33, 38, 39). Third-point loading rather than on their side as required by
probably gives lower strengths because Method C 78. However, there is no as-
the maximum moment is distributed over surance that the results of such tests
a greater length of the beam; since the can be correlated with data obtained
concrete is not homogeneous, this load- from beams tested in accordance with
ing method seeks the weakest section. C 78.
The rate of load application, unless
standardized, may cause considerable Significance of Results:
variation in the results of flexure tests,
Flexural test results appear to be most
the variation being as much as 15 per
useful in pavement construction. In
cent for the range of rates that may be
such cases, the flexure test rather than
obtained in the average laboratory.
the standard compression test is fre-
The higher rates of loading give higher
quently used to determine the quality
strengths (33, 40).
of the mix. Many agencies do not even
The moisture content of the specimen
make compression tests in connection
at the time of test affects the strength
with their pavement projects. The
determined, as discussed in the preceding
strength obtained from flexure tests is
section. If the specimen is to be used as
not necessarily a precise measure of the
a measure or control of the quality of
strength of the concrete in the structure,
the concrete, it should be tested wet;
even when the curing conditions are
if the specimen is to represent the con-
duplicated. Such tests are quite useful,
crete in the structure, however, it may
however, as an indication of when the
be tested at approximately the same
concrete has gained sufficient strength
moisture content as that in the structure.
that load may be applied or the forms
The temperature of a beam specimen
removed.
at the time of test will affect the results.
As the temperature increases, the
Fatigue Strength:
strength decreases (41).
ASTM Method C 783 specifies that the Failure under repeated loads is es-
specimen shall be turned on its side pecially important in pavement design
before being tested. If the molded sides The fatigue strength in flexure of plain
are plane and parallel, the specimen concrete at several million cycles is in
then does not need to be capped; how- the neighborhood of 55 per cent of its
ever, if the molds are not satisfactory, static strength, for a range of load from
the specimen must be capped. zero to a maximum (25, 45). Tests up to
ASTM Method C 78 is also prescribed 10 million cycles indicate that concrete
for tests of beams sawn from hardened may not have an endurance limit in the
concrete. When such beams are used same sense that metals do (43). If the
primarily as a control of concrete quality, repeated load is less than 55 per cent of
88 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O~F CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
the static strength, the static strength SHEARING AND TORSIONAL STRENGTIt
as determined from a subsequent test
will probably not be impaired. Significance of Shearing Strength:
The speed of testing in the range from The importance of shearing strength
70 to 440 rpm has been found to have no as a property of concrete is evident from
effect on the fatigue strength, nor is the the fact that the standard test cylinder,
strength apparently affected by periods tested in axial compression, nearly
of rest during the test. However, the always fails by shearing along an in-
age of the test specimen, conditions of clined plane. This type of failure, how-
curing, moisture content, and range of ever, occurs as a result of combined
stress may affect the results obtained. normal and shearing stresses on the
The value of 55 per cent for the ratio plane and is discussed further in the
of fatigue to static strength in typical section on Combined Stresses. The case
tests is that for specimens moist-cured for of pure shear acting on a plane is seldom
seven days and then stored in the labora- if ever encountered in actual structures.
tory air for at least three months before Nevertheless, it is discussed briefly here
testing. Specimens that have been cured in order to provide a better understand-
more thoroughly will yield higher fatigue ing of the problems encountered in
strengths than this value, and specimens attempts to determine shearing strength.
which are kept wet during the test period
will have much lower strengths, as low Pure Shear:
as 40 per cent of the static strength (22). The resistance of concrete to pure
Specimens tested at early ages have shearing stress has never been directly
somewhat lower strengths than those determined. Whenever a state of pure
tested at ages of six months or more (44). shearing stress is produced in a test
It is possible that some of the reduction specimen, it follows from the laws of
in fatigue strength may be due to the mechanics that principal tensile stresses,
higher moisture content of the specimens equal in magnitude to the shearing
tested at early ages. stresses, must also exist on another plane.
The range of stress has a definite effect Since the strength of concrete in tension
on fatigue strength. Most tests have is less than its strength in shear, failure
been made with the stress varying from inevitably occurs as a result of tensile
zero to maximum. If the range of stress stresses before the strength in shear is
is reduced, the fatigue strength at any reached. This type of test is consequently
given life will be raised significantly. of no value for determining shearing
However, a complete reversal of stress strength.
apparently does not yield results sig- Tests intended to provide data on
nificantly different from those obtained strength in pure shear have been made
in tests with the stress varying from on beams or slabs of very short spans
zero to a maximum. with the load applied very close to the
In general, the information on fatigue supports (4S). In some of these tests,
of concrete is meager and the effects the shearing strength has been found to
of various factors on fatigue strength be only slightly greater than the tensile
have not been reliably established to the strength,' probably because tensile
extent that they can be accepted without stresses were present on the plane of
question and without further investiga- failure as the result of bending, or be-
tion in any application for which fatigue cause of local crushing due to high bear-
is a significant factor. ing stresses. In other tests of this type,
the shearing strength was found to be be greater than the tensile strength ob-
quite large, as much as 50 to 90 per cent tained from axial tension tests since the
or more of the compressive strength. In actual stress distribution is nonlinear.
these cases, it seems likely that com-
pressive stresses were present on the COMBINED STRESSES
plane of failure.
A reliable indication of the strength Significance of Combined Stresses:
of concrete in pure shear can be obtained Concrete in structures is almost never
only from tests under combined stresses, subjected to a single type of stress. Just
as discussed in the section on Combined as nearly all structural members are
Stresses. acted upon by various combinations of
moment, shear, and axial load, the con-
Torsion:
crete in them is usually subjected to some
The application of torsion alone to a combination of compressive, tensile,
concrete specimen produces pure shear- and shearing stresses.
Rupture
FIG. 1.--Typical Molar Rupture Diagram for Concrete.
ing stresses on certain planes. However, Tesls:

as has been discussed previously, failure
There is no standard test for de-
under these conditions will occur in
termining the strength and mode of
tension rather than in shear. The strength
failure of concrete subjected to com-
of concrete subjected to torsion is re-
bined stresses. For purposes of research,
lated, therefore, to its tensile strength
relatively extensive tests have been made
rather than to its shearing strength. If
on cylindrical concrete specimens under
the test specimen is a hollow cylinder,
triaxial compression (46, 47, 48). Tests
for which the tensile stresses are dis-
have also been made with combinations
tributed nearly uniformly over the cross-
of axial tension and lateral compression
section, the tensile strength determined
(31), and torsion and axial compres-
from a torsion test will usually agree
quite closely with that obtained from sion (49).
direct tension tests. However, if the test
Results of Tests:
specimen is a solid cylinder, the tensile
stress at failure, computed by means of A convenient method of interpreting
the conventional torsion formula as- the results of tests under combined
suming a linear stress distribution, will stresses is by the Mohr rupture diagrams
(Fig. 1). 4 The results of any given test stood only for conditions corresponding
under combined stresses can be repre- to that portion of the rupture diagram
sented on this diagram by the conven- to the right of the vertical axis.
tional "Mohr's circle," corresponding to The rupture line defines the limiting
the state of stress in the concrete at state of stress which can exist in the
failure. For example, circle a represents material before failure. If the combina-
the result of an unconfined compression tion and magnitudes of the stresses are
test such as the standard test cylinder; such that the Mohr's circle touches the
circle b is for an axial tension test; circle rupture line, failure will occur. For ex-
c is for the case of pure torsion; and ample, the standard cylinder tested in
circle d is representative of those ob- uniaxial compression will fail when the
tained in tests under triaxial compres- axial stress has been increased to such
sion. The results of tests under com- a value that circle a touches the rupture
bined torsion and axial compression line for the particular concrete being
would be represented by circles inter- tested. The cylinder fails on a plane on
mediate between circles c and a. which the normal and shearing stresses
Since all of the circles shown are repre- have the values given by the coordinates
sentative of the conditions at failure, the to the point at which the circle touches
envelope curve shown on Fig. 1 is the the rupture line. In the axial tension
rupture line. This line can be determined test, circle b, only tensile stresses are
for a particular concrete only by making present on the plane of failure. Similarly,
a series of tests with different combina- in the torsion test, represented by circle
tions of stress, yielding a set of circles c, failure presumably occurs on a plane
to which the rupture line must be for which the conditions are simliar to
tangent. The rupture line has been de- those in the tension test, since circles b
termined in this fashion in only rela- and c both touch the rupture line at the
tively few cases. In the most extensive same point.
investigations, only tests under triaxial The strength of concrete in pure shear
compression have been made. These that is, when no normal stresses a r e
tests yield results which are sufficient to present on the plane of failure--is the
define the rupture line only in the region stress ro in Fig. 1, measured to the inter-
to the right of the vertical axis. How- section of the rupture line with the verti-
ever, the rupture line has been extended cal axis On the basis of the available
to the vertical axis and beyond by test data, the value of the strength of
statistical procedures (4s) and by making concrete in pure shear is approximately
use of the circle for the axial tension 20 pe~ cent of the compressive strength
test (circle b) (So). The portion of the (48, 49, 50). The shearing strength when
rupture line in the neighborhood of the normal stresses also occur on the p l a n e
vertical axis may also be determined of failure may be greater or less than
from the results of tests under combined To, depending on whether the stresses
torsion and compression. At the present are compression or tension.
time, however, the strength characteris- The results represented b y a circle
tics of concrete under combined stresses such as d indicate that the axial com-
are reasonably well known and under- pressive strength of concrete is ap-
preciably increased by the existence of
l a t e r a l confining pressures such as those
4 For a discussion of Mohr's circle and
Mohr's rupture diagram, see paper by Richart, exerted by the spiral reinforcement in
Brandizaeg, and Brown (46), p. 11. a column. The increase in axial strength
KESLER AND SIESS ON STATIC AND FATIGUE STRENGTII 91
over the u n c o n f i n e d compressive s t r e n g t h fining pressures (46, 48) to a b o u t 2.5

ranges from as m u c h as 4 or 5 times the or 3 times t h a t stress for large confining
v a l u e of the lateral stress for small con- pressures (48).
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of Concrete Test Cylinders," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 54, p. 1178
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 41, p. 1038 (1954).
(1941). (22) W. K. Hart, "Researches in Concrete,"
(11) H. F. Gonnerman, "Some Tests on the Bulletin No. 24, Engineering Experiment
Effect of Age and Condition of Storage on Station, Purdue University (1925).
the Compressive Strength of Concrete," (23) J. L. Van Ornum, "Fatigue of Concrete,"
Proceedi,gs, Am. Concrete Inst., Vol. 14, Transactions, Am. Soe. Civil Engrs., Vol.
p. 101, (1918). 58, p. 294 (1907).
(12) H. J. Gilkey, "The Moist Curing of (24) M. O. Withey and G. W. Washa, "Ms-
terials of Construction," John Wiley and (36) W. F. Keilerman, "The Effect of Curing
Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y. p. XV-24 Conditions on the Strength of Concrete
(1954). Test Specimens Containing Burnt Clay
(25) O. Graf and E. Brenner, "Versuche zur Aggregates," Public Roads, Vol. 18, No. 3,
Ermittlung der Widerslandsfahigkeit yon May, 1937, p. 53.
Beton gegen offmals wiederholte Druckbe- (37) A. T. Goldbeck, "Apparatus for Flexural
lastung; 2 Teil. Deutscher Ausschuss fur Tests of Concrete Beams," Report of
Eisenbeton," Heft 83 (1936). Committee C-9 on Concrete and Concrete
(26) J. P. Nash, "Tests of Concrete Road Aggregates, Appendix VIII, Proceedings,
Aggregates," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 30, Part I,
Mats., Vol. EVIl, Part II, p. 394 (1917). p. 591 (1930).
(27) J. W. Johnson, "Relationship Between (38) Report of Director of Research, Portland
Strength and Elasticity of Concrete in Cement Assn. (1928).
Tension and Compression," Bulletin 2Vo. (39) W. F. Kellermann, "Effect of Size of
90, Iowa State College (1928). Specimen, Size of Aggregate, and Method
(28) It. F. Gonnerman and E. C. Schuman, of Loading Upon the Uniformity of Flexural
"Tests of Plain Concrete," Proceedings, Strength Tests," Public Roads, Vol. x n I ,
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 28, Part II, No. 11, January, 1933, p. 177.
p. 527 (1928). (40) L. W. Teller, discussion of Symposium on
(29) A. T. Goldbeck, "An Investigation of the Field Control of the Quality of Concrete,
Distribution of Stress in Reinforced Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
Concrete Beams, Including a Comparative 27, Part n, p. 418 (1927).
Study of Plain Concrete in Tension and
(41) G. A. Parkinson, S. P. Finch, and J. E.
Compression," Proceedings, Am. Soc.
Hoff, "Preliminary Report on Relation
Testing Mats., Vol. X, p. 376 (1910).
(30) A. N. Johnson, "Concrete in Tension," Between Strength of Portland Cement
Mortar and Its Temperature at Time of
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
26, Part II, p. 441 (1926). Test," Bulletin No. 2825, Engineering
Research Series No. 26, University of
(31) "Direct Compression on Shear in Concrete
Culverts," a supplementary report of Texas, July 1, 1928.
"Tensile and Flexural Strength of Con- (42) H. F. Clemmer, "Fatigue of Concrete,"
crete:" Corps of Engineers, Ohio River Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
Division Laboratories, Mariemont, Ohio, 22, Part n, p. 408 (1922).
May, 1954. (43) c. E. Kesler, "Effect of Speed of Testing
(32) John Tucker, Jr., "Statistical Theory of on Flexural Fatigue Strength of Plain
the Effect of Dimensions and of Method Concrete," Proceedings, Thirty-Second
of Loading Upon the Modulus of Rupture Annum Meeting, Highway Research
of Beams," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Board, Vol. 32, p. 251 (1953).
Mats., Vol. 41, p. 1072 (1941). (44) R. B. Crepps, "Fatigue of Mortar,"
(33) P. J. F. Wright and F. Garwood, "The Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
Effect of the Method of Test on the 23, Part n, p. 329 (1923).
Flexural Strength of Concrete," Magazine (45) A. N. Talbot, "Tests of Concrete: I.
o/ Concrete Research, No. 11, October, Shear; II. Bond," Bulletin No. g, Engi-
1952, p. 67. neering Experiment Station, University of
(34) K. E. C. Nielsen, "Effect of Various Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (1906).
Factors on the Flexural Strength of (46) F. E. Richart, Anton Brandizaeg, and
Concrete Test Beams," Magazine of R. L. Brown, "A Study of the Failure of
Concrete Research, No. 15, March, 1954, Concrete Under Combined Compressive
p. 105. Stresses," Bulletin No. 185, Engineering
(35) L. W. Teller, "Study of the Effect of the Experiment Station, University of Illinois,
Method of Fabrication on the Strength and Urbana, IlL (1928).
Uniformity of Flexure Test Specimens of (47) F. C. Smith and R. Q. Brown, "The
Concrete," Report of Committee C-9 on Shearing Strength of Cement Mortar,"
Concrete and Concrete Aggregates, Ap- Bulletin No. 106, Engineering Experiment
pendix I, Proceedings, Am. Soe. Testing Station, University of Washington, Seattle,
Mats., Vol. 29, Part I, p. 315 (1929). Wash. (1941).
(48) G. Bakner, "Shearing Strength of Concrete A nnales de l'Institute Technique du Batiment

Under High Triaxial Stress--Computations et des Travaux Publics, Paris, No. 173,
of Mohr's Envelope as a Curve," Structural Manual du Bet6n Arm~, No. 20, February,
Research Laboratory Report No. SP-23, 1951.
U. S. Bureau of Reclamation (1949). (51) T. B. Kennedy, "A Limited Investigation
(49) B. Bresler and K. S. Pister, "Failure of of Capping Materials for Concrete Test
Plain Concrete Under Combined Stresses," Specimens," Proceedings, Am. Concrete
Separate publication No. 674, Proceed- Inst., Vol. 41, p. 117 (1944).
ings, Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., April, 1955. (s2) Douglas McHenry and J. J. Shideler,
(50) R. Chambaud, "R~sistance du Bet6n aux "Effect of Speed in Mechanical Testing of
Contraintes Triaxiales. Noureaux essais Concrete," to be published by ASTM, see
am~ricains. Discussion et interpretation," index of 1955 Proceedings.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
ELASTIC P R O P E R T I E S
BY L . W . TELLER 1
Elasticity is that property of a ma- constituent materials, by the moisture

terial which enables it to deform under and temperature conditions which exist
the action of an external force and to within the concrete mass, and by other
return to its original size and shape upon factors. Furthermore its response to the
removal of the force. Like most other action of external forces varies with the
structural materials, concrete possesses time duration and other characteristics
to a certain degree this property of elas- of those forces and, under the action of
ticity. Although possibly never perfectly a simple sustained external force, it ex-
elastic, it is sufficiently so that within hibits an inelastic deformation that has
limits of stress and of time its behavior been variously termed "creep," "de-
can be predicted quite accurately by the ferred strain," "plastic flow," "time
theory of elasticity. yield," "plastic strain," etc. These char-
The property of elasticity of concrete acteristics of the material may have im-
is usually studied by means of certain portant influences on its elastic behavior
elastic constants which are determined and should receive careful consideration
experimentally. Those most likely to be in connection with tests made to deter-
utilized by the engineer or designer are mine elastic properties.
the moduli of elasticity in simple com- Since the elastic behavior of concrete
pression, in simple tension, or in shear, is affected by conditions that in practice
and Poisson's ratio. Each of these will cannot readily be controlled, the designer
be discussed later. Certain other elastic concerned with its behavior is forced to
relations such as the modulus of resilience assume rather general and conservative
(or potential energy of deformation) and values for purposes of design instead of
the modulus of volume expansion have determining more exact values by test
been omitted purposely since it is not and requiring by specification that ma-
likely that they will be encountered in terial having such properties be fur-
the usual testing of concrete. nished. For this reason, one finds that
Concrete, when considered as a struc- tests for elastic properties of concrete
tural material, is assumed to be elasti- are not in the category of acceptance
cally homogeneous and isotropic. Actu- tests but rather are made for informa-
ally this is only approximately true in tional or investigative purposes. This
large masses of the material and may be possibly explains the general lack of
far from true in small masses. Also the ASTM methods of test for elastic proper-
elastic behavior of concrete is influenced ties of concrete.
by the proportions and nature of the The researches of recent years have
provided more definite information re-
garding the elastic behavior of concrete
I Chief, Structural Research Section, U. S.
Bureau of Public Roads, Washington, D. C. than was formerly available, and as this
94
www.astm.org
T E L L E R ON ELASTIC PROPERTIES 9.5
work continues it is to be anticipated pressive stresses of 400, 600, and 800

that the structural designer will make use psi, and the corresponding total strains
of the information in refinements of de- measured immediately and after time
sign technique that hitherto have not periods up to 3 months. These data are
been practicable. The advent of pre- typical and well illustrate this charac-
stressed concrete in the structural field teristic of concrete.
in this country has stimulated new inter- The phenomenon of creep becomes
est in the elastic properties of concrete apparent after very short time periods,
as a structural material, and it is reason- particularly at the higher stress intensi-
able to expect that, in time, standardized ties, and develops progressively, although
procedures for making tests to determine at a gradually diminishing rate, over a
the elastic properties of this material will period of several years.
be adopted. The importance of the time element in
In the paragraphs which follow, the
10
methods that are being used to determine
elastic properties will be described and ?Load~ha Curve
the significance of the data obtained will /~ 14-dafl
~ ~l-month
be discussed. //
CREEP OR PLASTIC F L O W
As mentioned earlier, concrete under
the action of a sustained external force
may be expected to deform elastically by
a certain definite amount as soon as the
~4
2
2J" / / / X f ~-3-r~onths
Normal Portland Cement Concrete

force is applied and, in addition, to de- 1:2:4 mix (by Weight) 2in. Slump
Age when Loaded-28 days
form inelastically by an amount which Specimen I0 in. Long, 3 in. In
increases with time. This yielding of the 0 Diarne,ter , I
material with time under the action of a 0 0.0002 0 . 0 0 0 4 0 . 0 0 0 6 0.0008 0.0010
Total Unit Strain - Elastic and Creep, in.
sustained force, termed creep or plastic
flow, is treated in detail in another paper FIG. 1.--Creep of a N o r m a l Portland-Cement
Concrete (Data from GlanviUe (1)).
in this publication. 2 The property is dis-
cussed here only because of its influence the stress-strain relationship has been
on the elastic stress-strain relation, the recognized by many investigators. Mur-
two properties being so intimately asso-
phy (2) has suggested that the charac-
ciated that it is difficult to determine teristics of the material could best be
where the one stops and the other begins, shown in a three-dimensional diagram as
if indeed there is a distinction. The im-
a stress-straln-time surface. The effect
portance of the property will be appreci-
of the time duration of a stress on the
ated when it is realized that the final
resulting strain will be referred to again
deformation under a sustained load may
later.
be as much as three times the immediate
With plain concrete the simplest way
deformation. Figure 1 shows data ob-
in which allowance for creep can be made
tained in tests by Glanville (1)3 in which
is by an assumed modulus of elasticity
specimens were subjected to axial cam-
value that has been deliberately lowered
2 See paper by Washa, p. 115. to take into account the anticipated
a The boldface n u m b e r s in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper, inelastic deformation. This is sometimes
see p. 102. referred to as the "effective (or sus-
tained) modulus of elasticity." That this nally placed in the steel and for this reason
method may lead to a false impression of must be carefully considered in estab-
the conditions of stress and strain within lishing the initial conditions of prestress.
a structure has been pointed out by In view of the increasing use of pre-
McHenry (3) who has proposed a more stressed concrete, it seems likely that
scientific approach to the problem. research on creep will be stimulated and
Others who have suggested means for that refinements in design techniques will
estimating the magnitude of the creep become possible.
3200 i
J
2800 /
2400
2000
~1600 /
1200
800 /
400
0.0004 0.0008 0.00012

Unit Strain,in.
FIG. 2.--Stress-Strain Data Obtained in Axial Compression Tests of Two 6 by 12-in. Con-
crete Cylinders.
to be expected under various conditions MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (6)

are Lorman (4) and Ross (S). If a solid body such as concrete is
In reinforced-concrete structures, the subjected to the action of an external
property of creep leads to a redistribu- force, the material will be deformed.
tion of stresses in the concrete and in the The relation between an increment of
steel with time. Frequently this may be stress and the corresponding increment
beneficial through the relief of high local of strain may be expressed as follows:
stress conditions caused by distortion.
Under other conditions it may be harm- {Tx
ful. In prestressed concrete structures E

where relatively high sustained stresses where:
are developed both in the steel and in the e, -- unit strain,
concrete, the creep characteristics of the ~, = unit stress, and
concrete tend to relax the tension origi- E = modulus of elasticity.
TELLER ON ELASTIC PROPERTIES 97
This relation was first established experi- The data are included to illustrate the
mentally b y Robert Hooke and published variable nature of the stress-strain rela-
by him in 1678. tion of concrete. With specimen No. A-4
I t is apparent that the amount of the relation was rectilinear up to the
strain that results from a given stress is point where the strain gages were re-
measured b y the modulus, E, and t h a t moved, whereas for specimen No. 5 the
for a perfectly elastic material this term relation was curvilinear from the start
would have a constant value. Since con- of the test. The fact that concrete fre-
crete is imperfectly elastic, it is perhaps quently shows some curvature in the
better to define the modulus of elasticity stress-strain relation has led to several
proposals for a method by which an
empirical constant is obtained that is
assumed to represent by a straight line
the equivalent of a more or less curvilin-
ear relation. These proposals are shown
in Fig. 3 and are defined as follows:
Initial Tangent Modulus.--The slope of the
stress-strain curve at the origin.
Tangent Modulus.--The slope of the stress-
cco strain curve at any specified point (B).

Secant Modulus.--The slope of the secant
drawn from the origin to any specified
point on the curve (C).
~ Secant Chord Modulus.--The slope of the chord
drawn between any two specified points
on the curve (A to D) (7).
I t is evident that these are practical

expedients and that the magnitude of
the error introduced b y their use will
depend upon the degree of curvature of
the stress-strain relation in the range
Unit Stroin
over which they are applied.
FIG. 3.--Illustrating Various Methods for Ob-
taining the Constant E from Stress-Strain Data. The stress-strain relation may be de-
termined for concrete in compression, in
as the rate of change of stress with re- tension, or in shear applied directly, or
spect to strain. I t will be noted that this it may be determined indirectly from a
is also the definition for the slope of the flexure test. Whatever the method of
stress-strain curve at any point. The test, it is desirable to avoid conditions
steeper the slope the greater will be the that produce combined stresses in that
value of the modulus and the more re- part of the specimen where strains are
sistant to deformation will be the ma- being measured.
terial.
In Fig. 2 are shown stress-strain data
Modulus of Elasticity in Compression:
obtained by the author in axial com- The compression test is probably the
pression tests on two 6 by 12-in. cylinders one most commonly employed for the
of concrete that were identical except determination of the modulus of elastic-
for the character of the coarse aggregate. ity where the modulus is to be used for
structural design or similar purposes, be- loading. It is important also that the
cause for such purposes it is the relatively temperature and moisture states of the
high compressive strength of the material specimen remain unchanged during the
that is utilized. test.
In making the test a standard 6 by Not less than three specimens, and
12-in. compression specimen is frequently preferably more, should be used for a
employed, although a larger or smaller test. Walker (7) has recommended that
cylinder, a drilled core, or a prism can at least ten specimens be used to obtain
be used. Care should be taken to obtain a representative value.
as uniform distribution of the com- The value of the modulus of elasticity
pressive forces over the ends of the speci- for concrete is affected by a number of
men as is possible. Strain gages are usu- conditions, the characteristics of the
ally applied to opposite or to otherwise coarse aggregate being perhaps the most
symmetrically spaced axial elements of important. Considering only such con-
the specimen. The gage length preferably cretes as are being used for important
should not exceed one half the length of structural work at the present time, the
the specimen. It is desirable also that it value will generally be within the range
be not too short because of the possible 3,000,000 to 6,000,000 psi when tested in
effects of pieces of coarse aggregate in compression.
localizing strains. For most concretes a
gage length of 3 to 6 in. will be found Modulus of Elasticity in Tension:
most satisfactory. Strain gage equipment
Tests to determine the stress-strain
should be selected for maximum sensi-
relations for concrete when subjected to
tivity. Apparatus of the Martens' type
direct tension have been reported by A.
(s) has proved to be well suited to the
N. Johnson (12), J. W. Johnson (13),
requirements of the test. Electrical re- Davis, Davis, and Brown (10), and others.
sistance strain gages of the types that
In general, the methods of test have
have become commercially available dur- differed from those used in compression
ing recent years may be applied along testing for elastic properties principally
axial elements of the specimen or, when in the matter of gripping the specimens
encased in a waterproof sheath, may be for a tension test. Because of the very
embedded along the axis of specimens
limited stress range of concrete under
prepared especially for the test. Measure- direct tension, careful consideration must
ments with resistance gages of other be given to the instrumentation and test-
types embedded in the specimens have
ing technique when making this test.
been reported by other investigators
(9, 10). Various types of compressometers Modulus of Elaslicity in Flexure:
with micrometer dial indicators have also
been used for measuring strains in con- The stress-strain relation for concrete
crete specimens for the modulus of elas- in flexure may be determined by tests in
ticity determination (7, 11). which the compressive and tensile strains
When determining the stress-strain are measured on a plain concrete prism
relation in the manner just described, it or beam subjected to flexure. Preferably
is important that the time interval dur- the specimen should be simply supported
ing which increments of stress and strain and so loaded as to produce uniform
are developed be kept uniform and as bending moment in the region where the
short as possible because of the tendency strains are measured. In making this
of concrete to creep under sustained test, it is desirable to employ at least
four gages, one for tensile strain and one

I t will be noted that as the value of h-
for compressive strain on each lateral l
face of the test specimen. The gages increases the effect of shear increases.
should be symmetrically arranged in a For plain concrete specimens of usual di-
common cross-section of the prism. mensions the effect of shear on deflec-
The modulus of elasticity of concrete tion may be appreciable.
may also be determined in a flexure test Because of the possible effects of creep,
by making use of the deflection charac- a test for modulus of elasticity by de-
teristics of the specimen. If a concrete flection measurement should be made in
prism or beam is simply supported and the shortest time practicable.
loaded at mid-span and if only the de-
flection caused by the bending moment M o d u l u s of Elasticity in Shear:
is considered, the maximum ordinate to
the elastic curve is related to the modulus Torsion creates a condition of pure
of elasticity of the concrete in the follow- shear, making possible a method for de-
ing expression: termining the modulus of elasticity in
shear or the modulus of rigidity, as it is
pl ~
3= sometimes called.
48EI In making this test a known torque
where: is applied to the specimen, usually cylin-
= maximum deflection, drical in form, and the angle of twist
P = applied central loach, developed over a certain gage length is
l = distance between supports, measured. The torque-twist relation, or
E = modulus of elasticity of the con- modulus of elasticity in shear, for a cy-
crete, and lindrical specimen is given by the equa-
I = moment of inertia of the section tion:
with respect to the centroidal axis.
From this it would appear that it is Mtl
G = - -
necessary only to measure the central

deflection in order to determine the
modulus of elasticity. The equation, where:
however, neglects the deflection caused G = modulus of elasticity in shear,
by the dead weight of the specimen, Mt = torque moment,
which usually is negligible, and also the l = length over which angle of twist is
deflection caused by shear, which m a y be developed,
appreciable under some conditions. 4,z = angle of twist (in radians) in
The combined deflection resulting from length l, and
both the bending moment and shear is Ip = polar moment of inertia of the
(,4): cross-section.
I t is apparent that it is necessary only
to determine by test the relation be-
= 48EI 1 + (2.4+ 1.5;~)
tween increments of torque and incre-
ments of torsional deformation or angle
of twist. The slope of the curve developed
l
in this manner when multiplied by
in which the terms are the same as in
the preceding expression and ~ = Pois- gives the modulus of elasticity in shear
son's ratio and h = depth of the beam. at the point at which the slope was de-
I00 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
l . applied at various time rates (16, 17, 18,

termined. The term ~ is constant for a
19). These studies have consistently
given test. shown that both the strength and elastic
The value of the torque moment and properties of concrete are affected by this
of the angle of twist may be determined time factor. Watstein's tests (19) indicate
by any one of several means. Andersen that the modulus of elasticity values ob-
(lS) reports the use of a level bar with tained from the natural frequency of
micrometer adjustment for measuring vibration of the unloaded specimen were
differences in angular change of two usually greater than the modulus values
radial arms placed a fixed distance apart for specimens under stress, even when the
on a horizontally positioned specimen. time of load duration on the stressed
This type of measuring device is quite specimen was only a fraction of a second.
simple and can be both sensitive and ac- Values for the modulus of elasticity ob-
curate. tained in his "static" tests where the
As in the determination of the modulus loading was applied slowly over a period
of elasticity by other means, the possible of about 30 rain were always smaller than
influence of creep on the measured def- those from his dynamic tests.
ormations should be given consideration. SIGNIFICANCE OF TESTS FOR MODULUS
Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity: OS ELASTICITY
In another paper in this publication, 4 In the previous discussion it has been
certain relatively new methods for de- brought out (1) that the modulus of
termining the elastic properties of con- elasticity shows the relation between an
crete are described in detail. These are increment of stress and the corresponding
the so-called dynamic methods in which increment of strain and thus is a measure
the response of the material to small of the resistance of the material to def-
dynamic forces is determined by meas- ormation; (2) that, for concrete, the
urements of the natural frequency of stress-strain relation may be practically
vibration of a specimen of known dimen- rectilinear over a considerable part of
sions or by measurements of the velocity the usable stress range or it may have
with which sound waves travel through a more or less pronounced curvature; and
the concrete. By means of established (3) that the character of the relation for
physical relations, the measured quan- a given concrete may be affected to an
tities m a y be converted into values of important degree by the stress intensity,
the modulus of elasticity or of Poisson's time duration of stress, the moisture and
ratio. In these methods of test the forces temperature states of the concrete, the
applied to the concrete are very small age of the concrete, and other factors.
and are applied for very short time Generally speaking, the same factors
periods. Consequently, the values of the that cause strength variations in con-
elastic constants determined by the tests, crete also cause variations of the same
as usually performed, are those of con- sense in its elastic resistance, although
crete in an unstressed state, and the in- there appears to be no direct or generally
fluence of creep is not a factor. applicable relationship between the two,
There have been a few investigations as sometimes has been assumed (20, 21).
in which concrete has been subjected to In spite of the variable nature of the
loads of appreciable magnitude that were stress-strain relation, concrete m a y be
considered, within limits, to be definitely
4 E. A. Whitehurst and W. E. Parker, p. 104. elastic, and consideration of its elastic
modulus is involved in nearly all calcula- of the modulus of elasticity obtained by

tions of structural deformation. For ex- these methods is widely used as an index
ample, use is made of the modulus of elas- of concrete quality.
ticity in compression in the designing of Although not yet standardized, testing
reinforced structures, to determine stress procedures are available which will give
distribution in concrete and steel in much valuable information regarding the
simple flexural or compression members, elastic behavior of a given concrete. In
to determine resisting moments, stresses, making tests to develop data for a specific
and deflections in more complicated purpose, the procedure should be so
structures, and to determine the effects of arranged as to stress the material under
shrinkage, foundation settlements, or conditions that duplicate as nearly as
other distortion. Since in prestressed con- possible those which will obtain when the
crete units or structures it is obviously material is placed in service.
necessary to know how much the con- Probably the most perplexing problem
crete will deform under the stresses that connected with the elastic behavior of
are applied, a knowledge of the elastic concrete is what to do about its recog-
behavior of the material is important in nized tendency to creep under load.
this field of design. Obviously it is impracticable to test
In calculations of the stresses caused particular concretes for this characteris-
by restraint to volume changes, such as tic before they are used. During the past
those which tend to occur when there are few years, there have been some efforts
changes in the temperature or moisture to generalize the creep relation under
conditions within the material, it is nec- sustained stress, but there is need for
essary to know the value of the modulus more study of this subject which has
of elasticity. assumed increased importance with the
Concrete in pavements is subject to spread of interest in prestressed concrete
compressive stress, to bending stress from structures.
both loads and restrained warping, and
to direct tensile stress. Hence it is im- POISSON'S RATIO (22)
portant to know how concrete deforms If a member composed of an isotropic
under each type of stress in calculations material is subjected to simple axial
relating to pavement slab design. stress within its elastic range, the axial
The modulus of elasticity in shear must strain that results will be accompanied
be considered in the design of structural by a proportionate lateral strain. The
members subject to torsion and in calcu- relation between the lateral strain and
lations relating to certain statically in- the axial strain is called Poisson's ratio,
determinate structures. after the French physicist who deduced
The modulus of elasticity of concrete analytically that its value should be
as determined from data obtained in the 0.25. Actually the value as found experi-
so-called dynamic methods of test re- mentally for most solid materials is not
flects the elastic character of the material exactly 0.25 and may vary somewhat for
in what is essentially an unstressed state, a given material. For concrete, values
thus corresponding to the slope of the determined experimentally seem gener-
stress-strain curve at the origin. The ally to be appreciably less than this
value tends to be higher than that ob- theoretical value.
tained for the same material under stress
(19). Although not ordinarily employed Tests to Determine Poisson's Ratio:
for structural design purposes, the value While there are several methods by
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authoriz
which values for Poisson's ratio for contained. Tests of this type are reported by
crete m a y be determined, most of the GiLkey (25).
published data were obtained in tests in Most investigators have reported
which a cylindrical specimen was sub- values of Poisson's ratio for concrete
jected to axial stress and the resulting within the range 0.10 to 0.20, with the
axial and lateral strains were measured. majority of the values in the upper half
Since the lateral strains are but a fraction of this range. The average value of
of the axial strains in magnitude, it is Poisson's ratio reported by McCoy and
evident that apparatus for the measure- Mather (25) from dynamic tests on a
ment of the strains must be extremely large number of unstressed concrete
sensitive and that the tests must be made specimens is 0.24. The tests b y Davis and
with great care. Apparatus employing Troxell (2o) indicate that the value varies
optical lever systems has been used suc- with stress, particularly at early ages,
cessfully b y Johnson (23), Davis and and also that it tends to increase slightly
Troxell (20), and others. The newer types with age during the first two years.
of electrical resistance strain gages should Probst (18) has published data which
be particularly well suited to this type of indicate that there is a systematic in-
test. crease in the value of Poisson's ratio
Jones (24) reports values obtained by a with stress repetition.
radically different means--determination
Significance o] Poisson' s Ratio:
of longitudinal wave velocity in concrete
prisms. Other tests in which values of Values for Poisson's ratio are needed
Poisson's ratio for concretes were calcu- for the structural analysis and design of
lated from resonant frequencies, accord- m a n y types of concrete structures of
ing to ASTM Method C 215, 5 are re- which arches, tunnels, tanks, and fiat
ported b y McCoy and Mather (2S). slabs are typical examples. Also it is nec-
Poisson's ratio appears in the following essary to know the value of Poisson's
expression: ratio when interpreting strain data ob-
tained in tests of pavements and other
E = 2(# + 1)G structures.
where: Although there is fairly good agree-
E = modulus of elasticity in comment among the values obtained experi-
pression or tension, mentally by various investigators and
G -- modulus of elasticity in shear, and although the results from assuming
# = Poisson's ratio. values that are either somewhat too large
If tests are made in which the modulus or too small would not be serious, there
of elasticity in compression (or tension) is need for further research to determine
and in shear are determined, it is ap- the influence of such variables as rate of
parent that by relating the two values a stress application, frequency of stress
value for Poisson's ratio may be ob- application, and intensity of stress on
the value of the ratio. A better knowledge
s Method of Test for Fundamental Trans- of these matters will make possible de-
verse and Torsional Frequencies of Concrete sirable refinements in certain types of
Specimens (C 215), 1955 Book of ASTM Stand-
ards, Part 3. structural analysis.
REFERENCES
(1) W. H. Glanville, "The Creep or Flow of (2) Glenn Murphy, "Stress-Strain-Time Char-
Concrete Under Load," Technical Paper acteristics of Materials," ASTM BULLE-
No. 12, Department of Scientific and Indus- TIn, No. 101, December, 1939, p. 19.
trial Research, Great Britain (1930). (3) Douglas McHenry, "A New Aspect of
Creep in Concrete and Its Application to (1S) P. Andersen, "Experiments with Concrete
Design," _Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing in Torsion," Transactions, Am. Soc. Civil
Mats., Vol. 43, p. 1069 (1943). Engrs., Vol. 100, p. 949 (1935).
(4) William R. Lorman, "The Theory of Con- (16) D. A. Abrams, "Effect of Rate of Applica-
crete Creep," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Test- tion of Load on the Compressive Strength
ing Mats., Vol. 40, p. 1082 (1940). of Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc, Test-
(5) Allan Dawson Ross, "Creep and Shrinkage ing Mats., Vol. XVlI, Part II, p. 364
in Plain, Reinforced and Prestressed Con- (1917).
crete--A General Method of Calculation," (17) Paul G. Jones and F. E. Richart, "The
Journal, Inst. Civil Engrs., No. 1, Novem- Effect of Testing Speed on Strength and
ber, 1943. Elastic Properties of Concrete," Proceed-
(6) For a rCsum6 of the early literature on this ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 36,
subject see: Part II, p. 380 (1936).
L. W. Teller, "Digest of Tests in the United (18) E. Probst, "The Influence of Rapidly
States for the Determination of the Modu- Alternating Loading on Concrete and Rein-
lus of Elasticity of Portland Cement Mor- forced Concrete," The Structural Engineer
tar and Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. (British), Vol. IX, No. 12, December,
Testing Mats., Vol. 30, Part I, p. 635 1931.
(1930). (19) D. Watstein, "Effect of Straining Rate on
"Bibliographies on Modulus of Elasticity, the Compressive Strength and Elastic
Poisson's Ratio, and Volume Changes of Properties of Concrete," Journal, Am.
Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Concrete Inst., Vol. 24, No. 8, April, 1953.
Mats., Vol. 28, Part I, p. 377 (1928). (20) Raymond E. Davis and G. E. Troxell,
(7) Stanton Walker, "Modulus of Elasticity "Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's
of Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Test- Ratio for Concrete and the Influence of
ing Mats., Vol. XIX, Part II, p. 510 (1919). Age and Other Factors on These Values,"
(8) Adolf Martens, "Handbook of Testing Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
Materials," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 29, Part II, p. 678 (1929).
New York, N. Y., Ist Ed. (1899). (Trans- (21) H. A. LaRue, "Modulus of Elasticity of
lated by Gus C. Henning.) Aggregates and Its Effect on Concrete,"
(9) L. W. Teller and E. C. Sutherland, "The Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats.,
Structural Design of Concrete Pavements-- Vol. 46, p. 1298 (1946).
Part I," Public Roads, Vol. 16, No. 8, (22) For a rCsum6 of the literature on the sub-
October, 1935, p. 137. ject see:
A. L. Gemeny and C. B. McCullough, F. E. Richart and N. H. Roy, "Digest of
"Application of the Freyssinet Method of Test Data on Poisson's Ratio for C o n -
Concrete Arch Construction," Oregon crete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
State Highway Commission, April, 1933. Mats., Vol. 30, Part I, p. 661 (1930).
(10) R.E. Davis, H. E. Davis, and E. H. Brown, (23) A. N. Johnson, "Direct Measurement of
"Plastic Flow and Volume Changes in Poisson'~ Ratio for Concrete," Proceed-
Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 24,
Mats., Vol. 37, Part II, p. 317 (1937). Part II, p. 1024 (1924).
(11) Method of Test for Modulus of Elasticity (24) R. Jones, "Testing of Concrete by Ultra-
of Concrete--CRD-C 19-52, "Handbook sonic-Pulse Technique," Proceedings, High-
for Concrete and Cement," Corps of En- way Research Board, Vol. 32, p. 258
gineers. (1933).
(12) A. N. Johnson, "Tests of Concrete in Ten- (25) Ernest E. McCoy and Bryant Mather,
sion," Public Roads, Vol. 7, No. 4, June,
"Dynamic Testing of Materials," dis-
1926.
(13) J. W. Johnson, "Relationship Between cussion of paper by L. J. Mitchell, Pro-
Strength and Elasticity of Concrete in ceedings, Thirty-third Annual Meeting,
Tension and in Compression," Bulletin Highway Research Board, Vol. 33, p. 256
No. 90, Engineering Experiment Station, (1954).
Ames, Iowa (t928). (26) H. J. Gitkey, "Experiments with Concrete
(14) F. Seewald, "Abhandlungen," Aerodynami- in Torsion--A Discussion," Transactions,
schen Inst. an der Technischen Hochschule, Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol. 100, p. 970
Aachen, Vol. 7, p. 3 (1927). (1935).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
D Y N A M I C TESTS
BY E. A. WIIITEHINST1 AND W. E. PAI~ICSl~~
For many years one of the goals of 1. Those identified as sonic tests, gen-
those engaged in the control of concrete erally involving determination of the reso-
quality and in the service behavior of nant frequency of a specimen.
concrete has been tile development of 2. Those identified as pulse velocity tests,
generally involving measurement of the
suitable nondestructive tests to supply velocity of a compressional pulse travelling
the information desired. To be of greatest through the concrete.
usefulness, such tests should be appli- 3. Those involving the measurement of
cable to concrete in the structure or at rebound distance of a hammer after striking
least to the control specimens purported a blow of controlled intensity, or the diam-
to represent the structure. I t will be seen eter of indentation caused by such a blow.
that the dynamic tests included in the
following discussion, despite present SoNIc TESTS
limitations in application and in interpre- The expression "sonic testing" is
tation, are bringing the desired goal generally considered to include all test-
within reach in many respects. ing of concrete which involves the genera-
For the purpose of this discussion, tion of a sustained vibration in the con-
dynamic testing will be defined as that crete. By far the majority of such tests
in which the load is applied and removed involves the determination of the funda-
in a manner such that the effects of creep mental resonant frequency of a specimen.
are negligible, and which does not usu- Equipment used to perform tests of
ally result in destruction or damage to this nature varies from the hammer and
the concrete. In general, it is found that home-made sonometer reported by Pow-
values of Young's modulus of elasticity ers (1)8 to electronic signal generators for
computed from dynamic tests are some- driving the specimen and highly complex
what higher than those determined for electronic counters for measuring the
slower applications of load in which both actual number of vibrations per unit of
elastic and plastic deformations may time. The hammer-sonometer methodhas
occur. been largely superseded by other
Tests complying with this definition, methods, primarily because of the dif-
and in sufficiently wide use to warrant ficulty encountered by many operators
consideration, may be subdivided into in matching the tone emitted b y the
three groups: concrete specimen to the tone of the
1 Director, Tennessee Highway Research sonometer and because, in some cases,
Program, University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
Tenn.
~Technieal Assistant, Structural Research 3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
Dept., Hydro-Electric Power Commission of to the list of references appended to this paper
Ontario, Toronto, Ont., Can. see p. 114.
104
WtIITEHURST AND PARKER ON DYNAMIC TESTS 105
the striking of the specimen resulted in a torsional vibration for testing concrete
change in its characteristics (2). The use specimens. In this technique, generally
of the complex counter is restricted to applied to prisms, the driving unit is
a few research laboratories. The large placed against one corner of the specimen
bulk of the apparatus falls between these and the pickup against a diagonally
extremes. opposite corner. The specimen is thus
The components required for perform- vibrated with a twisting motion, the
ing a test of this nature are an audio node occurring at the center of the beam.
signal generator, an amplifier, a driving Further investigations have included the
unit, a pickup unit, another amplifier, use of longitudinal vibrations, in which
and a metering device. These are avail- the driving unit is placed against one
able individually from a number of end of the specimen and the pickup unit
sources and are also available in a com- against the other. In this case, also, the
bined form suitable for direct use in test- nodal point occurs at the center of the
ing of this nature. The driving unit is specimen.
frequently a permanent-magnet speaker ASTM Method C 2154 makes pro-
with a rod attached to the speaker coil. visions for testing concrete specimens
The pickup is usually a piezoelectric for fundamental transverse, longitudinal,
crystal, often a phonograph pickup and torsional frequencies, and provides
cartridge. a schematic diagram illustrating use of
In earlier tests, the specimen was sup- the components enumerated above. The
ported on knife-edges located at the nodal relationships between the several funda-
points for flexural vibration (a distance of mental frequencies and the other prop-
0.224 of the specimen length from each erties of the concrete are given as follows:
end). The driver was placed in the Dynamic E = C W n 2 . . . . . . . . . (1)
center of the specimen and the pickup Dynamic E = D W ( n ' ) ~ . . . . . . . (2)
a t one end. Sufficient power was applied Dynamic G = B W ( n " ) 2 . . . . . . (3)
to the driver to cause mild vibration of where:
the specimen. The frequency of the Dynamic E = dynamic Young's modu-
oscillator was then varied. When the lus of elasticity, psi,
frequency approached that of resonance Dynamic G = dynamic modulus of ri-
for the specimen, the amplitude of speci- gidity, psi,
men vibration increased considerably. W = weight of specimen, lb,
The oscillator was tuned until a maxi- n = fundamental transverse
mum indication was observed on the frequency, cps,
metering device. The frequency at which # = fundamental longitudi-
this occurred was recorded as the funda- nal frequency, cps, and
mental transverse frequency of the n " = fundamental torsional
specimen. frequency, cps.
Subsequent investigations indicated The constants C, D, and B are fac-
that if the specimen were allowed to rest tors depending for their value upon the
uniformly on a sheet of soft sponge shape of the specimen tested. For a
rubber the restraint on the specimen cylinder:
would be sufficiently low to remove the 0.00416L3T
C d4 sec ~ per in3 . . . . . (4)
necessity for mounting it at its nodal
points. This has now become a generally 4 Method of Test for Fundamental Trans-
accepted practice. Considerable atten- verse, Longitudinal, and Torsional Frequencies
of Concrete Specimens (C 215), 1955 Book of
tion has also been directed to the use of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
106 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E A N D AGGREGATES
and: calculated from the relationship:
0.01318L E
D - - sec* per in3 . . . . . . (5) = ~ - 1 ............ (9)
d*
where: Several investigators (a, 4) have shown

L = length of specimen, in., that a somewhat different characteristic
d = diameter of cylinder, in., and of concrete, its damping capacity, m a y
T = a correction factor that depends on be determined from studying the be-
the ratio of the radius of gyration havior of a specimen vibrating at or near
to the length of the specimen and on resonance. Two measures of this charac-
Poisson's ratio. Values of T for teristic are suggested, the damping con-
Poisson's ratio of ~ m a y be ob- stant and the logarithmic decrement of
tained from Table I of A S T M a free vibration.
M e t h o d C 215. The damping constant is given b y :
For a prism: f0
Q (10)
0.00245LaT fl - f2
C sec = p e r in. =. . . . . (6)
bt a
where:
f0 = resonant frequency of vibration,
and:
cps, and
0.01035L f,,f2 = frequencies on either side of
D - - - sec~per in. 2. . . . . . (7)
bt resonance at which the amplitude
is l / x / 2 times the amplitude at
where: resonance.
t, b = dimensions of cross-section, in., t These values m a y easily be determined
being in the direction in which the if a meter is used as the indicating device
specimen is driven. for determining resonance, provided that
For any specimen: a sufficiently precise method of determin-
ing vibration frequency is available.
4LR
B = - - 7 sec2 per in. =. . . . . . . . (8) This becomes extremely important since
ga
the frequency range between fl and f2 is
where: very small indeed. A frequency counter
R = a shape factor, has been found to be satisfactory for
= 1 for a circular cylinder, this type of work.
= 1.183 for a square-cross-section The logarithmic decrement is given b y :
prism, A1
a/b + b/a 8 = log~ A= .(11)
4 a/b -- 2.52 (a/b) = + 0.21 (a/b) G
for a rectangular prism whose where:
cross-sectional dimensions are a 8 = logarithmic decrement, and
and b, in., with a less than b, A1, A 2 = amplitudes of two successive
g gravitational acceleration, vibrations after the driving
386.4 in. per sec=, and force has been removed from
A = cross-sectional area of test speci- the specimen.
men, sq in. To determine A1 and A=, a cathode-
Where E and G are determined as ray oscillograph m a y be used as the
outlined above, Poisson's ratio m a y be indicator. After resonance has been lo-
WmT]mUI~ST AND PARKER ON D'ZNA~IC TESTS 107
cated, the driving oscillator is turned off used, although Pickett (6) has sug-
and the decay of the specimen vibration gested that tests of a similar nature might
recorded on a moving film strip. When be useful in testing concrete pavements.
the film has been developed, the ampli- The greatest use of sonic techniques
tude of successive cycles may be ac- has been made in evaluating the per-
curately measured. formance of concrete specimens subjected
The damping constant and logarith- to natural or artificial weathering. They
mic decrement are related by: have also been used to study the effect of
moisture content and to compare differ-
7r
(2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (52) ent mixes (3), to investigate the effi-
ciency of various curing compounds (5),
Both of the above methods have a and for other purposes (7). It has been
disadvantage in that the damping effects suggested that they may be used to
of the specimen supports must be ex- study the setting characteristics of
tremely low. In an effort to minimize concrete, but such usage has generally
these effects, Obert and Duvall (3) have proved unsuccessful. With the exception
supported their specimens on piano wires of the work of Kesler and Higuchi (4),
accurately located at the nodal points. most efforts to relate the elastic proper-
For some reason, perhaps this difficulty ties of concrete to its strength have been
in obtaining supports that exercise largely unsuccessful. Somewhat better
sufficiently low restraint o n a specimen, results have been obtained in efforts to
these methods of t e s t have not been correlate changes in dynamic modulus of
widely used. Kesler and Higuchi (4), elasticity to changes in strength, and in
however, have recently reported tests weathering studies it is fairly common to
in which the logarithmic decrement, in equate a 30 per cent decrease in dynamic
combination with the dynamic modulus modulus to a 50 per cent decrease in
of elasticity determined from the trans- flexural strength.
verse resonant frequency of a specimen, Unfortunately all of the techniques
was used in predicting the compressive discussed above, with the possible ex-
strength of concrete. They report an ception of the last, are subject to two
accuracy of prediction generally within major limitations. The methods are
5 per cent for the limited tests made. basically applicable to specimens of
Mention should also be made of the relatively small size and are of little
possibility of using sustained vibrations value in studying the behavior of con-
for testing concrete in place. Long and crete in place. Further, because of the
Kurtz (8) have reported such tests in complexity of the calculations involved
which a large auditorium-type loud- in computing the constants C, D, and B,
speaker was rigidly attached to a con- specimens must be either cylinders or
crete wall and driven at a fairly high prisms of uniform cross-section (square
power level. A pickup was then moved or rectangular). It is perhaps due largely
about on the surface of the wall to de- to these restrictions that recent attention
termine points of maximum vibration. has been directed toward the develop-
The quantity measured was the velocity ment of devices for determining pulse
of the standing wave, since the frequency velocity in concrete.
of vibration was known and the wave-
length of the vibration within the con- :PuLsE TRANSMISSION TESTS
crete could be determined. This and The application of pulse transmission
similar techniques have not been widely techniques to the testing of concrete is
believed to have had its origin with directly in units of time, thus eliminating
Long and Kurtz (5, p. 1067). They the necessity for computations involving
reported performing a few experiments the magnitude of the current flowing
with a Shepard seismograph in which through the galvanometer. This device
the longitudinal velocity of the pulsation was found to be more reliable than the
created by a single impact was measured ballistic galvanometer for field use.
between arbitrarily placed geophones. An instrument very similar to that sug-
They stated that only very limited gested is now commercially available in
experiments of this nature had been con- the United States under the name of the
ducted but that the method appeared to Electronic Interval Timer.
hold great promise providing the ap- Subsequent investigations in this coun-
paratus could be adapted to the meas- try and abroad have resulted in the de-
urement of much shorter time intervals velopment of a number of other devices
than those of which the seismograph was quite similar in most respects to the
capable. Electronic Interval Timer. These include
Long, Kurtz, and Sandenaw (s) under- the Micro-timer developed by the U. S.
took further investigations along these Bureau of Reclamation, the Condenser
lines and in 1945 reported on the instru- Chronograph developed by the Danish
ment and technique that resulted from National Institute of Building Research,
their work. The apparatus consisted of and devices developed at the National
two vibration pickups (in the form of Physical Laboratory, South African
phonograph cartridges), two amplifiers, Council for Scientific and Industrial Re-
two thyratron tube circuits, and a ballis- search, and the Laboratoires du Bati-
tic galvanometer circuit. The impact of merit et des Travaux Publics, France. All
a hammer blow was impressed upon the make use of either hammer blows or
concrete in a horizontal direction, ap- small explosive charges to generate the
proximately in line with the two pickups. impulse.
The energy impulse thus generated actu- In 1946 the Hydro-Electric Power
ated the first pickup, the voltage from Commission of Ontario, Canada, in an
which energized the first thyratron and effort to develop a technique for exam-
started a flow of current through the ining cracks in monolithic concrete struc-
galvanometer. When the energy impulse tures, began a series of studies which
reached the second pickup, the voltage resulted in the construction of an instru-
from its amplifier ionized the second ment known as the Soniscope. The
thyratron and cut off the flow of current. device consists basically of a pulse gener-
The deflection of the galvanometer was ator using piezoelectric crystals, a
directly proportional to the time required similar pulse receiver, and electronic
for the wave to travel the distance be- circuits which actuate the pulse gener-
tween the two pickups. ator, provide visual presentation of
In a discussion of this paper, the sub- transmitted and received signals on a
stitution of an electronic interval timer cathode-ray tube, and accurately meas-
for the ballistic galvanometer was sug- ure the time interval between the two.
gested. This device consists of a capacitor Development of this instrument was
which begins to charge when the first first reported to Committee 115, Re-
thyratron is ionized and stops charging search, of the American Concrete Inst.
when the second is ionized and a vac- in 1948. A more complete report was
uum-tube voltmeter which measures the published by Leslie and Cheesman (9) in
charge. The meter may be calibrated 1949.
WHITEHURST AND PARKER ON DYI~A~tlC TESTS 109
The physical and electrical features of Transmitted and received signals are
the Soniscope have passed through sev- displayed on a long persistence cathode-
eral stages of improvement since 1947, ray oscilloscope containing a calibrated
and a number of these instruments have time base for determining the transit
been built by various laboratories in the time between signals. Development of
United States and Canada. In its latest one such device has been reported in the
form the Soniscope is patented and com- United States and another in France.
mercially available through a Canadian The devices mentioned above and the
concern. Considerable use of the instru- uses to which they have been put have
ment has been reported in Canada (10) been described in detail by Whitehurst
and the United States (11). (14) and in several recent publications of
During approximately the same time the R6union des Laboratoires d'Essais
that the Soniscope was being developed et de Recherches sur les Mat6riaux et les
in Canada and the United States, work Constructions (15).
of a similar nature was being conducted Whereas the use of the sonic tests has
in England. These investigations resulted been restricted primarily to the evalua-
in the development of an instrument tion of specimens undergoing natural or
known as the Ultrasonic Concrete Tester. artificial weathering, and the techniques
This instrument, and the uses to which for such use have been largely standard-
it has been put, have been described at ized, pulse transmission techniques have
length by Jones (12, 13). The Ultrasonic been applied to concrete for many pur-
Concrete Tester differs from the Soni- poses and, in most areas of investigation,
scope primarily in the much higher fre- no general agreement has been reached
quency used within the transmitted concerning the significance of test results.
pulse and the repetition rate which is The quantity actually measured by all
about three times as great as that of the of these instruments is the transmission
Soniscope. These changes improve the time of an impulse passing through the
accuracy of measurement on very small concrete under test. If the path length
specimens but limit the usefulness of the between generator and receiver is known
instrument for field testing, since the or can be determined, the velocity of the
high frequencies suffer much greater pulse may easily be computed. It is in
attenuation in passing through concrete the interpretation of the meaning of this
than do the lower ones. The maximum velocity, and in its use for determining
range of the Ultrasonic Concrete Tester various properties of concrete, that agree-
is believed to be about 7 ft, whereas that ment has not yet been reached. The
of the Soniscope in testing reasonably technique is as applicable to concrete in
good concrete is 50 ft or more. place as to laboratory-type specimens,
Recently several devices have been and results appear to be unaffected by
reported which incorporate some of the the size and shape of tile concrete tested,
features of the Soniscope and some of the within the limits of transmission of the
Electronic Interval Timer. In these instrument employed. This, of course, is
instruments the impulse is generated by a highly desirable attribute and, in many
a mechanical blow, frequently that of a respects, makes the pulse transmission
spring-loaded hammer operated by a techniques more useful than those in-
motor-driven cam at the rate of about volved in sonic testing.
5 blows per second. The receiver may be Because of the flmdamental theoretical
any one of a number of types of pickup. relationship between pulse techniques
II0 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
and resonant frequency techniques, there The factor 0.849 represents the cor-
is a strong inclination for users of the rection for Poisson's ratio, taken in this
pulse technique to endeavor to compute case to be 0.24.
the dynamic modulus of elasticity from Fundamentally all of the pulse velocity
the results of the tests. Theoretically techniques and equipment developed for
such values of moduli should be the same use on concrete result in the measure-
as the moduli determined by resonant ment of the compressional, or longitudi-
frequency tests upon the same specimens. nal, pulse velocity. 111 rare cases, with
The experience of several investigators the Soniscope-type instrument, it is
(16, 17), however, has shown that on possible to measure the transverse pulse
some occasions this is true and on others velocity and the Rayleigh pulse velocity
it is not. Because of these presently un- as well, when the test is being made
explainable differences, most of those across a corner of a structure and the
experienced in the use of pulse velocity path length involved is fairly long (in
techniques are inclined to leave their re- the order of 15 to 20 ft). Under these
sults in the form of velocities without circumstances it is theoretically possible
attempting to calculate moduli there- to calculate Poisson's ratio directly from
from. any two of the measured velocities. The
If the modulus of elasticity is to be occurrence is sufficiently rare with pres-
computed from the pulse velocity, the ent equipment, however, to merit no
relationship generally recommended is: more than mention at this time.
(1 + #)(1 -- 2~) The use of pulse velocity techniques
E = V2p ..... (13) for testing concrete has been suggested
(1 -- ~)
for evaluating the strength of concrete,
where: its uniformity, its setting characteristics,
E = dynamic modulus of elasticity, its modulus of elasticity, and the pres-
V = longitudinal pulse velocity, ence or absence of cracks within the con-
p = mass density, and crete. There appears to be little question
= Poisson's ratio. of the suitability of such techniques to
This equation relates modulus to determine the presence, and to some ex-
pulse velocity and density in an infinite tent the magnitude, of cracks in concrete,
medium and presumably should apply although it has been suggested that if
only to mass concrete. The experience of the cracks are fully water-filled their
most investigators, however, has been locations may be more difficult to ascer-
that even for very small laboratory tain. In all of the other fields of investiga-
specimens this relationship gives better tion, independent investigators have re-
results than do those applying to either ported widely different degrees of success
slabs or long slender members. Leslie through the use of these techniques (I4).
and Cheesman (9) have suggested that I t is generally agreed that very high
best results are obtained if, for con- velocities are indicative of very good
cretes having unit weights in excess of concrete and that very low velocities
approximately 140 lb per cu ft, the value are indicative of poor concrete. It is
of Poisson's ratio is assumed to be 0.24. further agreed that periodic, systematic
If this is done, Eq 13 is reduced to: changes in velocity are indicative of
E = 0.000216V~d(0.849) . . . . . . (14) similar changes in the quality of the con-
where d = weight of concrete, lb per cu crete. Beyond these areas of agreement,
ft. however, it appears that the investigator
WmTEKU-RST AND PARKER ON DYNAMIC TESTS Iii
must have a rather intimate knowledge "Concrete Manual" of the U. S. Bureau

of the concrete involved before attempt- of Reclamation (20). I t was felt that
ing to interpret velocities as measures of strengths in the 500 to 2000 psi range
strength or other properties of the con- could be estimated with sufficient ac-
crete. curacy to provide a check on the time at
which tunnel forms might be removed
SUR:FAC~: I2r MEASUREMENTS safely. I t was indicated, however, that
the test was not so reliable for strengths
Within recent years some measure of
at later ages or higher levels.
success has been achieved in making
More recently the results of similar
quantitative measurements that are
indentation tests in Germany have been
indicative chiefly of the resistance of
reported by Gaede (21). The instruments
concrete to the rapidly applied blow of a
steel hammer or ball. Hence, these meas- used were a pendulum hammer, which
was restricted to vertical surfaces, and
urements may provide another means of
the Frank spring hammer, generally simi-
surveying concrete in structures to de-
termine its uniformity as affected by lar in its operation to the model I I
Schmidt hammer. ]~oth hammers may
composition, placing, curing, or expo-
be caused to deliver either half or full
sure. Although there is a pronounced
tendency on the part of users of these blows. In addition, it is indicated that
a half-size indenter should be used
devices to express the observations in
when the regular one makes insufficient
terms of estimated strengths, it may be
impression in high-grade concrete.
found that the results are expesssed more
significantly as differences either with Several additional impact tests have
been discussed by Voellmy (22). These
respect to various locations in a structure
or a series of production units or in desig- are not sufficiently well known on this
nating changes resulting from hydration continent, however, to permit their
or exposure. Such measurements may be evaluation at this time.
considered conveniently under the head- In view of the important influence of
ings of rebound and indentation tests. surface and near-surface conditions on
For several years use has been made of impact tests, the instructions supplied
spring-actuated hammers whose re- with these devices deal in some detail
bound movement after striking the sur- with the preparation of surfaces for
face of concrete can be recorded (18, 19). testing, the minimum number of blows
These Schmidt test hammers are of two per test, and the recommended procedure
types. Model I has external springs, for analyzing the results. Most investi-
whereas in model I I the spring mech- gators have found that small test speci-
mens have insufficient mass to provide
anism is enclosed within the barrel of
an adequate reaction. Accordingly, they
the instrument. In model I the hammer
have reported clamping specimens in a
is cocked agains t the spring and released testing machine under a load of a few
by a trigger. In model I I the hammer is thousand pounds in order to provide
pushed against the surface of the con- satisfactory restraint. Others have
crete to compress the spring by a pre- reached the conclusion that finished,
determined amount. At this point the horizontal surfaces do not represent the
spring is released automatically, thereby underlying concrete as closely as do
driving a ram against the hammer. formed, vertical surfaces. The impor-
Among the earlier uses of impact inden- tance of this difference will depend, of
tation tests was one described in the course, upon whether one is interested
chiefly in the condition of the surface orfluence the results in varying degrees.
that of the concrete as a whole. It is ob-Recognizing these influences and making
viously necessary to keep these and other proper allowances for them are basic
details of procedure constantly in mind requirements in evaluating such test
in order to secure consistent and usable data.
results. Usually the most pronounced influence
Originators of the spring-driven re- on results is the type of aggregate used
bound and indentation hammers have in the concrete because of the wide
established general curves based on fairlyranges possible in elasticity and density.
extensive tests and a wide range of con- Frequently the maximum size of coarse
cretes. These calibration curves provide aggregate must be considered in com-
some guidance for users of the hammers, paring different series of tests. Other
but it has been found that a correlation factors influencing results include mois-
curve for the specific concrete is much ture content, temperature, density, re-
more useful and trustworthy for control inforcement, type of cement, aggregate-
cement and water-cement ratios, and
of a given job. This is obviously the case,
since it evaluates the influence of ag- admixtures. The most exhaustive in-
gregate type and size distribution. vestigation of these factors reported to
Numerous investigators have devel- date is that of Jones (13).
oped strength correlation data showing a I t appears that the sustained fre-
considerable range in coefficients of vari-quency tests have their main application
ation depending largely upon their in tracing the course of deterioration in
control of variables in the concrete and specimens subjected to weathering or
on the details of their testing techniques.exposure tests. In general, application
Experiences, reported largely through of these techniques to structures, in-
personal correspondence, of those cal- cluding pavements, is hampered by
ibrating and using various rebound and boundary effects, power requirements,
indentation hammers indicate that, with and difficulties in the interpretation of
careful calibration and test control, measurements on any but the most
values of compressive strength predicted elementary forms.
from weighted mean rebound numbers or The major applications of pulse ve-
indentation diameters will generally locity tests on concrete are to establish
agree with measured compressive the degree of uniformity, or lack thereof,
strengths within 15 per cent, with the throughout a structure, to follow pro-
majority agreeing within 10 per cent. gressive changes in the quality of con-
Some investigators have claimed ac- crete in either specimens or structures,
curacy of prediction within considerably and to determine the presence or absence
narrower limits. It has been reported of cracking in monolithic concrete.
that the degree of correlation decreases
Velocity tests on concrete are not
as strength or age of the concrete in-
hampered significantly by size and shape
creases, and it has been further suggested
effects. The level of effective pulse trans-
that variations in moisture content of the
concrete may have a significant effect mission is the limiting condition that
upon rebound or indentation test results. will govern the operating range, de-
pending on the characteristics of instru-
S~MARY mentation and on the inherent property
It has been the experience of users of of concrete to attenuate the impulse.
dynamic testing that many factors in- This maximum range may vary from
WHITEHURST AND PARKER ON DYNAMIC TESTS 113
perhaps a few inches in unset concrete are not dependent upon size and shape
to 50 to 60 ft in sound concrete of high of the concrete tested, direct comparisons
quality. The attenuation of the impulse may be made between tests made on dif-
may lead to important errors, particu- ferent concretes or different sections of
larly in the case of those devices which the same concrete. Batchelder and
do not provide for visual examination Lewis (17) have shown that the velocity
of transmitted and received signals. itself correlates better with the results
With respect to the prediction of of resonant frequency tests on laboratory
values for other properties of concrete specimens than does the modulus of elas-
on the basis of the results of dynamic ticity computed from velocity tests. No
tests, it is both desirable and proper to evidence has yet been presented to sug-
compute the dynamic modulus of elas- gest that any better relationship exists
ticity or rigidity from the appropriate between pulse velocities and other prop-
resonant frequency. Such computation erties of the concrete than between
is necessary if results of tests on speci- resonant frequencies and these prop-
mens of different sizes and shapes are to erties.
be compared. Since both the resonant It is believed that hammer impact tests
frequency and the weight of the speci- which can be applied directly to concrete
men can be measured directly and in place and which have the desirable
Poisson's ratio does not enter heavily attributes of ease of application and
into the computations, it is believed that low equipment cost can provide a useful
there is little danger of the introduction means of quality control and inspection
of significant error in making these com- in many instances. It must be borne in
putations. The use of resonant frequency mind that the measurements reflect con-
techniques for predicting other properties ditions at or near the surface of a struc-
of concrete does not appear to be well ture or member and hence may or may
supported by data presently available, not be indicative of the underlying con-
although the recent work of Kesler and crete.
Higuchi (4) indicates that two dynamic With the present state of knowledge
parameters may define the strength of of the variations inherent in these testing
concrete. techniques and the recognition of other
With respect to pulse velocity tech- factors influencing the results, it appears
niques, there seems to be very little essential in attempting to estimate the
reason for computing anything other absolute level of strength of a particular
than pulse velocity from the results of concrete to have calibration data for that
such tests. The computation of dynamic type of concrete. However, in spite of
modulus of elasticity from pulse velocity these limitations, with careful adherence
requires a knowledge of both the unit to recommended test procedures and
weight of the concrete and Poisson's with discreet and judicious interpreta-
ratio, both of which values, at least in tion of test data, the impact tests are
the case of tests on structures, must be potentially capable of providing much
estimated. Since results of these tests useful guidance for the users.
REFERENCES
(1) T. C. Powers, "Measuring Young's Modu- (12) R. Jones, "The Non-Destructive Testing
lus of Elasticity by Means of Sonic Vibra- of Concrete," Magazine of Concrete Re-
tions," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing search, No. 2, June, 1949.
Mats., Vol. 38, Part II, p. 460 (1938). (13) R. Jones, "The Testing of Concrete by an
(2) W. T. Thomson, "Measuring Changes in Ultrasonic Pulse Technique," Proceedings,
Physical Properties of Concrete by the Highway Research Board, Vol. 32, p. 258
Dynamic Method," Proceedings, Am. Soc. (1953).
Testing Mats., VoL 40, p. 1113 (1940). (14) E. A. Whitehurst, "A Review of Pulse
(3) L. Obert and W. I. Duvall, "Discussion of Velocity Techniques and Equipment for
Dynamic Methods of Testing Concrete Testing Concrete," Proceedings, Highway
with Suggestions for Standardization," Research Board, Vol. 33, p. 226 (1954).
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. (15) R6union des Laboratories d'Essais et de
41, p. 1053 (1941). Recherches sur les Mat6riaux et les Con-
(4) C. E. Kesler and Y. Higuchi, "Determina- structions (Union of Testing and Re-
tion of Compressive Strength of Concrete search Laboratories for Materials and
by Using Its Sonic Properties," Proceedings, Structures), Bulletins Nos. 13-18, March,
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 53, p. 1044 1953-June, 1954.
(1953). (16) W. J. Cheesman, "Dynamic Testing of
(5) B. G. Long and H. J. Kurtz, "Effect of Concrete with the Soniscope Apparatus,"
Curing Methods upon the Durability of Proceedings, Highway Research Board,
Concrete as Measured by Changes in the Vol. 29, p. 176 (1949).
Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity," Proceed- (17) G. M. Batchelder and D. W. Lewis, "Com-
ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 43, p. parison of Dynamic Methods of Testing
1051 (1943). Concrete Subjected to Freezing and Thaw-
(6) G. Pickett, "Dynamic Testing of Pave- ing," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats.,
ments," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., April, Vol. 53, p. 1053 (1953).
1945; Proceedings, Vol. 41, p. 20. (18) E. Schmidt and E. Herzig, "Versuche mit
(7) T. E. Stanton, "Tests Comparing the
Modulus of Elasticity of Portland Cement dem neuen Beton-Prufhammer zur Quali-
Concrete as Determined by the Dynamic tatsbestimmung des Betons (Tests with
the New Concrete Test Hammer to Deter-
(Sonic) and Compression (Secant at 1000
mine the Quality of Concrete)," Schweizer
psi) Methods," ASTM BVLImTIN,No. 131,
ArcMv far angewandte Wissenschaft und
December, 1944, p. 17.
(8) B. G. Long, H. J. Kurtz, and T. A. San-
Technik (I951).
denaw, "An Instrument and a Technique (19) G. W. Greene, "Test Hammer Provides
for Field Determination of the Modulus of New Method of Evaluating Hardened Con-
Elasticity of Concrete (Pavements)," Jour- crete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., No-
nal, Am. Concrete Inst., January, 1945; vember, 1954; Proceedings,Vo]. 51, p. 249.
Proceedings, Vol. 4t, p. 11. (20) "Concrete Manual," U. S. Bureau of
(9) J. R. Leslie and W. J. Cheesman, "An Ul- Reclamation, 3rd Ed., pp. 316-317 (1941).
trasonic Method of Studying Deterioration. (21) K. Gaede, "Non-Destructive Testing of
and Cracking in Concrete Structures," Concrete by the Steel Ball Impact Meth-
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., September, od," Library Abstract No. 3, Cement and
1949; Proceedings, Vol. 46, p. 17. Concrete Assn., London. (Abridged trans-
(10) W. E. Parker, "Pulse Velocity Testing of lation.)
Concrete," Pro6eedings, Am. Soc. Testing (22) A. Voellmy, "Examination of Concrete by
Mats., Vol. 53, p. 1043 (1953). Measurements of Superficial Hardness,"
(11) E. A. Whitehurst, "Soniscope Tests Con- Bulletin No. 18, R6union des Laboratoires
crete Structures," Journal, Am. Concrete d'Essais et de Recherches sur les Mat6-
Inst., February, 1951; Proceedings, Vol. riaux et les Constructions, June, 1954,
47, p. 433. Second Part, Summary No. 41.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
VOLUME CHANGES AND C R E E P
BY GEORGE W . WAStIA1
Concrete is an important and widely they are relatively crack free and that
used constructional material because of they satisfactorily resist the action of
its excellent combination of desirable destructive agents.
properties, but it is subject to appreciable In this as in most papers dealing with
volume changes which may, under cer- dimension changes of concrete, the term
tain circumstances, cause rupture or m a y "volume change" is used even though
aid the action of destructive agents "length changes" are usually determined
through the development and growth of and reported because they can be easily
cracks. Volume changes in concrete due measured and because engineers are
to variations of temperature, humidity, primarily interested in length changes.
and stress are partly or entirely re-
versible, but volume changes due to TEST METHODS FOR DETERMINING
destructive chemical and mechanical VOLUME CHANGES
action are not reversible and are cumula- It is impossible to standardize all
tive as long as the action continues. volume change tests made on concrete
Unrestrained volume changes in con- because of the wide variety of conditions
crete due to variations in temperature, encountered in research. Simple routine
moisture, and stress are generally of tests, such as those for the determination
small concern. When volume changes are of unsoundness caused by the hydration
restrained by foundations, connecting of uncombined lime and magnesia and
members, or reinforcement, stresses are those for the determination of the pos-
produced in the concrete which m a y sible reaction between aggregates and
cause distress and even failure. Since cements having a high alkali content,
concrete is weaker in tension than in will be considered later. In addition,
compression, restrained contractions are ASTM Method C 1572 provides a method
usually more important. for routine determination of the volume
While in a general way the causes of change of unstressed cement mortar and
volume changes and the reactions of concrete specimens at room temperature.
concrete to these causes are known, it is The test consists of casting mortar
still not possible to build structures such prisms, 1 in. square and 11 in. long, or
as bridges, buildings, and dams with concrete prisms, 4 in. square and l l in.
assurance that they will not crack. How- long, containing aggregate up to 189 in.,
ever, if proper attention is given to all in a horizontal position. "The specimens
of the many variables that influence the contain a stainless steel gage plug at the
behavior of concrete, it is possible to center of each end which projects } in
build these concrete structures so that
2Method of Test for Volume Change of
George W. Washa, Professor of Me- Cement Mortar and Concrete, (C 157), 1955
chanics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
115
beyond the end. The distance between settle while the clear water rises to the
the innermost ends of the gage plugs, the top. This action starts very shortly after
gage length, is 10 4- 0.10 in. Specimens the concrete has been placed and con-
are kept in the molds for 20 to 24 hr, or tinues until maximum compaction of
longer if necessary, to prevent damage, the solids, particle interference, or setting
removed from the molds, and moist brings it to a close. Profuse bleeding, to-
cured for 28 days. After curing, they are gether with rapid evaporation or leaky
placed in the storage room, usually at a or absorbent forms, will result in ex-
temperature of 73.4 4- 2 F and a relative cessive setting shrinkage which, in ex-
humidity of 50 4- 2 per cent. Length treme cases, may be as high as 1 per
changes are then obtained with a dial cent by volume. In comparison, volume
micrometer. changes resulting from hydration and
Unless information on the volume adsorption effects appears to be only
change of concrete during the setting about 0A per cent for ordinary cements.
period is wanted, the first length reading Setting shrinkage may be minimized
is usually taken after 24 hr, and readings by the use of saturated aggregates, low
are taken at additional ages until the cement content mixes, moist and cool
desired information has been obtained. casting conditions, tight and nonabsorb-
Length readings are usually taken over ent forms, and shallow lifts in placing.
gage lengths varying between 1 and 20 The effect of setting shrinkage on subse-
in. with dial comparators, mechanical quent properties such as strength, creep
strain gages, optical comparators, and and durability has not received the con-
electric resistance gages. Length read- sideration it should.
ings may be taken over a wide range of
VOLUME CHANGES IN HARDENED
temperature and under variable storage
CONCRETE
conditions such as moist, sealed, dry with
different relative humidities, and various Undesirable Chemical and Mechanical
cycles of dry and moist. A track:
In determining creep of concrete speci- Concrete is subjected to many types of
mens in tension or compression, the sus- chemical and mechanical attack that act
tained loads needed are usually obtained to shorten its useful life. While the mech-
by spring-frame assemblies, while beams anism of destruction varies and may be
and slabs are simply dead loaded. Bi- quite complicated, signs of its action
axial and triaxial loadings are main- are generally first evident as expansions,
tained hydraulically. and as the action continues the expan-
sions increase until disintegration occurs.
VOLUME CHANGES IN FRESH CONCRETE Some of the more common destructive
agents or actions to which concrete is
Volume changes in freshly mixed con- subjected include sewage of high acid or
crete are due to water absorption, sulfide content, sulfate waters, electroly-
sedimentation (bleeding), cement hydra- sis, sea water, fire, freezing and thawing,
tion, and thermal change, and are in- expansion due to hydration of uncom-
fluenced by the temperature and hu- bined lime and magnesia, and expansion
midity of the surrounding atmosphere. due to a reaction between cements having
Absorption of water by the aggregates a high alkali content and certain siliceous
and reaction between the water and the aggregates.
cement both act to decrease the volume. A complete discussion of each of these
In bleeding, the solid portions of the mix actions is outside of the scope of this
WASHA ON VOLUME CHANGES AND CREEP 117
paper, but additional consideration gregate with a sodium hydroxide solu-

should be given to the expansions due to tion under controlled test conditions.
alkali-aggregate reaction and to the hy- Excessive expansion of concrete due
dration of uncombined lime and mag- to the hydration of the uncombined lime
nesia. Reactions between certain rela- and magnesia present in cement is called
tively unstable, highly siliceous unsoundness. Two types of tests are
constituents of aggregates and cements given in ASTM methods to detect at an
having high alkali contents result in early age the possibility of hydration
strength loss, excessive expansion and taking place at a later age in the con-
cracking, and disintegration. Such ex- crete. The pat test, ASTM Method
cessive expansions due to cement- C 189, 8 consists of subjecting pats of
aggregate reactivity have, in some neat cement to the action of saturated
instances, been materially decreased by steam at atmospheric pressure for 5
additions of various pozzolanic materials. hr and then noting visually any signs of
One method of determining the potential volume change such as distortion, check-
alkali reactivity of cement-aggregate ing, cracking, and disintegration. Since
combinations is given in ASTM Method the pat test is qualitative in nature, and
C 227. 3 The method consists of making since it usually detects unsoundness due
1 by 1-in. prisms, with an effective gage to free CaO but not that due to crystal-
length of 10 in., of 1 part of the cement line MgO, it has been replaced in many
to be used to 2.25 parts of graded ag- cases by the autoclave test.
gregate, by weight, with enough water While the autoclave test is most fre-
to produce a flow of 105 to 120 (as quently used to detect unsoundness, it
determined in accordance with ASTM is also used to determine the expansions
Method C 109).4 The prisms are stored that may be obtained during the process
for 24 hr in a moist room at 73.4 4- 3 F, of almost complete hydration. It has been
measured for length in a comparator, shown that in general the characteristics
of cement that cause expansion in the
placed on end, over but not in contact
autoclave usually also cause expansion
with water in metal containers main-
of pastes, mortars, and concrete during a
tained at 100 3 F, and again measured
period of continuous exposure to mois-
for length when at a temperature of ture.
73.4 q- 3 F. The expansion for any pe- The autoclave test provides quantita-
riod of time may thus be determined. A tive information on the expansion due
chemical method for determining the to the hydration of free CaO and MgO.
potential reactivity of aggregates when The test as given in ASTM Method.
used with high alkali cements is given in C 15U consists in subjecting 1 by 1 by
ASTM Method C 289, 5 which is based ll~-in, neat cement bars of normal con-
on the amount of reaction of the ag- sistency, moist cured for 24 hr, to the
action of steam under a pressure of 295
3 Method of Test for Potential Alkali Re-
activity of C e m e n t - A g g r e g a t e Combinations
q- 10 psi (215.7 q- 1.7 C) for a period of
(C 227), 1955 Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3 hr. The steam pressure must be raised
3. to the required value in 1 to 188 hr, and
4 Method of T e s t for Compressive Strength
of Hydraulic C e m e n t Mortars, (C 109), 1956 0 Method of Test for Soundness of Hydraulic
C e m e n t Over Boiling W a t e r (Pat Test) (C 189),
Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3.
1955 Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3.
5 M e t h o d of T e s t for Potential Reactivity of M e t h o d of T e s t for Autoclave Expansion of
Aggregates (Chemical Method) (C 289), 1955 Portland C e m e n t (C 151), 1955 Book of A S T M
Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3. Standards, P a r t 3.
118 TEsTs AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
after the 3-hr steaming period the pres- unhydrated cement. In most instances
sure should be released to a value less the initial expansions obtained during
than 10 psi within 1 hr. Linear expansions the first few months do not exceed 0.003
are measured by a dial gage or a microm- per cent, while the ultimate contractions
eter comparator over an effective gage obtained after several years usually do
length of 10 in. A maximum expansion of not exceed 0.010 per cent. These volume
0.50 per cent is allowed in present ASTM changes are especially important in the
standards for cement types I, II, III, interior of mass concrete where little or
IV, V, IA, IIA, and IliA, and a maxi- no change of the total moisture content
mum value of 0.20 per cent expansion or is possible.
contraction is allowed for types IS and Results of tests indicate that autoge-
ISA. The autoclave expansion for nat- nous volume changes are influenced by
ural cement types N and NA is obtained the composition and fineness of the
by determining the autoclave expansion cement, the amount of mixing water,
of a blend of 25 per cent natural cement mix proportions, curing conditions, and
and 75 per cent portland cement and time. It appears that the magnitude of
subtracting the autoclave expansion of the autogenous volume change increases
the portland cement used. The maximum as the fineness of the cement and the
value is 0.50 per cent. Because of large amount of cement for a given consis-
expansions obtained in many structures tency are increased. Ultimate contrac-
made with masonry cements containing tions appear to be greater for portland-
high percentages of unhydrated MgO, pozzolan cement than for low-heat
i t has been recommended that the auto- portland cement which in turn contracts
clave test be used for masonry cement more than modified portland cement.
and that the maximum allowable expan-
sion be 1.0 per cent. Thermal Changes:
Combination of liberated calcium hy- Unrestrained concrete expands as the
droxide in the paste with carbon dioxide temperature rises and contracts as it
in the air releases water which becomes falls. An average value of the coefficient
available for evaporation and results in of thermal expansion normally used is
appreciable shrinkage. While this action 5.5 millionths per deg Fahr, which for-
is confined to concrete at and near the tunately is close to the value for steel.
surface, it has been observed to depths as Consequently reinforced-concrete struc-
great as 1 in. tures function satisfactorily even over
fairly large temperature variations.
A utogenous Action: While the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion frequently is close to the average
Autogenous volume changes of con- value, it may vary between 2.5 and 8.0
crete are the result of cement hydration millionths per deg Fahr, depending to
and do not include changes due to varia- some extent on the richness of the mix,
tions in moisture, temperature, and load. the type of aggregate, and the moisture
Autogenous volume changes may cause content of the concrete, but primarily on
expansions or contractions, depending on the thermal coefficient of the aggregate
the relative importance of two opposing used.
factors: (1) expansion of new gel due to The coefficient of thermal expansion of
the absorption of free pore water, and neat cement varies between 5.0 and 12.5
(2) shrinkage of the gel due to extraction millionths per deg Fahr and increases
of water by reaction with remaining about 25 per cent as the fineness is in-
WASIIA ON VOLUME CHANGES AND CREEP 119
creased from 1200 to 2700 sq cm per g. surface. The maximum concrete tempera-
Oven-dried and vacuum-saturated speci- ture is dependent on the initial concrete
mens have similar coefficients, but the temperature, the heat of hydration of the
value for specimens with an intermediate cement, the outside temperature, the
moisture content may be almost twice as rate of construction, and the specific
large. heat and thermal conductivity of the
Thermal expansion of concrete is concrete. Thermal changes in mass
greatly influenced by the type of aggre- concrete are kept as low as possible by
gate used because of the large differences the use of low-heat portland cements and
in the thermal properties of the various also by artificial refrigeration.
types of aggregates and even for aggre-
gates of a given type but from different Continuous Moist Storage:
sources. Siliceous aggregates, such as
Moist-cured concrete begins to ex-
chert, quartzite, sandstone, and some
pand after the setting shrinkage has
highly impure limestones, have thermal
taken place because of progressive hy-
coefficients of expansion between 4.5
dration of the cement and the gel forma-
and 6.5 millionths per deg Fahr, while
tion between cement particles. The ex-
the coefficient for purer limestones,
pansion of concrete due to continuous
basalt, granite, and gneiss have values
moist storage is relatively low for the
between 1.2 to 4.5 millionths per deg
various types of cement, although it is
Fahr. Single crystals of minerals such as
slightly higher for type I than for types
quartz, feldspar, and calcite, or rocks
II, III, IV, and V. Mortars and con-
composed of such minerals with the
cretes containing pozzolanic material as
crystals in parallel orientation have co-
cement replacements expand slightly
efficients along the various axes that may
more under continuous moist storage
be quite different. Feldspar, for example,
than do comparable mortars and con-
has values of 9.7, 0.5, and 1.1 millionths
cretes made without pozzolonic replace-
per deg Fahr along three different axes.
ments. Additions of gypsum also increase
A fair value of the coefficient of thermal
expansions under moist storage. The
expansion for a concrete made with spe-
amount of cement in a given mix is of
cific materials may be computed by using
much greater importance than the type
weighted averages of the coefficients of
of cement, since the expansion of a neat
the aggregate and the neat cement.
paste is about twice that of an average
The differences in the thermal coeffi-
mortar and the expansion of the mortar
cients of the constituent materials in
is about twice that of an average con-
concrete cause a thermal incompat-
crete.
ibility between the coarse aggregate and
The rate of expansion decreases with
the cement mortar. It is generally agreed
the period of moist storage and becomes
that this thermal incompatability has
very small after several years. The ulti-
some effect on durability, but its rela-
tive importance in comparison with those mate amount of expansion is usually less
caused by other factors is in some doubt. than 0.025 per cent. For comparative
Thermal changes are important in purposes it may be noted that the ex-
mass concrete where cracking is generally pansions accompanying immersion over
due to cooling of the concrete from the a period of several years are about one
maximum temperature reached to the third of the contractions of the same con-
stable temperature. Drying shrinkage in crete air dried for the same period.
mass concrete is important only at the The volume change of concrete pro-
tected against loss or gain of water is The effect of admixtures on drying

small and is usually less than 0.005 per shrinkage appears to vary for the dif-
cent expansion or contraction, depend- ferent types of admixtures. Nominal
ing on the type of cement, temperature, amounts of admixtures consisting of
and other conditions. dispersing and wetting agents have little
effect on shrinkage of concrete. Ad-
Drying Shrinkage: mixtures that increase the water require-
Drying shrinkage of concrete is ment of concrete increase the shrinkage.
caused principally by the contraction of In general, mortars and concretes that
the calcium silicate gel in the hardened have some of the cement replaced by
cement-water paste when the moisture pozzolanic material shrink more under
content of the gel is decreased. Among continuously dry conditions than mor-
the more important factors that in- tars and concretes without pozzolan
fluence drying shrinkage are the water- substitutions. Replacement of 20 per
cement ratio of the paste, the composi- cent of the cement with fly ash having a
tion of the cement, the amount of paste low carbon content has very little effect
in the concrete, the characteristics and on the shrinkage, but similar replace-
amounts of admixtures used, the mix ments of cement with pozzolanic material
proportions, the mineral composition of of greater specific surface and greater
the aggregate, the maximum size of the effect on water demand may produce
aggregate, the size and shape of the con- long-time mortar shrinkages, as much as
crete mass, the amount and distribution 50 per cent greater than those for the
of reinforcing steel, the curing conditions, corresponding mortar without the poz-
the length of the drying period, and the zolan substitution. Additions of calcium
humidity of the surrounding air. chloride up to 2 per cent by weight of
The importance of the quality and the the cement increase drying shrinkage by
quantity of cement paste in the drying 10 to 50 per cent.
shrinkage of concrete is evident from the The most important single factor
fact that cement paste in concrete, if not affecting shrinkage is the amount of
restrained by aggregate, shrinks from water per unit volume of concrete. Con-
five to fifteen times as much as the consequently, concrete with a wetter con-
crete. The quality of the paste is pri- sistency will shrink more than one with
marily a function of the water-cement a dry or stiff consistency because the
ratio and the composition and fineness of wetter consistency is obtained by the
the cement. A paste with a water-cement use of a higher water-cement ratio, by a
ratio of 0.56, by weight, shrinks about greater quantity of paste, or a combina-
50 per cent more than one with a water- tion of the two. The quantity of cement
cement ratio of 0.40. The effect of the per unit volume of concrete appears to
fineness of the cement on drying shrink- have an erratic effect on shrinkage, since
age does not appear to be as clearly indi- the effect of the larger quantity of paste
cated, but in general finer cements ex- in a rich mix is offset by the higher water-
hibit slightly greater shrinkage values. cement ratio of the paste in a lean mix.
In considering composition effects it An increase in the cement content from
appears that a given amount of trical- 5 to 8 sacks per cu yd may increase the
cium aluminate contributes most and drying shrinkage by about 25 per cent.
tricalcium silicate least to shrinkage and The grading, composition, and the
that dicalcium silicate has an inter- physical and mechanical properties of
mediate effect. the aggregate have an important effect
on concrete shrinkage. Well-graded ag- the values for small size concrete speci-
gregates with a large maximum size have mens, although the action continues
a low void space and consequently re- over a longer period for t h e large mass.
quire a relatively small amount of paste. Under given drying conditions a 6-in.
Larger maximum sizes of aggregates are thick concrete member might reach
effective in reducing shrinkage because equilibrium in 1 yr, while a 12-in. thick
they allow lower water contents and be- member might require at least 4 yr; the
cause they encourage cracking between ultimate shrinkage of the larger member,
particles. Increasing the maximum ag- however, might not exceed two thirds
gregate size from ~ to ~ in. decreases of that obtained for the smaller one.
the shrinkage by about one third in An increase in the length of the pre-
concrete having a fixed water-cement liminary curing period usually acts to
ratio and a fixed consistency. The effect decrease the drying shrinkage of neat
of aggregate size may also be noted from cement but has little effect on concrete
the average 1-yr drying shrinkage values except to increase its resistance to
for neat cement, mortar, and concrete of cracking by increasing its tensile strength.
0.25 to 0.30, 0.06 to 0.12, and 0.03 to High-pressure steam curing at about
0.08 per cent, respectively. Aside from 350 F is effectively used in block and
the question of size, aggregates having a precast products plants to reduce greatly
high modulus of elasticity and those subsequent drying shrinkage. The age
having rough surfaces offer greater re- at which the concrete is steamed does
straint to shrinkage. Mineral composi- not appear to be an important factor.
tion is important because, under com- The length of the drying period and
parable conditions, concrete made with the humidity of the surrounding air
sandstone, slate, hornblende, and py- have an important effect on drying
roxene may shrink up to two times as shrinkage. Small specimens of neat-
much as concretes made with granite, cement paste have shrinkages that in-
quartz, feldspar, dolomite, and lime- crease for at least 20 yr and are propor-
stone. tional to the logarithm of the age. The
The size and shape of the concrete shrinkage of mortars and concretes is
mass have a considerable effect on the usually small after 3 yr of drying. The
rate and total amount of shrinkage. In rate and magnitude of drying shrinkage
large concrete members, differential increase as the relative humidity of the
volume changes occur with the largest surrounding air decreases. Further,
shrinkages found at and near the sur- pastes, mortars, and concretes that have
face. Because of the large moisture varia- reached equilibrium under a given drying
tions from center to surface, tensile condition will shrink more if the relative
stresses are set up at and near the humidity is then decreased, or will ex-
surface, while compressive stresses are pand if it is increased.
developed in the interior. Hence, if the The relatively high shrinkage of light-
tensile stress near the surface is very weight aggregate concrete is one of its
high, surface cracks may appear. How- most unfavorable properties. Drying
ever, the action of creep may prevent shrinkage values may normally vary
cracking and may cause permanent between 0.04 and 0.30 per cent and are
elongation of the fibers in tension and likely to be more pronounced with con-
shortening of the fibers in compression. cretes containing aggregates that have
The rate and ultimate shrinkage of a high rates of absorption and that require
large mass of concrete are smaller than high cement contents for strength.
122 TESTS A N D PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE A N D A G G R E G A T E S
Moist-cured cellular products made with followed by 48-hr immersion in water at

neat cement weighing between 10 and 20 70 F and then by 15 hr of air storage at
lb per cu ft may have drying shrinkage 70 F caused expansions of 0.10 to 0.25
values between 0.30 and 0.60 per cent. per cent for concrete mixes made with
Autoclaved cellular products that con- different cements, water-cement ratios,
tain fine siliceous material may weigh and methods of placement.
around 40 lb per cu ft and have drying
shrinkages in the range 0.02 to 0.10 per CREEP OF PLAIN CONCRETE
cent. Fundamental Nature of Creep:
Shrinkage of reinforced unrestrained
Under the action of sustained forces
structures produces tension in the con-
concrete will undergo volumetric changes
crete and compression in the steel. In-
that are in a large part irreversible.
creasing the amount of the reinforcement
These changes are believed to be due to
materially reduces the contraction but
closure of internal voids, viscous flow of
increases the tensile stress in the con-
the cement-water paste, crystalline flow
crete. Concrete slabs reinforced in ten-
in aggregates, and the flow of water from
sion tend to warp, since the concrete near
the cement gel through the network of
the top compressive surface shrinks more
capillary channels to the surface. The
because of the accumulation of water
magnitude and rate of flow are intimately
near that surface during placement, and
related to the drying rate. Under usual
also because the steel on the tensile side
conditions th~s means that, since the dry-
acts to resist shrinkage there.
ing rate is greatest during the early life
The ability of concrete to resist crack-
of concrete, the major amount of creep
ing is dependent on the degree of re-
also occurs during that period.
straint, the magnitude of the drying and
While shrinkage of concrete is gener-
thermal contraction, the stress produced ally undesirable, creep may be desirable
in the concrete, the amount of stress
or undesirable. It is desirable in that
relief due to creep, and the tensile
it tends to promote a better distribution
strength of the concrete. Concretes that
of stresses in many reinforced-concrete
have low drying shrinkage, a low ther-
structures and undesirable in that ex-
mal coefficient, a low sustained modulus
cessive deformations and deflections due
of elasticity, and a high tensile strength
to it may be unsightly and may neces-
have good resistance to cracking. sitate repairs.
Alternate Wetting and Drying: Effect of Constituents:
The effect of the first few cycles of Both the composition and the fineness
alternate wetting and drying at room of the portland cement influence creep
temperature on the volume changes of characteristics. Concrete made with low
concrete is dependent on the details of heat cement creeps more than concrete
the test cycle, but after a few cycles the made with normal cement at all ages.
shrinkage becomes completely reversible. In one series of tests, concrete made
Wetting and drying cycles, combined with with normal and with high-early-
alternations of high and low tempera- strength cements reached maximum
tures, cause residual expansions that in- creep in about 2 yr, while concrete made
crease as the number of cycles is in- with a low-heat cement reached the
creased. One hundred and twenty cycles same condition in 5 yr. Data on the ef-
consisting of 9 hr of oven drying at 180 F fect of fineness of cement on the creep
WASItA ON VOLLrME CHANGES AND CREEP 123
properties of concrete are scarce, but Effect of Proportions:

it appears that fineness is probably
In considering the effects of mix pro-
not so important as composition. Tests
portions on creep, the interrelationships
show that for low heat cement, creep is
between water content, slump, water-
greater the coarser the cement, but that
cement ratio, and proportions of con-
the reverse is true for normal portland
stituents must be kept in mind. Tests by
cement.
various investigators have shown that
No great amount of work has been
creep of concrete decreases as the water-
carried out to determine the effects of
cement ratio and the volume of cement
admixtures on the creep properties of
paste decrease. In addition it has been
portland-cement concrete. The evidence shown that when a constant water-
now available indicates that the use of cement ratio is maintained, creep in-
approved air-entraining agents has no creases as the slump and cement content
appreciable effect. Concretes made with increase, or essentially as the amount of
pozzolanic material generally exhibit cement paste is increased.
greater creep in tension and compression
than concretes made without pozzolan Effect of Curing:
additions. Other things being equal, it
appears that the creep increases as the The temperature and humidity during
percentage of replacement increases. the curing period prior to loading have
Where creep is an important factor, important effects on the creep of con-
proprietary compounds should not be crete. It is known that a high humidity
used unless their effects have been pre- and temperatures between 70 and 120 F
viously determined. are necessary for proper hydration and
The maximum size, grading, and strength gain in order to sustain required
mineral character of the aggregate all working loads at a given age. Humidity
have an appreciable effect on creep of and temperature conditions during the
portland-cement concrete. Under com- curing period may cause shrinkage or
parable conditions it appears that swelling, which when related to the stor-
shrinkage and creep decrease as the age conditions have a strong influence on
maximum size of coarse aggregate in- creep. Generally hydration tends to pro-
creases and also that both shrinkage and duce less creep in water-cured than in
creep decrease when well-graded ag- air-cured concrete, while preshrinkage or
gregates with low void contents are used. preswelling tends to produce more creep
The mineral character of the aggregate in water-cured than in air-cured con-
has an important influence on the creep crete. Size effects are important in this
properties of concrete. Aggregates that connection, since under given storage
are hard, dense, and have tow absorption conditions small specimens suffer much
and a high modulus of elasticity are more preshrinkage or preswelling than
desirable when concrete with low creep large masses of concrete.
is wanted. Under comparable conditions
it appears that increasing amounts of Effect of Storage:
creep may be expected depending upon Rate of drying during the storage
the aggregates used, in the following period subsequent to curing has a major
order: limestone, quartz, granite, basalt, effect on creep. Rate of drying is de-
and sandstone. termined by the humidity and tempera-
124: TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
ture of the air, the size of the member, the creep of mass concrete may be of the
characteristics of the concrete, the mag- order of one fourth that obtained with
nitude of the applied load, and the mois- small specimens stored in moist air.
ture content of the concrete. Tests by
many investigators have shown that the Effect of Age at Loading:
rate and ultimate magnitude of creep With a given concrete and a given sus-
increase as the humidity of the storage tained load, the rate and the magnitude
air decreases. Creep in compression in of creep are decreased with age. It is
air at 50 per cent relative humidity is apparent that the ability of concrete to
usually more than twice as great as that carry sustained loads without excessive
obtained under moist-storage conditions. creep is a function of cement hydration,
Temperature during the loading period is and that, under given conditions, as
important because of its effects on the cement hydration progresses the magni-
physical properties of the gel and the tude of creep decreases.
water. The rate of moisture loss for a
given relative humidity increases with Effect of Time of Loading:
increasing air temperature.
Many investigators have shown that
The relation between relative humidity
concrete creep strains increase rapidly
and creep for a given concrete and given
during the early portion of the sustained
compressive load is not linear. Concrete
loading period and that the creep
under load in an atmosphere of 100 per
strains continue to increase but at a de-
cent humidity will ultimately reach a
creasing rate for at least 5 yr. In some
creep strain approximately equal to the
instances, increases in creep strains have
instantaneous strain obtained when the
been reported up to 10 yr. Approxi-
load is first applied. When the humidity
mately one fourth of the ultimate creep
is reduced to 70 per cent, the ultimate
takes place in the first month of sustained
creep strain is about twice as great, and
loading, and about one half of the ulti-
at a humidity of 50 per cent the ultimate
mate creep occurs during the first one
creep strain is about three times as great.
half year of sustained loading. Creep
This behavior may be explained by
occurs in concrete in relatively short
noting that the compressive stresses due
periods of time, and it has been shown
to shrinkage are superimposed upon those
that under short-time loading much more
due to the sustained load and that rapid
creep occurs in the first 0.01 sec than in
and nonuniform drying (and shrinkage)
the period from 0.01 sec to 1.0 rain.
cause a redistribution of stress due to
load from the gross cross-sectional area Effect of Stress Magnitude:
to a much smaller area near the center
of the member. Creep strain is approximately pro-
portional to sustained stress within the
Effect of Size: range of usual working stresses. The
Size of a concrete member is of great tendency to depart from exact propor-
importance since with larger members tionality increases as the values of the
the increased frictional resistance t o sustained stress increase. The age at
flow along the capillary channels results which the concrete is first subjected to
in a reduction of seepage. This in turn sustained loading is also important since
means that the rate and the ultimate concrete subjected to a given sustained
magnitude of creep are less for larger stress at 7 days will have a higher ratio of
members. It has been estimated that creep strain to sustained stress than a
WAStIA ON VOLUME CHANGES AND CREEP 125
similar concrete first subjected to the fluence the properties of concrete. The
same load at an age of 3 months. Sus- modulus of elasticity of concrete cylin-
tained stresses above the normal working ders under sustained load for 10 yr is
stresses produce creep strains that in- about 25 per cent greater than the modu-
crease at a progressively faster rate as lus of elasticity of companion specimens
the magnitude of the sustained stress not loaded during the same period. The
is increased. Cyclic repetition of the effect on ultimate strength is not so
sustained stress produces a residual definite, but it appears that long periods
deformation that increases with the of sustained loading increase the strength
number of cycles but is essentially inde- by 5 per cent over that obtained for un-
pendent of the period of the cycles. loaded specimens tested at the same age.
Type of Creep Tests:
CREEP OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
Since concrete is usually used in com-
pression, most information on creep has General Behavior of Simply Supported
been obtained for concrete subjected to Beams and Slabs:
sustained compressive loading. In ad-
In most instances, simply supported
dition, creep tests have been performed
beams and slabs are reinforced only in
under sustained tension, crossbending,
tension and have a nonsymmetrical sec-
bond, torsion, and triaxial stress con-
tion. Further, lack of symmetry is due to
ditions. The same general behavior pat-
the fact that the concrete at and near
tern is, however, evidenced in nearly all
the top of the beam is not so strong and
cases.
contains more water than the concrete
Tests on concrete subjected to sus-
in the lower portion due to water rise
tained axial tension and axial compres-
during placement. Consequently, beams
sion show that the rate of tensile creep
and slabs that are not loaded will gradu-
is much greater than the rate of com-
ally warp because shrinkage is resisted
pressive creep at early ages when both
by the steel at the bottom and because
are reduced to a stress of 1 psi but, after
the top concrete shrinks more than the
several weeks of sustained stress, the rate
bottom concrete. Beams and slabs that
of compressive creep exceeds that of the
are subjected to sustained loading con-
tensile creep. The ultimate values of the
sequently will be deflected and strained
creep in tension and compression are
by warping as well as by loading.
about equal. A comparison of the creep
Simply supported beams and slabs sub-
strains in tension and compression of
jected to sustained safe design loads have
beams subjected to constant sustained
deflection-time and compression strain-
bending moment shows that the early
time curves that are similar to the creep
creep of the fibers on the tension side is
strain-time curves for cylinders under
greater than the corresponding creep of
compressive loading. The curves rise
fibers on the compression side. Tests on
steeply during the early portion of the
concrete under sustained combined
loading period and then continue to rise
stresses show that lateral pressure act-
slowly for a relatively long period. About
ing on cylinders under a given axial load
75 per cent of the ultimate values are
causes a marked reduction in longitudi-
obtained by the end of the first half year
nal creep strain.
of loading. The rate and ultimate values
Effect of Sustained Load on Profierlies of are influenced by the various factors
Concrete: previously discussed for plain concrete
Long periods of sustained loading in- and, in addition, by such factors as
position and amount of reinforcing steel age and creep be at a minimum in order
and ratio of span length to depth of sec- to avoid large reductions in the amount
tion. of prestress. Consequently, special care
The compressive creep strains increase should be taken in the choice of the ma-
rapidly while the strain at the tensile terials used, the design and placement of
steel level shows only a small change the concrete, the conditions and the
during the loading period. The probable length of the curing period, and the age
reason for the different behaviors of the at and the conditions of loading. Under
top and bottom portions of the slab dur- very poor conditions the loss in prestress
ing the test is that the effects of shrink- of the steel due to shrinkage and creep
age and creep are in the same direction may be around 50,000 psi. in our present
in the top, but are opposite to each other stage of development it is generally con-
in the bottom of the slab. sidered necessary to prestress the steel
The ratio of span length to total depth up to 120,000 to 150,000 psi, and it is
of beam has an important effect on creep. further felt that prestressing up to only
Investigations have shown that an in- 50,000 psi is of little value because of the
crease in the ratio from 20 to 70 increases possible effects of shrinkage and creep.
the creep deflection of simply supported
beams about four to six times. General Behavior of Continuous Beams
and Slabs:
Effect of Compressive Reinforcement: Tests on reinforced-concrete two-span
The inclusion of arbitrary amounts of beams resting on three supports at the
compressive steel at the section of maxi- same elevation provide information on
mum moment in simply supported rein- the behavior of continuous beams under
forced-concrete beams is effective in re- constant sustained stress. These tests
ducing creep deflection and compressive show that at the sections of maximum
creep strains. Tests have shown that the positive moment the deflections, com-
inclusion of compressive steel, not re- pressive creep strains, and tensile creep
quired for design strength and equal in strains behaved in a manner similar to
amount to the tensile steel, reduced the that obtained in simply supported beams.
creep deflection by about one half. In- However, comparison of the values for
clusion of half as much compressive steel the simply supported and the continuous
caused a reduction of approximately one beams of similar section and span length
third. Compressive creep strain was re- shows that, after 1 yr of sustained load-
duced about 60 per cent by the inclusion ing, the creep deflection of the continu-
of compressive steel equal to the tensile ous beams was between one third and
steel and about 40 per cent by the in- one half of the values for the simply
clusion of half as much compressive supported beams and that the com-
steel. From these significant effects it pressive creep strains of the continuous
was concluded that compressive rein- beams were between 60 and 80 per cent
forcement should be used where a com- of the values for simply supported beams.
bination of high L/D ratio and sustained The tensile creep strain for both types of
load is necessary. beams did not change much with time.
The beneficial effects produced by the
Creep of _Prestressed Reinforced-Concrete addition of compressive reinforcement at
Beams: the sections of maximum positive mo-
In this type of construction it is par- ment were quite pronounced since in-
ticularly important that drying shrink- clusion of compressive steel equal in
a m o u n t to t h e tensile steel reduced the for 589 y r in an Atmosphere of 50 per cent

creep deflections b y a b o u t one third. relative h u m i d i t y , the steel stress in-
creased from a b o u t 8000 to 42,000 psi,
General Behavior of Columns: while the concrete stress decreased from
Tests b y m a n y investigators show that, 1000 to 300 psi. I n the same period of
when reinforced-concrete columns are time, b u t for columns stored under water,
subjected to sustained load, additional the steel stress increased from a b o u t 7000
stress is g r a d u a l l y transferred to the to 12,000 psi a n d the concrete stress de-
steel with a consequent decrease in the creased from 900 to 800 psi. T h e increase
concrete stress. I n one series of tests on in the steel stress generalIy varies in-
reinforced columns, containing 1.9 per versely with the percentage of steel a n d
cent steel and kept under sustained load with the h u m i d i t y of the air.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I t is not possible to provide an extensive listing because of the limitation of space. However, the
following will provide a good starting list, and additions may be made from the more complete
bibliographies available in some of the given publications.
(1) Raymond E. Davis, "A Summary of In- (8) T. F. Willis and M. E. De Reus, "Thermal
vestigations of Volume Changes in Ce- Volume Change and Elasticity of Aggre-
ments, Mortars, and Concretes Produced gates and Their Effect on Concrete," Pro-
by Causes Other than Stress," Proceedings, ceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 39,
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 30, Part I, p. 919 (1939).
p. 668 (1930). (9) Roy W. Carlson, "Attempts to Measure
(2) W. H. Glanvilie, "Studies in Reinforced the Cracking Tendency of Concrete,"
Concrete: Part 1.--Bond Resistance; Part Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1940;
2.--Shrinkage Stresses; Part 3.--The Creep Proceedings, Vol. 36, pp. 533-537.
or Flow of Concrete Under Load; Part 4.-- (10) Harmer E. Davis, "Autogenous Volume
Further Investigations on the Creep or Flow Changes of Concrete," Proceedings, Am.
of Concrete Under Load," Technical Papers Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 40, p. 1103 (1940).
Nos. 10, 11, 12, and 21, Department of (11) William R. Lorman, "The Theory of Con-
Scientific and Industrial Research, London crete Creep," .Proceedings,Am. Soc. Testing
(i930, 1930, 1930, and 1939). Mats., Vol. 40, p. 1082 (1940).
(3) Raymond E. Davis, "Methods of Test for (12) G.W. Washa, "Comparison of the Physical
Determining Volume Changes in Con- and Mechanical Properties of Hand Rodded
crete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., and Vibrated Concrete Made with Differ-
Vol. 35, Part I, p. 298 (1935). ent Cements," Journal, Am. Concrete
(4) J. R. Shank, "The Mechanics of Plastic Inst., June, 1940; Proceedings, Vol. 36, pp.
Flow of Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete 617-645.
Inst., November-December, 1935; Pro- (13) Gerald Pickett, "The Effect of Change in
ceedings, Vol. 32. pp. 149-182. Moisture Content on the Creep of Con-
(5) Raymond E. Davis, Harmer E. Davis, and crete Under a Sustained Load," Journal,
Elwood H. Brown, "Plastic Flow and Vol- Am. Concrete Inst., February, 1942; Pro-
rune Changes of Concrete," Proceedings, ceedings, Vol. 38, pp. 333-355.
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 37, Part II, (14) R. E. Davis and J. W. Kelly, "Volume
p. 317 (1937). Changes and Plastic Flow of Concrete,"
(6) Roy W. Carlson, "Drying Shrinkage of Report on Significance of Tests of Concrete
Concrete as Affected by Many Factors," and Concrete Aggregates, Am. Soc. Testing
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. Mats., p. 54 (1943). (Issued as separate
38, Part II, p. 419 (1938). publication ASTM STP No. 22-A.)
(7) Russell S. Jensen and Frank E. Richard, (15) C. M. Duke and H. E. Davis, "Some
"Short-Time Creep Tests of Concrete in Properties of Concrete Under Sustained
Compression," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Test- Combined Stresses," Proceedings, Am.
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(16) "Symposium on Methods and Procedures (20) H. F. Gonnerman, William Lerch, and
Used in Identifying Reactive Materials in Thomas M. Whiteside, "Investigations of
Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing the Hydration Expansion Characteristics
Mats., Vol. 48, p. 1057 (1948). of Portland Cements," Research Bulletin
(17) H. F. Gonnerman and William Lerch, No. 45, Portland Cement Association,
"Changes in Characteristics of Portland June, 1953.
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over the Period 1904 to 1950," Am. Soc. of Concrete and Their Influence on Pre-
Testing Mats. (1952). (Issued as separate stress Design," Journal, Am. Concrete
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(18) G. W. Washa and P. G. Fluck, "The Effect p. 381.
of Compressive Reinforcement on the (22) Douglas McHenry, "A New Aspect of
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STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
T H E R M A L PROPERTIES
BY L. J. MITCHELL1
The thermal properties of hardened THERMAL PROPERTIES AND

concrete that are of engineering signifi- THEIR RANGES
cance are thermal conductivity, specific
heat, thermal diffusivity, and coefficient Thermal Conductivity:
of thermal expansion. Thermal conductiv- The ability of hardened concrete to
ity is the rate of heat flow; specific heat conduct or pass heat through itself is
is the heat capacity; thermal diffusivity usually measured in terms of Btu per
determines the facility with which the foot per hour per deg Fahr. This repre-
temperature can change; and coefficient sents the uniform flow of heat in British
of thermal expansion is the change in vol- thermal units per hour through a body
ume, or as usually measured, change in of material 1 sq ft in area with a tem-
length with change in temperature. perature difference of 1 F per ft of thick-
Adiabatic temperature rise, or the ness. The range of this property is large,
heat of hydration of the cement, may being from 0.8 to 2.1 for normal sat-
well be considered as another thermal urated concrete between 50 and 150 F,
property. This property and proper con- and is principally dependent upon the
trol of it is of vital consideration in the composition of the concrete (3). Although
design of modern, massive, concrete conductivity of lightweight concrete
structures (1, 2).2 varies with its density, conductivity of
Knowledge of these properties is used normal concrete seems to be nearly inde-
in designing and in predicting the be- pendent of density. For instance, con-
havior of all types of structures, from crete made with barite aggregate has a
the building of lightweight concrete in conductivity of 0.8 with a density of 227
which insulation is a major factor to large lb per c u f t , Bull Run Dam concrete
massive structures in which artificial (gravel largely igneous) 0.83 at 159 lb,
cooling may be employed. Stabilizing the and Norris Dam concrete (crushed dol-
structure thermally and volumetrically omite sand and gravel) 2.13 at 160 lb.
is of prime importance. An accurate Conductivity of lightweight concrete
knowledge of these properties or the abil- varies from 0.08 to 0.35 for densities
ity to predict them with reasonable ac- from 30 to 110 lb per cu ft oven-dried.
curacy can do much to bring about The effect of temperature upon con-
better design and more efficient conductivity is usually relatively insignifi-
struction of all concrete structures. cant, and the change for an increase in
1 Materials Engineer, Bureau of Recla- temperature range is likely to be positive
mation, Denver, Colo. for low-conductivity concrete and nega-
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper, tive for high-conductivity concrete.
see p. 134. Prediction of thermal conductivity of
129
www.astm.org
130 TESTS AND PROPERTIES Olr CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
concrete from the composition is likely to Hydrated cement paste has a low specific
be uncertain as well as a major problem heat and a very definite curve of varia-
due to the many factors invoiced. Each tion with temperature. Since water has a
mineral present in the aggregate must be specific heat of 1.0, the water content is
identified and assigned its share of effect. effective in raising the specific heat of
Both air content, or void content, and concrete.
water contained or included tend to re-
duce the thermal conductivity. Although Thermal Diffusivity:
drying reduces the amount of a low-con- The so-called thermal diffusivity "con-
ductivity ingredient in the concrete, it stant" is a measure of the rate at which
further lowers conductivity because this temperature changes will take place
loss increases air voids of still lower con- within the mass of hardened concrete.
ductivity. The air content of concrete, Its variability over a range of from 0.020
whether original or as air voids due to to 0.063 It 2 per hr (3) is controlled largely
drying, has a pronounced effect in re- by the composition of the mass and is
ducing the conductivity of the mass. The very similar in characteristics to the
conductivity of hydrated portland-ce- thermal conductivity. This property is
ment paste (0.8), although high com- directly proportional to the thermal con-
pared to that of water (0.35), is still ductivity and inversely proportional to
relatively low and tends to be one of the the specific heat multiplied by the
factors reducing the thermal conductiv- density. It may be determined from the
ity. Basalt and trachyte are among types formula:
of rock used as aggregates having low
conductivity and tending to reduce the k
o~ ~ D
conductivity of the mass (3). Quartz, on Cp
the other hand, is an extremely high-con-

ductivity constituent, and various in- where:
vestigators have indicated its k value as = thermal diffusivity (diffusion con-
being above 7.0 parallel to the axis of the stant),
crystals and above 4.0 at right angles to k = thermal conductivity,
this direction. Dolomite and limestone c = specific heat, and
have conductivities near the usual upper 0 = density in pounds per cubic foot.
limit of hardened concrete. Lightweight
aggregates have lower conductivities, Coe~cient of Thermal Expansion:
usually in the same order as their densi- All materials exhibit a change in vol-
ties. ume upon temperature change. In engi-
neering materials, this property is usually
Specific Heat: positive--that is, producing increased
The amount of heat necessary to volume at increased temperatures--and is
change the temperature of 1 lb of ma- frequently considered to be a constant.
terial 1 F is defined as specific heat, It is expressed in terms of inches per inch
which for hardened concrete varies from per deg Fahr (millionths per deg Fahr)
0.20 to 0.28 Btu per lb per deg Fahr. The and, for hardened concrete, is usually
effect of mineral composition upon spe- between 389 and 689 millionths per deg
cific heat is relatively insignificant, except Fahr. When a precise value is not re-
for the water content and the entrained quired, the average value of 5 millionths
air. In general, the specific heat varies per deg Fahr is frequently used. The
with variation in the temperature 0). composition of concrete completely con-
MITCHELL ON THERMAL PROPERTIES 131
trols the coefficient of thermal expansion Adiabatic Temperature Rise:

of the hardened mass, provided that the The property of adiabatic temperature
variability of coefficients, with moisture rise is a function of the proportion and
changes in neat cement, is taken into ac- specific heat of the various mix constitu-
count. ents and the heat of hydration of the
Recent work by the author (4) and by cement used. Unlike the usually con-
Meyers (5) shows that the coefficient of sidered thermal properties which are
expansion of neat cement may vary by relatively fixed by the aggregate avail-
as much as 100 per cent due to moisture able, this property m a y be controlled
content, being minimum in either oven- over an appreciable range. Mix propor-
dry or saturated conditions and maxi- tions, type of cement, and pozzolanic ma-
mum somewhere in the region of 70 per terials are effective means through which
cent saturation. The coefficient for neat adiabatic temperature-rise may be con-
cement also depends upon the particular trolled.
cement (4) and may possibly vary from Laboratory tests (8) show mass concrete
less than 5 to more than 12 millionths mixes containing 4 sacks of cement per
per deg Fahr, depending upon differences cubic yard to vary in temperature rise
in cement and the moisture content. from about 47 F for low-heat cement to
Meyers (5) found that either autoclaving 68 F for modified cement and 75 F for
or aging for several years reduced the standard type I cement. Leaner mixes
coefficient of neat cement at intermediate produce less temperature rise in propor-
moisture contents. Thus, extremely old tion to the cement used. Tests indicate
concrete should be expected to have that cements manufactured since World
nearly the same coefficient of thermal War I I appear to have 10 per cent greater
expansion under all moisture conditions. heat of hydration generated than did
Since the expansion of hardened con- others of the same type previously.
crete will be equal to the composite or Pozzolanic materials usually produce
weighted average expansion of its con- much less temperature rise than the
stituents (4, 6), the coefficient of various cement which they replace. Some are
mortar mixes should vary from about 5 used for economy and to inhibit alkali-
millionths to about 8 millionths per deg aggregate reaction as well as to control
Fahr. The thermal expansions of various temperature rise.
American rocks that may be used as ag- In current investigations, retarding ad-
gregate vary from less than 2 to more mixtures have shown promise of helping
than 7 millionths per deg Fahr (4, 7). temperature control and economy in
Some of the extremely high coefficient mass concrete by making leaner mixes
materials such as feldspar and quartz or possible. Lean mixes of modified cement
bedded materials such as limestone and with pozzolanic material and retarders
sandstone show anisotropic characteris- have produced concrete of acceptable
tics. strength having adiabatic temperature
Investigations indicate the coefficient rise as low as 40 F.
of expansion to be essentially constant
SIGNIFICANCE IN MASSIVE STRUCTURES
over the range from 15 to 70 F in dry
concrete. Moist concrete, especially that Stresses and Cracking:
which is nearly saturated, frequently I t is obvious that a large massive con-
shows a significant increase in thermal crete structure such as a gravity dam
coefficients with increasing temperature. presents a problem involving stresses due
to shrinkage and thermal action. Such when grouting is necessary to secure

structures should upon finM completion monolithic action, steps must be taken to
be monolithic in intimate contact with provide that a large massive concrete
the foundation and abutment in order structure comes to its final temperature
that stress distribution and limiting and stable dimensions during or at the
stresses be as designed. Zienkiewicz (o) end of the construction period in order
emphasized the need for knowledge and that grouting may make a final approach
consideration of thermal properties in to a monolithic structure.
controlling stresses in massive concrete When no artificial cooling methods are
structures. Blanks, Meissner, and Raw- provided, thermal properties of concrete
houser (1) analyzed crack surveys and are important because construction
design features of several large dams and schedules and formed blocks must be so
concluded that thermal stresses are the arranged that heat dissipation will take
principal cause of cracking in massive place advantageously. These properties
structures. must be known to the designer for ar-
Rawhouser (2) explains modern design ranging block sizes and specifying the
methods which elinfinate cracking and rate of concrete placement. Correct speci-
control joint openings by controlling fications for precooling procedures, plac-
temperature in mass concrete. His work ing temperatures, and rates depend
shows that thermal shrinkage which strongly upon the use of heat of hydra-
causes cracks can largely be controlled by tion, specific heat, thermal conductivity,
limiting the temperature rise above the and thermal diffusivity values. Large
final stable temperature. temperature changes after completion
A complete knowledge of the thermal cannot be tolerated because large tensile
properties is necessary in designing the stresses and cracks will result (I,2).
mix and block size and in outlining the Where artificialcooling means are to
cooling and construction procedures. be provided, thermal diffusivity is the
Proper design can limit temperatures controlling factor in the spacing of cool-
and resultant stresses to safe values. ing pipes within the mass. Data on
thermal conductivity and specific heat
Cooling and Grouting of Dams: along with diffusivityare used to deter-
The heat of hydration of cement com- mine the size of cooling pipes and rates
pounds during setting produces a very of cooling-fluid circulation, thus deter-
appreciable temperature rise in large mining the size of the refrigerationplant
massive structures from which heat can- or the amount of water to be circulated.
not readily escape. The temperature The structure must be so designed that
difference above the mean annual tem- thermM shrinkage will open contraction
perature must be relieved in order for the joints by an amount that m a y be readily
mass to be stable and capable of bearing and surely grouted.
the water load. Usually positive meas-
ures are in order, both for controlling the SIGNIFICANCE IN OTI-IER LARGE
amount and rate of heat generation and CONSTRUCTION
for dissipation of heat (2). Frequently, as Arches and Large Struclures:
in the case of the Hoover Dam, artificial
cooling installations are provided. Con- Usually the design and construction of
trol is also accomplished in some cases by arches and other continuous concrete
the use of special cement and admixtures structures, when concrete thickness is
and precooling of materials. In any case, only a few feet, do not require con-
M I T C H E L L ON T H E R M A L PROPERTIES 133
sideration of thermal properties other pure the insulation thickness necessary

than the coefficient of thermal expansion. to protect winter concrete from freezing,
Coefficient of expansion must be consid- especially at outside corners.
ered in all such structures if they are to
resist cracking and function as continu- SIGNIFICANCE TO BUILDING
ous structures. Where expansion joints CONSTRUCTION
cannot be provided at suitable intervals, Thermal Conductivity:
thermal expansion must be converted to
Few buildings, residential or indus-
equivalent stress and adequate provisions
trial, are now designed without consid-
made for this additional load. Usually
eration for thermal insulation. Normally,
conductivity, specific heat, and diffusiv-
concrete would not be considered to be
ity are important to such structures only
an insulating material, but in recent
as these properties affect durability by
years special concretes have been enter-
their tendency to accentuate local strain
ing the field of building construction
within the mass caused by daily tem-
where insulation is required. Many light-
perature cycles. Weiner (lO) considered
weight aggregates are now available
durability of exposed concrete to be a
which produce concrete providing some
function of diffusivity and thermal ex-
degree of insulation in addition to having
pansion.
low unit weight, hence being more desir-
Highways: able from the standpoint of dead load in
structural uses. Several concretes have
The principal thermal property to be
been tested as insulation materials for
considered in highway design is coeffi-
housing purposes (13, 14). Conductivity
cient of thermal expansion. The location
of lightweight concrete may vary from
of expansion joints is determined by the
0.08 to 0.35 Btu per ft per hr per deg
amount of thermal expansion and by the
Fahr when dry.
strength and cross-section of the highway
slab. Other thermal properties are con- Thermal Expansion:
sidered in highway work as they affect
durability of concrete either through Thermal properties of concrete other
than conductivity are not usually con-
thermal strain or incompatibility (11, 12)
sidered in building construction, except
or to a lesser degree as they may affect
as the coefficients of expansion affect
the tendency of a highway slab to curl
slightly from day to night and be broken stresses and expansion joints. Fre-
at the corners by heavy loads. This lat- quently, a structure is too small for this
ter situation, however, is usually consid- consideration to be a major item, al-
ered from the structural standpoint only though the modern tendency toward
continuous structures requires a knowl-
and not from the standpoint of the
thermal properties that produce it. edge of the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion in their design.
Winter Concreting:
METHODS OF TESTING
A knowledge of the thermal properties
of concrete has made possible the designs Conductivity:
now used in many cases for winter con- Concrete for massive structures is
crete work, where insulated forms pro- naturally tested in the wet or moist-cured
vide the necessary protection from freez- condition as it will be used. Some lab-
ing. Thermal diffusivity, conductivity, oratories prefer to determine conductiv-
and heat of hydration were used to corn- ity as a direct test. Reference (3) describes
the method used in the Bureau of Rec- CRD-C36-48) prefer to make direct tests
lamation laboratories. Other laboratories for diffusivity and then compute con-
have determined this property by com- ductivity. When diffusivity is measured
putation from the specific heat, density, directly, the test consists essentially of a
and diffusivity which they determine by rate-of-cooling determination with meas-
direct tests. urements being taken at the center of a
Dry concrete for building construc- mass of concrete which has been previ-
tion, especially insulating concretes, ously tempered to a high constant tem-
must be tested by a method similar to perature and then cooled in a constant
that used for other insulating materials. water bath.
The generally accepted method of test
for this case is ASTM Method C 1773 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:
Methods of measuring the coefficient
Specific Heat: of thermal expansion are almost as nu-
Specific heat of concrete is frequently merous at the number of laboratories
determined by oa simple "method of mix- making such measurements. They vary
tures" process. The principal piece of from tests on small specimens held in ex-
equipment usually consists of a high- tensometer frames (4) or small specimens
insulation-type calorimeter large enough with attached strain gages for which the
to accommodate the size sample deemed temperature is controlled in an oven, to
necessary for representative results. The large bars tested in horizontal cornpari-
"Procedures Manual" of the Bureau of tors (IS). Larger laboratory specimens or
Reclamation (IS) describes this test for field structures may be tested with
approximately 70-1b samples. The Corps Whittemore-type strain gages or em-
of Engineers' "Handbook for Concrete bedded Carlson strain gages in some
and Cement" (16), under Designation instances.
CRD-C-124-51, describes a test for sam-
ples up to 2 lb in size. Temperature Rise and Heat of Hydration:
Both temperature rise and heat of
Diff usivit y : hydration may be determined by adi-
Diffusivity may be computed from the abatic calorimeter methods (15). The
other thermal properties, provided they heat of hydration of portland cement
are determined. Some laboratories prefer may also be determined by heat of solu-
to make direct tests of thermal con- tion methods such as ASTM Method
ductivity, specific heat, and density and C 1864 or Federal Specifications SS-C-
compute the thermal diffusivity, whereas 158c3
other laboratories ((16), Designation 4 Method of Test for Heat of Hydration of
Portland Cement (Short Method)(C 186), 1955
a Method of Test for Thermal Conductivity Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
of Materials by Means of the Guarded Hot Cements, Hydraulic. Methods for Sampling,
Plate (C 177), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Inspection and Testing (SS-C-158e), U. S. Gov-
Part 3. ernment Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C.
REFERENCES
(I) Robert F. Blanks, H. S. Meissner, and C. perature Control of Mass Concrete,"

Rawhouser, "Cracking in Mass Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., February,
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May, 1938; 1945; Proceedings, Vol. 41, p. 305.
Proceedings, Vol. 34, p. 477. (3) "Thermal Properties of Concrete," Boulder
(2) C. Rawhouser, "Cracking and Tern- Canyon Project Final Report, Bulletin
MITCHELL ON THERMAL PROPERTIES 135
IYo. 1, Part VII, Bureau of Reclamation (London), Vol. 4, No. 1, January, 1955, p.
(1940). 88.
(4) Leonard J. Mitchell, "Thermal Expansion (10) Albert Weiner, "A Study of the Influence
Tests on Aggregates, Neat Cements, and of Thermal Properties on the Durability of
Concretes," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Mats., Vol. 53, p. 963 (1953). May, 1947; Proceedings, Vol. 43, p. 997.
(5) S. L. Meyers, "How Temperature and (11) J. C. Pearson, "A Concrete Failure At-
Moisture Changes May Affect Durability tributed to Aggregate of Low Thermal Co-
of Concrete," Rock Products, Vol. 54, No. efficient," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
8, August, 1951, p. 153. September, 1941; Proceedings, Vol. 38, p.
(6) S. Walker, D. L. Bloem, and W. G. Mul- 29.
len, "Effects of Temperature Changes on (12) E. J. Callan, "Thermal Expansion of Ag-
Concrete as Influenced by Aggregates," gregates and Concrete Durability," Jour-
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., April, 1952; nal, Am. Concrete Inst., February, 1952;
Proceedings, Vol. 48, p. 661. Proceedings, Vol. 48, p. 485.
(7) John H. Griffith, "Thermal Expansion of (13) Walter H. Price, and William A. Cordon,
Typical American Rocks," Bulletin No. "Tests of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
128, Iowa Engineering Experiment Sta- Designed for Monolithic Construction,"
tion, Iowa State College, October, 1936. Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., April, 1949;
(8) J. L. Savage, "Special Cements for Mass Proceedings, Vol. 45, p. 581.
Concrete," Bureau of Reclamation, pub- (14) Ross W. Kluge, Morris M. Sparks, and
lication prepared for consideration of Edward C. Tuma, "Lightweight Aggregate
Second Congress of the International Com- Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
mission on Large Dams, World Power Con- May, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. 45, p. 625.
ference (1936). (15) "Materials Laboratory Procedures Man-
(9) O. C. Zienkiewicz, "Computation of Shrink- ual," Bureau of Reclamation (1951).
age and Thermal Stresses in Massive Struc- (16) "Handbook for Concrete and Cement,"
tures," Proceedings, Inst. Civil Engrs. Corps of Engineers (1949).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
PORE STRUCTURE
BY GEORGE VERBECK 1
Many of the important and commonly der-aggregate" fissures, and, on occasion,

observed properties of hardened concrete "honeycomb" pockets. "Honeycomb"
are related to the quantity and charac- can be considered to be an abnormal and
teristics of the various types of pores in undesirable condition that can be avoided
the paste and aggregates within the con- by proper mixture proportions and plac-
crete. The engineering properties of coning practice and therefore needs no dis-
crete, such as strength, durability, cussion for the present purpose.
shrinkage, and permeability, are influ- Fissures or zones of weakness may at
enced or controlled by the pores in the times develop under aggregates during
concrete and the relative amounts of the the period of bleeding. Little is known
different types of pores. It is therefore concerning the frequency with which
not surprising that tests of various prop- they occur, except in extreme cases. Pre-
erties depending on porosity, such as sumably their occurrence is a function of
permeability and absorption, are fre- the water content of the concrete, the
quently applied to concrete. bleeding properties of the cement, and
In order to trace the significance and the aggregate grading (fine material and
influence of the various pore types and bridging). They may be difficult to de-
their characteristic effects and interrela- tect, since the phenomena may produce
tionships in connection with some of these only a weakened zone of high water-ce-
engineering properties, it is important to ment ratio (having almost normal ap-
consider the manner in which these pores pearance) immediately under pieces of
originate, the factors that affect them, aggregate.
and the limits within which their quanti-
ties may vary. Capillary and Gel Pores in Cement-Water
Pastes:
POROSITY OF CONCRETE The water-filled space in a freshly
The pores formed in the original plas- mixed neat cement paste represents space
tic concrete are, of necessity, either that is available for the formation of ce-
water- or gas-filled. After the concrete ment hydration products. As hydration
has hardened, the water pores may tend proceeds, thevolume of this space, which
to dry and the air pores tend to become initially was determined by the water-
water saturated, depending upon the cement ratio of the paste, is continually
history of the concrete. Concrete is made reduced by the precipitation of the
up primarily of paste and aggregate com- hydrated gel which has a bulk volume
ponents; in addition it contains a void larger than the original unhydrated ce-
component composed of air voids, "un- ment itself. At any time, that part of the
1Managor, Applied Research Section, Port- original water space which has not be-
land Cement Assn. Laboratories, Chicago, Ill. come filled with hydration products con-
136
www.astm.org
VERBECK ON PORE STRUCTURE 137
stitutes the capillary system of the paste. 100 to 200/k in diameter). These small
It can thus be seen that hydration re- particles are bonded together by chemical
duces the size and volume of the capillary and physical means to produce the char-
pores in the paste. If the original capil- acteristic strength. Perhaps analogous to
lary space is low (water-cement ratio grains in a sand pile, these small gel
about 0.4 by weight), the bulk volume of particles will leave small voids between
the gel will be sufficient to eventually fill them even in their densest normal pack-
this space and produce a paste free from ing. These small gel pores are naturally
capillary pores. At higher water-cement very numerous; in a dense, fully hy-
ratios, the gel volume is not sufficient to drated paste, they constitute about 25
fill completely all the original water space per cent of the bulk volume of the hydra-
in the paste, even after complete cement tion product, which corresponds approxi-
hydration, and pastes of relatively large mately to the pore volume or porosity of
capillary pore volume may be produced. closely packed spheres. Therefore the
These capillary pores can be visualized volume of the gel pores increases with
as a submicroscopic system of voids or continued hydration of the cement,
zones of low density randomly dis- whereas the volume of capillary pores
tributed throughout the paste. Perme- decreases with hydration.
ability studies indicate that they are As noted above, water held in either
interconnected. These submicroscopic the gel or capillary pores does not behave
capillary pores must of necessity include as normal free water. The gel pores re-
a wide variety of "sizes" and shapes but tain significant quantities of water (ad-
perhaps vary from 0.0005 to 0.00005 in. sorption) even at relatively low humidi-
in "diameter." ties. Because of the larger size of the
Considering the cement paste com- capillary pores, proportionately less of
ponent (not including air voids), even a the capillary water is strongly adsorbed
dense, well-cured paste is capable of on the pore walls, and it is therefore rel-
holding relatively large quantities of atively more volatile than is gel water;
evaporable water although no capillary the water in the capillary pores is almost
pores are present. The hydration product completely evaporable at humidities be-
or gel with which the capillary spaces low about 40 per cent.
within the paste are filled is itself porous, It is the capillary pores with which the
containing pores that are exceedingly permeability of paste and concrete is
small, much smaller than the capillary most closely associated, for the water in
pores. Water in these very small pores these pores can move more freely under
(they are about one ten-millionth of an hydrostatic pressure than can the ad-
inch in mean diameter) will have charac- sorbed gel water.
teristics, such as vapor pressure and
mobility, notably different from those of Aggregate Pores:
free water in bulk. This is also true, but Concrete contains about 75 per cent
to a lesser degree, for water in the (larger) aggregate by volume, and the aggregate
capillary pores. can contribute significantly to the char-
Research indicates that each gross unit acteristics of the concrete. The porosities
of hydration products normally contains among common aggregates range from
a characteristic quantity of these gel nearly 0 to as much as 20 per cent by
pores. Hydration produces a "gel" that solid volume. These pores have a wide
is composed of very fine particles of mat- size range and are larger than the gel
ter, perhaps essentially spherical (only pores in paste, frequently at least the size
138 TESTS AND PROI'ER~IES OF CONCI'._~E AND AGGREGATES
of the largest paste capillary pores. In from 0 to perhaps 40 per cent in well-
some instances microscopic determina- cured pastes of the normal range of
tions of the size of many of these aggre- water-cement ratio. For cement pastes
gate pores can be made. not completely hydrated, the gel pore
volume would be less and the capillary
Air Pores (Air Voids): pore volume greater than the amounts
indicated.
Concrete normally contains air voids, Although these various pores and
which are accidentally or purposely en- voids in concrete influence the physical
trained, dispersed through the paste properties of water contained therein, the
component. Many of these voids can be properties of the separate types of pores
seen with the unaided eye; those that are not sufficiently different to permit
have a significant effect on the volume of their complete identification in concrete.
air in concrete can be seen using a micro- The combined porosity of concrete (in-
scope and a magnification of the order of cluding the air voids) can be represented
40 diameters. They range in size from by the total capacity for evaporable wa-
10 ~ or less to 2 mm or more. The air ter between the stages of complete sat-
voids may constitute from less than 1 to uration and dryness--dry except for the
more than 10 per cent of the concrete combined or nonevaporable water con-
volume, the volume and size depending tent of the cement hydrate.
upon several factors including the
amount of air-entraining agent used, size PERMEABILITY O F CONCRETE
distribution and maximum size of aggre- Interest in the permeability of con-
gate, concrete consistency, duration of crete arises usually in connection with
mixing, etc. some specific application of the concrete
and therefore may produce emphasis on
Pores and Voids in Concrete:
particular manifestations of concrete
Concrete may thus be visualized as permeability.
consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of Movement of air or water through con-
components, each component having its crete can be produced by various com-
own characteristic pores. In terms of the binations of air or water pressure dif-
other pores in the concrete, the air voids, ferentials, humidity differentials, and
normally the coarsest of all, may consti- solutions of different concentrations (os-
tute from less than 1 to more than 10 per motic effects). Although it is known that
cent of the total volume of the concrete. the observed rate of movement is depend-
Approximately 75 per cent of the con- ent upon the characteristics of the mem-
crete is aggregate, frequently heterogene- brane and the permeating material, much
ous, with an internal pore volume vary- more needs to be learned regarding these
ing from almost 0 to 20 per cent (most relationships. Tests have been devised to
commonly about 1 to 5 per cent), the determine the "permeability" of various
pores ranging from relatively fine to materials, and although these procedures
coarse. The cement paste component may reveal the relative characteristics of
usually contains both extremely fine gel the concretes involved, it is not at all
pores and the coarser but submicroscopic certain that the results obtained can be
capillary pores. The gel pores constitute considered "true permeabilities" (if such
about 20 to 30 per cent of the paste vol- exist) without much fuller knowledge of
ume, the capillary pore volume varying experimental conditions.
VERBECK ON P O ~ STRUCTUR~ 139
For example, considering the relatively weight. This large reduction in perme-
simple case of a hydrostatic water pres- ability is due to the drastic reductions in
sure differential across a membrane, it capillary pore size and volume that ac-
has been observed that many factors may company the decrease in water-cement
influence the rate of flow of water through ratio. All of the capillary pore volume in
the membrane. The prior curing history fresh paste is capable of rapid transmis-
of concrete, the direction of permeation sion of water (bleeding); this permeabil-
in relation to casting position (under-ag- ity rapidly decreases with hydration.
gregate fissures), the treatment of the The permeability of a paste of 0.8 water-
surfaces (as-cast, sawed, or sand-blasted), cement ratio may decrease a thousand-
the downstream conditions (whether air fold between the curing ages of 7 days
or water), the measurement of inlet or and 1 year. Thus there is a millionfold
outlet flow or both, the nature and difference between the permeability of
amount of solutes in the water, and the high-water-ratio paste at early age and
electrical conductivity between the mem- well-cured low-water-ratio paste. Fre-
brane faces are factors that must be con- quently one observes construction prac-
sidered. Perhaps in the present state of tices that do not take practical advan-
knowledge, an understanding of the true tage of the low inherent permeability that
permeability of concrete is never at- can be obtained by the use of good qual-
tained, and for many purposes it is not ity paste and concrete.
required. The test procedures commonly The permeabilities of some dense, im-
used for determination of the water per- pervious aggregates have been found to
meability of concrete are probably suffi- be as low as those of dense neat cement
cient in most cases to reveal relative paste. Obviously, if the aggregate is more
differences in the permeabilities of con- or less permeable than the paste matrix,
cretes made with different water con- the permeability of concrete will be
tents, admixtures, etc. changed accordingly, but probably not
At the present time the qualitative by orders of magnitude.
effects of many factors on the water Significant quantities of air voids in
permeability of concrete are known. The the concrete, because they are larger than
permeability of concrete to water under the capillary and gel pores, should in-
hydrostatic pressure will depend signifi- crease the permeability of the concrete
cantly upon the permeability of the ce- roughly in proportion to their quantity,
ment paste component of the concrete, provided other factors remain constant.
providing the concrete is intact--not However, other factors seldom do remain
previously damaged by frost or rapid dry- constant--it is commonly observed that
ing and not containing excessive under- air entrainment in most practical con-
aggregate fissures or honeycomb. All of cretes will reduce segregation and bleed-
the permeating water must pass through ing and permit reductions in the water-
the paste, and if the paste is of low per- cement ratio--with the result that the
meability, the concrete will show sim- concrete may actually be more imperme-
ilar characteristics. able despite the presence of the air voids.
The hydrostatic water permeability Capillarity can also produce liquid
(expressible in terms of Darcy's law) of a movement through concrete. The pres-
well-cured paste is reduced approxi- ence of water at one face of the concrete
mately a thousandfold by reduction in and unsaturated air at the other may
water-cement ratios from 0.8 to 0.4 by give rise at the air interface to large nega-
tive pressures or capillary tensions "absorption" (primarily surface adsorp-

(meniscus effects) which tend to draw the tion) being slow because of their low
water through the concrete. Movement water permeability (low surface diffu-
is produced by any moisture difference sion). The coarse pores in aggregate can
across the membrane. Air with different become nearly filled with water only after
moisture content at the two surfaces will a relatively high degree of saturation
produce vapor diffusion through the (water vapor pressure) is established in
pores in the concrete and along the gel the paste surrounding the aggregate.
surfaces. Osmotic pressure differentials Because of its usually much finer pore
can also produce movement comparable structure, the paste, if it is much below
to hydrostatic differentials. Temperature saturation, can easily remove most of the
and electrical forces may also be in- aggregate water. Upon very long-con-
volved. tinued exposure to water, the air voids,
The numerous pores in concrete are particularly the smaller voids, may be-
normally lined with water--relatively come filled with water. Such a process
immobile water--adsorbed on the pore requires that the air in the void com-
walls. Presumably the pore area avail- pressed by the absorption process must
able for the relatively free flow of fluid is dissolve in the capillary water and
greatly reduced by this immobile lining, slowly diffuse out of the specimen to per-
particularly in the small pores where it mit filling of the void with liquid.
may constitute most or all of the pore The results of the absorption tests de-
area. However, when concrete is air- pend upon the procedures used. The ab-
dried, the coarser capillary pores are com- sorption observed will depend obviously
pletely emptied of water, and the finer upon the initial state and uniformity of
capillaries and gel pores partially emptied dryness of the concrete. Absorption oc-
clue to decreased w a t e r adsorption on the curs very quickly just after immersion of
pore walls. This results in a drastically the concrete but decreases rapidly with
increased transmission area available for time. Considerable time is required to
the movement of air or other gas. Pastes reach apparent saturation equilibrium,
and concretes that have been dried are the identification of equilibrium being
very permeable to air, thousands of times clouded by the normal water gain of
more permeable than they are to water. concrete accompanying continued hy-
dration, osmotic effects, and leaching.
ABSORPTIVITY OF CONCRETE Factors significantly influencing absorp-
The term "absorption" is usually ap- tion are the curing history, water-cement
plied to concrete in regard to the weight ratio, aggregate characteristics, air con-
gain of partially dried specimens upon tent, cement type and fineness (particu-
contact with or immersion in water. In larly at early ages), specimen size and
practice, owing to the long periods of shape, method of surface preparation
time required to establish equilibrium (cast, broken, etc.), surface carbona-
moisture conditions, measurement of tion, etc.
weight gain is made from some semidry, The absorption test is of value primar-
nonuniform moisture condition to a con- ily as a basis of comparison of different
dition approaching saturation. concretes, the absorption in a gross
During absorption it may be consid- manner being a function of the perme-
ered that the larger paste capillary pores ability and porosity of the specimen
are the first to be wetted, with the finer although influenced by many factors of
gel pores perhaps next, their rate of test procedure. With an appreciation of
VERBECK ON PORE STRUCTURE 141
the many factors influencing absorption produce permanent damage--frost de-

tests, both the rate and amount of ab- terioration. These hydraulic stresses as
sorption, it is not surprising that only well as additional later stage strains due
rough correlations are generally ob- to accretion or osmotic pressures are
served between the results and such fac- often observed in the detailed study of
tors as water-cement ratio, strength, the mechanism of frost action. They can
durability (freezable water content), and most effectively be eliminated by the
attack by aggressive solutions. presence of air voids of proper number
and size.
PORE-WATER PRESSURES It is well known that under certain cir-
There are several mechanisms by cumstances concrete prepared with ce-
which pressures can be developed in the ment of high-alkali content and reactive
pores of concrete. These pressures can be siliceous aggregates of particular quan-
either positive (liquid in compression) or tity and size distributions can produce an
negative (liquid in tension). The positive alkali-silicate type of reaction product
pressures are of greatest importance since within the concrete that may cause ex-
they are usually associated with undesir- pansion of the concrete. Pore pressure
able effects in the concrete~freez- can be conceived as the cause of the dele-
ing stresses, alkali-aggregate reaction, terious specimen expansion, whether the
strength reductions, or uplift in dams. alkali-silicate product is gel-like (semi-
Tests of pore-water pressure per se per- rigid, swelling pressures) or fluid-like
haps have not been developed suffi- (osmotic pressures). The fluid-like prod-
ciently to be of general immediate con- uct to which the paste membrane in the
cern, although the gross effects of these concrete is relatively impermeable tends
pressures influence results obtained from to imbibe water and dilate, applying
other tests of the performance of con- destructive pressure to the walls of the
crete. A brief description of these pres- pores in which it is confined.
sures may suffice for the present purpose. The magnitude of pore pressure, due to
When concrete is frozen, most of the freezing or deleterious reaction, that is
water in the paste capillaries and the ag- required before destructive forces develop
gregate will freeze at temperatures some- in the concrete is related to the effective
what below the normal freezing point. area of the concrete over which they
This freezing is accompanied by an ex- produce stress. Small and isolated pock-
pansion of the water-ice system, and if ets of high pressure might be accommo-
the concrete is saturated, this excess vol- dated by the concrete, whereas lower
ume will tend to be expelled from the pore pressures operating over large areas
capillary spaces into the air voids in the of the concrete could produce forces
concrete. The pore pressures that are de- above the inherent strength of the con-
veloped during this process will depend crete and could therefore cause damage.
upon the amount of freezable water, the This problem of the effective pore area in
rate of freezing, and the permeability of concrete is of direct concern to the de-
the surrounding material and the dis- signers of gravity dams and has resulted
tance it must go to obtain relief. These in considerable controversy for some
pressures produce triaxial dilation of the time. Various mechanica! and analytical
concrete, and if these hydraulic stresses problems confront investigators in this
remain below the strength of the con- field, and unanimous agreement has not
crete, they will rapidly be dissipated, but been reached concerning the effective
if they rise above the strength, they will pore area to water in mortar or concrete,
reported values ranging from a b o u t 40 the effective pore area is high is not sur-
per cent to almost 100 per cent, depend- prising when the high p o r o s i t y and fine
ing u p o n the grade of materials studied texture of the pores in concrete are con-
a n d the m e t h o d of analysis applied. T h a t sidered.
RECENT GENERAL REFERENCES
Capillary and GeL Pores in Cement-Water Pastes of a Rosiwal Traverse of Aerated Concretei"
T. C. Powers and T. L. Brownyard, "Studies ASTM BULLETIN,No. 177, October, 1951
of the Physical Properties of Hardened p. 56 (TP220).
Portland Cement Pastes," Journal, Am. Permeability, A bsorption, and Pore Water Pressure
Concrete Inst., April, 1947; Proceedings, T. C. Powers, L. E. Copeland, J. C. Hayes, and
Vol. 43, p. 933. H. M. Mann, "Permeability of Portland
Aggregate Pores Cement Paste," Journal, Am. Concrete
D. W. Lewis, W. L. Dolch, and K. ]3. Woods, Inst., November, 1954; Proceedings, Vol. 51,
"Porosity Determinations and the Signifi- p. 285 (1955).
cance of Pore Characteristics of Aggre- H. K. Cook, "Permeability Tests of Lean Mass
gates," Proceedings, Am. S0c. Testing Mats., Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Vol. 53, p. 949 (1953). Mats., Vol. 51, p. 1156 (1951).
Air Pores R. W. Carlson, "Permeability, Pore Pressure,
G. W. Lord and T. F. Willis, "Calculation of and Uplift in Gravity Dams," Proceedings,
Air Bubble Size Distribution from Results Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol. 81, p. 700 (1955).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
BOND W I T H R E I N F O R C I N G STEEL
BY H. J. GII~I~EuI
The use of reinforcement in concrete in comparison with the recognized

began about 1850, 25 years after Joseph (ASTM Specifications A 305) bars of
Aspdin's patent on portland cement. One today, but as the 1913 work of Abrams
of the earliest applications was in the (8) brought out, many of the patterns
construction of a small concrete boat by were relatively ineffective. Typical are
a Frenchman, Lambot, who took out an the several bar types of Fig. 1 and their
English patent in 1855, about the same performance as graphed in Figs. 2 and 3.
time as Coignet (also French) took out During the empirical period prior to
English patents on applications of re- 1900, reinforced concrete found many
inforced concrete to structural units uses, and some promoters and writers
(2, 45, 74) displayed an intuitive grasp of basic
The effective interaction between steel factors and relationships. The backlog
and concrete that makes reinforced con- of authentic data on the essential physi-
crete possible can exist only because of cal properties of concrete and steel and
bond, here defined as anything tending on the mechanics of their interaction,
to prevent relative motion between the however, was inadequate to elevate re-
steel and the concrete surrounding it. inforced concrete to the status of a
The anchoring effect may be the result material amenable to the type of analysis
of adhesion, friction, lug action, or of prerequisite to engineering design.
end anchorage by hooks or by bearing It was recognition of the need for a
plates and bolts--an all-embracing defi- definitive understanding of materials
nition. that brought the ASTM into being, and
That the necessity for bond was recog- it was the same need, the recognition of
nized is evidenced by a London-published which enabled reinforced concrete to
treatise (1877) (1) by an American advance from the status of an art, a
(Thaddeus tlyatt) described as '% law- clever innovation, to that of a design
yer by education but an inventor by science---something predictable, avail-
nature." Attempts to increase bond able, and widely applicable. It is not
resistance artificially came actively into strange, therefore, that modern reinforced
the picture with the 1884 Ransome concrete should be so definitely a con-
patent of a square-twisted bar (74). temporary of the ASTM and of related
Many and varied types of deformed bar technical groups having kindred or over-
followed, some of them not too inferior lapping fields of interest.
1Professor and Former Head, Department of Although much further information
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Iowa State has subsequently been added to the
College, Ames, Iowa. knowledge of the role of bond in re-
to the list of references appended to this paper, inforced concrete design, there remain
see p. 156. serious gaps and we are still forced to
143
www.astm.org
144 TESTS AND PROPERTIES 0]~ CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
lean heavily upon that engineering T I ~ LITERATURE O~ BOND

crutch, "the factor of safety." The literature of bond, like that of
Prerequisite to an understanding of concrete in general, is extensive. The
the "Significance of Tests for Bond" chronological list of numbered citations
FIC. 1.--Deformed Bars Used in Abrams' Pull-out Tests. (Figure 21 of Abrams' paper (8).)
is the recognition of what is and is not under Selected References is intended to

known about bond, as of now. This supply a reasonable coverage of the more
treatment will, therefore, be a series of significant contributions of record. Where
attempted answers to, or discussions of, a few words of explanation or amplifica-
questions bearing upon the general prob- tion might contribute to the clarity in
lem. regard to the scope or nature of coverage,
1200
1100
ll-i
Thre, tied ~ ~,h/ J
I000 450. ..? ?~z X:,~:,~y..~ I I , i/.a
90O
800
"~ 7 0 0
~ 600
500
400
30O
2OO 250
I00
0 2OO
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
Slip of Bor~in. Slip of Bor ein.
Fzo. 2.--Load-Sllp Curves from Pull-out Tests with Deformed FIG. 3.--Load-Slip Curves from Pull-out Tests with Deformed
Bars. (Figure 23 of Abrams' paper (8).) Bars (Enlargement of a Portion of Fig. 2). (Figure 24 of Abrams'
paper (8).) 4~
L;I
146 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OP CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
they have been appended. In some cases these a non-ASTM designation, the ACI
mention has been made of closely related Proposed Test Procedure to Determine
references, of more complete summaries, Relative Bond Value of Reinforcing
or of dual publication with a view toward Bars (1945) (49).
adding to the availability of a given li- From the foregoing it is apparent that
brary item. Discussion has generally five of the eight ASTM designations re-
been mentioned, and discussors named, late to the quality of material and work-
since authoritative, discerning comment manship required for the several types
frequently adds appreciably to the value of reinforcement. ASTM designations
of a contribution. A 305 and C 234 and the ACI Proposed
The textual number designation of a Test Procedure are the exceptions.
reference marks it as a source for veri- The scope of ASTM Method of Test
fication or extension of the aspect of bond C 234 indicates that it is to provide one
under discussion. In general the space workable procedure for the conduct of
limitation precludes a specific quotation pull-out bond tests to be available to
or follow-up. Some of the references, of anyone desiring to conduct such tests
which Nos. (2, s, 26, 31, 33, 40, 54, 69, 70, for any purpose whatsoever. Either in
and 71) are representative, relate to its present form or with modifications,
multiple aspects of bond phenomena and Method of Test C 234 could be made the
are necessarily repeated with monoto- basis for informational or research test-
nous regularity. ing, the objective in its formulation hav-
ing been to offer a procedure that under
ASTM DESIGNATIONS usual conditions m a y be expected to
In the following list of ASTM desig- function satisfactorily. Tests for bond
nations that may be construed as re- require a proper balancing of the various
lating directly or indirectly to bond, the factors, such as length of embedment
year in parentheses is that of first and bar diameter, to insure that the re-
promulgation or adoption. suits do not show some other property
such as the yield point, instead of pro-
A15 a Specifications for Billet-Steel Bars for viding the desired information or com-
Concrete Reinforcement (1911)
A 163 Fpecificationsfor Rail-Steel Bars for Con- parison on resistance to slippage in
crete Reinforcement (1913) regard to both the stress developed and
A 828 Specifications for Cold-Drawn Steel Wire the amount of slip.
for Concrete Reinforcement (1921) The ACI Proposed Test Procedure
A 160a SpecificationsforAxle-SteelBars forCon-
was evolved by Committee 208 on Bond
crete Reinforcement (1936)
A 1843 Specificationsfor Fabricated Steel Bar or Stress ill answer to a request from the
Rod Mats for Concrete Reinforcement (1937) steel industry that methods of test be
A 1853 SpecificationsforWelded SteelWire Fab- devised for checking upon the relative
ric for Concrete Reinforcement (1936) effectiveness of different bar patterns
A305a Specifications for Minimum Require-
ments for the Deformations of Deformed Steel with a view toward replacing the twenty
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement (1949) odd patterns then current with a few of
C 2344 Method of Test for Comparing Concretes the best, or with new ones. I t was on the
on the Basis of the Bond Developed with Re- basis of the ACI Proposed Test Pro-
inforcing Steel (1949) cedure that data were secured for de-
There needs also to be included with fining an acceptable reinforcing bar and
specifying the minimum geometric and
a 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 1.
* 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. weight requirements given in Table I of
GILKEY ON BOND WITH REINFORCING STEEL 147
ASTM Specifications A 305. It seems Length of Embedment:

possible that the ACI Proposed Test For a pull applied at one end of a plain
Procedure might appropriately be taken embedded bar, only the portion of the
over by the ASTM. If it is considered bar near the loaded end is initially sub-
primarily as a test to measure the per- jected to stress. After the stress builds
formance of a fabricated member, per- to a peak value, the bar slips slightly,
haps it should remain under ACI aus- and the point of maximum intensity
pices. If thought of as a test for a basic moves progressively along the bar. After
property of the reinforcing bar, then it initial slippage has traversed the entire
would seem to fall naturally into the embedded length, the contact area of
ASTM category. Regardless of the juris- bar offers a more or less uniform fric-
dictional aspect, the two designations tional resistance, or residual drag, equal
(ASTM Specification A 305 and the ACI in intensity to perhaps 50 per cent of the
Proposed Test Procedure) are coordinate. successive peak values attained as the
BOND VERSUS STRENGTH OF initial slippage progressed along the bar.
CONCRETE Obviously then, the maximum average
bond resistance prior to general slippage
For the weaker concretes, such as
is greater the shorter the embedded
those prevalent 30 or 40 years ago, bond
length, and doubling the length of em-
increases about as does the compressive
bedment as a means of "special anchor-
strength of the concrete. As the con-
age" does not (as regularly assumed in
crete exceeds about 3000 psi, the increase
design specifications) actually double the
in bond resistance becomes less, and
amount of tension that can be developed
within the strong-concrete range, no
in the bar by bond. On the other hand,
added bond allowance should be per-
each added inch of embedment does
mitted for added strength of concrete.
add to the sum total of bond resistance
Building codes normally make a fixed
(usefully so only if the total accumulated
ceiling on permissible bond stress for
slip at a critical cross-section lies within
concretes over about 4000 psi. Below the amount that can be tolerated with-
some such limiting strength, the bond out serious damage to the member).
resistance may without too much error
(See discussion of deformed bars) (18,
be assumed to vary about as does the 27, 29, 32, 33, 39, 40, 43, 53, 57, 68).
compressive strength (20, 26, 28, 29, 31,
32, 33, 39, 40, 70, 71). Nature of Contact Surface:
PLAIN BARS Since plain-bar bond is largely, if not
entirely, frictional, the nature of the sur-
Bar Diameter: face is reflected in the bond developed.
For plain bars of identical surface Hot-rolled steel with its normal coating
textures, a higher intensity of stress can of iron oxide offers nominal bond re-
be developed in the steel per inch of sistance. Drawn wire and cold-rolled
embedded length for a small diameter steel are much smoother and develop
bar than for a large one because of the lower bond. (In the case of drawn wire,
greater specific surface of the small the higher specific surface of a small-
diameter bar. Four 89 bars provide diameter bar tends to offset the added
the same cross-section as does one 1-in. smoothness from drawing.) A knurled
bar, but they provide twice the surface surface, while impracticable from some
contact area per unit of length (26, 33, 40). angles, should constitute an ideal rough-
[48 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O:F CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
uess for bond development. The threaded it will be well to remember the
or knurled bar can be thought of as a advantages of a closely spaced, fine
transition phase between a bar that is textured roughness as an ideal medium
plain and one with rolled-in lugs. As for stress transfer with a maximum of
might be expected and as the tests of effectiveness and a minimum of localized
both Abrams (8) and Posey (22) demon- stress concentrations. The relative shal-
strated, the threading or knurling lowness of such roughening treatments is,
produces nonwedging closely-spaced de- however, at a disadvantage in the settle-
formations ideal for stress transfer be- ment of concrete beneath horizontal
tween concrete and steel. Unfortunately, steel, in comparison with the deep-cut
FIC. 4.--Two Views each of the Six Bar Patterns Which Currently Qualify as Deformed Re-
inforcement Under ASTM SpecificationsA 305. Bars Pictured are No. 6 having a nominal diameter
of 0.75 in.
the knurled or threaded surface would corrugations required in the present
be costly to produce, and the threaded ASTM Specifications A 305.
bar would be replete with stress raisers,
Rusted Bars:
making it impractical and undesirable
except with respect to the stress transfer, Firm pitting from rust constitutes one
that is, bond. Among the best of the form of added surface roughness that
several patterns of deformed bars con- can materially improve the bond. Plain
forming to ASTM Spedfications A 305 rusted bars, brushed or vigorously wiped
requirements are patterns suggestive of for removal of loose fragments, develop
coarse, rather massive, threads. As higher intensities of bond stress than do
further improvement is sought--es- plain unrusted bars, but the use of rusted
pecially as regards splitting of the con- bars if permitted at all should be only
crete from the wedge action of the lugs-- under strict supervision and assurance
GILKEY ON BOND WITH REINFORCING STEEL 149
that the effective cross-section has not Relative Merit:

been measurably reduced. It is true that Apparently, until the classic tests of
one fairly heavy layer of rust actually Abrams (8), a deformed bar was a "de-
makes only a limited inroad on the cross- formed bar" with little thought on the
section of a bar, but continued rusting part of the designer as to relative effec-
and adhering loose surface deposits are tiveness. The Ransome square-twisted
not to be ignored. The usual provision and t h e Thatcher and Havemeyer
against the use of bars that are ap- longitudinal lugs represented ingenious
preciably rusted is considered to be attempts to secure lug action without
sound conservatism (lO, 24, 26, 33, 36, 40, extra steel tonnage. The square twist
41). was obviously of uniform cross-section,
and the lugs on the other two were
DEFORMED BARS (PRIOR TO ASTM varied and staggered longitudinally to
SPECIFICATIONS A 305) give a varying shape of cross-section at
Patterns and Types: constant area. Abrams' researches (see
Figs. 1 to 3) demonstrated that the
Since the advent of the deformed bar gradual transition from one configura-
about 1884, there have been numerous tion to another permitted more slippage
types and patterns (Fig. 1 for example), prior to building up effective lug re-
many of them patented. A few of the sistance than a flexural member could
best, such as variations of the Corr bar, take without severe cracking or collapse.
are reflected in some of the six current Wedging action (splitting of the sur-
patterns (Fig. 4) that qualify under rounding concrete) was also aggravated
Specifications A 305. Only bars with by the taper of the gradually changing
rolled-in deformations or lugs can meet lugs. Thus the cross-lug and diagonal
current requirements of these specifica- configurations persisted, whereas the
tions since no lugless bars were in the longitudinal lugs and the twisted square
elimination tests from which they were became obsolete. The Isteg, partially
evolved. During the 65-year interim be- because of patent royalties but more
especially because of analogy to the dis-
tween 1884 and 1949, however, there
credited square-twisted Ransome bars,
were several lugless deformed bars,
was not adopted to any great extent in
notably the square-twisted Ransome the United States in spite of fairly ag-
bar and the much later twin-twisted and gressive promotion.
stretched bar of European origin, the
Isteg. The deformed bars of the lug type Disappointing Aspects:
have fallen into three general classes:
(1) those with cross lugs such as the Except for threaded bars which behave
ideally (as discussed previously), the
early Corr bar and the current Inland
lugs of the deformed bars of whatever
or Hi-Bond, (2) those with diagonal pat-
type do not become effective until they
terns, notably the long-used "diamond have slipped about as much as a plain
bar" similar to the Specifications A 305 bar slips at its maximum resistance
version now rolled by U. S. Steel Co. (about 0.01 in. at the unloaded end of a
and others, (3) the longitudinal lug of the normal pull-out specimen). This slip-
old Thatcher and Havemeyer types of page is incidental to closing up the
which there are no counterparts in the shrinkage gaps and establishing a firm,
present specifications. load-resisting bearing between the lug
and the concrete that lies in its im- then current, or to evolve new patterns
mediate path. Since the slip of 0.01 in. superior to any of them.
corresponds to about the limit of per- Cooperation between the steel com-
missible slip (a slippage that results in panies and ACI Committee 208 on Bond
severe damage to a flexural member), the Stress resulted in the ACI Proposed
additional lug anchorage for even the Test Procedure to Determine Relative
best of the 1913 deformed bars (Ab- Bond Value of Reinforcing Bars (49, 50) in
rams' tests (8)) was more useful as in- accordance with which Arthur P. Clark
surance against sudden collapse than as conducted the extensive tests (52, 59, 64)
increased effectiveness against load. The that led to the evolution of ASTM
25 per cent increase in design stress long Specifications A 305.
permitted for all deformed bars was Soon after the ASTM A 305 bars came
essentially in recognition of greater in- into production, the ACI Building Code
herent toughness and a slower or less ruled that all bars not conforming geo-
complete collapse than might be expected metrically to Specifications A 305 were
when plain bars were used. for design purposes to be treated as
Another disappointing aspect of de- plain bars. This rather drastic action
formed bars is the splitting of the sur- soon gave the A 305 bars dominance in
rounding concrete at loads well below all up-to-date concrete construction.
any actual plowing of the lugs through
the concrete. In pull-out tests, the meas- CURRENT STATUS OF DEFORMED
ure of lug effectiveness has always been BARS
secured from specially reinforced pull- There are now six deformed bars ac-
out specimens--an artificial condition ceptable under ASTM Specifications A
since the stirrups and depth of concrete 305 which are rolled by about 30 differ-
cover in a beam never offer restraint ent steel companies (see Fig. 4). Some
against splitting comparable to that companies roll A 305 bars from both
supplied by the spirals (8, 26, 75, 76). billet and rail steel, others from billet or
rail. Initially there was objection, on the
D E V E L O P M E N T OF THE D E F O R M E D part of those dealing with the harder
BA~S oF ASTM SPECIFICATIONS rail steel, to the depth of corrugation re-
A 305 quired. This objection was not only over-
For 25 years after Abrams' tests made come but proved to be a benign factor of
certain types of deformed bars obsolete great commercial importance to the rail
and brought out the shortcomings of the steel industry, since the relatively high
others, steel companies resisted pressure bond stress permitted for the A 305 bars
to attempt to meet the recognized need largely removes the need for hooks or
for better deformed reinforcement. Leth- extra length of anchorage. The bending
argy gave way about 1940, however, of rail steel bars had always been one of
when the researches of Menzel (42) and the industry's most serious problems be-
the skill of an ingenious workman dem- cause of breakage in bending or, sub-
onstrated that a greatly improved de- sequently, in handling.
formed bar was economically and com- The six current patterns may well be
mercially feasible. The resulting I-If- augmented by others, and, if some quite
Bond bar supplied the competitive urge different type of reinforcing bar were to
that culminated in extensive researches qualify under the ACI Proposed Test
designed to select the five or six best Procedure, it is to be expected that the
patterns from among the twenty or so present geometric requirements would be
GILKEu ON BOND WITH REINFORCING STEEL 151
modified or rewritten to include the new taken cognizance of this fact by treat-
entry along with its predecessors. ing a properly designed long-radius hook
While all of the A 305 bars give a as identical for bond with the same length
greatly improved performance over the of straight embedded bar.
old-style deformed bars, the deep cor-
rugations still introduce pronounced Bearing Plates--Prestress and Poststress:
splitting tendencies, and it is possible
that the ultimate in deformed bar de- Assuming neither prestresssing nor
velopment may yet be a closer approach poststressing, the restraint offered by a
to the threaded or knurled surface ideal. plate bearing is comparable to the added
As previously mentioned, consideration resistance to sliding that could be se-
of a change from lugs to some form of cured by embedding an additional length
"fine-textured roughness" would necessi- of bar--straight or with a large-radius
tate a refocusing of attention on the hook. If the construction is bonded pre-
settlement of concrete and water gain stress, then the bearing plate or clamp
(10, 13, 33, 34, 38, 44, 63, 69, 70, 71) be- aids the bond in maintaining stress in
neath bars in horizontally-cast members. the bar.
If the construction is unbonded pre-
ANCHORAGE stress, the bearing plate enables the bar
to function as does the tension chord in
Hooks and Extensions: a bridge, and the truss analogy becomes
Special anchorage by extension of more or less valid. Tensioning the steel
straight lengths of bar, or by the use of through end anchorage rather than bond
hooks, is almost obsolete for the de- produces a more statically determinate
formed bars of Specifications A 305 be- but a tess rigid member than does bonded
cause of the decreased embedded lengths construction. Inch-by-inch stress trans-
required. For plain bars such special fer between the steel and the concrete
anchorage with or without hooks is generally results in the best and stiffest
frequently needed (8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, member, except for planned post-
54, 60, 69, 70, 71). stressing (46, 70, 71, 73).
Although a hook, properly embedded,
always adds an element of toughness to WIRE AND WIRE M E S H
a member, the hook is not so much of a In the discussion of plain bars, it was
bond cure-all as it has often been thought stated that there was a decrease in bond
to be. A short-radius hook, such as one available for drawn wire because of sur-
often sees at the end of beam-bars fram- face smoothness but that this was offset
ing into a girder or slab bars framing into in part by the greater specific surface of
a spandrel beam, offers little added bond
wire over that of larger diameter bars.
resistance, since the tension in the bar
For wire mesh, especially when welded,
does not follow around the abrupt right
angle but rather results in a slight yield- the intersections provide some lug ac-
ing of the concrete under the highly tion. The spacing of the intersections is
localized compression at the bend. On usually so great that the added widely-
the other hand, a large-radius hook adds spaced lugs cannot contribute greatly to
nothing by virtue of the curvature since the bond developed until after appreciable
the bar tends to "snake out" or be slippage has occurred. Actually, however,
pulled just as would an equal straight bond is relatively unimportant in the
length of bar. Specifications have long thin slabs in which mesh is generally
used, since the shears (and therefore bond ment and increases required width of
stress) are invariably low (33, 35, 40, 67). beam or beam stem or it may necessitate
multiple layers of steel or both. As is
PLACING CONDITIONS AND PRACTICAL true with so many of the factors that
ASPECTS relate to bond, what would be best from
During the plastic phase of freshly one standpoint is not the most desirable
placed concrete, sedimentation (bleed- from another.
ing or water gain) (13, 38) results in the
formation of a water (or water and en- AIR ENTRAINMENT
trapped air) gap beneath the surfaces of From the tests of Hognestad and Seiss
solids, including the undersides of rein- (or Russell and Hognestad) (63) and of
forcing bars. If for a given concrete Menzel and Woods (70, 71), it appears
mixture the reinforcing bars are rigidly that air entrainment, for nominal
positioned, the relative settlement will amounts of air a 4 or 5 per cent upper
be about proportional to the depth of limit, exercises no major effect on bond
plastic material beneath the bars. Ob- as distinguished from that for nonair-
viously the gap breaks the direct bond entrained concrete. With higher per-
on the undersides of the bars, and the centages of air, the bond strength drops
deeper the gap the greater is the de- off rapidly, a reasonable explanation (63)
crease in the effectiveness of deformed- being that escaping free air tends to
bar lug action. This is shown by the collect beneath the bars in exactly the
work of Menzel (34, 42, 69, 70, 71) and same manner as does excess water (13,
Clark (Sz, 55). For the sake of simplicity, 38, 70), etc.
however, the ACI Building Code arbi-
trarily defines as "top bars" only those VIBRATION
having as much as 12 in. of concrete
beneath them, and for such bars the Experimentation with vibration in
allowable bond stress is below that per- its possible effect on bond has included
mitted for all others which, for design both internal and external vibration as
purposes, are bottom bars. an aid to initial placement, revibration
For vertical casting, as for conven- at from 1 to 9 hr after placement, and
tional pull-out specimens, the amount of vibration in the immediate vicinity of
the early slippage depends upon whether bars projecting from hardened concrete,
the concrete settles toward or away from simulating possible disturbance from the
the direction of pull on the lugs. Where resumption of pouring or casting opera-
settlement is against the lug, there is tions (21, 28, 31, 33, 34, 69, 71).
less slack to be taken up before the lug It is a safe generalization that for
comes firmly into bearing (34, 42, 71). suitable mixtures (2-in. slump or less)
Interaction between concrete and steel vibration of the plastic mass in the op-
is obviously much better for small bars timum amount, either externally or in-
than for large ones--the discontinuity in ternally, constitutes an unsurpassed
rate of stress transfer through the mem- technique for placement. Menzel (60)
ber is much less for the smaller bars. On bears this out. Any overvibration is
the other hand, most construction of highly objectionable, however, since it
primary members demands the use of the aggravates the water gain. Nor should
largest permissible size of bar. The sub- a high-slump fluid mixture be vibrated--
stitution of four 89 rods for a single it should be puddled or stirred. Proper
1-in. bar multiplies the work of place- vibration is superior to the use of alu-
GILKEu ON BOND WITH REINFORCING STEEL 153
minum powder as an antidote for top- out strength, the stresses on a load-slip
bar water gain effects (sol curve had been reduced about 50 per
Attempts at revibration after from 1 cent for given slippages. For repeated
to 9 hr, with a view to reconsolidation, loads below about 40 per cent of the
have resulted in conflicting reports (31, static pull-out strength, the terminal
69), reasons for which are not clear. static bond strength was 80 to 85 per
Seemingly revibration after 6 to 9 hr cent of the initial.
produces good results (31), whereas a It thus appears that for conditions
similar disturbance from 1 to 3 hr paralleling these tests there is little
after placement is objectionable (31, 69). basis for concern over repeated loading
The Davis, Brown, and Kelly reports that does not produce stress in excess of
(31) of strikingly favorable results from about 40 per cent of the initial bond re-
the 6 to 9-hr revibration applied directly sistance of the concrete.
to the bars of vertical pull-out speci-
mens bear further study. Results from DISCUSSION
vibration in the vicinity of, or even Following are four important ques-
against, bars projecting from hardened tions relating to the problem of rein-
concrete (28, 31) seem to dispel concern forced concrete with partial answers for
regarding this aspect. each given in later paragraphs:
(1) What constitutes minimum and
SUSTAINED LOADING optimum spacing for parallel bars: (a)
Sustained load, applied to beams ade- in the tensile side of a beam? (b) in
quately reinforced against diagonal lapped splices where tension is to be
tension failure (19) or to pull-out speci- transferred through concrete from one
mens (26), produces a continuing or tension rod to another?
creeping slippage of embedded plain (2) How effective is the concrete be-
bars. In certain situations (37) the bond neath the bar for developing bond?
slippage under sustained stress is benign (3) To what extent do stirrups and re-
in contributing to the release of tensile straint at the supports decrease the
stresses in the concrete and compressive tendency to split the concrete cover
stresses in the steel incidental to drying from the wedging action of the lugs as
shrinkage in the concrete. the bar is stressed?
Deformed beam or pull-out bars do (4) Concrete under tension cracks at a
not show the same yielding or continu- strain corresponding to about 4000 psi
ing slippage once there has been sufficient in the steel. When steel is stressed to
relative movement to bring the lugs about five times this amount, how can
firmly into bearing. This constitutes an there be satisfactory interaction?
advantage or added factor of safety of (1) In reinforced concrete theory, the
deformed bars over plain bars when used bond stress in a beam (using the standard
as flexural reinforcement. notation) is computed by the straight-
forward, easily derived formula U --
REPEATED LOADING
V
Muhlenbruch (47), in a reconnaissance (~0) (jd)" By exactly the same elemen-
using old-style deformed bars, diamond tary mechanics, the shearing unit stress,
pattern, embedded in spirally reinforced v, or the diagonal tension (numerically
pull-out cylinders, found that, following V
about 5,000,000 repetitions at roughly equal to the shear) is v = b~" Reasoning
50 per cent of the initial ultimate pull- along these lines, it is possible to corn-
154 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OP CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
pure the minimum widths of stem and advantage for bond in contrast to its
spacings of bars required to transmit distinct advantage against splitting. Re-
the shears down through the con- gardless of the relative ineffectiveness of
crete and to carry the horizontal the concrete beneath the bar (due to
component of the shear into the rein- water gain and some settlement), such
forcement by bond. The bond formula concrete does at least hold the bar in
assumes the embedding concrete to be position to maintain a close contact
effective around the periphery of the bar; with the effective concrete adjacent to
this implies effective stress resistance of the top of the bar. Without concrete on
the concrete between the bars and just the underside, the bar would break con-
under them as well as of that located tact with the concrete above it.
above the plane of reinforcement. (3) At present, there is no dependable
Results from tests indicate that the evidence regarding the extent of the
action is actually less simple, and up to contributions of such factors as stirrups
now no one has been able to rationalize and restraint at supports in adding to
satisfactorily the true mechanics of the the splitting resistance against the wedge
stress travel from the load by way of the action of the lugs.
concrete into the steel of a flexural mem- (4) It is clear that the stress situation
ber (48, S4). Tests by Walker (66), Kluge along an embedded bar under tensile
and Tuma (Sl), and Chamberlin (72) in- stress, brought to it by the surrounding
dicate that bars can be spaced much concrete, must be very complicated.
closer than analyses would indicate, Nevertheless, with both the steel and the
even to the point of actual contact, with concrete in tension the total width of con-
little observable effect on the resistance crete cracks adjacent to the bars in a
that must be developed by bond. Ob- given length, must, at a steel stress of
viously then, this aspect of the mechan- 20,000 psi, total about 80 per cent of the
ics of reinforced concrete must for the elastic elongation of the steel, say 0.0005
present be left in abeyance as one of the in. per in. The better the interaction, the
unanswered questions. The problem is more closely spaced, and, therefore, the
vital because of its bearing on what con- narrower, are the cracks. Normal rein-
stitute minimum permissible stem widths forced concrete cracking becomes struc-
for beams and joists (61, 62, 75, 76). turally objectionable only as the individ-
(2) The detailed stress situation at the ual cracks become wide enough to be
junction of the steel and the concrete visible or to admit of leakage or provide
is highly indeterminate, involving as it access of corrosive liquids or gases to the
does not only the stress distribution cir- steel. Fine cracks are not of consequence.
cumferentially, but also that along the Recent tests (77) comparing A 305 bars
bar at cracks and between them. Em- of various diameters, demonstrate the im-
pirically, Menzel's work (34, 42, 71) and proved interaction (better bond perform-
Clark's tests (52, 55) show that even for ance) for the smaller-diameter bars (total
the deep-cut patterns of ASTM Specifi- cross-sectional area of reinforcement un-
cations A 305 bond is reduced appreci- changed).
ably by settlement of concrete and water
BOND VERSUS DIAGONAL TENSION
gain beneath a horizontal bar that can-
IN BEAMS
not follow down. As stated earlier, this
fact seems to place a nonsplitting sur- Bond stress develops only in a region
face--a fine-textured roughness such as where external shear exists and both
threaded or knurled--at a relative dis- bond and diagonal tension are functions
GILKEY ON BOND WITtI REIN:FORCING STEEL 155
of the shear. A failure by diagonal ten- than is the concrete in which it is em-
sion, usually if not always, is secondary bedded. An unbroken bar embedded in
to an initial failure in bond. A slight rel- concrete will never be cracked so long
ative slippage--a failure in bond--per- as the concrete surrounding it remains
mits the sudden diagonal tension-type intact. Moreover, it is inconceivable that
of failure to occur. Many and possibly a hard steel bar, incipiently cracked,
all so-called diagonal tension failures are could be handled and gotten into a con-
primary failures in bond. crete member without severance oc-
curring in the process. The harder grades
FALLACIES REGARDING BOND of steel do require bending precautions
Relation to Compressive Strength: (when bending is required) and extra
care in handling over what can safely be
As noted previously, Abrams' indica-
accorded a mild steel (structural or in-
tion that bond strength varies directly
termediate grade) bar, but if there is
as the compressive strength is true only
breakage it is virtually certain to be in
for the lower-strength concretes.
evidence before embedment is accom-
Tension and Compression Anchorage: plished.
Whether the concrete in which a bar TESTS FOR ]~OND
is embedded happens to be in tension,
as in a beam, or in compression, as in a Pull-out Tests:
pull-out specimen, seems to have no
Pull-out tests of the type detailed in
measurable effect on the bond developed.
ASTM Method of Test C 234 constitute
One still sees occasionally in the litera-
the most generally satisfactory and
ture the stipulation "anchored in a re- widely used test for bond. Horizontally-
gion of compression" (29, 33, 4o). cast pull-out specimens can be em-
F#st Slip: ployed where the investigation of such
problems as those of settlement beneath
The term "first slip" is widely used to the bar seem to justify. The limited data
indicate the first detected slippage at the that can be validly compared indicate
unloaded end of a bar in a pull-out speci- that the results from pull-out tests agree
men or the corresponding slippage of well with those obtained by means of
the end of a bar in a beam. McMillan actual or simulated beam tests. One
(33, p. 18) has pointed out that the basic difference is that in the pull-out
actual "first slip" occurs at,small load test as normally conducted the concrete
at the loaded end--that the so-called is in compression whereas in the beam
"first slip" is really the "last slip," the it is in tension. As already pointed out,
last point along the bar to show relative this difference seems to be irrelevant.
motion. There is a general impression that the
Ductile versus Hard Steel: "Poisson ratio" effect of compression
tends to make the concrete grip the bar
Not directly a function of the bond is more firmly. The reverse is true; com-
a concern that under shock or impact pression enlarges the diameter of the
loading hard steel might crack within a hole occupied by the bar. Actually, the
concrete member. This is a baseless fear intensity of compressive stress is so low
since no matter how hard and cor- in a pull-out specimen as to have a
respondingly brittle a steel may be it is negligible effect in any case. The slight
still much more deformable, elastically, reduction in bar diameter (Poisson ratio
effect) from tension in the steel does tend viously, the author believes that nor-
to decrease the bond, both in a pull-out- mally the pull-out test supplies the
specimen and in the tensile side of a essential information more simply and
beam. This is opposite to the slight lat- more economically. Nevertheless, for
eral enlargement of bar mentioned under basic findings and eliminations involving
Push-out Tests. not only types of bars but settlement
beneath the bars, etc., the elaborate
Push-out Tests: beam test procedure (49, 50) evolved by
Committee 208 of the ACI and used by
Sometimes push-out tests are con-
Clark (52, sS) is fully justified. Where
ducted on bars that project slightly from
beam tests seem to be warranted, whether
a short block. Here the intensity of stress
for actual or psychological reasons, it is
in the steel may be sufficient to increase
recommended that supplementary pull-
the bond from the Poisson ratio effect
out tests be included in the program
of the bar expanding against the con-
As previously stated, the ACI beam-type
crete. Push-out tests have not been
test, regardless of where administered, is
widely used.
coordinate with ASTM Specifications
Beam and Beam-Type Tests: A 305 and needs to be retained both as a
checking-up procedure and as the stand-
Many persons believe that beam and ing hurdle to be surmounted by any
beam-type tests constitute the only form of bar purporting to qualify as one
sound source for information on bond of the acceptable types of deformed bar
behavior in a beam. As implied pre- reinforcement.
SELECTED RE]~ERENCES (CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER)

(1) Thaddeus Hyatt, "An Account of Some forced Concrete. Series of 1906," Bulletin
Experiments with Portland Cement Con- No. 175, University of Wisconsin Engineer-
crete Combined with Iron, as a Building ing Series 4, 1 (1907).
Material with Reference to Economy of Basic research on bond phenomena.
Metal in Construction and for Security (5) M. O. Withey, "Tests on Bond Between
Against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Concrete and Steel in Reinforced Concrete
Floors, and Walking Surfaces," Chiswick Beams," Bulletin No. 321, University of
Press, London (1877). Wisconsin Engineering Series 5, 5 (1909).
Earliest recorded experimental work on Continuation of flexural studies.
bond. (6) Carl yon Bach and Otto Graf, "Versuche
(2) Emil MSrsch, "Concrete-Steel Construc- mit Eisenbetonbalken, namentlich zur
tion (Der Eisenbetonbau, seine Theorie und Bestimmung des Gleitwiderstandes," Mit-
Anwendung)," authorized translation from teilungen tiber Forschungsarbeiten auf dem
the 3rd (1908) German edition, The En- Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens, Nos. 72-74,
gineering News Publishing Co., New York, Verdn deutscher Ingenieure, Berlin (1909).
N. Y. (1909). German publication of first Basic European researches. Summarized
edition (1902). by Slater (11).
Reviews early European concrete prac- (7) "Versuche mit Eisenbeton-Balken zur
tice from 1855. Bestimmung des Einflusses der Hakenform
(3) A. N. Talbot, "Tests of Concrete: L Shear; der Eiseneinlagen," Deutscher A~schu, s
II. Bond," Bulletin No. 8, University of far Eisenbeton, Heft 9 (1911); "Versuche
Illinois Engineering Experiment Station mit Eisenbeton-Balken zur Ermittlung der
(1906). Widerstandsf~higkeit verschiedener Be-
First significant U. S. attempt to relate wehrung gegen Schubkr~tfte," Heft 10
bond to the flexurai theory of reinforced (1911).
concrete. European researches on use of hooked
(4) M. O. Withey, "Tests of Plain and Rein- bars in beams.
GrLr~EY ON BONa) WITrI REINFORCING STEEL 157
(8) D. A. Abrams, "Tests of Bond Between (13) H. J. Gilkey, "Water Gain and Allied
Concrete and Steel," Bulletin No. 71, Uni- Phenomena in Concrete Work," Engineer-
versity of Illinois Engineering Experiment ing News-Record, Vol. 98, February 10,
Station (1913). 1927, pp. 242-244.
Reports on a wealth of controlled exhaus- Importance of water gain or bleeding as
tive bond studies; the outstanding U. S. a weakening factor in concrete. This in-
publication on bond and a classic of en- cludes the thin film of water or air that
gineering research. See p. 92 of reference rises and is trapped beneath bars as well
(26) for mor,e detail on some aspects. as aggregate particles. See also references
(9) Rudolf Saliger, "Schubwiderstand und Ver- (38, 44, 69).
bund in Eisenbetonbalken auf Grund yon (14) F. E. Richart, "An Investigation of
Versuch und Erfahrung," Julius Springer, Stresses in Reinforced Concrete Beams,"
Berlin (1913). Bulletin No. 166, University of Illinois
Includes tests of circular hooks. Work re- Engineering Experiment Station (1927).
viewed by Mylrea (16, pp. 242-243). Anchorages of beam and stirrup bars or
(10) W. A. Slater, F. E. Richart, and G. G. hooks; references on pp. 102-103.
Scofield, "Tests of Bond Resistance Be- (15) F. E. Richart and L. J. Larson, "An In-
tween Concrete and Steel," Technologic vestigation of Web Stresses in Reinforced
Paper No. 173, Nat. Bureau Standards Concrete Beams, Part II: Restrained
(1920). Beams," Bulletin No. 175, University of
Pull-out tests of preservative coatings in- Illinois Engineering Experiment Station
cluding galvanizing; beam tests; crack (1928).
studies; laps; and stirrup anchorages. Hooks and anchorage; crushing under
Honeycombing and pocketing beneath hooks; bond ~ersus diagonal tension.
bars (Fig. 51). Other aspects of the same (16) T. D. Mylrea, "The Carrying Capacity of
tests are included in another paper by Semi-Circular Hooks," Proceedings, Am.
Slater (Proceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., Concrete Inst., Vol. 24, pp. 240-263 (1928).
Vol. 15, pp. 24-59 (1919). Also discussion by L. J. Larson, pp. 264-
(11) W. A. Slater, "Tests of Bond Resistance in 270.
Reinforced Concrete Beams," Engineering Summarizes earlier work: references (1,
News-Record, Vol. 94, June 25, 1925, pp. 2, 6, 8, 9) including a paper of his own
1050-1053. (Journal, Western Soe. of Engineers,
Summarizes work of von Bach (6) and January, 1926). Hooks of various radii
discusses beam versus pull-out tests, favor- (some enclosed in spirals); movements of bar
ing the beam type of specimen. were measured.
(12) D. A. Abrams, "Studies of Bond Between (17) L. N. Edwards and H. L. Greenleaf, "Ex-
Concrete and Steel," Proceedings, Am. Soe. perimental Tests of Concrete-Steel Bond,"
Testing Mats., Vol. 25, Part II, p. 256 Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
(1925). Also discussions by E. B. Smith, 28, Part II, p. 584 (1928). Discussions by
R. W. Crum, and Bert Myers, and W. A. E. F. Kelly, W. A. Slater, D. A. Abrams,
Slater and G. W. Hutchinson, p. 273. Re- F. E. Richaxt, and C. P. Derleth, p. 599.
published without the discussions as Bulle- Reconnaissance tests of horizontally and
tin No. 17, Structural Materials Research vertically cast pull-out specimens for vari-
Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, ous sands and mixtures at test ages of 28
October, 1925. days and 1 year. For partial summary see
Parallel compression and pull-out bond p. 95 of reference (26). Slater and Abrams
tests (735 of each) investigating effects of also discuss beams versus pull-outs.
water-cement ratio, richness of mixture, (18) W. H. Glanville, "Studies in Reinforced
admixtures of crude oil and hydrated lime, Concrete. Vol. 1, Bond Resistance," Tech-
and other factors on relative compressive nical Paper No. 10, Building Research
and bond strengths. On pp. 18-20 of the Board, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial
Lewis Institute Bulletin was added a Research, Great Britain (1930).
bibliography of 34 titles, with several ex- Basic reconnaissance comparisons of
tremely brief summaries. A few of the more pull-out versus push-out specimens of
significant of the studies or reconnaissances portland and aluminous cements. Steel
are included in this list. These references, strains measured on inside surface of the
both European and U. S., dating from hollow tubes that were substituted for
1895, indicated an early and growing recog- solid bars.
nition of the important role played by bond. (19) R. L. Brown and E. C. Clark, "Effect of
Time Loading upon the Bond Stress Be- similar to the specimens devised inde-
tween Concrete and Steel," Proceedings, pendently and employed by Mylrea (16),
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 31, Part II, Posey (22), and Gilkey, Chamberlin, and
p. 690 (1931). Beal (29).
Spring-applied loads for 18 to 20 weeks (24) J. R. Shank, "Effect of Bar Surface Condi-
to 52 beams, some cast inverted. Bars plain tions in Reinforced Concrete," Engineering
and deformed--a reconnaissance. Experiment Station News, Ohio State Uni-
(20) F. E. Richart and V. P. Jensen, "Tests of versity, Vol. 6, No. 3, June, 1934, pp. 9-12.
Plain and Reinforced Concrete Made with Reconnaissance on 40 5 by 20.5 by 40-in.
Haydite Aggregates," Bulletin No. 237, beams using 1-in. square plain bars that
University of Illinois Engineering Experi- had been: sand blasted, rusted in earth,
ment Station (1931). rusted from weather, covered with cement
Includes (pp. 41-49) 28-day comparative grout, covered with hydrated lime grout,
beam and pull-out tests for gravel concrete, cleaned and uncoated, covered with paraffin
sand with Haydite coarse aggregate, and oil, coated with day mud, coated with lin-
all-Haydite aggregate. Bars l~-in, square seed oil, or painted with red lead. Greater
deformed. Clear indications that bond does bond developed by sand-blasted and rusted
not increase directly with compressive surfaces and by bars coated with portland
strength. cement grout than by the clean uncoated
(21) L. W. Teller and G. W. Davis, "Effect of bars.
Materials and Methods of Placing on the (25) Fritz yon Emperger, "The Application of
Strength and Other Properties of Concrete High-Grade Steel in Reinforced Con-
Bridge Floor Slabs," Public Roads, Vol. crete," The Structural Engineer, Vol. 12,
12, December, 1931, pp. 237-266. (Results March, 1934, pp. 160-178. An English
of bond tests on pp. 251-2560 version of "Die Rissfrage bei hohen Stahl-
Cooperative tests of Port of New York spannungen und die zullissige Blosslegung
Authority and U. S. Bureau of Public des Stahles," Mitteilungen ~iber Versuche,
Roads. Bars 1 in. and 89in. plain and de- Heft 16; Osterrdchisher Ingenieur- und
formed, embedded 689in. in 11 types of slab Architekten-Verdn, Vienna (1935). Author
concrete, of Haydite, limestone, and gravel also published a condensation, "Die
aggregates. Placement by "Vibrolithic" Wirkung der Endhaken in Eisenbeton,"
process, air hammer, electric tamper, and Beton und Eisen, Vol. 34, June 20, 1935,
hand tamping. Vertical and horizontal pp. 197-200.
casting. Paper is promotional, extolling the al-
(22) C. J. Posey, "Tests of Anchorages for Rein- leged virtues of the patented reinforcement
forcing Bars," Bulletin No. 3, University of known as "Isteg."
Iowa Studies in Engineering (1933). Re- (26) H. J. Gilkey and G. C. Ernst, "Pull-out
viewed by A. R. Lord, Journal, Am. Con- Tests for Bond Resistance of High-Elastic-
crete Inst., Vol. S, September-October, Limit Steel Bars," Proceedings, Highway
1933; Proceedings, Vol. 30, pp. 513-515 Research Board, Vol. 16, pp. 82-95 (1936).
(1934). Partial summary by author, "New See also reference (40).
Type of Reinforcing Bar Develops High Reconnaissance pull-out tests of small,
Bond Stress," Engineering News-Record, vertically-cast specimens for a variety of
Vol. 110, April 13, 1933, p. 461. mixture, length of embedment, surface
Compares relative effectiveness of condition, age, curing, and condition at
notched, threaded, and commercial de- test. Comparative discussions of previously
formed bars with hooks of 10 to 28 diame- published results from other investigators.
ters. Equipment and techniques similar to (27) W. M. Dunagan and G. C. Ernst, "An Ex-
those of reference (16) in the tests in perimental Study of Bond Stress, '~ Pro-
which Posey had participated. ceedings, Highway Research Board, Vol. 16,
(23) Otto Graf, "Versuche tiber die Wider- pp. 96-99 (1936).
standsf~thigkeit yon Eisenbetonplatten Exploratory tests on the multiple use of
unter konzentrierter Last nahe einem Aufla- Martens mirror extensometers for measur-
ger, und Versuche tiber die Widerstands- ing the surface concrete strains induced by
fithigkeit des Betons an den Abbiegestellen the elongations of the stressed embedded
der schief abgebogenen Eisen in Eisenbe- rods.
tonbalken," DeutscherAusschuss fu'r Eisen- (28) M. O. Withey, "Bond of Vibrated Con-
beton, Heft 73, p. 17 (1933). crete," Proceedings, Highway Research
Tests of hooks in beam-type specimens Board, Vol. 16, pp. 193-206 (1936).
GILKEu ON I~OND WITH I~EIIFFORCING STEEL 159
Beam and pull-out tests: plain bar bond Results of Pull-out Bond Tests," Journal,
in relation to water-cement ratio and con- Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1939; discussions
sistency, effect of vibration of fresh concrete by A. E. Lindau, F. R. McMillan, F. E.
near bars projecting from 16-hr old con- Richart, M. A. Swayze, D. A. Abrams,
crete, ratio of bond to compressive strength. and C. J. Posey, September, 1939; Pro-
(29) H. J. Gilkey, S. J. Chamberlin, and R. W. ceedings, Vol. 35, pp. 517-544 and 544-1 to
Beal, "Bond Resistance of High-Elastic- 544-8 (1939). This paper, without the dis-
Limit Steel Bars; Series of 1937," Proceed- cussions, is reproduced in the compilation
ings, Highway Research Board, Vol. 17, of reference (71).
pp. 150-186 (1937). See also reference (40). A major contribution dealing with effects
Beam-type and pull-out tests on two of bar surfaces, lengths of embedment,
strengths of concrete, three diameters of position and nature of lugs, vibration, rich-
bars, two simulated beam loadings, and ness of mixture, settlement beneath the bar,
several lengths of pull-out embedment. leakage from the mold, orientation of bar at
Martens mirror technique for measure- casting, direction of pull.
ments of concrete surface strain distribution (35) Warren Raeder, "Test Reports on Welded
induced by the stresses in the plain and de- Wire Mesh." Discussion of reference (33)
formed bars. (1939).
(30) G. R. Wernisch, "Bond Studies of Different Supplies pertinent unpublished data on
Types of Reinforcing Bars," Journal, Am. bond of welded wire mesh-cross-bar lug
Concrete Inst., Vol. 9, November-Decem- effects.
ber, 1937; discussions by Menzel, by Gilkey, (36) H. J. Gilkey, S. J. Chamber]in, and R. W.
Chamberlin, and Beal, and by Steinman, Beal, "Bond Tests on Rusted Bars," Pro-
March-April, 1938; Proceedings, Vol. 34, ceedings, Highway Research Board, Vol.
pp. 145-164 and 164-1 to 164-15. 149-163 pp. 19, (1939). See also reference
Pull-out and beam tests conducted at (40).
Lehigh University on two strengths of con- (37) J. R. Shank, "Bond Creep and Shrinkage
crete and several types of deformed and Effects in Reinforced Concrete," Journal,
plain bars including controversial discussion Am. Concrete Inst., November, 1938; Pro-
on the patented "Isteg" bar. ceedings, Vol. 35, pp. 81-90 (1939).
(31) R. E. Davis, E. H. Brown, and J. W. Kelly, Frictional drag or creep of plain bars un-
"Some Factors Influencing the Bond Be- der sustained loading.
tween Concrete and Steel," Proceedings, (38) T. C. Powers, "The Bleeding of Portland
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 38, Part II, Cement Paste, Mortar, and Concrete,"
p. 394 (1938). Also discussions, p. 407. Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1939;
Highly condensed reconnaissance cover- Proceedings, Vol. 35, pp. 465-479 (1939).
ing type of cement, richness of mixture, Discussions by W. H. Herschel, M. O.
orientation at casting, shape of plain bar Withey, and J.W. Kennedy, pp. 480-1 to
(round or square), vibration during place- 480-8. Extended and reprinted without dis-
ment, delayed vibration, freezing and thaw- cussions as Bulletin No. 2, P.C.A. Research
ing, wetting and drying, T.D.A. as an addi- Laboratory, July, 1939.
tion, and pozzolan as an admixture. Water gain or sedimentation effects. See
(32) H. J. Gilkey, S. J. Chamberlin, and R. W. also references (13, 34, 44, 69).
Beal, "The Distribution of Strain in the (39) H. J. Gilkey, S. J. Chamber]in, and R. W.
Concrete of Pull-out Specimens," Proceed- Beal, "Distribution of Bond in Long Pull-
ings, Highway Research Board, VoI. 18, out Specimens," Proceedings, Highway Re-
pp. 114-129 (1938). See also reference (40). search Board, Vol. 20, pp. 499-510 (1940).
Extension of reference (29). See also reference (40).
(33) H. J. Gilkey, S. J. Chamberlin, and R. W. High - strength (175,000 - psi yield
Beat, "The Bond Between Concrete and strength) alloy plain steel bars tested in
Steel," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Sep- pull-out specimens for embedments from 3
tember, 1938; discussion by Warren to 24 in. for z-in.
1 diameter bars, and 3 to 48
Raeder and G. R. Wernisch, February, in. for 89 diameter bars (6 to 96 diame-
1939; Proceedings, Vol. 35, pp. 1-20 and ters of bar). Maximum stress developed
20-1 to 20-11 (1939). was less than one half the yield strength
Survey of answered and unanswered of the steel. Strain distributions were
questions of bond with references to, and recorded.
brief discussions of, previous work. (40) H J. Gilkey, S. J. Chamber]in, and R. W
(34) C. A. Menzel, "Some Factors Influencing Beai, "Bond Between Concrete and Steel,"
Bulletin No. 147, Iowa State College Engi- Contains 14 references, mainly on fatigue
neering Experiment Station (1940). of concrete.
Summarizes in one publication results (48) S. U. Benscoter and S. T. Logan, "Shear
reported as references (26, 29, 32, 33, 36, and Bond Stresses in Reinforced Concrete
39). On pp. 111-118, supplies synopses with Discussions by F R. Shanley, B. J.
(more complete than these) of all the Aleck, Dean Peabody, Jr., W. E. Wilbur,
references listed therein. Bulletin No. 147 L. E. Grinter, Anders Bull, Victor R. Berg-
is now out of print, but library and personal man, and P. M. Ferguson," Paper No. 2245,
copies should be generally available. Am. Soc. Civil Engrs.; Transactions, Vo].
(41) B. G. Johnston and K. C. Cox, "The 110, pp. 599-632 (1945).
Strength of Rusted Deformed Bars," Emphasis on difficulty in attempting to
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., September, compute bond stresses with dependable
1940; Proceedings, Vol. 37, pp. 57-72 precision.
(1941). (49) H. J. Gilkey, "Proposed Test Procedure to
(42) C. A. Menzel, "A Proposed Standard De- Determine Relative Bond Value of Rein-
formed Bar for Reinforcing Concrete," forcing Bars," Report of ACI Committee
Proceedings, 17th Semi-Annual Meeting, 208, Bond Stress, Journal, Am. Concrete
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Inst. (1941). Inst., February, 1945; Proceedings, Vol.
This paper laid the groundwork for the 41, pp. 273-292 (1945). Discussion by
development of the "A 305" bars. It is Abrams, pp. 292-1 to 292-8.
reproduced in the compilation of reference Presents and explains basis for the pro-
(71). posed test procedure. See reference (50).
(43) David Watstein, "Bond Stress in Concrete (50) D. A. Abrams and H. J. Gilkey, discussion
Pull-out Specimens," Journal, Am. Con- and closure of reference (49), Journal,
crete Inst., September, 1941; Proceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., November, 1945; Pro-
Vol. 38, pp. 37-50 (1942). ceedings, Vol. 41, pp. 292-1 to 292-8 (1945).
Distribution of pull-out bond stresses Abrams attacks proposed procedure;
along four types of deformed bars and plain Gilkey defends it.
hot-rolled and cold-drawn bars. Tuckerman (51) R. W. Kluge and E. C._Tuma, "Lapped
gages with long legs were mounted directly Bar Splices in Concrete Beams," Journal,
on bar surfaces through holes in the con- Am. Concrete Inst., September, 1945;
crete. See also reference (53). Proceedings, Vol. 42, pp. 13-33 (1946).
(44) C. A. Menzel, "Some Factors Influencing (52) Arthur P. Clark, "Comparative Bond
the Strength of Concrete Containing Ad- Efficiency of Deformed Concrete Reinforc-
mixtures of Powdered Aluminum," Journal, ing Bars," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Am. Concrete Inst., January, 1943; Pro- June, 1947; Proceedings, Vol. 43, pp. 381-
ceedings, Vol. 39, pp. 165-184 (1943). 400 (1947). Discussions by R. R. Zipprodt,
This paper is reproduced in the compila- C. J. Posey, P. W. Abeles, and H. J. Gilkey,
tion of reference (71). Swelling of mixture pp. 400-i to 400-9. This paper (without the
to offset settlement and water gain. See discussion) also appears in Journal of Re-
references (13 and 38). search, Nat. Bureau Standards, Vol. 37,
(45) J. O. Draffin, "A Brief History of Lime, December, 1946, p. 399. (RP 1755.)
Cement Concrete, and Reinforced Con- Preliminary comparisons in launching
crete," Journal, Western Soc. of Engineers, the search for a better bar.
Vol. 48, No. 1, March, 1943, pp. 14-47. (53) David Watstein, "Distribution of Bond
Documented with 114 footnote references. Stress in Concrete Pull-out Specimens,"
Also Reprint Series No. 27, University of Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May, 1947;
Illinois Engineering Experiment Station, Proceedings, Vol. 43, pp. 1041-1052 (1947).
June, 1943. Extension of work reported in reference
(46) Herman Shorer, "Prestressed Concrete, (43). Five types of bar and two lengths of
Design Principles and Reinforcing Units," embedment.
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1943; (54) T. D. Mylrea, "Bond and Anchorage,"
Proceedings, Vol. 39, pp. 493-528 (1943). Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., March, 1948;
Discussion, pp. 528-1 to 528-7. Proceedings, Vol. 44, pp. 521-552 (1948).
Discussion of bond is on p. 500. Discussions by U]f Bjuggren, S. D. Lash,
(47) C. W. Muhlenbruch, "The Effect of Re- H. Van Uchelen, and P. M. Ferguson, pp
peated Loading on the Bond Strength of 552-1 to 552-10.
Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing An analytical review of the bond problem
Mats., Vol. 45, p. 824 (1945). as applied to beams.
GIL~EY ON B o N n WlT~ REINFORCING STEEL 161
(55) Arthur P. Clark, "Highlights of the De- (63) Eivind Hognestad and C. P. Siess, "Effect
velopment of Reinforced Concrete and the of Entrained Air on Bond Between Con-
Study of Bond," Journal, Am. Concrete crete and Reinforcing Steel," Journal, Am.
Inst., February, 1948; Proceedings, Vo]. 44, Concrete Inst., April, 1950; Proceedings,
pp. 437-440 (1948). Discussion by C. M. VoI. 46, pp. 649-667 (1950).
Spofford, pp. 440-1 to 440-4. Includes several references. Essentially
A brlef historical rfisumC. a reproduction of a paper by H. W. Russell
(56) F. E. Richart, "Advances in Reinforced and Eivind Hognestad, Proceedings, High-
Concrete During the Past Quarter of a way Research Board, Vol. 28, pp. 195-210
Century," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., (1948).
April, 1948; Proceedings, Vol. 44, pp. 720- (64) Arthur P. Clark, "Bond of Concrete Rein-
731 (1948). forcing Bars," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Recent history; brief review of bond on November, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. 46,
pp. 721-722. pp. 161-184 (1950).
(57) Douglas McHenry and W. T. Walker, Compares beam and pull-out specimens
"Laboratory Measurements of Stress Dis- on different types of bar. Concludes that
tribution in Reinforcing Steel," Journal, pull-out does give concordant indications.
Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1948; Proceed- (65) R. C. Reese, "New-Style Deformed Rein-
ings, Vol. 44, pp. 1041-1054 (1948). Dis- forcing Bars," Journal, Am. Concrete
cussion by P. M. Ferguson, pp. 1056-1 to Inst., May, 1950; Proceedings, Vol. 46, pp.
1056-4. 681-688 (1950). Discussion by Erling
Includes six references and an appendix Reinius, pp. 688-1 to 688-4.
on SR-4 gage protection for use with RCsum6 of bond progress.
concrete. (66) W. T. Walker, "Laboratory Tests of
(58) U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (W. T. Walker Spaced and Tied Reinforcing Bars,"
and D. Mcttenry), "Spaced and Tied Rein- Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., January,
forcing Bar Splices," LaboratoryReport No. 1951; Proceedings, Vol. 47, pp. 365-372
SP-20, Research and Geology Division, (1951).
Branch of Design and Construction, Den- Four references listed.
ver, Colo., April 3, 1949. A mimeographed (67) A. R. Anderson, "Bond Properties of
report (in greater detail) of the paper by Welded Wire Fabric," Journal, Am. Con-
W. T. Walker listed here as reference (66). crete Inst., February, 1952; Proceedings,
(59) Arthur P. Clark, "Bond of Concrete Rein- Vol. 48, pp. 681-692 (1952).
forcing Bars," Journal of Research, Nat. (68) R. M. Mains, "Measurement of the Distri-
Bureau Standards, Vol. 43, December, bution of Tensile and Bond Stresses Along
1949, p. 565. (RP 2050.) Reinforcing Bars," Journal, Am. Concrete
(60) F. E. Richart, "Reinforced Concrete Wall Inst., November, 1951; Proceedings, Vol.
and Column Footings, Part 2," Journal, 48, pp. 225-252 (1952). Discussions by
Am. Concrete Inst., November, 1948; A. D. Hogg and L. Schenker, A. L. Mirsky
Proceedings, Vol. 45, pp. 237-260 (1949). and L. K. Moulton, and R. C. Reese, pp.
Reports on bond behavior of plain and 252-1 to 252-4 (1952).
four patterns of deformed bars in footings. For pull-out and beam specimens,
(61) F. M. Menefee and H. L. Kinnier, "Spacing ASTM Specifications A 305 deformed bars
of Moment Bars in Precast Joists," were split and grooved for internal place-
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., April, 1950; ment of SR-4 gages and leads. Bars re-
Proceedings, Vol. 46, pp. 629-636 (1950). joined and spot welded at intervals.
Tests of precast joists having bar spacing Internal axial strains on the steel were thus
less than that required by ACI Code. observed.
Distinctive aspects of bar spacings in joists. (69) C. A. Menzel, "Effect of Settlement of
(62) Arsham Amirikian, "Proposed Specifica- Concrete on Results of Pull-out Bond
tions for Minimum Bar Spacing and Pro- Tests," Bulletin No. 41, Research Dept.,
tective Cover in Precast Concrete Framing Research and Development Labs., Port-
Members," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., land Cement Assn., November, 1952. See
April, 1950; Proceedings, Vol. 46, pp. 637- also references (13, 38).
640 (1950). Discussions by S. J. Chamberlin Aluminum powder, internal vibration,
and L. J. Mensch, pp. 640-1 to 640-2. revibration, width of mold, type of cement.
Contends that existing minimum bar This paper is reproduced in the compilation
spacing for precast joists are unduly re- of reference (71).
strictive. (70) C. A. Menzel and W. M. Woods, "An
Investigation of Bond, Anchorage, and (74) B. A. Wasil, "Reinforced Concrete," Mid-

Related Factors in Reinforced Concrete west Engineer, Vol. 7, No. 6, November,
Beams," Bulletin No. 42, Research Dept., 1954, pp. 3-4, 13-15.
Research and Development Labs., Port- An historical summary.
land Cement Assn., November, 1952. (75) P. M. Ferguson, R. D. Turpin, and J.
Web reinforcement, aluminum powder, Neils Thompson, "Minimum Bar Spacing
entrained air, hooks, bar surfaces, prestress, as a Function of Bond and Shear Strength,"
freezing-thawing. This paper is reproduced ~rournal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1954;
in the compilation of reference (71). 2roeeedings, Vol. 50, pp. 869-887 (1954).
(71) "A Compilation of Five Papers on Studies Discussions by K. Hajnal-k6nyi and C. A.
of Bond Between Concrete and Steel and Willson, pp. 888-1 to 888-8.
Related Factors," Research and Develop- Authors question validity of present code
ment Labs., Portland Cement Assn., No- stresses in bond. Refocus attention on the
vember, 1952. This compilation consists of well-known splitting tendencies in the use
references (34, 42, 44, 69, 70). of deformed bars without restraining spirals.
(72) S. J. Chamberlin, "Spacing of Spliced Bars (76) R. D. Turpin, M. Hudson, P. M. Ferguson,
in Tension Pull-out Specimens," Journal, J. Neils Thompson, and James Chinn,
Am. Concrete Inst., December, 1952; "Minimum Spacing of Bars in Precast
Proceedings, Vol. 49, pp. 261-274 (1953). Elements," Civil Engineering Research
Tests involve transfer of load between Laboratory, University of Texas. Three
the parallel deformed bars. mimeographed reports on Navy Dept.
(73) J. R. Janney, "Nature of Bond in Pre- sponsored tests. Part I, July, 1952; Part II,
tensioned, Prestressed Concrete," Journal, August, 1953; Part III, March~ 1954.
Am. Concrete Inst., May, 1954; Proceed- Indications and questions raised are
ings, Vol. 50, pp. 717-736 (1954). Discus- similar to those of reference (75).
sions by P. W. Abeles, K. Hajnal-k6nyi,
(77) Arthur P. Clark "Investigation of Crack-
and N. W. Hanson.
Prism and beam tests with variable wire ing in Reinforced Concrete Flexural Mem-
diameter, surface, and strength of concrete. bers" Journal Am. Concrete Inst. (in
Because of high bond stress concentration press Sept. 1955) Proceedings Vol. 52
at cracks, prestressed concrete would seem (1956). Summarized in Technical News
to have an advantage due to the reduction Bulletin, National Bureau of Standards
in crack width and number. Vol. 39:9 (Sept. 1955).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
ABRASION RESISTANCE*
BY H. L. KENNEDY I AND M. ]~. PRIOI~1
Seldom is there any agreement as to until the surface is penetrated. When this
what wear actually is or how to measure surface is penetrated, the resistance to
it. Some feel that the old paint slogan, abrasion so measured is ridiculously
"Save the surface and you save all," is slight by comparison. In other words, the
applicable to concrete. Certainly, when actuM strength of the concrete is then
the surface is disrupted and the aggre- the controlling factor.
gate exposed, it is difficult to measure the The first work which seems to have
abrasion resistance of the resulting con- been reported on wear tests of paving
crete surface. This is particularly true materials was by Johann Bauschinger
when means are adopted--and some with (1)3 of Munich in 1844. He used a ma-
merit--to increase the life of the wearing chine, first exhibited at the World's Fair
surface through the use of various con- in Paris in 1878, similar to the D o t t y
crete surface hardeners. machine, in which cores are subjected to
I t has been demonstrated that cement abrasion by silica sand carried on a re-
factor, air content, and curing are all volving cast steel plate. This work, and
important factors. But all three factors much of the early work in this country
generally follow the compressive strength as reported by Page (2) and Goldbeck
of concrete, so that it m a y be reasonably and Jackson (3), was conducted on rock
hypothesized that strength m a y be ac- and stone then used for paving.
cepted as a criterion of wear resistance. In more recent years, adaptations of
I t would appear that a reasonable solu- these and other methods for determining
tion to the problem is possible and an the abrasion resistance of stone have been
acceptable method of test may be de- used with varying degrees of success on
vised, if only concrete and the factors concrete. The investigations of Roman
that go into making and curing that con- (4), Abrams (5), Jackson and Pauls (6),
crete are considered. I t appears equally Scofield (7), and Scholer and Allen (8)
obvious that concretes treated for im- were with the rattler-type equipment,
proving their resistance to wear involve such as the Deval test and the Los An-
a different procedure from that used geles and Talbot-Jones rattlers. About
when the concrete only is the prime fac- the same time, Guttman (9) reported on
tor. a disk type of test. A drill press adapta-
As an example, a very inferior con- tion was also reported by Harris (10) in
crete may be painted with a rubber-base connection with the testing of the hard-
paint and the resistance to the action of ness of various materials. Tuthill and
the shot-blast machine is extremely high Blanks (11) classified concrete wear into
* Presented a~ ~he Fifty-slxth Annual Meet- two general types, mechanical and hy-
ing of the Society, June 28-July 3, 1953. draulic. They state that no one test has
I Manager, Construction Specialties Division,
and Head, Construction Specialties Research 2 Tile boldface numbers in parentheses refer
Laboratory, respectively, Dewey & Ahny Chem- to the list of references appended to this paper,
ical Co., Cambridge, Mass. see p. 173.
163
164 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O1~ CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
been devised that adequately measures surface would, of course, wear down read-
the wear resistance of concrete under all ily.
conditions. The second type of wear is caused by
There are a number of various types of a rubbing action similar to that found in
abrasion or wear to which concrete may the first type, plus an impact-cutting
be subjected. Webster's dictionary de- type of wear. This latter type is brought
fines "wear" in this w a y ~ " T o impair, about by the use of chains on automobile
waste or diminish by continual attrition, and truck tires or metal vehicle wheels.
scraping, percussion or the like." The As the wheel revolves, it brings the metal
problem seems to be to discover or to into contact with the concrete surface
select from existing equipment one kind with considerable impact, a process
that could be generally accepted for de- which tends to cut the surface of the con-
termining the abrasion resistance of all crete. The presence of wind- or water-
concrete. borne sand or other abrasive material is
a common cause of surface wear on con-
TYPES OF ABRASION crete pavements where traffic is heavy.
Wear of concrete surface by abrasion Here again, mix design, finishing, and
will be classified as follows for the pur- curing are important factors in determin-
pose of this paper: ing the ability of the concrete to resist
this action.
1. Wear on concrete floors, due to foot The third type of wear is primarily a
traffic, light trucking, and the skidding cutting action. The action of the abrasive
or sliding of objects on the surface (attri- particles carried by the flowing water is,
tion). of course, controlled largely by the ve-
2. Wear on concrete road surfaces due locity of the water, the angle of contact,
to heavy trucking and automobiles, with the abrasive material, and the general
and without chains (attrition plus scrap- surrounding conditions.
ing plus percussion). The fourth type of wear is completely
3. Wear on underwater construction, an impact abrasion. It is caused by the
due to the action of abrasive materials abrupt change in direction and velocity
carried by flowing or turbulent waters of a liquid to such a degree that the
(attrition plus scraping). pressure at some point is reduced to the
4. Wear on concrete dams, power vapor pressure of the liquid. The vapor
plants, and water-carrying systems where pockets so created upon entering areas
a high hydraulic gradient is present. This of higher pressure collapse with a great
is generally known as cavitation erosion impact, which eventually causes pits or
as distinguished from the abrasive ero- holes in the concrete surface. Also, the
sion in type 3 (percussion). particles torn loose by this action con-
tinue to add to the abrasion problem b y
The first type of wear listed is essen- causing further wear as designated by the
tially a rubbing action and is usually third type previously mentioned. Wallace
caused by the introduction of foreign and Price (12, 13) have reported on the
particles, such as sand, metal scraps, or Bureau of Reclamation's extensive stud-
similar materials. Normal wear without ies of this problem in connection with
the benefit of such abrasive materials various dams.
would be negligible on a good concrete It has been indicated that damage re-
surface for an indefinite period of time. suiting from cavitation is not common in
A poorly designed or inadequately cured open conduits at water velocities below
KENNEDY AND PRIOR ON ABRASION RESISTANCE 165
40 ft per sec. However, concrete in spillway tunnels. There are many cases
closed conduits has been pitted by cavita- where the concrete of dams and tunnel
tion at velocities as low as 25 ft per sec linings has been damaged by erosion dur-
where the air pressure was reduced by ing the construction period, and this
the sweep of the flowing water. At higher possibility should not be overlooked
velocities, the forces of cavitation are among the design considerations.
sufficient to erode away large quantities Apparently the rate of erosion is de-
of high-quality concrete in a compara- pendent on the quantity, size, shape, and
tively short time. hardness of the particles being trans-
The erosion of concrete by silt, sand, ported, the velocity of the water, and the
gravel, and other solids can be equally quality of the concrete. Concrete-lined
as severe as that caused by cavitation. irrigation canals ~vhich usually carry very
Stilling pools which are not self-cleaning, few solids show no appreciable erosion
in which rocks and sand collect, are after years of service for velocities as high
eroded by the movement of the solids by as 6 ft per sec.
eddy currents in the pool, and concrete Where it is expected that the conduit
over which large quantities of sand and will carry solids or that abrasion will re-
gravel are transported by floods may be sult from solids and eddy currents, the
seriously eroded. concrete should be of the highest quality
The concrete in the invert of the 20-ft because the abrasion resistance increases
diameter, 1300-ft-long tunnel at Ander- as the strength of the concrete is in-
son Ranch Dam was worn away to a creased. It is not necessary to be so
depth of about 3 in. while it was used for particular about alignment and surface
diverting the flow of the river for a period smoothness where only abrasion is ex-
of 43 months during construction of the pected and where the velocity of the
dam. The water carried high percentages water will not exceed 40 ft per sec.
of silt, sand, and gravel during the spring It will be realized, from the foregoing,
run-off, and when the tunnel was un- that probably no one single type of abra-
watered the invert was covered to a sion test can be considered adequate. The
depth of several feet with rocks, gravel, rubbing type may be satisfactory for
and sand. The wear was fairly uniform floor surfaces, but in no way does it
on all types of aggregate, and the ex- simulate the cutting action of sand car-
posed surfaces of the larger aggregate ried by fast-moving water. The dressing-
were smooth and flat. Some of the 1:2 wheel type does approach the cutting
dry-packed mortar patches in this tunnel action produced by chains, but its action
were completely eroded away, and in is somewhat, dependent upon the hard-
general the mortar patches were eroded ness of the coarse aggregate used in the
more than the surrounding concrete. The mix. This is, of course, also true in the
maximum velocity of the water in the case of the rubbing type. The sand-blast
tunnel was about 30 ft per sec. New con- type cuts into the softer materials, leav-
crete which has been installed in this
ing the harder materials exposed or loos-
tunnel has been subjected to high
velocities of relatively clear water since ened so that they are free to become
it was converted to an outlet tunnel. This dislodged from the mass. This type of
new low-slump concrete shows only slight action is, however, more severe than that
wear. Similar erosion was experienced in commonly found in floors; it cuts through
the diversion tunnels of Hoover Dam the surface finish and exposes the basic
prior to their conversion to outlet and concrete which, under normal conditions
of wear, might not be exposed during the by Schuman and Tucker (19). Variations
life of the building. of this apparatus have been constructed
by laboratories interested in studying the
TYPES 0~" SURFACES
wear resistance of floors, and reasonable
Floor Surfaces: results have been obtained.
A considerable amount of work has There is always the question of the
been done by many investigators in con- effect of the aggregate particles, particu-
nection with the study of the wearing larly where the surface had no special
qualities of concrete floors. Kessler (14), treatment such as the use of integral or
Ahlers et al. (15), Shank (16), Emley and surface hardeners. Under these condi-
Hofer (17), Wasflund and Eriksson (18), tions, the surface finish wears off quickly
and Schuman and Tucker (19) have re- and the abrasive disk will then proceed
ported on the developments of test meth- to ride on the hardest piece of aggregate.
ods and results of investigations. This In actual practice, however, the traffic
work has involved various finishing tech- will wear around the harder particles,
niques, types of curing, time of curing, leaving them protruding and susceptible
degree of curing, integral floor hardeners, to impact.
surface hardeners, and air entrainment. In general, where the conditions of test
Also included in these studies were the are such that only a surface hardness is
effects of paints, acids, and alkalies on to be examined, the rubbing action will
the resultant surfaces in respect to the produce satisfactory results. This in-
ability of the surface so treated to resist cludes toppings containing an integral
abrasion. hardener, surface hardeners, various
Most of these studies have been carried types of finishing, and the application of
out by rubbing types of apparatus, since film-forming materials such as paints.
this was considered to be the method The dressing-wheel type of test, Fig. 3,
best suited to reproduce the actual action has also been found to be suitable for
on the floor surface. The other two types, this sort of test. It is, in general, much
dressing-wheel and sand-blast, have also more rapid in action than the rubbing
been used, but to a limited extent. type and is a fairly simple piece of equip-
The two common methods of achieving ment. It can be set up in a drill press and
this rubbing action are a reciprocating does not require an abrasive or water.
disk and a revolving disk with some sort General practice is to clean the surface
of abrasive material--usually carborun- occasionally during the test by blowing
dum, silica sand, or slag, used under damp the dust off the specimen under test.
or wet conditions. The length of time When the wear caused by the wheel
required to obtain significant results has progressed through the surface of the
depends mainly on the abrasive material concrete, there is again the tendency for
used, the pressure applied, and the speed the hardest aggregate particle or particles
of operation, provided the surface char- to carry the burden. However, this condi-
acteristics of the specimens under test are tion is not so pronounced with the wheel
comparable. This time may vary from 2 as with the rubbing test, because some of
to 20 hr. the teeth will be making contact at other
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate two of the points. There will be a tendency for the
reciprocating types of machines currently wheel to bounce because of high and low
being used in wear test studies. spots, thus causing gouging. The extent
The revolving disk-type machine com- of this bouncing will be controlled to a
monly used is essentially that developed great degree by the loading pressure ap-
K E N N E D Y AND PRIOR ON ABRASION RESISTANCE 167
FIG. 1.--Reciprocating Shoe Abrasion Device Developed by Research Laboratories, Lehigh

Portland Cement Co.
FIG. 2.--Reciprocating Abrasive Machine Developed by Research Laboratories, Public Service

Gas and Electric Co.
plied to the wheel and the speed of opera- hand, the length of test or the flow of
tion. The use of an abrasive and lower shot can be increased to provide a more
loading pressures tends to overcome this severe test that will cut around the ag-
undesirable action. gregate and loosen it, regardless of its
The shot-blast test, Fig. 4, may be relative hardness.
FIG. 3.--Typical Drill Press Set-Up for Dressing Wheel Type of Testing Used by Northeastern
University.
successfully used for surface testing, pro- The use of paints, particularly the rub-
vided due care is exercised to control the ber-base type, changes the effectiveness
rate of abrasion. I t is possible to adjust of the various tests. In the case of the
the rate of flow of shot so that within a shot blast, there is a tendency for the
reasonable period of time it will affect shot to bounce off the surface without
only the surface; thus the surface treat- cutting because of the resiliency of the
ment can be evaluated. On the other film, Thus, this test becomes of no value.
I~ENNEDY AND PRIOR ON ABRASION RESISTANCE 169
The shot blast, of course, will cut through measure of the effectiveness of the paint
a water-base paint or similar film without as a protective coating.
difficulty. However, both the rubbing Floor hardeners of the surface-applied
FIG. 4.--Typical Shot-Blast Test Cabinet.
action and the dressing wheel will wear type also pose a problem because they do
through the paint film to the surface of not generally provide a very thick sur-
the concrete, and it is possible to get a face-hardened condition. The more mild
form of ~brasion obtained by the rubbing breaking point in the curve may come
action is more sensitive to slight differ- anywhere between 4000 and 6000 psi.
ences in surface hardness than the other Collins and Waters' data indicate that
types of test methods. However, it is the initial rate of wear of 2000-psi con-
doubtful if these slight differences are of crete is about five times that of 4000-psi
actual value for practical purposes. concrete. They further conclude that the
Floors that are subjected to acid con- type of aggregate used has an important
ditions, such as in milk plants and citrus effect on the later stages of wear of
fruit packing plants, very often become medium- and low-strength concrete.
damaged by the acid action to such an Above 6000 psi the type of aggregate has
extent that the abrasion resistance is con- tittle effect on the wear resistance. Pog-
siderably lowered. This reduction in re- any (26) concludes that the abrasion re-
sistance can be measured by all three sistance of concrete with hard dense ag-
methods under discussion. However, in gregate bears no relation to abrasion
cases of this type, it is the mortar that resistance of the aggregate alone.
is weakened and, therefore, the shot blast The ability of the road surface to resist
is by far the most effective method. The abrasion depends primarily upon the mix,
dressing wheel would rank second and the placing, the finishing, and the curing
the rubbing action third. The trouble of the concrete. Probably curing is the
with the rubbing action is that it will, most important factor of those noted.
as previously stated, tend to ride on the Improper curing can be very detrimental
aggregate, thus greatly masking the true to the best designed and placed concrete
condition of the concrete. as far as abrasion resistance is concerned.
Tests by several investigators have
Roads: shown the great differences in abrasion
The investigation of the abrasion re- resistance caused by various types of
sistance of roads dates back to the earli- curing and times of curing involved. It
est tests that were actually applied to is a well established fact that the longer
paving stone. Since the introduction of concrete is kept moist after the set has
concrete, there have been a few pub- taken place, the more complete the hy-
lished reports concerning the abrasion dration and the better the strength.
resistance of concrete roads. Jackson and Hence, it can be said that, in general, the
Pauls (6), Collins and Waters (20), Wast- abrasion resistance of ordinary concrete
lund and Eriksson (21), and Teller and will be nearly proportional to its com-
Davis (22) have published reports on abra- pressive strength, a fact that has been
sion tests Of highway concrete. This work borne out by several investigations.
is in a somewhat different category from Since the introduction of the mem-
floors, because hardeners, paints, and the brane type of curing compound, atten-
like are not used. However, investigation has been directed to the effect of
tions have shown that compressive such materials on the surface of the con-
strength is a very important factor. Data crete. It has been found that some types
obtained indicate that abrasion resist- of membrane material may react with the
ance increases rapidly with a strength surface of the concrete in such a way as
increase up to a certain point, depending to inhibit or prevent proper hydration.
upon aggregate, mix conditions, and type This action, of course, weakens the sur-
of test (20, 24, 2S), but beyond this point face and consequently reduces its wear
increases in strength have very little ef- resistance. Under these conditions, it is
fect on the abrasion resistance. This possible to use any of the three methods
KENNEDY AND PRIOR ON ABRASION RESISTANCE 171
of test suggested to determine the re- ducted on specimens that were treated
sistance to abrasion. However, the dress- with membrane curing compounds at
ing-wheel and shot-blast types are to be various periods during the bleeding cycle
preferred over the rubbing type because have indicated that if they are applied
the nature of the road surface is generally before the concrete has stopped bleed-
such that large aggregate is at or near ing, the resultant surface has a relatively
the surface. Hence, by cutting the mor- low abrasion resistance. In other words,
tar, there will be a tendency to loosen the the abrasion resistance of the concrete
aggregate, thus simulating the action of surface increases as the time of applying
chains or metal wheels on the road. the curing compound to the concrete ap-
Another consideration in connection proaches the end of the bleeding period.
FIG. 5.--Two Specimens Made from the Same Concrete Mix Showing the Effects of Curing on
Abrasion Resistance of Concrete.
with membrane curing compounds and There is little difference in the abrasion
their effect on abrasion is the time of resistance if the curing material is applied
application. In this phase, the bleeding of between the end of the bleeding and the
the concrete is an important factor since beginning of the drying of the concrete.
it, too, has an effect on the surface and However, once the concrete has started
its resistance to abrasion. to lose water by drying after the bleeding
There is a definite bleeding cycle de- has ceased, the abrasion resistance starts
pendent upon such things as water-ce- to decrease. This, of course, is due to
ment ratio, aggregate grading, cement, lack of curing and is somewhat propor-
temperature of the air, humidity, and tional to the degree of curing. The ex-
wind velocity. Also, the use of purpose- treme is the difference in resistance of
fully entrained air will bring about cured v e r s u s uncured concrete, as shown
changes in bleeding. These factors all in Fig. 5. Burnett and Spindler (23) have
have a direct bearing on the ability of also shown that the time of set, which
the concrete to resist abrasion. Tests con- generally coincides with the cessation of
172 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E AND AGGREGATES
bleeding, is a critical point as far as the water are developed by the movement of
relationship of application of curing com- the water carrying foreign particles.
pound to abrasion resistance is con- These particles are generally sand and
cerned. Investigations of the abrasion often may actually be softer than the
resistance of concrete with regard to cur- concrete, but the force exerted by rapidly
ing further illustrate the relationship of moving water carrying the sand is such
strength to abrasion. A poorly cured con- that a cutting action is produced.
crete will have low strength and low The most satisfactory method of dupli-
resistance to abrasion compared to con- cating this type of abrasion is obviously
crete from the same batch that has been the shot blast. However, it is possible to
properly cured. evaluate the concrete to some degree by
Entrained air influences the resistance means of the dressing wheel because of
of the concrete to abrasion in about the the cutting action.
same degree that it affects the strength Concrete for this purpose is usable,
of the concrete. Generally speaking, con- even after the skin or surface has been
cretes containing not over 6 per cent worn off, except where appearance is an
entrained air will not show reduced re- important factor. Therefore, in testing
sistance to abrasion as compared to non- this type of concrete, consideration of its
air entrained concrete, provided the mix ability to resist abrasion is not only given
has been properly redesigned and all to the surface but also to the basic con-
other conditions are equivalent (24). It crete. After the surface has been cut
has also been noted that concretes of the away, the abrasive forces tend to cut the
same compressive strength, although weaker portion of the concrete, which
having a difference of as much as 10 per usually is the mortar, and destroy the
cent in air content, show approximately bond of the aggregate, thus releasing it
the same resistance to abrasion (25). from the mass. The shot blast duplicates
Other factors that tend to affect the this action and therefore provides an
abrasion resistance of concrete surfaces accelerated method of test which cannot
of roads are important but do not usually be duplicated satisfactorily by other
cause variations in the same project. Var- methods. Kennedy (24) and Witte and
iations in the mix brought about by Backstrom (25) have reported results by
water-cement ratio, cement content, and this method.
aggregate grading all are reflected in the
OTHER TEST METHODS
resistance to abrasion. Generally speak-
ing, these variations follow the change in Many other methods of test than the
strength due to the above factors. The three mentioned up to this point have
condition of the base on which the con- been used by investigators with varying
crete is placed has an effect on the abra- results.
sion resistance insofar as the base in- One such test involved a modification
fluences bleeding. The finishing operation of the Los Angeles rattler (7, 8). Con-
and the resulting fines brought to the crete cylinders or cubes were placed in
surface by this operation will also have the machine and tumbled for various
a marked effect on the resistance of the periods of time. The abrasion resistance
surface to abrasion by traffic. was then determined by visual observa-
tion and determination of weight loss.
Piles, Foolings, Piers, elc.: This is a rather severe test, involving a
As previously stated, the abrasive pounding action not commonly associ-
forces that tend to erode concrete in ated with abrasion. A hard, brittle con-
K E N N E D Y AND PRIOR ON ABRASION RESlSTANCE 173
crete might break up in this test, and a media under pressure over the surface
softer material might stand up. In actual of the concrete. Provision is made to
field practice, however, the harder con- avoid tracking of the balls. The surface
crete would resist abrasive forces much of the concrete is subjected to flowing
better than the relatively softer material. water to wash the abraded material off
Hence, it is not believed that this method as it is produced. This apparatus is rather
is well suited for the determination of buiky and costly, factors which are a
abrasion resistance under such conditions disadvantage to the method. Also, tests
as set forth in this paper. to date have not indicated that the re-
Another method of determining abra- sults obtained are appreciably more con-
sion resistance is by means of an abrasive sistent or representative than those with
wheel. A carborundum or similar wheel, other less expensive pieces of equipment
while moving, is brought into contact (22).
with the concrete surface. A constant
pressure is applied and a constant time SIGNIFICANCE OF ABRASION TESTS
of application is used. The specimen may In order for an abrasion test to be sig-
be either wet or dry and generally pro- nificant, particular attention must be
vision is made to remove the abraded given to the type of concrete to be
material during the test interval. This tested. If it is a regular concrete, without
method is weak because of variations in special finishing, then the abrasion re-
grinding wheels and variations in indi- sistance can be expected to be a direct
vidual wheels as they become worn. The function of the concrete strength. If, how-
wheel also will be supported by the ever, metallic or other hardeners are ap-
toughest portion of concrete with which plied to the floor, such factors must be
it comes in contact and, therefore, meas- taken into consideration, and the time
ures the abrasion resistance of the required for the abrasion apparatus to
strongest rather than the weakest link. penetrate the hardened surface must be
Several methods involving balls, shoes, determined to give any significance to
and rolls have been used experimentally the test. In this latter case, the abrasion
with varying degrees of success. One of resistance would also correlate with com-
these, a ball method proposed by R. E. pressive strength, since the strength of
Davis of the University of California, surface hardened material is substanti-
develops wear by rolling steel grinding ally higher than that of regular concrete.
REFERENCES
(1) "Johann Bauschinger, His Communica- (6) F.H. Jackson and J. T. Pauls, "Accelerated
tions," Vol. XI (1844). Wear Tests of Concrete Pavements/' Pro-
(2) L. W. Page, "Relation Between the Tests ceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 24,
for the Wearing Qualities of Road-Building Part II, p. 864 (1924).
Rocks," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing (7) H. H. Scofield, "Significance of Talbot-
Mats., Vol. XIII, p. 983 (1913). Jones Rattler as Test for Concrete in Road
(3) A. T. Goldbeck and F. H. Jackson, Jr., Slabs," Proceedings, Highway Research
Public Roads Bulletin No. 44, June 10, Board, p. 127 (1925).
1912. (8) C. H. Scholer and It. Allen, "Wear Tests of
(4) F. L. Roman, "Comparative Tests of the Concrete," Kansas State Agricultural Col-
Wearing Qualities of Paving Bricks and lege Bulletin, Vol. XII, No. 3, February
Concrete," Municipal Engineering (1916). 15, 1928.
(5) D. A. Abrams, "Wear Test of Concrete," (9) A. Guttmao, "Abrasion Tests on Con-
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. crete," Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 30, p. 5750
21. p. 1013 (1921). (1936).
(10) D. H. Harris, "Apparatus for Testing the (19) L. Schuman and J. Tucker, Jr., "A Portable
Hardness of Materials," Chemical Abstracts, Apparatus for Determining the Relative
Vol. 38, p. 1338 (1944). Wear Resistance of Concrete Floors," Re-
(11) L. H. Tuthill and R. F. Blanks, "Wear search Paper No. RP125g, Nat. Bureau
Resistance of Concrete," Report on Sig- Standards (1939).
nificance of Tests of Concrete and Concrete (20) A. R. Collins and D. B. Waters, "The Re-
Aggregates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 38 sistance of Road Surfacing to Tank Traf-
(1943). (Issued as separate publication fic," Road Research Lab., Department of
ASTM STP No. 2ZA.) Science and Industry Research, Burks,
(12) W. H. Price, "Erosion of Concrete by England.
Cavitation and Solids in Flowing Water," (21) G. Wastlund and E. Eriksson, "Some
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May, 1947; Abrasion Resistance Tests on Highway
Proceedings, Vol. 43, p. 1009. Concrete," Cement och Betony, Vol. 14,
(13) W. H. Price and G. B. Wallace, "Resistance No. 3, p. 3 (1939).
of Concrete and Protective Coatings to (22) L. W. Teller, "A Test for Indicating the
Forces of Cavitation," Journal, Am. Con- Surface Hardness of Concrete Pavements,"
crete Inst., October, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. Public Roads, Voh 10, No. 5, July, 1929,
46, p. 109. p. 95; L. W. Teller and G. W. Davis, "The
(14) D. W. Kessler, "The Development of an Effects of Materials and Methods of Plac-
Apparatus for Wear Tests on Flooring ing on Strength and Other Properties of
Materials," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Concrete Bridge Floor Slabs," Vol. 12, No.
Mats., Vol. 28, Part II, p. 855 (1928). 10, December, 1931, p. 237.
(15) J. G. Ahlers, J. J. Lindon, and M. F. Bird, (23) G. E. Burnett and M. R. Spindler, "Effect
"Wear Tests on Floor Finishes at Ware- of Time of Application of Sealing Com-
house of R. H. Macy Company, Long Island pound on the Quality of Concrete," Journal,
City, New York," Journal, Am. Concrete Am. Concrete Inst., November, 1952; Pro-
Inst., February, 1929; Proceedings, Vol. 25, ceedings, VoI. 49, p. 193. Disc., Bryant
Part II, p. 778. Mather, ibid., p. 200-1.
(16) J. R. Shank, "A Wear Test for Flooring (24) H. L. Kennedy, "Homogeneity of Air En-
Materials," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing training Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete
Inst., June, 1946; Proceedings, Vol. 42 p.
Mats., Vol. 35, Part II, p. 533 (1935).
641.
(17) W. E. Emley and C. E. Hofer, "Test of (25) L. P. Witte and J. E. Backstrom, "Some
Floor Coverings for Post Office Work- Properties Affecting the Abrasion Resist-
rooms," Journal of Research, Nat. Bureau ance of Air Entrained Concrete," Proceed-
Standards, Vol. 19, November, 1937. ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 51, p.
(18) G. Wastlund and E. Eriksson, "Wear Re- 1141 (1951).
sistance Tests on Concrete Floors and (26) A. Pogany, "Determining the Abrasion
Methods of Dust Prevention," Journal, Am. Resistance of Concrete from That of the
Concrete Inst., October 1946; Proceedings, Mortar and Aggregates," Zement, Vol. 24,
Vol. 43 p. 1001. p. 522 (1935).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
RESISTANCE TO W E A T H E R I N G - - G E N E R A L ASPECTS
Bx C. H. SCHOLER1
A detailed outline of the various factors properties of hardened concrete that

that may influence concrete durability relate to resistance to weathering can
has been prepared by Subcommittee II-d still best be based on that outline. Many
on Durability of Concrete of ASTM of the some hundred items of the outline
Committee C-9 on Concrete and Con- are discussed in other papers included in
crete Aggregates. The complete tabular this publication.
outline is appended to this paper. The
factors are subdivided into five major PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
groups: HARDENED CONCRETE
1. The physical properties of the hard- Certain of the physical properties of
ened concrete, hardened concrete are highly significant
2. The constituent materials of which in controlling the degree of weathering
the concrete is composed, resistance which concrete will be capable
3. The construction methods used in of withstanding. Concrete exhibits elastic
fabricating or building the structure, and plastic properties. It has considerable
4. The nature of the deteriorating in- flexural and compressive strength and is
fluences to which the structure will be resistant to impact and to attrition due
exposed, and to abrasion. Further, although concrete
5. The type of loads which the struc- is elastic it is also slightly plastic, and
ture is designed to carry and to which it under sustained loads some plastic flow
will be subjected during its useful life. is known to occur. Concrete expands with
Not all of these factors are of equal a rise in temperature and shrinks with a
significance in their effect upon the du- drop'in temperature. As it loses moisture,
rability of the concrete structures. Some shrinkage occurs, and as moisture is
are obviously of major importance, others added by absorption, an increase in vol-
are reasonably well understood, but ume occurs. All concrete contains voids--
many that might exert a major role in de- air voids and water voids. Some of the
termining the life of the concrete have, water in these voids is in such a state that
to date, been almost entirely ignored. it is not freezable at natural tempera-
Although this outline was included in tures, but some of the entrained water
another paper 2 by the author, it is be- will always be freezable at temperatures
lieved that a discussion of the general below the normal freezing point that may
aspects of the significance of tests and readily occur in temperate and northern
1 Professor of Applied Mechanics, Kansas climates.
State College, Manhattan, Kans. Most of the progress in predicting and
C. H. Seholer, "Significant Factors Affect- controlling the probable durability of
ing Concrete Durability," Proceedings, Am. Soc.
Testing Mats., Vol. 52, p. 1145 (1952). concrete has been in the field of air and
175
www.astm.org
water voids. Since the presentation be- mining the water content of concrete in
fore the ASTM in 1928 of the first paper its hardened state. The actual water
on freezing-and-thawing tests of con- content incorporated and retained in
crete, a a great many papers concerning the hardened concrete will vary with
the resistance to freezing and thawing of construction practices, including finish-
concrete and mortars have been written ing and curing, and with later exposure
and the state of knowledge relating to moisture. I t is believed that m a n y
to the effect of water content in hardened of the inconsistencies that develop in
concrete, and the air voids of that hard- accelerated freezing-and-thawing tests
ened concrete, has reached a high stage are due to unknown variations of the
of predictability. Air entraimnent and its actual water content of the hardened con-
effect upon the resistance of concrete to crete. This subject merits further study.
the disintegrating effects of freezing and The elasticity, plasticity, and thermal
thawing are well understood3 Although expansion of concrete may play an im-
knowledge of the effect of entrained air portant part in the ultimate durability of
upon concrete durability is fairly well ad- a concrete structure. There is only frag-
v a n c e d - p r o b a b l y the most advanced of mentary information about the effect of
any phase of knowledge of concrete variations in the thermal characteristics
durability--it is the author's belief that of concrete aggregates and cement pastes
considerable work yet remains to be and the interrelationship of stresses that
done. Although information about the may develop when these materials are
actual amount of air in the hardened formed into concrete. Thermal incom-
concrete is limited, much is known about patibility has long been recognized as a
the air content of the fresh concrete. possible important element in concrete
Both subiects are discussed to greater durability. Most of the studies of thermal
lengths elsewhere in this publication. incompatibility have, to date, given al-
Damage to concrete by freezing and most no attention to the matter of plastic
thawing is due to the pressure developed flow under stress and have given but lit-
by the freezable water in the concrete as tle attention t o the elastic properties of
the water is gradually turned to ice. In the materials involved. Thermal incom-
addition to a knowledge of air voids in patibility cannot be studied satisfactorily
concrete, information about the water without complete r e c o g n i t i o n o f the
content of the hardened concrete and variations in elastic, plastic, and thermal
the percentage of water in a freezable properties of each of the constituents in-
form is necessary. T. C. Powers, whose volved. Variations in elastic properties
paper concerning significant aspects of and possibly in plastic properties of hard-
freezing and thawing follows, 5 has devel- ened concrete are fully as great and fully
oped basic information--believed to be as significant as are the variations in
adequate and satisfactory--about the thermal properties. Since, in most in-
relation of the water content of cement stances of natural exposure, thermal
pastes to resistance to freezing and thaw- stresses will develop rather slowly, it is
ing. As yet, there is no means of deter- almost certain that plastic flow offers
s C. H. Seholer "Some Accelerated Freezing material assistance in decreasing the
and Thawing Tests on Concrete," Proceedings, severity of these stresses. The problem is
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 28, Part II, p. 472 further complicated by the fact that the
(1928).
4 "A Bibliography on Durability of Concrete, thermal and elastic properties of port-
Physical Reaction," Bibliography No. 8, High- land-cement pastes and mortars are
way Research Board (1951).
See p. 182. drastically affected by changes in mois-
SCtIOLER ON RESISTANCE TO WEATHERING 177
ture content. Consequently, in approach- through all probable ranges of composi-

ing any of these problems involving the tion, had been studied, no characteristic
effect of changes in elasticity, plasticity, trend was noted between certain types of
and thermal properties, steps must be cement and their effect upon concrete
taken at all times to ensure that adequate durability in relation to freezing and
control of the moisture in the specimens thawing. These conclusions were based
is attained. I t is believed that this field is upon actual concrete projects constructed
one of the more important ones, to which in the field. M a n y years later, following
immediate attention should be directed. a "long-time study test of concrete-ce-
ment performance," F. H. Jackson s has
CONSTITUENT MATERIALS reported that he finds in the field no
Most of the studies of concrete durabil- apparent relationship between the type
ity have been based on the effect of one of cement and the service rendered.
or more of the major constituents of the Most of the variations observed on
concrete upon the concrete durability. structures actually built in the field where
As shown in the tabular outline at the only physical effects are to be observed
close of this paper, concrete is made with are due to variations in air and water
varying proportions of cement, air, wa- content which m a y have been due to
ter, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and variations in the cement, fine aggregate,
admixtures. Since, until recently, the one and coarse aggregate, or to proportions
constituent that was man-made and or construction practices. I t will be noted
over which there was a reasonable de- that again the cement is one of the fac-
gree of control was the portland cement, tors that may cause variations of the air
a great many studies of concrete durabil- and water content of the hardened con-
ity have centered about the cement and crete and consequent variations in the
its characteristics. Recently the develop- ability of this concrete to resist freezing-
ment of artificial aggregates and of cer- and-thawing exposure.
tain admixtures by modern manufactur- The author very clearly recalls a state-
ing processes have introduced new ment made by Mr. Bert Myers of the
elements that must be considered when Iowa State Highway Commission at a
concrete durability is being evaluated. meeting of the Highway Research Board
Depending upon the thoroughness of many years ago concerning his experi-
the investigation and whether or not ence in trying to rate cements according
sufficient time was allowed for the ade- to the resistance which they offered to
quate curing of the concrete involved in freezing and thawing and according to
making the study, many erroneous con- some other important concrete charac-
clusions have been reached in regard to teristics. Using given combinations of ag-
the effect of portland cement upon con- gregates, Myers prepared the specimens
crete durability. I t is the author's opin- and subjected them to the various tests
ion, after reviewing most of the published from which he was able to rate the ce-
papers on this subject, that concrete ments in the order of performance from
characteristics other than cement com- best to poorest. He then decided to rate
p o s i t i o n - a l m o s t without exception-- the performance of the aggregates. He
have been the controlling factor in con- found that, depending upon the cement
crete durability in relation to freezing and used, the performance of the aggregates
thawing. After several thousand lane-
miles of concrete pavement, involving a 6 F. H. Jackson, "Why Type II Cement,"
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 50,
great many portland cements varying p. 1210 (1950).
could be arranged in many ways. Fur- jectionable variations in air and water
ther, depending upon which aggregates content.
were used, he could also rearrange the The chief errors of which we are aware
cements according to their performance in construction are those that affect the
in many different combinations. This final air and water content of the con-
again illustrates the extreme difficulty crete and thus its durability. Studies of
of trying to evaluate any one constituent these variations and their significance
material and its effect upon concrete per- are meager indeed.
formance when the other materials are Curing of concrete, which implies both
varied. These variations affect many of temperature and water control during the
the characteristics of hardened concrete. hardening period, is supposed to be
The air and water voids will change if vitally important. Studies of field curing,
either the cements or the aggregates are however, are lacking in facts with which
changed. Depending upon construction to demonstrate the influence of good
practices and methods of curing, the air curing so far as durability of the concrete
and water voids may be varied even is concerned. The general conception that
though the cement and aggrqgates are the best curing is obtained by keeping
the same. The timing of finishing and the concrete saturated, if not submerged,
curing operations also has a controlling during its early life is based almost en-
effect upon the air and water voids in the tirely upon laboratory tests which show
surface being finished. I t will be noted that the highest compressive strength
how important it is that the characteris- will be attained by concretes so cured.
tics of the hardened concrete, particu- That the greatest durability will be
larly in relation to air and water voids, secured by such curing is an open ques-
be controlled if the resulting durability tion.
tests are to be of adequate significance. In the author's opinion the question of
what constitutes properly cured concrete
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES has not yet been answered. It is not un-
That construction methods and prac- likely that, depending upon the future
tices may have a great influence upon the use of the concrete and the type of struc-
final quality of the concrete produced is ture being built, curing practices should
conceded by all engineers, although data be rather widely varied.
substantiating this is almost nonexistent.
NATURE OF EXPOSURE AND TYPE
Everyone is interested in good construc-
OF LOADING
tion practices, but at times these are very
difficult to attain, and the evil results of Concrete is used in every conceivable
bad practices are hard to demonstrate. climatic and natural exposure condition.
Even when aggregates and cement are Although observations of concrete de-
properly prepared and brought to the terioration indicate that most of the
plant for mixing, much may happen to difficulty develops in areas where ex-
cause deterioration or develop nonuni- treme ranges of temperature and moisture
fortuity in the materials. content occur, concrete that is exposed
Improper stockpiling and handling of to almost constant moisture and tem-
the aggregate may substantially change perature conditions also is subject to this
the grading of the material through deterioration. In trying to evaluate the
breakage and segregation, causing a relative durability of a concrete struc-
nonuniformity in the consistency of the ture, great care must be exercised in as-
resulting concrete and producing ob- certaining the relative intensity of the
SCttOLER ON RESISTANCE TO WEATHERING 179
various degrees of exposure to natural results of further research will be profit-

weathering conditions which the con- able to future generations.
crete has received. I t is by no means The effect of coarse aggregate upon the
easy to determine the relative severity of alkali-aggregate reaction has been gen-
exposure of two adjacent structures or of erally ignored, but tests and experience
portions of the same structure. The water indicate that some coarse aggregates de-
content of foundations on which the lay, at least for many years, the expan-
surface rests, or the character of backfill sive effects of this action and perhaps
and natural drainage to a given abutment definitely inhibit the action. The real
or retaining wall, may vary 100 per cent performance of such concrete can be
in the distance of only a few feet. The measured only in the field.
author has observed railway drainage I t is the author's belief that most of
structures in which one abutment was the progress over the past twenty-five
under a considerable head of water on years in concrete is due to the establish-
the back where the open ballast brought ment of the following:
in water for several thousand feet, while 1. The air and water voids of the hard-
the opposite abutment was dry because ened concrete exert a controlling influ-
drainage was from the structure on that ence over its resistance to freezing-and-
side. Due to changes in soil characteris- thawing action. The presence of 6 to 12
tics and the geological formation in- per cent by volume of air in the mortar
volved, subgrade under a pavement may portion of a concrete mixture is needed to
change in only a few feet. secure adequate durability against freez-
Where naturally alkaline drainage is ing and thawing.
involved, the character and amount of 2. Aggregates are not chemically inert
water to which the concrete may be ex- materials bonded together by an inert
posed can change very suddenly, from cement gel to form what is called con-
nondestructive conditions to a strength crete. Some of these aggregates are sus-
of solution that is destructive. ceptible to reaction with the soluble
The'effect of loads and traffic on dete- alkalies of the portland cement. These
riorating concrete is difficult to estimate. reactions may set up destructive expan-
sive forces in the concrete mass, causing
As the strength and abrasive resistance
volume change and loss in strength.
of the concrete decreases, the apparent
3. In mass concrete construction it is
deterioration is accelerated by the action
desirable to use a minimum of the ce-
of the loads. Perhaps the nature of the menting medium, consistent with ade-
support, such as the subgrade beneath quate strength, to reduce the heat of
a concrete pavement which is pumping, hydration and the resulting volume
is changing, and overstressing with the change during the early life of the struc-
possible element of fatigue or fracture ture.
may be a confusing factor. Much research is yet needed. Most of
the items in the appended outline may
CONCLUSION well exert an influence on concrete dur-
ability. This effect may come from the
The author believes that all research in
particular property or material under
the field of cement and concrete durabil- consideration or by its indirect effect
ity should have a good series of field upon other elements which, in turn,
specimens for outdoor exposure. Concrete affect the more critical variable of con-
is one of the more durable materials, and crete durability.
SOME FACTORS THAT MAY INFLUENCE CONCRETE DURABIUTY
I I I I I
[L CONSTITUENT MATERIALS I 2. CONSTRUCTIONPROCESSES I I 3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIESI I 4. NATUREOF EXPOSURE I I 5. TYPE OF LOADS I
I
t. CONSTITUENTMATERIALS
[ . . . . . . . . . gate[ ~ [C . . . . . A-rog~tol
_ ..Am
O~dd~ Zon nin ~ical tion
tion lundnes,
lundness ical
:on
hum
[ e lfic
ehum S~alts
Sour ~ ol
ial~
B
, ~
Che: iCa: E D
,tty
Workability and ] E ~
Water Requirement
of Cement Permeability
|
IC...... c ...... I S~Thermal
2. CONSTRUCTIONPRACTICES 3. 'HYSICALPROPE~TIESOF THE HARDENEDCONCRETE
EAa o,I
....
I
L ~ : h Vol1
i Compress're] iA t t r ~
5. T Y P E S OF LOADS
ResultingIrom
shrinkage,temperature
and moisturechange
! I Consolidation [ Method Of
i ~ .... T,~ ..... I ~
4. N A T U R E OF EXPOSURE
I I
I N~toral~eno*~s I I~176 '~" ~176 ~~176176I !
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STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
RESISTANCE TO W E A T H E R I N C r - - F R E E Z I N G AND T H A W I N G
BY T. C. POWERS1
Rate of weathering of concrete in areas discussion of this subject by the author

outside the tropics and subtropics is in (1) .2
many cases affected by freezing. Effects
of freezing may be anything from negligi- MECHANICS OF FgOST ACTION
ble to catastrophic, depending on various In hardened paste, ice formation is
factors. ConsequentIy, there are freezing- confined to capillaries or to capillary
and-thawing tests for concrete. cavities (2), except for a small amount in
The four ASTM Tentative Methods macropores 3 (usually air bubbles) which
permit a wide choice of test conditions, is normally formed from water forced out
especially in regard to permissible cool- of the paste during freezing. In absorp-
ing rates, as shown partly in Table I. In
TABLE I.--ASTM FREEZING-AND-
ASTM Method C 290, the maximum THAWING METHODS.
rate is limited by the restriction on tem-
perature difference, but specimen dimen- Average Cooling
Rate, deg Fahr
sions are not specified and thus a wide Tempera- i per hr
range in maximum rates is still possible. Method ture Range, [ - -
In ASTM Method C 291, there is no I deg ahr i M2o2lMax m

. Average Aver~ ge
limit on the maximum rate. All four
methods suggest starting the test on C290-52T a. . . . . . . 0 to 40 [ 13.3 [ ... b
moist-cured specimens 14 days old with- C291-52T a ....... 0 to 40 13.3 ...
C292-52T ~'. . . . . . . 0 to 73.4 3.1 4.1 b
out preliminary drying, and keeping C310-53T ~. . . . . . . tO to 40 ] 5.7 [ 8.0
specimens wet throughout the test. Test
conditions in various laboratories seem a 1955 B o o k of A S T M S t a n d a r d s , P a r t 3.
b Center and surface temperatures not to
to differ more than is permissible under differ m o r e t h a n 50 F .
or suggested by the tentative methods.
Cooling rates differ, particularly in the tive rock, macropores (if any) are also
range below 32 F, and various curing normally not water-filled, and ice should
schedules are used. be produced primarily in the capillaries
The present paper, an evaluation of of the rock. Ice formed in capillaries is re-
ferred to here as capillary ice. (Although
freezing-and-thawing tests in the light of
our present understanding of frost action 2 The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
~o t h e list of r e f e r e n c e s a p p e n d e d t o t h i s p a p e r ,
in concrete, is abstracted from a longer see p. 187.
3 T h e t e r m m a c r o p o r e is h e r e a p p l i e d t o
b u b b l e s a n d o t h e r n o r m a l l y air-filled s p a c e s ,
1 Manager, Basic Research Section, Portland s o m e of w h i c h m i g h t be t o o s m a l l f o r t h e u n -
C e m e n t A s s n . , C h i c a g o , IlL aided eye.
182
www.astm.org
POWERS ON FREEZING AND TttAWING 183
reference is made to water, it should be icing, the salts being absorbed by the
understood that concrete normally con- upper parts of a pavement slab, it may
tains a solution (3).) be a major factor. This is an inference not
The physical effect of freezing may be yet confirmed experimentally.
different in different components of con-
crete. Freezing may damage the paste, Critical Size and Critical Saturation:
leaving the aggregate undamaged, or, In any case, the effect of freezing de-
conversely, freezing may damage the pends principally on two factors: (1) the
aggregate particles while the paste is not size or thickness of the body and (2) the
directly harmed. When damage to con- degree of saturation. For development of
crete is caused by freezing in rock parti- hydraulic pressure, rate of freezing is an
cles of the aggregate, it may be due to important factor; for ice bodies to grow
only a few particles of the aggregate (4). or osmotic pressure to develop, the length
In any case, damage arises either from of time at low temperature is probably
dilation of the paste, or from dilation or important. For a saturated specimen,
breakage of rock particles, ' or from both. critical size or thickness usually should
The mechanism by which freezing depend on hydraulic pressure and hence
causes dilation or breakage of rock is on porosity, permeability, strength, and
somewhat different from the mechanism rate of freezing. For saturated hardened
for paste. Differences are due to differ- paste, frozen at laboratory rates, critical
ences in internal structure. The pores in thickness is only a few thousandths of an
absorptive rock particles are usually few inch, regardless of the type of cement.
and large compared with those in paste. For rock, critical thickness is greater;
it would be of the order of an inch or
Hydraulic Pressure, Osmotic Pressure, and tenth of an inch.
Crystal Growth:
For any given closed container, the
In rock particles and in pastes of ordi- critical saturation point is about 91.7
nary quality, the dilating pressure is per cent. For a porous body, the critical
hydraulic (5). In dense pastes (low water- saturation point can be almost any figure,
cement ratio, welt cured), the dilating depending on size or thickness of the
force is caused by growth of relatively body, the rate of freezing, and homo-
few bodies of capillary ice, growth being geneity.
the result of diffusion of unfrozen water If hardened paste is, in effect, sub-
(probably mostly gel water) (6). Dila- divided into sufficiently thin layers by
tion may be caused also by osmotic air bubbles, the paste has no critical
pressure brought about by local increases saturation point. Likewise, an individual
in solute concentration caused by separa- rock particle has no critical saturation
tion of pure ice from the solution. 4 Nor- point if it is smaller than the critical size
mally, when osmotic pressure is caused for its kind and for the given rate of
only by a change in alkali concentration, freezing. A rock particle should have no
it seems to be of secondary importance; critical size if it has very low porosity or
but if it is caused by salts used for de- if its capillary system is interrupted by
4Accretion, the growth of ice bodies by trans- a sufficient number of macropores (8).
fer of water from unfrozen regions, is discussed Rock particles larger than the critical
fully in a paper by T. C. Powers and R. A. HeN
m u t h (6). Osmotic pressure due to inequalities
size for saturation may fail at various
in alkali concentration is described in a paper by degrees of saturation, depending on the
T. C. Powers, L. E. Copeland, J. C. Hayes, and distribution of water content. Miner-
tI. M. Mann (7). The importance of the effects
of this mechansim in practical concrete is not yet alogically heterogeneous rocks may fail
known. at low degrees of over-all saturation be-
184 'rESTS A N D PROPEI~TIES OF C O N C R E T E AND AGGREGATES
cause practically all the water may be in any given time can be learned by cooling
a relatively fine textured part, such as a the specimen and observing the resultant
clay lens. A water-saturated, weak, bed- length (or volume) changes. As shown in
ding plane may cause splitting at a low Fig. 1, concrete in a vulnerable state
over-all saturation coefficient. dilates while being cooled through the
Rock particles in hard concrete are freezing range, whereas frost-resistant
liable to produce damage at any degree concrete shrinks.
of saturation above the theoretical limit
of 91.7 per cent, regardless of size, be- Distribution of Moisture in Concrete:
cause water is sealed in by paste; each When concrete is not saturated, the
rock particle in concrete is practically a absorptive component having the finest
,/Locus o f Thermal
% C~176 I
g "- .~-rypical
E ~ /i o f Concrete
"5 ~ = /~ Vu/nerab/e to
"~ I L-O~Iot/on
Typico/of
~c o ~ Non-air- entroine~
,.', ~.. Concrete or o
3b
o
O~ ", ConcreteContain.
- 9 ing Water-soakeo
o - - Aggregate
E M
\
Proper Locus f o r ~
A i r - entrained Concrete "
f
I I I I I [ = I
70 60 4050 30 20 10 O - I0
Temperoture, deg Fohr
Fie. 1.--Effects of Cooling on Frost-Resistant and Frost-u Concretes.
closed container (9). Rock particles bigger texture tends to be most nearly satur-
than the critical size for open freezing ated; hence, paste tends to be more
when saturated are liable to cause dam- nearly saturated than rock. Once dried,
age in concrete at lower than the theoreti- rock particles in concrete cannot readily
cal critical saturation point, for reasons be resaturated; they may remain safe
already given. during a long soaking. Some kinds of
When paste is protected with entrained rock particles, if not dried before the
air, it is practically immune to frost ac- first freeze, either before or after the
tion. Whether or not such air-entrained concrete is made, are liable to destroy
concrete is ever damaged by freezing the concrete, air-entrained or not.
depends on whether or not any rock par- In pavement slabs, retaining walls, and
ticles of the aggregate contain dangerous the like, while the exposed side is under-
amounts of water at the time of freezing. going wide seasonal fluctuation in mois-
The state of a specimen of concrete at ture content, the perpetually damp side
POWERS ON FREEZING AND T~AwiNG 185
tends toward a constant saturation level sufficient number of air bubbles to pro-
that may or may not be dangerous. tect the paste and whether or not the
Prevailing conditions under pavement aggregate or any part of it will become
should, in some cases, set the require- critically saturated (see Fig. 1). Present
ment for aggregate quality, even with methods using slow cooling should give
air-entrained concrete (lO, 11). results applicable to concrete for per-
petually wet situations.
TEST PROCEDURES AND INTERPRETATION I t does not seem worth-while to use
Freezing and thawing as a test for this freezing-and-thawing test any longer
concrete has become a more or less in searching for a relationship between
routine operation expected to give re- cement fineness or composition-type and
liable indications of frost resistance. If frost resistance (12). I t is now firmly es-
one kind of specimen withstood 150 tablished that all portland cements
cycles and another 300, one might expect produce pastes vulnerable to laboratory
at least to have discovered the order in freezing and thawing; all pastes within
which the two kinds would fail under the range of practical water-cement
equal field conditions. This way of inter- ratios need to be protected with en-
pretation implies an assumption that trained air to withstand the test. When
both kinds of concrete are intrinsically not so protected, pastes show various
vulnerable to frost action and that their rates of failure. Sometimes the differ-
final failure will be due to frost action. ences in rate can be traced to differences
But if the paste is protected with air in cement characteristics, but all efforts
bubbles, and as long as each rock par- on an adequately comprehensive basis to
title remains below its critical saturation correlate frost resistance and cement type
point, concrete is immune to frost action. have failed. This failure is due simply to
T h a t two different samples withstood the fact that similarities among pastes
(without dilation in excess of normal produced by different cements are more
swelling) more cycles of freezing and significant than the differences. All have
thawing and more continuous soaking such combinations of porosity, permea-
than ever occurs in one winter m a y sig- bility, and strength that the critical
nify only that both of these concretes are thickness is, in all cases, only a few
able to withstand frost under conditions thousandths of an inch.
they are expected to encounter. With such facts to consider, it seems
Thus, the practice of evaluating frost clear that frost tests should be performed
resistance in terms of the number of only on air-entrained concrete, except,
cycles required to destroy it--no matter of course, in connection with research.
how tong and severe the "laboratory One question to be answered b y test or
winter" must be---is open to question. experience is how m a n y bubbles per unit
I t may lead to discrimination between volume of paste are needed. On the basis
materials that are equally immune under of experience, it now seems that the com-
field conditions and to rejection of usable puted spacing factor (which is related
materials. Perhaps the freezing-and- to the average maximum distance from
thawing test should be expected to tell a point in cement paste to the nearest
whether or not a specimen is initially void) should not exceed 0.01 in.; but
immune to frost damage and, if so, further verification is desirable (13).
whether or not it would remain that way Aggregates cannot be dealt with in
under the kind of natural exposure it will such blanket terms because they com-
actually encounter. This is a matter of prise many different combinations of
finding out whether or not there is a physical properties. With any given
aggregate, the question to be answered is laboratory no allowance is made for

how long can the individual rock parti- vitally important seasonal drying, except
cles in a given class of air-entrained con- that in some cases test specimens are
crete be continuously exposed to moisture partially dried before starting freezing-
and to periodic freezings without reach- and-thawing cycles. It is more than likely
ing critical saturation. that many specimens destroyed in a lab-
oratory test represent concrete that could
Rate of Cooling and Length of Continuous never be damaged by freezing regardless
Soaking: of the number of seasons of natural
Test conditions fundamentally dif- exposure#
ferent from field conditions should be
avoided. Some laboratory procedures fail Modifications:
to meet this specification on two counts: Some present procedures seem suitable
(1) the rate of cooling is too high (4), for discovering relative frost resistances
and (2) exposure to moisture is contin- of concretes to be used in a perpetually
uous, regardless of the kind of field ex- wet situation, n For other situations,
posure the subject concrete is expected where periodic drying occurs, perhaps
to encounter. the test should be so conducted as to
Use of high rates of freezing should discover the longest soaking period, in-
lead to an overestimate of the number of terspersed with occasional freezings, a
bubbles required to protect paste if the given sample can be subjected to without
paste is in the range of ordinary porosi- it becoming dilated when it freezes;
ties (14), but it may lead to an under- freezing would be used as a means of
estimate for dense pastes in which detecting the time when some component
growth of capillary ice causes the dam- of the specimen reaches its critical satura-
age. High freezing rates and short tion point. Frost resistance would be
cycles may also lead to an underestimate rated in terms of the length of the wet
of the requirement for control of osmotic period during which the specimen did not
pressure, because damage due to crystal dilate when frozen; if the period ex-
growth or to osmotic pressure may de-
pend on length of time at low tempera- 5Brewer and Burrows (Proceedings, Am.
Concrete Inst., VoL 47, p. 353 (1951)) reported
ture rather than on rate of freezing. In detrimental effects of drying, due to the forma-
addition, a high rate may produce dam- tion of small cracks; especially with high specific
age in partially saturated rock particles surface cement, drying increased the rate of fail-
ure in the laboratory test. However, their tests
that would not be critically saturated for reflect the behavior of concrete containing pastes
a lower rate of cooling. not protected with entrained air. Other tests
with air-entrained concrete do not indicate
Soaking concrete for an indefinitely drying to be detrimental, but they are not con-
long period will saturate the rock par- clusive because of the limited range of drying
ticles and fill the air bubbles (though conditions. Whatever the facts m a y be about
laboratory performance, seasonal drying is a
probably not at the same time). There- part of natural exposure in probably the ma-
fore~ most air-entrained concrete should jority of situations; it seems reasonable, there-
eventually fail by frost action in a con- fore, to suggest including it in a test procedure.
The Treat Island tests offered what seemed
tinuous freezing-and-thawing test if a good opportunity to demonstrate this, b u t
some other process, such as leaching, does Kennedy and Mather (15) did not find the
hoped-for correlation. They pointed out t h a t
not destroy it first. But concrete in most " T h e two exposures tend to accentuate different
situations is usually not saturated at the physicM and chemical characteristics of the
time of first freezing and is not perpet- materials, thereby leading to dissimilar results."
I t is possible t h a t had the laboratory freezing
ually wet; seasonal drying gives it a rate not been so high, 36 F per hr, the correla-
reprieve every summer. Yet, in the tion would have been satisfactory.
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorize
POWERS ON FREEZING AND THAWING 187
t e n d e d from s u m m e r to s u m m e r , the These suggestions are developed more

specimen would be r a t e d i m m u n e to fully in the p a p e r f r o m which this one
frost w h e n benefited b y seasonal drying. was e x t r a c t e d (1).
REFERENCES
(1) T. C. Powers, "Basic Considerations Per- Vol. 51, p. 285; Bulletin No. 53, Portland
taining to Freezing-and-Thawing Tests," Cement Assn.
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. (8) H. B. Willman, "Resistance of Chicago
55 (1955). Area Dolomites to Freezing and Thawing,"
(2) T. C. Powers and T. L. Brownyard, "Stud- Extract-Bulletin No. 68-B, Papers on In-
ies of the Physical Properties of Hardened dustrial Minerals, State Geological Survey
Portland Cement Paste" (Part 8), Journal (In.) (1944).
Am. Concrete Inst., April, 1947; Proceedings, (9) Roger Rhoades and R. C. Mielenz, "Petrog-
Vol. 43, p. 933; Bulletin No. 22, Portland raphy of Concrete Aggregate," Journal,
Cement Assn. Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1946; Proceedings,
(3) T. C. Powers and H. H. Steinour, "An Vol. 42, p. 581.
Interpretation of Published Researches on (10) Stanton Walker, discussion of paper by
the Alkali-Aggregate Reaction: I. The Axon, Willis, and Reagel, Proceedings, Am.
Chemical Reactions and Mechanism of Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 43, p. 996 (1943).
Expansion," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., (11) H. S. Sweet and K. B. Woods, "Map Crack-
February 1955; Proceedings, Vol. 51, p. 497. ing in Concrete Pavements as Influenced
See appendix for data on alkali concentra- by Soil Textures," Proceedings, Highway
tion in evaporable water. Research Board, Vol. 26, p. 286 (1946).
(4) D. W. Lewis and Eduards Venters, "Dele- (12) Hubert Woods, "Observations on the Re-
terious Constituents of Indiana Gravels," sistance of Concrete to Freezing and Thaw-
Bulletin No. 94, Highway Research Board ing," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Decem-
(1954). ber, 1954; Proceedings, Vol. 51, p. 345.
(5) T. C. Powers, "The Air-Requirement of (13) T. C. Powers, "Void Spacing as a Basis for
Frost Resistant Concrete," Proceedings, Producing Air-Entrained Concrete," Jour-
Highway Research Board, Vol. 29, p. 184 nal, Am. Concrete Inst., May, 1954; Pro-
(1949); Bulletin No. 33, Portland Cement ceedings, Vol. 50, p. 741; Bulletin No. 49,
Assn. Portland Cement Assn.
(6) T. C. Powers and R. A. Helmuth, "Theory (14) J. E. Backstrom, R. W. Burrows, and V. E.
of Volume Changes in Hardened Portland Wolkodoff, discussion of paper by Powers
Cement Paste During Freezing," Proceed- (13), ibid., pp. 760-1-760-15. Also T. C.
ings, Highway Research Board, Vol. 32, Powers, closing discussion, ibid., p. 760-6.
p. 286 (1953); Bulletin No. 46, Portland (15) Thomas B. Kennedy and Katherine
Cement Assn. Mather, "Correlation Between Laboratory
(7) T. C. Powers, L. E. Copeland, J. C. Hayes, Accelerated Freezing and Thawing and
and H. M. Mann, "Permeability of Port- Weathering at Treat Island, Maine,"
land Cement Paste," Journal, Am. Con- Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., October, 1953;
crete Inst., November, 1954; Proceedings, Proceedings, Vol. 50, p. 141.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
RESISTANCE TO CHEMICAL ATTACK
BY LEWIS H . TUTHILL 1
Fortunately most concrete in service tegrate average concrete, made with

is not subjected to chemical attack. ordinary cement, in a very few years.
Concrete is generally less able to resist Many field structures have become un-
successfully corrosion of this kind than serviceable from disintegration by sulfate
disintegration by other forces. By chemi- salts, usually sodium or magnesium,
cal attack is meant leaching and acid or which exist naturally at varying intensity
sulfate attack. in many soils, shales, and ground waters.
Although concrete is often disfigured This chemical attack can be controlled
by deposits of efflorescence (1)3 as lime by using at least six sacks of type V sul-
water leach reaches outside surfaces, very fate-resistant cement per cubic yard of
little good-quality concrete has actually concrete.
been destroyed or made unserviceable by With this summary of the general
leaching of lime from internal or external problem of chemical attack and the
surfaces. In addition to good workman- means for producing concrete to resist
ship, probably the best initial correctives it, this report will proceed with a more
are either an ample cement content or a detailed discussion of the significant
cementitious mixture of portland cement aspects of how these chemical actions
and a good, active pozzolanic material. damage concrete, what can be done to
Acid attack is commonly encountered combat them, and in some cases what
in sewers above the flow line, on floors of tests can be used to measure the degree
food processing plants, and elsewhere. of attack or the success of corrective
In the case of sewers, attack on concrete measures.
is by sulfuric acid; little can be done
about it directly, but much can be done LEACHING
to prevent it by proper sewer design. The Hydrated lime is one of the compounds
lactic and acetic acid attacks are milder formed when cement and water combine
and can be minimized by good work- in concrete. This lime is readily dissolved
manship, good concrete, and a good by water, particularly if the water is
pozzolanic material added to the cement lime-free and contains dissolved carbon
to make the lime less subject to attack by dioxide. Snow water in mountain streams
acids. and reservoirs is often particularly ag-
Sulfate attack can completely disin- gressive because it is unusually cold
x Chief, Concrete Laboratory, U. S. Bureau of (calcium hydroxide is more soluble in
Reclamation, Denver, Colo. cold than in warm water), pure and con-
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer sequently lime-hungry, and, like most
see p. 200. surface water, contains carbon dioxide.
188
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TIJTHILL ON I~.ESISTANCETO CHEMICAL ATTACK 189
This produces a mild carbonic acid solu- ordinary portland cement showed that it
tion that has a higher capacity for dis- too was being attacked, the entire flume
solving lime than does pure water interior was painted with a coal-tar-base
without it (1, n , 16, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22). paint which had performed best in tests
As a result, inside surfaces of concrete of many paints and coatings previously
conduits, flumes, and canal linings de- tried in the flume. Even with this treat-
velop a sandy appearance from having ment, repainting was required after 8
the cement matrix leached and weakened years' service.
by contact with these lime-hungry Objectionable results of leaching are
waters. Scandinavians report serious not confined to surfaces in contact with
attack of this kind in conduits carrying pure mountain water. Exposed surfaces
fresh snow water; however, a more recent of tunnel linings, retaining walls, abut-
FIG. 1.--Lime-Hungry or Slightly Acid Water has Leached Surface Mortar and Exposed Small
Aggregate on Surfaces of This Siphon Inlet.
report indicates that its severity was due ments, and other structures , where
to the poor quality of concrete at these ground water has access to the opposite
locations. side, are often disfigured by lime deposits.
Attack by snow water has been noted These are formed by water that has come
in power flumes and lined canals carrying through the concrete, either along cracks
water from the California Sierras (see or joints or through porous areas, taking
Fig. 1). An outstanding California lime into solution and becoming satu-
example is the 15-mile Tiger Creek flume rated with it. At the surface the solution
of the Pacific Gas and Electric Co. A few absorbs carbon dioxide which reacts with
years after construction in 1930, the sur- the calcium hydroxide and causes pre-
face was found to be considerably rough- cipitation of a white deposit of calcium
ened, and it was feared further deteriora- carbonate. Although unsightly, this kind
tion would seriously reduce its capacity. of leaching has rarely detracted signifi-
Mter a trial length that had been coated cantly from the basic serviceability of
with well-cured, troweled gunite using such structures made of good concrete.
190 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O]~ C O N C R E T E AND AGGREGATES
Investigators have attempted to meas- ment, to minimize permeability and capil-

ure the influence of cement composition larity, inhibit diffusion, and retard dissolving
and tile use of pozzolanic material on the of cement increasingly after the surface has
degree of leaching which may occur. been leached, particularly in water channels.
An unpublished report by Stenzel for 3. Design and use of contraction and
construction joints that are watertight and
the Metropolitan Water District of frequent enough to prevent intermediate
Southern California in 1936 found for cracking.
typical types I, II, and V cements that 4. Proper control of concrete mixes and
"the leaching effect is similar in nature placing procedures so that hardened con-
and magnitude for all the cements crete free from permeable imperfections is
studied. The effect [for a portland- insured.
pozzolan cement] is, however, definitely 5. When practical, provision for drainage
less than for the portland-cement group, facilities necessary to prevent water from
even when the reduced actual cement standing behind structure walls.
6. Consideration of a provision for a pro-
content (80 per cent) is taken into con-
tective coating of durable and effective
sideration." In 120 days of leach tests, surface sealing material if such can be found
more than 20 per cent less solids were and reliably applied. (See Portland Cement
dissolved from the mortar made with the Association Bulletin ST4, second edition,
80-20 portland-pozzolan cement. Stenzel 1950.)
further concluded: "Since the laboratory
experiments indicate that the actual ACID ATTACKIN SEWXRS
quantity of cement dissolved is of a low
order of magnitude, it m a y be said that Problems of acid attack above water
failures from this source are not likely to levels in sewers are usually assumed to be
occur before those due to weathering and the result of sulfuric acid formed from
other causes." I-Ie added: "As the lime is hydrogen sulfide gas, generated by bac-
teria from sulfur compounds in the
exhausted from the rich surface layer of
the concrete, it is to be expected that the sewage, which rises and combines with
leaching process will greatly subside" oxygen and with moisture condensed on
and be further inhibited b y slower dif- upper surfaces of the sewer conduit (7).
This is not a direct attack of acid in the
fusion.
From these observations and other sewage. Records indicate that the usual
studies of the problem, it would seem run of sewage and waste water averages
appropriate to recommend the following very close to neutral, fluctuating only
ways to minimize leaching: slightly above and below a p H of 7.0.
Predominance of certain industrial
1. Use of: wastes in certain locations may change
(a) Aluminous cements, this significantly and present a special
(b) Portland - blast furnace slag cements, problem.
(c) Portland-pozzolan cement with 20 to For most sewers, however, since the
30 per cent of a good pozzolanic flow itself is not aggressive, problems of
material that is strongly active in acid corrosion in the crown portions are
combining with lime to form insoluble best solved by design or operating
lime silicates, or
modifications that result in the sewers
(d) "Low-lime" portland cement with less
tricalcium silicate than dicalcium running full or with ventilation at higher
silicate. velocities. Lower temperatures also tend
2. Use of sufficient cement to insure good to reduce the production of acid-forming
dense concrete, together with air entrain- hydrogen sulfide gas (7). When sewage
TUTHILL ON lP~ESISTANCE TO CHEMICAL ATTACK 191
is stagnant or moves slowly, bacterial entrained concrete lost strength rapidly,

creation of the sulfide is often too rapid and lost weight, from progressive surface
to be oxidized by air dissolved in the disintegration, amounting to approxi-
sewage. mately 50 per cent in 12 weeks' immer-
Unfortunately many existing systems sion. Actually, 5 per cent is much
are not amenable to such changes, and stronger than the acid solutions attack-
serious problems of acid corrosion exist ing sewers, but it is considered that this
in their crown portions (see Fig. 2). The concentration provides a reliably indica-
fact should be faced that, in such aggres- tive accelerated test of relative resistance
FIG. 2.--Dislntegration of Concrete in the Crown of a Sewer is Caused by Sulfuric Acid Formed
as Hydrogen Sulfide Gas Rising from the Sewage and Combining with Oxygen and Moisture on the
Concrete.
sively corrosive situations, portland- to acid attack. The tests were made on
cement concrete is not the proper ma- 3 by 6-in. cylinders of concrete having a
terial to use since none of the various water-cement ratio of 0.52, ~-in. maxi-
compositions of portland cement are mum aggregate, and a slump of about
resistant to acid corrosion. Other ma- 2.7 in.
terials or protective coverings or coatings Investigators are continuing the search
should be employed. for materials or treatments that will
F. L. Smith and J. E. Backstrom, in make concrete a suitably resistant ma-
an unpublished report for the U. S. Bu- terial to chemical attack. ASTM Method
reau of Reclamation in 1952, found that C 2673 describes a tentative method of
in 5 per cent solutions of sulfuric acid 3 Method of Test for Chemical Ilesistance of
Hydraulic-Cement Mortars (C 267), 1955 Book
with a pH of 0.2 both plain and air- of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
test for chemical resistance of hydraulic- various acid solutions for intervals be-
cement mortars which is essentially a tween which surfaces were brushed to
description of methods used by most in- remove loosened or softened material
vestigators. Results of these many re- (8, 13). Such tests, when suitably repre-
search tests have identified materials sentative of the nature of attack, gave a
and mixes that have not been resistant significant indication of the degree of
tABLE I,--COMPARISON OF UNTREATED CONCRETE AND OCRAT-CONCRETE.
Untreated Ocrated
Removed in abrasion test, cu in. per sq in.;
aged 6 weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.061 0.040
Tension Compression 3ompression

Specimen Specimen Specimen
P o r t l a n d c e m e n t a n d R h e i n s a n d 0 t o 1/~-in.;
mix 1:3.5 by weight, plastic; water-
c e m e n t r a t i o = 0.68; c u r e d 3 d a y s , t h e n
a i r d r i e d a t 6 weeks, psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 2930 6045
P o r t l a n d - b l a s t f u r n a c e slag c e m e n t , 30 p e r cent
m a x i m u m slag; w a t e r - c e m e n t r a t i o =
0.36; m i x 1 : 5 b y w e i g h t , e a r t h m o i s t ;
s t r e n g t h a t 6 weeks, psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 1252 3001
Dycherhoff white cement; Mix 1:3 by weight,

same materials:
S t r e n g t h a t 6 weeks, psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 3300 7368
S t r e n g t h a t 8 w e e k s , psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 3357 8335
S t r e n g t h a f t e r 6 w e e k s i m m e r s i o n in acids a n d
s u l f a t e solutions a f t e r O c r a t i n g a t 28 d a y s ,
psi:
S o d i u m s u l f a t e solution:
Portland cement ........................ 1152 4025 6429
P o r t l a n d - b l a s t f u r n a c e slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195 4395 5206
10 p e r c e n t a c e t i c acid solution:
Portland cement ....................... 441 1920 5362
P o r t l a n d - b l a s t f u r n a c e slag c e m e n t . . . . . . . 484 1721 4893
Dycherhoff white cement .............. ... 455 2091 4992
Lactic acid:
Portland cement ........................ 427 1465 6472
P o r t l a n d - b l a s t f u r n a c e slag c e m e n t . . . . . . . 612 2176 4964
Dycherhoff white cement ................. 583 2247 4592
5 p e r c e n t h y d r o c h l o r i c acid:
P o r t l a n d - b l a s t f u r n a c e slag c e m e n t . . . . . . . D e s t r o y e d after 5 hr 7069
to various forms of chemical attack in corrosion and the degree of resistance

service. Such methods are considered to that may be expected. It is best that re-
be significant because they have pointed sults be judged and compared from depth
the way to other materials and practices of scaling rather than from loss in weight,
which are giving far better service. since loss varies with volume of the test
Many investigators have used im- specimens whereas depth does not.
mersed-storage and flow-over-the-surface A German investigator has reported
tests with specimens of various materials, initial encouraging results with a process
mixes, sizes, and shapes being exposed to called "Ocrat-Concrete" (21). The treat-
TUTHILL ON RESISTANCE TO CHEMICAL ATTACK 193
ment (German patent No. 849,225 of Not all aggressive surface waters are
December 5, 1951) consists of subjecting sulfates although they are the most com-
the concrete in a vacuum to the action of mon.
silicon tetrafluoride gas (SiFt): 2Ca- The weakening effect of these acids on
(OH)2 + SiF.., = 2CaF2 + Si(OH)4. portland-cement mortar is noticeable in
When given proper time in the treat- the strengths reported in the German
ment, the fluoride gas penetrates to some data shown in Table I (21). Among these
depth and provides more than a thin same tests it may be noted that the
sheU of resistance to acid attack. portland - blast furnace slag cement mor-
So far this treatment is applicable only tar was improved in strength during
to precast units, and it has the drawback 6 weeks of storage in these acid solu-
of being so toxic that exceptional care tions. This cement contained not over
would have to be exercised to protect 30 per cent slag. In 1927 Schlyter (24),
workmen. However, the results of tests recommended slag or aluminous cement
are encouraging (Table I). for better acid resistance.
The American Concrete Pipe Assn.
OTHER Acre ATTACK (3) reports results from tests in which
Common among other acid attacks are pipe concrete with type I cement was
lactic and acetic acids in dairy and fruit immersed for 9 months in acetic acid
products spilled on concrete foors of food (pH = 2.5) after 6 months of water
processing plants. Although attack from curing. Clearly superior resistance was
these products is comparatively mild, it found in specimens ill which 25 per cent
is persistent and can result in softening of the cement had been replaced with a
a working floor so that it wears rapidly calcined opaline shale pozzolan. This re-
and becomes uneven and unsatisfactory port suggests, however, that reliance
for smooth operation of wheeled trucks, should not be placed on serviceability of
doilies, and carts. Another common area such portland-pozzolan cement concrete
of acetic acid attack (pH 3.4 to 3.9) is if pH values of attacking acids are less
due to silage in concrete silos (8, 13). than 5.0.
Swedish moor water with pH values as Super-sulfated cement is a mixture of
low as 4.5 has been destructive to some- granulated blast furnace slag with some
what porous concrete pipe. The water anhydrite (calcium sulfate) and a small
contained considerable aggressive car- addition of lime or portland cement. This
bonic acid (4). One English moor water cement is being investigated as a means
was made weakly sulfuric acidic by con- for creating a concrete resistant to acids,
tamination from a polluted industrial especially in sewers, but tests by con-
atmosphere and from pyrites in the soil temporary investigators give no indi-
(9). Another soft English moor water was cation that super-sulfated cement is
quite acidic, averaging a pH of 4.4, prob- resistant to acid attack (5). Most in-
ably due mainly to organic acids washed vestigators report best results with it in
from peat, sometimes collectively de- resistance to sulfates and sea water (2, 7)
scribed as humic acid. Exposed to a flow and imply, by omission of the subject,
of this water for 4 years, 4-in. concrete that it contributes nothing to acid
cubes lost considerably more strength resistance.
than would be indicated by their 4 per Basically, no portland-cement con-
cent loss in weight (5). These observations crete is acid-reslstant. However, there is
suggest that need for precautions against a great difference in the degree of re-
acids may exist and must be recognized. sistance obtained in the wide range of
cementing materials and workmanship ability may be expected. In detail, the

used. When the most resistant cements same recommendations made for resist-
FIG. 3.--This World War II Air Base Barrack Floor in a Desert ShowedDistress in a Few Years
from Sulfate Attack.
FIG. 4.--Concrete Under Ground Was Intact, But Rising Sulfate Solutions Caused Exposed
Surfaces to Spall Away as Salt Crystals Developed in Concrete Pores As Moisture Evaporated.
are used in good, well-placed, imperme- ance to leaching are suggested for best
able concrete in well-designed and well- resistance to mild acids. However, where
drained structures, much better service- strong acid attack is expected, other
materials should be used, or at least a and one means of retarding it are men-
protective surface treatment of proved tioned in the following statement of
effectiveness should be provided. Bogue (2): "Since calcium sulfoaluminate
forms most readily in concentrated solu-
SULFATE CORROSION
tions of Ca(OH)z, and since the dis-
Some of the most spectacular chemical integration of cements in sulfate solu-
attack encountered in concrete has been tions is due chiefly to the formation of
a result of sulfates in adjacent soil and that salt, the presence of active silica will
ground water (see Figs. 3, 4, and 5). The retard the formation of the sulfoalumin-
degree and rate of this attack vary. These ate and thus delay the disintegration of
attacks increase as the concentration of the structure." Presumably this implies
sulfates in surrounding water increases that active silica or pozzolan is helpful
F~c. 5.--Corrosion by Sulfates Has Completely Disintegrated Lower Parts of This Drop Structure
in a Western Canal.
and decrease as the amount of dry expo- in reducing the severity of sulfate attack
sure increases. Dry concrete in dry sulfate- by combining with Ca(OH)~ and making
bearing softs will not be attacked. Where much of it insoluble.
saturation is continuous in strongly A less severe effect has been noted in
sulfate-bearing ground water, the attack some exposures where underground con-
will be rapid and severe. It is even more crete was unaffected, but the surface of
severe where saturation and drying are the concrete immediately above the
frequently alternated. Average concrete ground was pitted and scaled away (see
with type I cement has been completely Fig. 5). By a wicking action, sulfate
disintegrated in only a very few years solution rises in the concrete. I n arid
when severely exposed in drainage pipe, climates, as it evaporates from concrete
floors, and lower parts of canal struc- in surfaces just above the ground, crys-
tures. tals of sulfoaluminate and sulfate de-
Both the manner of sulfate corrosion velop in pores under the surface with
sufficient force to flake off the concrete Essentially, these tests involved ex-
(15). posure of concrete specimens immersed
The widespread nature of the problem in sulfate waters. Specimens ranged from
and the vigor of sulfate attack stimu- half briquets of standard 20-30 Ottawa
lated a search for means to combat it, sand mortar to 6 by 12-in. concrete
and as early as 1920 Dalton G. Miller cylinders and lengths of commercial
commenced his lifelong study of this precast concrete pipe. These test speci-
problem with Phillip W. Manson. This mens contained a wide variety of ce-
is summarized in University of Minne- ments, pozzolanic materials, and ad-
sota Technical Bulletin No. 194, "Long- mixtures in mortars and concretes of
Expansion of 3 bySby 16-in. Concrete Bars During 7-Years in Soap Lake Water
(4.6 per cent - No2 S04)
Columbia Basin Project, Washington
Io \ \ , i = i l
UnlessTypeTr cementcontains 5.5% Cs A, an
9 \ ~.__ extrasockper cu yardwiBnot producesulfate
\,, \\ \ resistanceequalto that developedby better
than borderlineType"v" sulfateresistingCements.
8 ~. \ \ It should be noted that o Type1Tcementcontaln-
"~7~=
"~
~ 7=
t~
Q
do
\
" \
~
\
\
ing this amountof C3A is approachingthe
maximumamountof this compoundallowedfor
~Type~.AiextrosackofType'~cemeitwill
\ i n c r e a s e sulfate resistance more than 50%
k I
-
C
5
\ " "..... :Z,.~S a c ks p er c y d
o_ \
.o 3 - ~ "G.O Sacks p e r c u y d
>-
| ~ ~ - 4 . 5 Sacks p e r c u y d
TypeSZ~ TypeTr
0
3 46 7 8 5 9 I0 II 12
Tricalcium Aluminate (CsA)in percent
Fzo. 6.--The Lower the Percentage of Tricalcium Aluminate in the Cement, and the Richer the
Mix, the Better Will Be the Resistance of Concrete to Sulfate Attack.
Time Tests of Concretes and Mortars Varying richness and curing. Effects of
Exposed to Sulfate Waters." Other in- curing, temperature, and exposure to
vestigators, including the Portland Ce- drying were determined. Concentrations
ment Assn., the Bureau of Reclamation, of sulfate were varied, and effects of both
and the Metropolitan Water District of sodium and magnesium sulfates were
Southern California (20), similarly ar- noted. Lack of resistance was evaluated
rived at the same basic conclusion: that from expansion, 0.5 per cent being con-
the lower the percentage of tricalcium
sidered as complete failure; from loss of
aluminate in the cement, the better
would be the resistance of concrete to strength compared to that of specimens
sulfate attack. Typical results of tests by stored in plain water; from loss in
the Bureau of Reclamation are plotted dynamic modulus, complete failure being
in Fig. 6. a loss of 40 per cent; from significant loss
of weight; and from obvious visual there are several other provisions and
failure. precautions that will contribute ma-
In these tests, made under normal ex- terially to sulfate resistance:
posure conditions, it did not take long 1. The concrete should have an ample
to identify unresisting concretes, but it cement content. A water-cement ratio of
took many years to prove the relative not more than 0.50 should be used. For
merit of comparatively resistant ma- severe exposure an additional sack of
terials and treatments. Consequently, type V sulfate-resistant cement will in-
promising work is now under way by crease resistance at least 50 per cent as
H. L. Flack of the Bureau of Reclama- shown in Fig. 6. It is also evident that
tion laboratories in Denver, Colo., on an sulfate resistance, equal to that provided
accelerated test for resistance to sulfate by type V cement with 4.5 per cent tri-
attack. In this test 3 by 5-in. specimens calcium aluminate, is not obtained by
are alternately soaked in a 2.1 per cent using an additional sack of type I I
solution of sodium sulfate at about 73 F cement per cubic yard unless the type II
for 16 hr and then dried in air at 130 F cement contains less than 5.5 per cent of
for 8 hr. The criterion of failure in this tricalcium aluminate.
test is established as being a loss of 15 2. An active pozzolanic material sub-
per cent in dynamic modulus or an ex- stituted for 15 to 30 per cent of the
pansion of 0.2 per cent. At this point, cement by weight increases sulfate re-
internal disruption has definitely started, sistance of concrete made with all types
and complete failure of the concrete, of cement, including type V, but to a
indicated by a 40 per cent reduction in decreasing amount as there is less tri-
dynamic modulus or an expansion of 0.5 calcium aluminate in the cement (6).
per cent, is imminent. Indications from The lesser percentages of pozzolanic
this accelerated test have been consistent material should be used if the pozzolan
with long-time results well established has a high water requirement. Pozzolan
during the past 25 years. effectiveness is materially greater if
Actually, in the long-time tests, except several months of curing can be provided
for differences in the effects of pozzolanic prior to sulfate exposure, since its com-
materials and admixtures, it has been bination with the lime is slow and will
found that the time required to develop stop without moisture.
an expansion of 0.10 per cent correlates 3. A low-lime and low-aluminate ce-
quite accurately with ultimate resistance ment, having less than 50 per cent tri-
performance. Information in Fig. 6 is calcium silicate and less than 12 per
presented on this basis. Results of the cent tricalcium aluminate plus tetra-
long-time exposure tests have proved calcium aluminoferrite, in which less than
quite significant in that concrete in 4 per cent is tricalcinm aluminate, makes
service, made with the cements, mixes, the most sulfate-resistant portland ce-
and curing found most resistant in these ment. Specifications for sulfate-resistant
tests, has resisted sulfate attack far cement having these compound limits
better than concrete made with most were written in 1934 for work in southern
cements. California (20).
Although the low tricalcium aluminate 4. Precast units such as concrete pipe
in type V cement is without doubt the and block can be made appreciably more
most important factor in improving re- resistant by a period of several weeks of
sistance of concrete to sulfates (Fig. 6), drying following good curing, as indi-
198 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O~' CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
cated by the data in Fig. 7. Presumably hydroxide in calcium or sodium chloride

carbonation occurring during this period solutions, or by the formation of chloro-
contributes to improved sulfate re- aluminates under wetting and drying
sistance, as it also improves resistance conditions. Presumably by such chemi-
to leaching, by reducing permeability. cal actions calcium chloride has caused
5. As indicated by Miller (z5), steam disintegration of concrete where brine
curing at 350 F or above greatly im- has dripped from refrigerating equipment
proves the resistance of specimens, in- and where no freezing was involved.
cluding those made with ordinary Since a pavement is disintegrated
portland cements. mainly by cycles of freezing and thaw-
6. Calcium chloride reduces sulfate re- ing, experience has shown that this re-
sistance regardless of the type of cement suit is largely prevented by using 5 to
used. 7 per cent of entrained air in the con-
30
Cement V-, ~ _----
= 25 4=- -
Cement R . ~ + 1 1 ' ~ . ~ - ' ~ ~%, -Cement

2:20
~.~" ~ ] Half Bricuetsin Ipercent Solution
9 -"" Cement C N~ S04
/ Type r Cement
15 i / f l
I0
0 1(3. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Doys Drying After 9.8 Doys Moist Curing
FIG. 7.--Resistance to Sulfate Corrosion Is Materially Increased by Drying Concrete Severn
Weeks After Good Curing.
ATTACK BY OTHER CHE~iICALS crete, by keeping slumps low, and by
Most widespread among attacks by avoiding overmanipulation in finishing
other chemicals is the scaling of con- which brings water to the surface and
crete pavements and sidewalks caused by works entrained air out of the concrete.
the use of sodium or calcium chloride to Sea water is mentioned mainly to
clear ice and snow in freezing weather. point out that most concrete failures in
Actually this scaling is not primarily this connection have not been due to
the result of chemical attack as evi- chemical attack of the sea water so much
denced by the considerable freedom from as to porosity which enhanced leaching
scaling obtained when concrete is amply and expansive corrosion of reinforcing
air entrained. In such a rapid physical bars, and to freezing and thawing at
attack, these salts have the effect of tide and wave levels (7, 11, 16, 17, 18, 19).
increasing the severity of freezing-and- In one notable example in southern
thawing cycles and, unless concrete is California, alkali-aggregate reactivity
unusually resistant to such weathering contributed to failure. However, sulfate
surface disintegration results. The physi- constitutes a little over 0.25 per cent of
cal actions involved in such weathering sea water, a concentration that is re-
may be supplemented by leaching be- garded as sufficiently severe when found
cause of the greater solubility of calcium in ground water to warrant use of type
V sulfate-resistant cement and other pre- covered in greater detail in other papers
cautions previously mentioned to secure in this Symposium. Indications from
sulfate resistance. The additional pre- available records of experience are that
cautions of good workmanship, air-en- aggregate is secondary in responsibility
trainment, low water-cement ratios, and for lack of resistance to chemical attack.
ample cover over reinforcing steel should Although some aggregates may be some-
largely offset the other recognized causes what vulnerable, as limestone, for ex-
of failure of concrete in sea water. Euro- ample, is vulnerable to acid, failure of
pean literature speaks favorably of the concrete to resist chemical attack is
performance of aluminous and slag ce- primarily a failure of the cement paste.
ments and of portland-pozzolan combina- If the paste can be made resistant, the
tions in sea water exposure (9, lO, 12). concrete will be resistant and serviceable,
Sulfur water is an occasional source of if the aggregate otherwise makes service-
concrete deterioration according to re- able concrete.
ported tests (14). Evidently, aggressive
sulfate salts exist in this water and are CONCLUSIONS
responsible for the attack. Arrangements This brief survey indicates that there
were made to submerge 6 by 12-in. cylin- are many resources in materials and
ders of various cements and mixes in benefits from careful workmanship which
continuously flowing water at the job can be marshalled quite effectively
site for comparison with similar cylinders against many kinds of chemical attack
stored in fresh water. Results indicated on concrete in service. There are, how-
that "the special cements--Lumnite, ever, certain exposures to which con-
Trass, and Super," or mixes with fly ash crete is inherently unresistant, and no
or pumicite'~substituted for part of the means are now known by which it can be
cement were even better than rich mixes made satisfactorily resistant. These cases
and low water-cement ratios. Appro- should be recognized in advance, and
priate warning is given that heat gener- other materials of proved resistance
ated by Lumnite cement in confined should be used.
massive placements may be formidable
and objectionable unless precautions are Acknowledgment:
taken to care for it. The author is indebted to A. B. Crosby
of the staff of the U. S. Bureau of Rec-
RELATION OF AGGREGATES TO lamation Concrete Laboratory for his
RESISTANCE TO CHEMICAL considerable assistance in reviewing
ATTACK pertinent technical literature. Recog-
Except in its relation to resistance to nition is also made of valuable work re-
chemical attack, it is not the purpose of ported by contemporary investigators
this paper to discuss the influence of mentioned in the text and in the refer-
aggregate on concrete durability. This is ences.
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Inst., February, 1950; Proceedings, Vol. 46,
p. 250 (1952).
pp. 473-475. (24) Ragnar Schlyter, "Damage to Cement
(12) Dalton G. Miller, Phi]lip W. Manson, and
Robert T. H. Chen, Bibliography on Sulfate Structures," Bulletin, Government Testing
Resistance of Portland Cements, Concretes Station, Stockholm, Sweden (1927).
and Mortars, with Abstracts, Am. Soc. (25) D. G. Miller and P. W. 'Manson, "Long
Testing Mats., April, 1952. Time Tests of Concretes and Mortars Ex-
(13) Dalton G. Miller, P. W. Manson, and C. posed to Sulfate Waters," Bulletin No. 194,
F. Rogers, "Laboratory Tests of Concretes University of Minnesota, May, 1951.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
R E S I S T A N C E TO F I R E AND R A D I A T I O N
:BY PERRY H. PETERSEN 1
The resistance of hardened concrete stances affected by each new develop-

to fire and radiation has attained con- ment that occurs. It is evident, therefore,
siderable importance during the past that classification of concretes according
several years and has become a matter to their ability to resist these forms of
of great concern. The problem extends thermal shock is a very difficult task:
far beyond that of subjecting concrete first, the type of exposure must be
and other materials to heat in accordance known, and second, the degree and
with the time-temperature curve spec- duration of exposure must be established.
ified in the ASTM methods for fire The problem of ascertaining the
resistance of building construction2; it resistance of concretes to each type of
now embraces other exposures more exposure (jet, missiles, rockets, etc.)
severe and more complex in nature. In would be greatly simplified if a time-
the past, studies have been made on temperature curve could be adopted in
the use of concretes for furnaces and standard test procedures that would be
refractories, especially in connection similar in scope to those already es-
with the promotion of expanded light- tablished for fire resistance as in the
weight aggregates and high-alumina standard methods referred to above.
cement. The atom bomb (1)3 and its However, such a curve would not
terrific heat and blast stirred up great eliminate all the difficulties. Let us
interest insofar as security regulations consider the problem presented by the
permitted dissemination and discussion use of jet engines in aircraft (2). Con-
of data on the resistance behavior of crete is exposed to heat and blast in
concrete to fire and radiation. The test cells, warmup aprons, taxiways,
advent of the jet engine, JATO, rockets, and usually on the ends of runways
and guided missiles opened up additional where take-offs and landings are made.
fields of concern. In these also much of The problem is complicated somewhat by
the data as to the degree of blast and heat the extremes of surface condition at the
remains classified and is in many in- time of exposure; the concrete pavement
can be wet or dry, hot or cold, new or
1Director, Materials Division, Research aged, repeatedly exposed or seldom so.
Dept., U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Research Further, the degree of heat and blast is
and Evaluation Lab., Port Hueneme, Calif. determined by the type of engine or
2 Methods of Fire Tests of Building Construc-
tion and Materials (E 119), 1955Book of ASTM engines in the aircraft, the height and
Standards, Part 4. inclination of the jet, and the duration
3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper, of the exposure (3). Duration of exposure
see p. 206. depends greatly upon the operations
201
t,o
t,o
1600 ( 1600 I
J 34 WE 32 Engine
~-- \ Toilpipe Height 47 in.
I o~~I
------J35-A-5
/ / \ A f t e r b u r n e r Operation
1400 l 1400 -
~,2oo.
o //~f /
/
I000
E
o
o 800 3 2 in; a 800
~ o
// sa,..
E ~
2= 600 - i /
.-
/ ,,I ;,,~
44/n.
4 4 7 in.
400
200 ~ ~ - Operation N
200 0
0 3 6 9 12 15
I 18 0 5 I0 15 20 25 30 m
Angle of Engine Inclinof:on,deg Distance from Jet, ft
FIo. 1.--]Viaximum Surface T e m p e r a t u r e versus Angle of FIG. 2 . - - M a x i m u m Surface T e m p e r a t u r e versus Distance from Jet.
Engine Inclination.
PETERSEN ON RESISTANCE TO FIRE AND RADIATION 203
procedure employed by each pilot or siderably when the angle of the jet is
flight group and the regulations of the flat. In some instances, however, it is
particular field in question regarding believed that the height and angle
warmup and taxiing. would be such that the air temperature
From these general observations, immediately in contact with the con-
several types of exposure may be tenta- crete would be about 2000 F. Figures 1
tively chosen for laboratory or field and 2 illustrate the relationship which
evaluation of concretes for jet-blast- has been observed between maximum
resistant pavements. Consideration must surface temperature of a concrete slab
FIG. 3.--Jet Engine Blast Test on Concrete Slabs.
be given to data which indicate that the and the angle of inclination of a jet
temperatures immediately at the end engine, with and without afterburner
of the tailpipe of a jet engine are about operation. A warmup period of 1 rain
1250F without an afterburner, and and a 3-min period of full military
range from 2500 to 3500F with an power were followed by 1 min with the
afterburner. The blast has been esti- afterburner in operation. Usually, the
mated to reach velocities of 3500 ft per maximum surface temperature of the
sec. The temperatures and the blast are concrete, as indicated on these curves,
diminished somewhat by the time was reached about halfway through the
contact is made with the concrete l-rain period with the afterburner.
pavement, and they are reduced con- Divergent opinions have been ad-
vanced as to the merit of performing pertinent. Again, this information may

actual jet-engine-blast tests on concrete be obtained from slowly heated speci-
slabs (see Fig. 3) or of attempting to mens, inasmuch as cracking is caused by
simulate the exposure and damage in differential expansion from the top to the
laboratory studies on smaller-size speci- bottom of the slab resulting from the
mens. These approaches nevertheless are steep temperature gradients.
being used at the present time, and it is A formula actually has been advanced
surmised that true indications of the concerning the spalling of ceramic
resistance offered by any concrete will bodies (5):
be obtained from such tests. d ~ E/cr~(1 - ~)
In contrast to this approach of actual
or simulated exposure, there is another The depth of spall is stated to be propor-
which employs analysis by computation, tional to the modulus of elasticity
based on certain attributes of the con- divided by the square of the tensile
crete in question. The properties deemed strength multiplied by one minus
of greatest significance are strength, Poisson's ratio. By using this as a
modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio, criterion, it may be possible to classify
coefficient of thermal expansion, and concretes as to their relative inherent
thermal conductivity (4). These have spalling characteristics when subjected
been stipulated as pertinent in the to actual thermal shock tests, without
analysis of homogeneous materials or of actually employing such tests.
materials which generally behave as Probably one of the most extensive
such. In the case of concrete, these studies made on concrete slabs p e r s e
properties are neither constant nor are was that by Menzel (6). Horizontally-
they linear with change in temperature; cast slabs, 5 by 6 ft in the horizontal
therefore, the analysis becomes quite plane and 4, 6, or 8 in. thick, were tested
complicated. Considering only the factor in a vertical position and were subjected
of strength, it must be remembered that to standard fire-resistance curve tem-
the portland-cement matrix of ordinary peratures. Highly siliceous sand and
concrete will begin to dehydrate below gravel, calcareous sand and gravel, and
500 F; given enough time it may define and coarse crushed Haydite were
hydrate completely at about 1000F, represented as aggregates. The following
and at 2000 F it will dehydrate in a effects of the fire tests were noted:
very short time. At the elevated tempera-
tures, however, deterioration is progres- 1. Bond between aggregate and ce-
sive through the concrete; the heat ment paste Dehydration, expansion,
tends to be dissipated at the first inter- and changes in the physical properties
face, progressing further only upon of the aggregate caused a reduction in
completion of dehydration at that strength of the concrete and of the bond
point. Damage by dehydration can be of aggregate with cement.
advanced beyond this point only by 2. Spalling and shattering--No spall-
increasing the temperature gradient to ing was noted to have occurred, al-
such values that hydration cannot though it was also established that the
absorb the heat which is available. concretes were dry when tested. Shatter-
In addition to dehydration of the ing of coarse aggregate (siliceous gravel)
matrix, there is also failure due to particles occurred to depths of 1 to 1.5
cracking. Analysis concerned primarily in. (This loosened material would be
with this phase may be made by as- easily removed by blast).
certaining the several properties that are 3. Fusion--After periods of 6{ hr,
PETERSEN ON RESISTANCE TO FIRE AND RADIATION 205
possibly when the temperatures had relate and analyze the few observations
reached about 2200 F, fusion occurred. that are available. For instance, the
4. Change of shape--The slabs were behavior of wet concrete subjected to
not unduly restrained and therefore high heat is being rationalized in several
warped upon heating. (Pavement slabs ways. Agreement is reached among the
would crack, since they would tend to several investigators on only one point:
resist warping.) namely, that failure of wet concrete
5. Cracking--Many cracks appeared, usually consists of surface spalling up to
the number and width increasing with a depth of 89 in. The theory has been
increased thickness of slab. In general, advanced that failure occurs because the
cracks occurred on the "cool" side during internal steam pressures in the pores of
fire exposure; when heating was dis- the concrete exceed the tensile strength
continued and the exposed side was (7). On the other hand, another investiga-
permitted to cool, it also began to crack. tor points out that no tangible measure
of this steam pressure can be obtained,
These behaviors, noted in Menzel's that concrete is very porous to gases
work, have been observed in more and vapors (8), and that it is improbable,
recent studies by others. It may be therefore, that high pressures could
possible that much Call be gained through exist. The latter researcher believes that
an analysis of data obtained through it is the sharp temperature gradient in
such tests and that actual shock tests the first 89 in. of depth during the first
will not be required. few minutes of exposure that accounts
As opposed to this concept of anal- for spalling.
ysis through computation, many fac- In addition to spalling, another evi-
tors appear in favor of simulated test- dence of failure is cracking. Upon heat-
ing through actual thermal shock ing, the exposed face expands, causing
methods. Having assumed that consider- tension to develop in the underside of
ation should be given to temperatures the slab next to the base coarse material.
as high as 2000 F, the problem of rate If the tension is great enough, cracking
of application of heat must be resolved. occurs there hidden from view. The slab
Immediate and total exposure lasting as then becomes uniformly warm upon
long as 3 to 5 rain may be considered dissipation of the heat from the top
desirable in simulated testing; concrete layer. Upon further radiation, and with
at a busy airfield would be subjected convection taking place, the top cools
repeatedly to jet blasts. Therefore, in below that of the rest of the slab
any evaluation program, the exposure so that the concrete cracks when its
should be repeated a number of times limits of tensile strength are reached.
through the use of heating-and-cooling All of these cracks--the ones on the top,
cycles to simulate field conditions. on the bottom, and completely through
Concretes also should be tried both in the slab--may have considerable effect
the wet and dry condition and possibly on the load-carrying capacity of the
in the frozen or extremely cold state pavement in that a high flexural strength
since the damaging effect in this in- is often required.
stance may be markedly increased. The third type of failure is insidious in
At present, there is a lack of agree- nature since its effects are quite similar
ment as to the degree, type, or duration to the damage produced by freezing and
of exposure that should be considered thawing. It is the loss of adhesion in the
typical for simulated field conditions. matrix of the concrete caused by the
It is quite difficult, therefore, to cor- dehydration of the cement upon heating.
This loss is a function of temperature and development that leads to more intense
time and m a y not be visible until it is exposure. Prevention of failure of air-
too late. The impact and abrasion of port runway facilities, launching plat-
concrete upon contact with high- forms, and the like is of extreme im-
pressure tires during landing are quite portance to the military and also to
severe and m a y be the first evidence of the peacetime civilian pursuits.
this type of failure. The subsequent There are other recent developments
crumbling or breaking away of the in which concrete plays an important
surface creates a hazard: the stones and role. Although these are mentioned here
pebbles m a y be tossed about b y the jet only by reference, they appear to open
blast and dragged into the intake, caus- up whole new fields of concern in which
ing damage to the engines.
there m a y be some relationship to the
As indicated above, some research has
concrete's ability to resist fire and
been attempted on the resistance of
radiation. The design of concrete struc-
concrete to fire and radiation, but the
tures to withstand atomic explosion is
bulk is still to be done. There are, in
general, two methods which m a y lead covered in a presentation b y W h i t n e y
to a solution of the problem; possibly et al. (9). Information on the use of
each will supplement the other to good concrete for radiation shielding is
advantage. Thus far, the amount of available in articles b y Callan (lO) and
actual damage to concrete surfaces in Foster (11). All of these include m a n y
the field has been relatively light; the pertinent references to other work in
damage increases, however, with every these particular fields.
~REFERENCES
(I) E. H. Praeger, "Behavior of Concrete Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol, 43, p. 1099
Structures Under Atomic Bombing," Jour- (1943).
nal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1946; Pro- (7) J. S. Blackman, "Method of Estimating
ceedings, Vol. 42, p. 709. Water Content of Concrete at Time of
(2) U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Research and Hardening," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Evaluation Lab., "Proceedings of Sym- March, 1954; Proceedings, Vol. 50, p. 533.
posium on Airfield Pavements for Jet Air- (8) T. C. Powers, L. E. Copeland, J. C. Hayes,
craft," Port Hueneme, Calif., April 17-18, and H.M. Mann, "Permeability of Port-
1952. land Cement Paste," Journal, Am. Con-
(3) J. A. Bishop, "The Effect of Jet Aircraft crete Inst., November, 1954; Proceedings,
on Airforce Pavements; Investigations Vol. 51, p. 285.
Conducted by the Bureau of Yards and (9) C. S. Whitney, B. G. Anderson, and E.
Docks," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Civil Cohen, "Design of Blast Resistant Con-
Engrs., Separate 317, October, 1953, 8 pp. struction for Atomic Explosions," Journal,
(4) W. R. Buessem, "Thermal Shock Testing," Am. Concrete Inst., March, 1955; Proceed-
Journal, Am. Ceramic Soc., Vol. 38, No. 1, ings, Vol. 51, p. 589.
January, 1955, p. 16. (10) Edwin J. Callan, "Concrete for Radiation
(5) w. D. Kingery, "Factors Affecting Ther- Shielding," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
mal Stress Resistance of Ceramic Mate- September, 1953; Proceedings, Vol. 50, p.
rials," ibid., p. 8. 17.
(6) C.A. Menzel, "Tests of the Fire Resistance (11) B. E. Foster, "Absorption by Concrete of
and Thermal Properties of Solid Concrete X-rays and Gamma Rays," ibid., p.
Slabs and Their Significance," Proceedings, 45.
PETERSEN ON I~ESISTANCE TO FIRE AND RADIATION 207
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. H. Carrack and D. G. Robertson, "The Ef- Program on Air Installations," The Mili-
fects of Jet Aircraft on Airfield Pavements tary Engineer, Vol. 45, No. 306, July-August,
and Associated Problems," Proceedings, 1953, p. 256.
Inst. Civil Engrs., Vol. 3, Part II, No. 1, G. McFadden, "Jet Aircraft Heat and Blast Ef-
February, 1954, p. 1. fects on Airfield Pavements," The Military
A.L. Miller and H. F. Faulkner, "A Comparison Engineer, Vol. 45, No. 305, May-June,
of the Effect of High Temperatures on 1953, p. 173.
Concretes of High Alumina and Ordinary R. A. Heindl and Z. A. Post, "Preparation and
Portland Cements," Bulletin No. 43, Uni- Properties of High-Temperature Con-
versity of Washington Engineering Experi- cretes," Technical News Bulletin, Nat.
ment Station, September, 1927. Bureau Standards, Vol. 34, No. 8, August,
F.M. Mellinger, "Concrete Airfield Pavements," 1950, p. 119.
The Military Engineer, Vol. 46, No. 310, L. A. Palmer, "Jet Aircraft Pavement Re-
March-April, 1954, p. 117. search," BuDocks Technical Digest, No. 24,
L. B. Washbourne, "Effect of Jet Conversion May-June, 1952, p. 41.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
AIR C O N T E N T AND U N I T W E I G H T
BY S. B. HE~MS~
PRINCIPLES O F DENSITY c
It will be noted that the term is a
In this discussion of certain aspects of 1--s
the effect of entrained air in concrete, 6
cement-space ratio, whereas
the principles developed by early investi- 1 - (c + s)
gators are referred to first. The pioneers c
is the cement-voids ratio ~ ; for the
could not forsee the real benefits that
would result from air entrainment, but cement used by Feret the K value was
they did develop some elementary physi- 28,000 for English units. Withey (2), at
cal relationships which are still pertinent. the University of Wisconsin, later found
In the days of Feret's studies (1),2 the these equations valid when revised con-
density of mortar was represented by stants applicable to other materials were
the total volume of the solid particles. employed.
This could be termed the first applica- Since pastes in the practical range of
tion of the method of absolute volumes, 5 to 9 gal of water per sack of cement
which is involved both in proportioning have an air-free unit weight in the range
and in the analysis of physical constants of 100 to 120 lb per c u f t , whereas
of concrete. To develop the relationship aggregate densities usually range from
for compressive strength, P, using con- about 160 to 175 lb per cu ft, 8 it is clear
stants J and K, Feret assigned letters that a reduction of paste volume by
(c for cement, s for sand, e for water, v for substitution of aggregate will increase
air voids) to represent the absolute the actual density. 4
volumes of mortar constituents and Grant (3) recognized the general
proved from his data the validity of the principles of density as the result of an
relationships: extensive series of tests in 1867. Table I,
condensed from his tables, shows the
effect of aggregates, proportions, mois-
p =.r i- (~+~)-~
3 Specific G r a v i t y as m e a s u r e d b y M e t h o d of
T e s t for Specific G r a v i t y (C127 or C 128), 1955
and: Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3, and multi-
plied b y the density of water.
4 Measured by the M e t h o d of T e s t for W e i g h t
P= K per Cubic Foot, Yield, and Air C o n t e n t of Con-
crete (C 138), 1955 Book of A S T M Standards,
P a r t 3. I n the case of lightweight concrete sep-
1 Research Engineer, Lehigh Portland Ce- arate procedures are described in t h e Specifica-
m e n t Co., Allentown, Pa. tions for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural
T h e boldface n u m b e r s in parentheses refer Concrete (C 330) and Specifications for Light-
to the list of references appended to this paper, weight Aggregates for Insulating Concrete (C
see p. 218. 332), 1955 Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3.
208
www.astm.org
HELMS ON AIR CONTEI~T AND UmT WEIGHT 209
ture content, and degree of compaction applicable to the results of Candlot (5)
on unit weight of concrete. Discussing and Kimball at Watertown Arsenal (6).
his entire data, Grant observed that After the relationship between water
"the compressed blocks are apparently content and richness of mix was estab-
stronger than the uncompressed in a lished by Abrams' water-cement ratio,
larger proportion than their difference Talbot and Richart (7) developed rela-
in density"--a significant conclusion. tionships of strength and voids and
Subsequent historical results 5 showed introduced the concept of the cement-
higher strength after water curing. How- space ratio which now may even be
ever, the tabulated data indicate the applied to results of studies of air-en-
effect of the moisture condition on unit trained and lightweight concrete, to be
weight and strength, since air-cured mentioned later. Figure 12 of Talbot and
cubes would have shown less strength Richart's report on Series 2-G mortars
T A B L E I . - - H I S T O R I C A L D A T A OF U N I T W E I G H T A N D S T R E N G T H OF P O R T L A N D
C E M E N T C O N C R E T E B L O C K S OF V A R I O U S M A T E R I A L S .
Stored in air for 1 year, and also stored in water same time; some uni t s compressed. D a t a of 6-in.
cube specimens at age 1 year.
Propor-
tions, Unit Weight, lb per cu ft Crushing Strength, lb per sq in.
Fine Aggregate Cement-
Aggre-
gate by
Volume Air Cured Water Cured Air Cured Water Cured
Compressed Compressed I Compressed Compressed
P o r t l a n d stone . 1:6 125.C 135.2 137.0 141.4 1870 2530 1430 2150
1:8 125.G 130.6 136.0 140.0 !1520 2050 1210 1800
Slag . . . . 1:6 118.4 120.6 126.2 132.9 1240 1430 1190 1460
1:8 109.8 113.6 121.0 127.3 870 1210 590 830
NowE.--Lower a p p a r e n t strength for water-cured cubes is p a r t l y explained by the moisture con-

dition of test specimens, since s t r e n g t h should be greater for wet curing unless specimens were porous
and leaching to ok place.
and weight similar to water-cured cubes, and concretes (7), made with Wabash
if resaturated. River aggregates, shows a linear relation-
The effect of aggregate gradation on ship between unit weight of concrete
the strength and density of concrete was and the voids in concrete as represented
reported by Fuller and Thompson (4); by the line:
their results for Jerome Park Reservoir
concrete included details of absolute Unit Weight, ib per cu ft
volumes of ingredients (density = 1.00
- voids) and unit weight of hardened = 167(1 - v - c) + 193c + 55v
concrete beams. Thompson applied
This closely fitted the experimental
Feret's principles of density to concrete
points for these materials. Here, v and c
tests using a modified formula which in-
are absolute volumes of voids and cement,
cluded the absolute volume of coarse
v being the sum of water and air voids.
aggregate. This formula also proved
Talbot and Richart recognized that
s j. E. Howard, Report of the W a t e r t o w n levels of water content affected com-
Arsenal for 1902, d a t a q uoted b y I. H. Woolsen,
Proceedings, Am. Soc. T e s t i n g Mats., Vol. 5, p. pressive strength at a given ratio, and
336 (1905). they employed a strength reduction
curve to refine their charts of compressive in microscopic voids . . . . . . The reduction

strength v e r s u s cement-space ratio. in compressive strength and unit weight of
The reader is reminded that unit concrete which accompanies the increase in
weight of concrete is less sensitive to resistance to freezing and thawing may ap-
water-cement ratio than to voids- pear disturbing at first thought for it has
been generally accepted that the denser and
cement ratio; thus changes of unit weight stronger the concrete, the greater its du-
will be found indicative of air content of rability [12]. The belief that durability in-
air-entrained concrete. Incidentally, creases with strength is undoubtedly true up
Feret (8) distinguished between "air- to the point where requirements for good
entrained" in mortar, water voids, and concrete are satisfied, but beyond this point
cavities quite a long time ago. This the theory that strength is an index of du-
consideration has significance since no rability may not be true."
measurement of total air in fresh con-
Some of the numerous studies of air-
crete will distinguish between the dif-
entrained concrete reported in Highway
ferent types of air voids, and micro-
Research Board publications, attesting
scopic examination of the interior struc-
its importance in this particular field,
ture of hardened concrete is required
should be discussed.
for this classification.
Vollmer (13) utilized fresh unit weight
IFIRST RECOGNITION OF ADVANTAGES data to show the effect of calcium chlo-
OF ENTRAINED AIR ride admixture on the calculated air
A study (9) launched about 1935 content of concretes made with vinsol
showed that cores from certain experi- resin cement, to reach the conclusion
mental pavements having high resis- that use of calcium chloride reduced air.
tance to freezing and thawing contained Separate tests, more refined, by Pigman
portland cement that had been blended (14) and by Gonnerman (IS) and others
with either of two natural cements which, (16), have shown entrained air is in-
in turn, contained about 0.07 per cent creased slightly by incorporation of cal-
of fat or grease. Lowered unit weight was cium chloride in the mix. Absolute vol-
the clue leading to the conclusion that ume calculations based on fresh unit
resistant slabs contained larger amounts weight will not provide dependable
of entrained air than the nonresistant values for air content of cured specimens.
slabs, and studies of air-entraining ma- D a t a selected from Tables 5 and 6
terials started. I t has been stated (lO) of Bugg's Highway Research Board
that the first work correlating freezing- paper (17) are of interest and are given
and-thawing tests with air content was in the accompanying Table II.
reported by the Portland Cement Assn. The mixes had 3 to 4-in. slump and
in June, 1938. But the term "air-entrain- contained 6 sacks of type I cement. The
ing cement" was not introduced until unit weight relationships could have been
after the Portland Cement Assn.'s Study affected by variations of coarse aggre-
of Cement Performance was instituted gate in samples, bleeding tendency, de-
in 1941, when these were known as gree of compaction, curing, and mois-
"treated" cements. Improved scaling ture condition of beams at the time of
resistance of pavements made with measurement. The fact that the sets of
"treated" cement was attributed to en- unit weight data for several mixes agree
trained air by Moore (ll) who stated: closely could be misleading, since unit
"Both vinsol resin and tallow reduce the weight of moist-cured specimens should
unit weight of concrete by introducing air, be higher than that of fresh mix. I n a
uniformly distributed throughout the mass few cases a surprising difference in unit
HELMS ON AIR CONTENT AND UNIT WEIGHT 211
weight is shown, corresponding to higher portions and is in a saturated state.

computed air in hardened concrete, be- Several papers in the 1947 ASTM Sym-
cause of variations such as loss of mois- posium on Measurement of Entrained
ture. Axon (18) listed the changes in Air (19) listed data for volumetric meth-
weight of hardened concretes containing ods v e r s u s the gravimetric (unit weight),
varying amounts of entrained air during and Fig. 3 of Swanberg's paper (lO, p.
the progress of moist curing, water cur- 871) used unit weight test data to sub-
ing, and air curing; beams gained ap- stantiate results by the pressure method.
proximately 0.5 per cent in weight in Most published gravimetric tests apply
28 days of water curing and were shown to fresh concrete, but Bloem and Walker
to lose from 2 to 2.7 per cent in weight (20) used this means to establish a re-
during 2 weeks of air drying. Since lationship .between air content of fresh
sonic E is a function of the true density and hardened concrete and distributed
of the specimen, ~ values in the last results of air content calculated from
T A B L E I I . - - U N I T W E I G H T S OF F R E S H C O N C R E T E A N D H A R D E N E D B E A M S
3 B Y 4 B Y 16 IN. ( A F T E R B U G G (17).)
Aggregate At Age 28 Days

Air Unit Weight
of Fresh
:Content Concrete, Unit
Type Condition !per cent lb per cu ft Weight, ~ ~ Sonic
lb per ~'~ E X
cuft ~ ~ 10-~
L i m e s t o n e (0.7 per cent ab- Vacuum saturation. 3.3 148.8 148.8 825 5.52
sorption) V a c u u m saturation. 0.6 152.8 152.8 865 5.99
Gravel (1.6 per cent ab- Presoaked. 3.6 150.1 149.7 800 5.77
sorption) Presoaked. 0,3 153.9 154.1 830 6.04
Vacuum saturation. 3.6 150.1 148.9 755 5.68
Vacuum saturation. 0,3 154.6 153.6 870 6.11
G r a v e l (1.8 per cent ab- Presoaked. 4.0 146.1 145.1 680 5.59
sorption) Presoaked 0.9 150.9 149.9 735 6.00
Vacuum saturation. 4.8 144.4 143.8 645 5.25
Vacuum saturation . . . . . . 0.5 151.0 149.8 725 6.00
column of Table II show a reasonable unit weight data. These results, given in
relationship to hardened unit weight. It Table III, were also arranged to show
is also of interest that Bugg studied the correlation of voids-cement and
similar concretes with air contents rang- cement-space ratios to compressive
ing up to 7.5 per cent and concluded strength data of air-entrained concrete.
that no significant increases in freezing- Another striking illustration of the re-
and-thawing durability occurred with lationship of compressive strength and
air contents in excess of 3 per cent ex- the voids-cement ratio was given in
cept when very porous aggregates were Fig. 9 of a paper by Blanks (21).
placed in concrete in a highly saturated Stating that the air volume in hard-
condition. ened material may differ from the volume
of air entrained in fresh mix, due to
MEASUREMENT OF A I R CONTENT OF changes in water content, concrete vol-
HARDENED CONCRETE
ume, and specific volume of ingredients,
The simplest estimate of total amount Sweet (22) referred to the work of Powers
of air in concrete can be derived from to develop formulas for computation of
unit weight, provided the specimen is unit weight as dependent on these factors
representative of known mixture pro- and, for a nonevaporable water content,
212 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E A N D A G G R E G A T E S
w~, of 0.23, charted approximate changes analysis of Sweet: Boyd (26) found that
of air content corresponding to increases 1.32 gal of water per bag of cement
in water content and unit weight. In his (equivalent to 12 per cent) was hydrated
ASTM paper (23), data were presented in a neat mix in 9 weeks at 70 F, and the
on changes in weight (water absorbed) actual water voids in hardened speci-
and unit weight in curing prior to freez- mens were less than theoretical, with the
ing-and-thawing tests, and it was shown discrepancy for field cores ranging from
(22) that the average air content fell from 0 to 4.7 per cent voids in a total of 13
an initial value of 3.0 per cent to 2.0 or 14 per cent. These differences might
per cent at 28 days. With emphasis on have been resolved if consolidation due
the degree of saturation of specimens, to bleeding or migration of water had
Sweet suggested that accurate weight been accounted for, as suggested by the
records of freezing-and-thawing test lesser difference of laboratory specimens
specimens should be maintained and for which care was taken to prevent losses
utilized in conjunction with determina- of water. Extensive work by Blanchette
T A B L E I l L - - A I R C O N T E N T C A L C U L A T E D F R O M U N I T W E I G H T OF F R E S H A N D
H A R D E N E D C O N C R E T E ( A F T E R B L O E M A N D W A L K E R (2{}) S E R I E S 66).
CemenFacto__2 9:ks ,5 5~ sacks per cu y d s6~

acks per cu YA
0,000 0.010 0.015 0.000 0.010 0.015

VinSOlc~nt
p~r~ -~ -Used,
- - per
R ecent
s i. . .n. . . . . ~ ~0 . 17 0 " 0 00.010
0 0.0157~8
Per cent air: age l d a y ' . ' . ' . ' : : : : : . : ! 3:3 5:4
~
NoT~.--Seurching for an explanation for about 20 per cent less air in hardened concrete, com-
puted from absolute volumes, Walker studied the apparent specific gravity of cement in water v e r s u s
time; and as a result declared use of such specific gravity as indicated for 72 hr, the timo concrete dis-
placement data were obtained, would account for the differences found, after allowance was made
for water lost in molding.
tions of nonevaporable (24) water con- (27) extended the application of the ce-
tent. ment-space ratio. Following Talbot's
In Bureau of Reclamation tests made principles for studying the effect of
at about the same time, changes in theo- varied proportions on the amount of
retical unit weight of concrete with time, water required for maximum density, or
due to hydration, were also recognized: solids content, Blanchette found that
the optimum water content (for least
Time After Mixing, hr theoretical Unit Weight, voids) varied widely for different ratios
lb per cu fta
of coarse aggregate volume = b,, since
O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149.5 volume of total solids
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150.4 the amount of water required for maxi-
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150.9 mum density in a particular mortar is
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.2
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.4 not the same when coarse aggregate is
added. In plain mixes of "basic" water
a See chart on Fig. 2 of reference (25). content, the air voids were reduced by
When these values were applied in cal- addition of coarse stone, whereas the
culations, the agreement with the pres- water requirement increased approxi-
sure test method gave evidence of mately 0.4 gal per cu ft of solid volume of
accuracy. stone. Experience has shown that the
An earlier paper presaged the cited incidental air voids of plain concrete,
which range from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent air was able to advance the theory of per-
for usual aggregate gradings, are of some missible spacing to show that, for high
benefit, and their absence would cause a resistance to freezing and thawing in
marked reduction in resistance to freez- cement pastes, the average void-to-void
ing. This has been demonstrated in distance should be about 0.02 in. or less.
basic studies at the Portland Cement It is not always essential to know the
Assn. laboratories2 size distribution of air voids when one is
assured that sufficient air is present in
SIZE DISTINCTION OF VOIDS AND the hardened specimen. A preliminary
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATE OF report by Vellines (31) indicated that the
AIR CONTENT air voids in set concrete would respond
As previously mentioned, it is prac- to pressure changes, and he explained
tically impossible to determine the size the use of an accurate timer to determine
distribution of air voids in tests of fresh volume of total solids, V,, in laboratory
concrete, but several techniques have prisms 2 by 2 by 10 in. in size. By de-
been developed for hardened material ducting V, and volume of absorbed water
which are based on inspection of polished from conventionally determined speci-
sections. Verbeck (28) applied the camera men volume, it appeared that air con-
lucida method successfully by tracing the tent could be calculated with promising
voids on an enlargement of a micro- accuracy.
scopic view at a magnification of about The method proposed by Vellines,
100 diameters to determine air content using the air pressure density adapter,
at desired locations within a specimen; has a possible advantage in testing an
accuracy was established by comparison unknown sample, but the method of ab-
with other methods. An interesting fea- solute volumes would serve the same
ture of Verbeck's paper was the tabula- purpose after the proportions and specific
tion of size and volume distribution of gravity of ingredients had been estab-
voids. (The nature and size range of air lished. In fact, the latter principle has
voids in types I and IA cement con- been used at times in the Research
cretes were shown clearly in camera lucida Laboratory of the Lehigh Portland Ce-
drawings of Klieger's (29) paper.) The ment Co. to indicate absence of entrained
published discussion of Verbeck's paper air. By measuring the volume and
and subsequent developments have weight of a suitable resaturated speci-
shown that skilled technicians at the men, the concrete may be disassembled,
laboratories of the Corps of Engineers, after dehydration at 600 C in the manner
the Missouri Highway Department, and described by Blackman (32), and since
elsewhere were meeting the need for the proportions of dry solids are de-
specialized microscopic examination of terminable, unit air and water contents
hardened air-entrained concrete; this is may be calculated with reasonable ac-
discussed by other authors in this publi- curacy.
cation. 7 With the additional evidence The results reported by Warren (33) at
provided by new techniques (30) for de- the University of Wisconsin include
termining the nature of air voids, Powers photomicrographs of carefully polished
interior sections of Mr-entrained con-
Concluding statement, F. H. Jackson and
Hubert Woods, Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., crete magnified to 40 diameters. Voids
October, 1955; Proceedings, VoL 52, p. 190. filled with fluorescent dye in Canada
7 K. Mather, "Petrographic Examination of balsam were photographed in ultraviolet
Hardened Concrete," and R. C. Mielenz,
"Petrographic Examination of Concrete Aggre- light. Void properties, calculated from
gates," p. 68 and p. 253. measurements by the plane intercept
214 TESTS AND P R O P E R T I E S OF C O N C R E T E AND AGGREGATES
TABLE IV.--VOID PROPERTIES IN 3-IN. SLUMP AIR-ENTRAINED GRAVEL

CONCRETES. (AFTER WARREN (33).)
Darex AEA Admixture Neutralized VinsolResin

Admix~re
Type I Cement Mix
4 sacks 7 sacks 4 sacks 7 sacks
Specific s u r f a c e of voids, ~ sq m m . . . . . . . . . 28.0 39.4 29.1 39.6

Air content, per cent .................. 5.43 5.39 5.18 5.33
A v e r a g e d i a m e t e r of voids, m m . . . . . . . . . . 0. 0 6 0 4 0. 0 6 6 9 0.0536 0.0567
Void spacing factor, b mm .............. 0.118 0 . 100 0.113 0.094
N e t air, p r e s s u r e m e t e r , p e r c e n t . . . . . . . . 5.5 5.5 5.2 5.3
F r e s h u n i t w e i g h t , lb p e r c u f t . . . . . . . . . . 140.3 143.1 141.1 142.8
Defined as surface area of voids per cu mm air in concrete.

b One half average maximum distance from void to void within paste, about 0.004 in. At a given
cement content, the listed data show little difference between concretes made with the two agents.
Photographs showed, at air content of 7 per cent, the air voids were more numerous and smaller in
the concrete with higher cement content. Curves showed the average diameter of air voids was only
slightly affected by cement content and angularity of coarse aggregate.
TABLE V.--EFFECT OF OVERRODDING ON SELECTED CONCRETE PROPERTIES.

(AFTER HANSEN (34).)
Cmnposition Ratio 1 : 2.78 : 3.77 (Absolute Volume).
Average Cow Bay Sand Mixes Tioga Sand Mixes

Water-
Nominat I Cement
Cement
Used Slump, in. ~t~o, Unit Lb pei
c u f t of
48-hr
Absorp -
Unit
Weight of
Lb per
cu ft of
48-hr
Absorp-
l per sack Weight
Beama
of
Mi~ don e Beama Mi~ tion e
Type I (ordinary).., 3 5.0 154.1 153.1 0.71 151.7 151.0 0.90

153.5 x 0.80 153.6 ~ 0.92
6 5.5 153.1 152.1 0.81 151.3 149.8 1.05
153.8 ~ 0.91 150.9 9 1.07
Type I plus vinsol
(air-entraining) . . . 2.5 4.8 138.0 153.9 0.63 140.2 152.3 1.03
137.6 x 0.89 139.9 ~ 1.01
6 5.3 137.2 152.6 O.78 135.3 150.4 1.46
136.2 ~ 0.83 136.4 ~ 1.38
A f t e r 14 d a y s m o i s t c u r i n g , 14 d a y s m air, a n d 48 h r s o a k i n g a f t e r flexural s t r e n g t h ! t e s t ( t a b u -
l a t e d specific g r a v i t y X 62.3).
b C a l c u l a t e d f r o m d a t a of m i x p r o p o r t i o n s a n d specific g r a v i t y of m a t e r i a l s .
c A b s o r p t i o n o n a i r - d r y basis, s p e c i m e n s n o t o v e n - d r i e d . R e g u l a r s p e c i m e n s m o l d e d w i t h m i n i m u m
disturbance.
Overmanipulated specimens usually showing slightly higher absorption; their frost resistance
w a s n o t i m p a i r e d . T a b u l a t i o n is i n c l u d e d p r i m a r i l y t o s h o w a g r e e m e n t of a b s o r p t i o n s of s i m i l a r
plain and air-entrained mixes with Cow Bay sand, and higher absorption with higher slump.
TABLE VI.--ABSORPTION OF AIR-DRY CONCRETE. (AFTER KLIEGER (35).)
Per cent Absorption, by 72-hr Resaturation of Air-Dry Concrete
4-sack Mixes 5~-sack Mixes 7-sack Mixes

Cement
~in. l~in. 2~in. ~in. l~in. 2~in. ~in. l~in. 2~in.

max max max max max max max max max
~ype I ...... Gravel 3 3.4 2.7 2.7 1.6 1,5 1.6 1.2 i.i 1.2
Fype IA.. Gravel 3 3.1 2.5 2.5 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.2 i.i I.I
Pype I ...... Stone 6 4.4 3.3 ... 2.6 2.2 1.7 1.6 ...
Pype IA.. Stone 6 3.6 2.9 ... 2.2 2.0 ... 1.7 1.6 ...
HELMS ON Am CONTENT A N D UNIT WEIGHT 215
method, are interesting because those in- bration of air-entrained concrete should
troduced by two accepted air-entraining be executed carefully with the antici-
agents had essentially the same specific pated loss compensated for by higher
surface, as is seen in Table IV. initial air. Compensation should also be
made for similar losses sustained by
OF CONCRETE
E F F E C T OF M A N I P U L A T I O N pumped concrete, where entrained air
ON AIR CONTENT AND INTERRELATED is adaptable in specially designed mix-
PROPERTIES tures (37, 38), or by concrete transported
Though affected also by coarse aggre- by other means. Price (39) has explained
gate character, the absorption of con- that difficulty may result when concrete
crete is primarily dependent on the is pumped, if sand content in the mix-
quantity and quality of paste or mortar ture is reduced below the point required
component, and for given materials for workability, and this would be the
absorption is a useful criterion of quality. case when entrained air is not present as
Hansen (34) published data showing the intended; this is an added reason for
effects of overrodding on 289 keeping the air percentage above that
mum crushed stone concrete made with ordinarily required. One might also as-
different sands and cements, including sume that some small losses in air would
air-entraining cement. The unit weight develop due to handling or delay in
and absorption results for hardened placing of concrete. Results of stud-
specimens are given in abridged form ies at the Bureau of Reclamation (4o)
for illustration in Table V. show that 1 per cent reduction of air
In discussing reabsorption of water, can result from a 189 delay in placing
the more recent data of Klieger (35), of a batch. Many reports have shown
shown in Table VI, representing a the loss of air due to prolonged mixing
wider variety of proportions, are of time.
interest because the sand was reduced to Several other methods used in com-
compensate for the increased amounts mercial practice for imparting dense
of air. The selected results show reduc- structure to concrete by manipulative
tion of absorption in lean mixes where means include: production of hard floor
there was a marked reduction of mixing finishes from dry-tamped concrete using
water when air was entrained. power floats (41), densification of initially
Corps of Engineer tests (36) called at- overwet concrete by vacuum techniques
tention to the loss of air due to use of to achieve high early strength, making
vibration, mentioning the principle of of concrete pipe by spinning and packer
greater sacrifice in softer mixes of higher methods, and manufacture of light-
air content and the necessity of avoid- weight masonry units (42).
ing wet screening of large maximum size Following the line of paradoxes ex-
air-entrained concrete in making unit pressed in a paper by Gilkey (43)--
weight measurements. In these tests, the which, incidentally, traced the relation-
maximum toss from air-entrained con- ships of voids, density, and air content--
crete was 0.7 percentage points air, in- it is appropriate to emphasize that
air-entraining cement will increase con-
dicating the reduction was not great
solidation of concrete block mixtures of
enough to cause alarm over the possible
dry tamp consistency. Swayze mentioned
reduced effectiveness of air entrainment. this in an article in Engineering News-
Published results of effects of vibration Record when "treated" cement was be-
show that overvibration can reduce air ing introduced to the block industry,
to dangerously low levels. Therefore vi- and Helms and Bowman (44) presented
quantitative data. Convincing proof of cellular concrete (45) is discussed more

this principle is shown by a brief set of fully in the paper by Davis and Kellys
fresh density data, Table VII, for labora- in this publication.
tory specimens containing expanded slag In the range of lowest density con-
aggregate including a double dosage of cretes, usually made with lightweight
dry, powdered air-entraining agent aggregates, an intended use for heat or
which, in plastic concrete, could cause sound insulation often makes strength
an inordinately high air content. a secondary consideration. The criterion
of strength-weight ratio may be used,
VARIED A M O U N T S OF V O I D S AND however, to rate the efficiency of com-
SPECIAL PURPOSE CONCRETES positions of similar unit weight. The
Numerous reports have traced the de- principle of "no fines" concrete (46)
velopment of the use of gas-forming could even be modified to the use of
agents, such as aluminum powder and lightweight aggregate and foamed paste
TABLE VII.--TESTS OF 3 BY 6-IN. VIBRATAMP CONCRETE CYLINDERS.
Quantities in lb per cu ft (compacted)

Compressive
Coarse Yield, Strength All
Laboratory Type III Fine Aggregate Total, Blocks Dry at 28
Mix Cement Fine Aggregate Retained Concrete per Sacka Days, psi
Water Dry Natural Through (7 Days
Admixture Sand No. 8 on Fresh Moist)
Sieve No. 8 Density
Sieve
A. . . . 12.5 13.7 0.008 6.6 23.3 33.2 89.3 25.1 1350

B b. .. 12.6 13.8 0.008 6.7 23.5 33.6 90.2 24.9 1620 b
C I 12.6 13.8 0.016 I 6.7 23.6 33.7 90.4 24.8 1470
C a l c u l a t e d o n b a s i s of n o m i n a l b l o c k v o l u m e of 0.30 c u ft.
b Relatively larger machine-mixed batch, other batches hand-mlxed.
hydrogen peroxide, to make lightweight to produce a variety of densities down

compositions. Aluminum powder was to the low limit. Low specific weight is
tried along with air-entraining agents dependent on the presence of voids,
15 yr ago but did not prove to be gen- whether formed by air or water, as
erally acceptable for reasons of erratic holes in honeycomb, or as pores in the
behavior dependent on such factors as aggregate. The insulating efficiency of
sensitivity to chemical properties of ce- concrete may be correlated closely with
ment and difficulty in distributing the the unit weight of the oven-dry speci-
powder to get uniform expansion. In mens and the compressive strength with
Germany, it was found that units made
air-dry density. Although slight ad-
from foam or gas concrete show a varia-
vantages can be claimed for certain
tion in density from top to bottom--
aggregates in weaker, leaner mixtures,
another reason why gas-forming agents
have not achieved wide acceptance in the plotted thermal conductivity in
this country. Foamed concretes that Kluge's (47) Fig. 14 permits the citation
use large amounts of air-entraining agent of K values which could be assumed
as well as gas concretes are likely to applicable to any oven-dry lightweight
show high shrinkage, and stabilization
by autoclaving is desirable. Lightweight 8 See p. 238, t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n .
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions author
40
o. 1200 35
I000
\ 9 k.o >:
,~ 800 30 o
0
~, 6oo
.'x,% ":,.
~'400 9 \ 25
oo
oJ
200
- -:aL
20
70 75 80 85
Per cent Voids
FIG. 1.--Relationships of Unit Weight and Strength to Per Cent Voids, Type III Cement In-
sulating Concrete Made with Expanded Perlite Aggregate.
concrete mix with low unit weight: volume proportions os aggregate, and
usually either an air-entraining agent or
Oven-Dry a Unit Weight of Conservative Maximum a fine plasticizing admixture. The curve
Concrete, lb per cu ft Thermal__K Value
of strength v e r s u s solids has limitations,
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 [ 0.7
since cement content is reflected only as
42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 weight, but it has unique applicability
55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0
in the extreme range of high voids.
70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5
At the other extreme, the utilization
a Slight advantages for certain combinations of heavy aggregate concrete because of
could be overshadowed by the effect of small its weight is of direct engineering im-
amounts of moisture retained by air-dry speci- portance. M u c h ordinary concrete, used
mens.
in gravity dams, lock walls, counter-
The plotted data of expanded perlite weights, and some foundations, is de-
concretes in Fig. 1, obtained 7 years pendent on the weight of the mass for
ago, illustrate the relations of voids to its utility. The special concretes used
weight and total solid volume to com- for radiation shielding require dense
pressive strength. Results for 40 test aggregate materials such as iron ores;
combinations are shown. These mixes for this purpose Callan (48) described
included three aggregate samples, three high unit weight concretes in the range
of 225 to 275 lb per cu ft. Concrete in of cement and water is necessary in b o t h

the weight range above 250 lb per cu i t l a b o r a t o r y and field for the proper con-
has been used extensively for p e r m a n e n t trol of concrete mixtures.
ballast in ships (49); it was reported the W h e n air is incorporated for the pur-
simplest w a y to load iron ore aggregate pose of reducing density, the size of
into the mixer is b y means of a magnet. voids is of little consequence if t h e y are
I n conclusion, it should be mentioned uniformly distributed t h r o u g h o u t the
t h a t u n i t weight tests are the time- mix. B u t the size of air voids e n t r a i n e d
honored basis for determination of yield, 4 to improve d u r a b i l i t y is extremely im-
and sometimes it is expedient, as for the p o r t a n t , a n d i t has been realized for
d a t a p l o t t e d in Fig. 1, to calculate this some time t h a t if air is efficiently dis-
information from weight and displace- persed into the finest a t t a i n a b l e size a
m e n t or weight and dimensions of hard- smaller a m o u n t will be required for
ened specimens. T h e determination of d u r a b i l i t y with subsequently less effect
yield a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n t unit contents on required design strength.
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Proceedings, Vol. 42, p. 629. ber, 1942; Proceedings, Vol. 39, p. 105. Also
(21) R. F. Blanks and W. A. Cordon, "Practice, discussion.
Experiences, and Tests with Air-Entraining (35) P. Klieger, "Effect of Entrained Air on
Agents in Making Durable Concrete," Strength and Durability of Concrete Made
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., February, with Various Maximum Sizes of Aggre-
1949; Proceedings, Vol. 45, p. 469. gates," Proceedings, Highway Research
(22) H. S. Sweet, discussion, "Air-Entrained Board, Vol. 31, p. 177 (1952); further
Concrete (Durability)," Proceedings, High- studies, ibid., Vol. 34, (1955).
way Research Board, Vol. 28, p. 187 (1948). (36) C. E. Wuerpel, "Laboratory Studies of
(23) H. S. Sweet, "Research on Concrete Du- Concrete Containing Air-Entraining Ad-
rability as Affected by Coarse Aggregates," mixtures," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. February, 1946; Proceedings, Vol. 42, p.
48, p. 988 (1948). 305. (See Table 24.)
(24) T. C. Powers and T. L. Brownyard, "Stud- (37) R. T. Sherrod, "Effect of Mr-Entraining
ies of the Physical Properties of Hardened Agents on Pumped Concrete," Journal,
Portland Cement Paste," Journal, Am. Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1944; Proceed-
Concrete Inst., February, 1947; Proceed- ings, Vol. 40, p. 558.
ings, Vol. 43, p. 669. (38) C. O. Crane, "Pumped Concrete for Enders
(25) "Loss of Entrained Air in Freshly Mixed Dam Spillway," Journal, Am. Concrete
Concrete and Effect on Properties of Hard- Inst., June, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. 45, p.
ened Concrete," Materials Laboratories 733.
Report No. C-431, U. S. Bureau of Reclama- (39) W. H. Price, "Properties of Air-Entrained
tion, May, 1949. Concrete," Proceedings, Training Confer-
(26) 3- E. Boyd, "Voids and Yield Losses on ences on Earth and Concrete Control, Lec-
Concrete," Engineering News-Record, Vol. ture 9, Bureau of Reclamation, November,
114, p. 156 (1935). 1948.
(27) W. A. Blanchette, "Some New Relations (40) E. C. Higgiuson, "Some Effects of Vibra-
Bearing on Concrete Mixtures," Public tion and Handling on Concrete Containing
Roads, Vol. 15, No. 3, p. 57 (1934). Entrained Air," Journal, Am. Concrete
(28) G. J. Verbeck, "The Camera Lucida Inst., September, 1952; Proceedings, Vol.
Method for Measuring Air Voids in Hard- 49, p. 1.
ened Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete (41) M. B. Klock, "Monolithic and Bonded
Inst., May, 1947; Proceedings, Vol. 43, Floor Finishes," Journal, Am. Concrete
p. 102~. Also discussion. Inst., June, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. 45, p.
(29) P. Klieger, "Effect of Entrained Air on 725. Also discussion.
Concrete with 'Sand-Gravel' Aggregates," (42) K. F. Wendt and P. M. Woodworth, "Tests
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., October, 1948; on Concrete Masonry Units Using Tamp-
Proceedings, Vol. 45, p. 149. ing and Vibration Molding Methods,"
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., November, (46) P. H. Petersen, Building Materials and
1939; Proceedings, Vol. 36, p. 121. Also dis- Structures Reporb BMS 96, Nat. Bureau
cussion. Standards (1943). R. C. Valore and W. C.
(43) H. J. Gilkey, "The Zig-Zag Course of Con- Green, "Air Replaces Sand in 'No-Fines'
crete Progress," Journal, Am. Concrete Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Inst., April, 1950; Proceedings, Vol. 46, June, 1951; Proceedings, Vol. 47, p. 833.
p. 573. (47) R. W. Kluge, M. M. Sparks, and E. C.
(44) S. B. Helms and A. L. Bowman, "Method Tuma, "Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete,"
of Making Vibrated Dry-Tamp Concrete Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May, 1949;
Cylinders Applied to Tests of Lightweight Proceedings, Vol. 45, p. 625. Also dis-
Aggregate and Block Mixtures," Proceed-
ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 51, p. cussion.
1184 (1951). (48) E. J. Callan, "Concrete for Radiation
(45) R. C. Valore, Jr., "Cellular Concretes," Shielding," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May, June, September, 1953; Proceedings, Vol. 50, p. 17.
1954; Proceedings, Vol. 50, pp. 773, 817. (49) Journal of Commerce, December 19, 1942.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Hardened Concrete
CEMENT CONTENT
B Y H . F. I(_RIEGE1
One of the first questions asked about efforts did not bring to light any im-
a concrete structure is the amount of portant differences in the method as
its cement content. Not that this is currently used 4 and are all based upon
necessarily the most important consider- the same principles as originally pre-
ation, but it is normally the first, since sented, they seem to need no further
concrete is often classified by the amount discussion at this time.
of cement it contains, regardless of other I t is the purpose of the present paper
characteristics. I t is therefore obvious to add the information gained from the
that this question should have an answer, efforts of Subcommittee III-1 on Mis-
either from the job records (which are cellaneous Tests of Hardened Concrete
often difficult to find) or from a method of Committee C-9, which now has juris-
of determination of the cement content diction over this method of test, from
of specimens of the concrete itself. recent literature on the subject, and
ASTM Committee C-9 on Concrete from some experiences that indicate the
and Concrete Aggregates presented in applications of the test method to con-
1931 a tentative method of test for the crete technology.
cement content of hardened portland-
cement concrete (C 85 - 3 1 T) 2 developed METHOD OF T E S T C 854
from the research by the author in Present Scope and Principle:
1923 (1)2 The subject was reviewed in
The Standard Method of Test for
1935 (2) in the light of later researches Cement Content of Hardened Portland-
in this country and abroad. A year later Cement Concrete (C 85) is based on the
the tentative method of test was adopted fact that the silicates in portland cement
as standard. Another review appeared
are much more readily decomposed and
in 1943 (3) which included the results made soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid
of a questionnaire as to the use and sug-
than are the silicates and other forms of
gested improvements of the procedures. silica in the naturally occurring min-
For the reader who m a y be interested erals normally contained in the aggre-
in the historic approaches to the analysis
gates used in concrete. A like condition
of concrete, a few of the more signifi- exists in the case of the comparative
cant published researches are listed at
solubilities of the calcium compounds in
the end of this paper (4-i~). Since these
portland cement and in natural aggre-
1 Technical Director, The France Stone Co. gates, other than the calcareous materials
Laboratories, Perrysburg, Ohio.
2 Tentative Method of Routine Analysis of
such as limestones and dolomites. The
the Cement Content of Hardened Portland- test procedure therefore imposes con-
Cement Concrete (C 8 5 - 3 1 T), 1932 Book of ditions of acid and alkali concentration,
ASTM Tentative Standards, p. 385.
3 The boldface numbers in parentheses refer 4 Method of Test for Cement Content of
to the list of references appended to this paper, Hardened Portland-Cement Concrete (C 85),
see p. 226. 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
221
temperature of reagent, and time of 12 of the ASTM Standard Methods of

contact to provide the best opportunity Chemical Analysis of Limestone, Quick-
for dissolving the constituents of the lime, and Hydrated Lime (C 25).6 If the
portland cement with the least attack tests up to this point have indicated
upon the aggregates. that the aggregates are largely siliceous,
The sample taken for analysis is se- the entire filtrate should be used for the
cured to be as truly representative as calcium oxide determination; otherwise
possible of the concrete under consid- an aliquot of the filtrate can be used.
eration. Several portions weighing at When the details of the test procedure
least 10 Ib each are broken up, crushed are carried out, the results show satis-
to about 89 in. in size, and further re- factory agreement both among multiple
duced mechanically to pass a No. 150 tests of identical material and between
or No. 200 sieve. Care must be taken the observed and the known values of
that the finer fractions of the broken the cement content. The accuracy of the
sample are not lost, since these include test is greater than that of the batching
much of the cement. After thorough and mixing operations used under nor-
mixing and quartering, a representative mally controlled concrete practice in
portion of about 100 g is taken and view of segregation of concrete ma-
carefully freed from metallic iron by terials. Under the conditions called for
means of a magnet. The sample is then in the test, the procedure is more ac-
dried at 105C for at least 2 hr and curate than sampling methods. In fact,
cooled in a desiccator. Triplicate por- improper sampling is the chief cause of
tions of about 2.0 g each are then ac- error.
curately weighed out for the analysis.
The acid used is approximately 3.3 N Uses of Test Results:
hydrochloric acid, which is very effective The results of this test may be used
under the imposed conditions in decom- in many ways. A few examples are
posing the silicates in the cement with- given below:
out appreciably attacking the silicates 1. If concrete proves to be unsatisfac-
and silica in natural aggregates used in tory, it is entirely logical that one of the
the concrete. Since the silica liberated first questions asked should be: "Was
by this acid treatment is either in true the specified amount of cement used?"
solution or in colloidal condition, it can This test can provide data that will as-
be removed from the remaining consist in making more accurate diagnoses
crete mass by filtration and alkaline of the causes of failure in concrete.
leaching. The determination of the quan- 2. The amount of cement actually
tity of silica dissolved is then carried present in concrete, often needed in dis-
out by standard chemical procedures. putes and litigation and accepted as
The filtrate from the silica determina- court evidence, can be determined by the
tion contains the soluble constituents test.
from the aggregates and the cement. 3. The segregation of cement in con-
The soluble calcium oxide in the filtrate crete can be traced. Segregation is the
(after removal Of the iron and aluminum chief factor in nonuniformity of concrete,
hydroxides) is determined in accordance caused either by incomplete mixing of the
with either Section 13 of the ASTM batch, improper handling, or placing of
Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis the mixed concrete. Even in carefully
of Portland Cement (C 114) 5 or Section controlled laboratory mixes, variations
5 1955 B o o k of A S T M S~andards, Par~ 3. between individual test results of 10 per
KRIEGE ON CEMENT CONTENT OF HARDENED CONCRETE 223
cent are common. Most of this variation it was possible to determine and correct
is due to segregation of the batch con- for the solubility characteristics. Such
stituents with resultant variation in the circumstances are definitely provided for
cement content. by requiring a blank test to be made on
4. The test establishes a proper cot- the aggregates whenever they are avail-
relation of the characteristics of con- able.
crete with cement content. Often test Test Method C 85 is not designed to
results are accepted in which significant determine the proportions of the fine
variations are induced in one condition and coarse aggregates, but only the
or another but there are no accurate data cement content.
regarding the effect of the cement con-
tent. COOPERATIVE TESTS
I n 1951 a cooperative series of tests

Limitations:
was conducted by Subcommittee III-1 of
Method C 85 is intended primarily A S T M Committee C-9 in which a total
for application to mortars and concrete of seven laboratories participated (17).
containing portland cement. If cements Six concrete mixtures were carefully made
other than portland cement have been to include the same type I portland
used, however, the quantities present in cement of 0.67 per cent Na20 content
the hardened specimen can often be and K20 reported as Na20 and the follow-
determined, provided some of the ce- ing variables of other materials in
ment used in the mix is available for known amounts b y weight:
analysis. As stated in the method, such
aggregates as blast-furnace slag and 1. Niagara dolomite coarse and fine aggre-
admixtures such as diatomites and so- gates.
dium silicate interfere with the test. 2. Niagara dolomite coarse and fine aggre-
gates and 4 per cent opaline rock (No. 8 to No.
These materials are easily attacked by 100 sieve fractions).
the reagents used in the method, yielding 3. Niagara dolomite coarse and fine aggre-
silica in a form that cannot be separated gates, 4 per cent opaline rock, and cement plant
readily or distinguished from the silica flue dust to bring the alkali content of the ce-
ment to 1 per cent Na20.
dissolved from the cement. Where slag 4. Diabase coarse and fine aggregates.
or siliceous admixtures have been used, 5. Diabase coarse and fine aggregates and 4
it is usually possible to secure this in- per cent opaline rock (No. 8 to No. 100 sieve
formation from the records covering the fractions).
case. If not, slag can be identified by 6. Diabase coarse and fine aggregates, 4 per
cent opaline rock, and cement plant flue dust to
visual inspection if present as an aggre- bring the alkali content of the cement to 1 per
gate, and b y chemical means if it occurs cent Na20.
as an admixture. Diatomites can be
detected microscopically. After moist curing for 28 days, 6 by
Occasionally naturally occurring sili- 12-in. cylinders from these concrete mix-
cates in the fine or coarse aggregates tures were air dried for one week, oven
used in concrete yield considerable silica dried at 105 C for two days, crushed in a
under the conditions of the test and compression machine, and reduced fur-
produce, thereby, higher results than ther b y hand with a hammer, a jaw
the true cement content, i n the author's crusher, and finally a disk pulverizer to
experience, only two or three such ma- obtain the fineness desired for chemical
terials have been encountered, and, since analysis. Great care was taken at each
they were available in the unused form, stage to avoid the loss of any materials.
Representative portions were then se- Ford (19) reports an investigation in

cured by quartering and subdividing which Method C 85 is compared with
until approximately 1-1b samples were the acid treatment alone to decrease
obtained; these were then sent to each the time involved and the extent of dis-
of the seven cooperating laboratories solution of soluble silicates from the
for analysis for the soluble silica content, aggregates. He also suggests the use of
using Method C 85, and also for the the soluble calcium oxide basis for con-
soluble calcium oxide content as directed. cretes known to contain aggregates of
The results were generally in good noncalcareous composition. His results
agreement with each other and with the show no benefit from the use of cor-
known values (later established) for the rection factors based on the soluble
soluble silica and calcium oxide con- constituents in the aggregates, and his
tents of the concrete. Where deviations found values are generally lower than
from the known values occurred, the the known cement contents. Both of
determined values were generally slightly these findings are difficult to understand
higher. Some indication was found in in view of the fact that his laboratory
the specimens containing reactive aggre- was one of the cooperating laboratories
gates that further release of the soluble in the Subcommittee III-1 investigation
silica had occurred during the concrete described above and his results then
curing and analysis. were well in line with both the average
As could be expected, the soluble silica values and the known values, but
basis of concrete analysis for cement con- slightly higher, and were definitely bene-
tent was more accurate for concretes fited by the use of the correction f a c e t s
containing the dolomite aggregates, of the aggregates. Also the experience
whereas the soluble calcium oxide basis of most analysts is toward higher rather
gave better results with the diabase than lower values, since the influence
aggregates used in this investigation. of the aggregates is generally additive
When the cement contents of the con- to the amounts of the soluble constitu-
crete specimens were calculated from ents of the cements.
both the soluble silica and the soluble Bowden and Green (20) have developed
calcium oxide contents and their re- a rather complicated procedure for the
spective values differed from each other, analysis of concretes to cover a much
the lower value (corrected average) was wider range of concrete compositions
in all cases nearer the actual value and and materials than are considered
in all cases within 0.7 per cent of the normal in the United States. They very
actual cement content. wisely call attention to the importance
of proper sampling: "The importance of
RECENT LITERATURE obtaining an adequate and representative
The recent literature contains several sample in the first place oyerrides that of
papers of interest and value dealing any details of analysis. It is highly
with the application of Method C 85, desirable that separate samples of the
with minor variations for special cases. cements and aggregates used in making
Brocard (18) suggests preliminary the concrete should be obtained when
mechanical disintegration of the speci- possible . . . . the sample should be in
mens of hardened mortars and concretes the form of'a solid lump or lumps; for
to permit the aggregate grading to be aggregates of normal size this should
reconstructed, approximately at least, not be less in amount than a 6-in. cube."
followed by the chemical analysis of the These statements are in good agreement
finer fractions. with the provisions of Method C 85.
KRIEOE oN CEMENT CONTENT OF HARDENED CONCRETE 225
Bowden and Green also suggest heat- soluble silica released under the test
ing the original concrete lumps to 600 C conditions.
repeatedly with interx~ening quenching
RECENT EXPERIENCES WITH METHOD
with water. This treatment had been
C 85
suggested earlier by Burke (21) as a
means for getting the aggregates loosened Several applications of the present
from the mortar and cement paste for cement content determination pro-
determination of grading or subsequent cedure, which may be of interest to
chemical analysis. This temperature others, have come to the attention of
range is definitely too high in the case the author. In one instance a concrete
of dolomitic aggregates, since decompo- pavement in use for several years had
sition of magnesium carbonate begins at shown a generally very satisfactory con-
considerably lower temperature and the dition except for three or four isolated
surfaces of the aggregate pieces become areas each a few square yards in extent.
friable and easily broken in handling. These spots had deteriorated appreciably
Strocchi (22) has devised a graphical and were shelling out to a depth of
solution of a system of equations derived several inches. Since the mortar was
from the chemical determinations of friable and easily separated from the
silica and calcium oxide in the constitu- coarse aggregate in these areas, the
ents of hardened mortars and concrete. cement content was determined on the
mortar only. The test results showed less
RELATED TEST METHODS than half of the cement content that
Since there is at present no other should have been present and which was
ASTM method of chemical analysis of found in the sound areas adjacent to the
hardened portland-cement concrete, it is defective parts. Why less cement should
of interest to note that some of the have been used in three or four batches
basic principles used in Method C 85 of concrete in an otherwise satisfactory
have found application in analytical pavement is beside the point. The fact
methods for materials other than con- remains that the only procedure that
crete. Thus the standard procedure for could explain the observed condition
determining the insoluble residue of was the analytical method under dis-
portland cement (see ASTM Method cussion.
C 114) 5 uses a similar treatment of In connection with a concrete struc-
hydrochloric acid followed by sodium ture for the Ohio Turnpike where the
hydroxide to separate the residue from concrete proportioning was well known
the soluble constituents. and everything was proceding normally,
The ASTM Standard Method of Test several control compression test cyl-
for Cement Content of Soil-Cement inders were analyzed for cement con-
Mixtures (D 806) 5 employs only the tent by both Method C85 and by a
acid treatment, and the soluble calcium modification of hand separation of the
oxide content is the basis for the cement coarse aggregate first and analysis of the
determination. individual fractions later. The results
The ASTM Tentative Method of Test obtained were within 0.05 per cent of
for Potential Reactivity of Aggregates each other and of the actual cement
(Chemical Method) (C 289) s uses only a content from the observed batch weights.
sodium hydroxide solution, under closely In a third instance, several of the
controlled conditions of concentration, concrete samples prepared for the 1951
time, and temperature, as the reagent, cooperative tests, referred to previously,
with subsequent determination of the were checked again in late 1954, and the
226 TEsTs AND PROPERTIES OF CONCR~ETE AND AGGREGATES
results were found to be in very satis- is weak enough to permit physical

factory agreement in each case with the separation of the aggregate more readily.
earlier values. Experience with this modification in-
dicates that the added effort is justi-
Further Possible Improvements: fied.
Determination of the chemically held
It seems likely that some increase in
water and carbon dioxide is likewise
the accuracy of Method C 85 might
advisable even though these are rela-
come with more use of the manual
tively small constituents of the whole
separation of the coarse aggregate
concrete. Since their amounts differ with
from the concrete specimens u n d e r
the age and curing conditions of the
study, with chemical analyses of the
concrete, they should be included in the
finer fraction (with its enrichment in analysis.
cement), and with much larger samples The original concrete specimens se-
of the coarse aggregate in the unground cured for analysis should have their unit
state. This suggestion is particularly volume weight or specific gravity de-
applicable to the case of lean concrete termined so that the analytical results
where the influence of the coarse aggre- obtained can be referred to both weight
gate composition and quantity becomes and volume of the concrete under in-
greater and where the cementing matrix vestigation.
~EFERENCES
(1) H. F. Kriege,"Determining the Cement (8) H. W. Gonnet, "Determination of the Pro-
Content of Concrete," Engineering News- portions of the Mix and the Content of the
Record, Vol. 92, No. 21, p. 892 ('1924). Cementing Material of Cement-Mortar
(2) H. F. Kriege, "Cement Content of Hard- and Concrete," Zement, Vol. 25, pp. 426-
ened Concrete," Report on Significance of 429 (1936).
Tests of Concrete and Concrete Aggre- (9) "Mix Proportions and Cement Content of
gates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 55(1935). Hardened Mortars and Concrete," Deut-
(Issued as separate publication ASTM sche Industrie Normen, Deutscher Yerband
STP No. 22.) ftir die Materialprfifung der Technik, DK
(3) H. F. Kriege, "Cement Content of Hard- 691.3, 691.5, October, 1939.
ened Concrete," Report on Significance of (10) A. K. Light, "Determining the Constitu-
Tests of Concrete and Concrete Aggre- ents of Hardened Concrete," Concrete, Vol.
gates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 69 (1943). 37, No. 4, p. 35 (1930).
(Issued as separate publication ASTM (11) Daniel Florentin, "On the Determination
STP No. 22-A.) of Soluble Silica in Cements, Mortars, and
(4) W. T. Cooke, W. St. B. More, G. S. Dick, Concrete," Comptes Rendus, No. 12, p. 621
and T. W. Dalwood, "Analysis of Set Con- (1926).
crete," Chemical Engineering and Mining (12) V. Rodt, "Determination of the Mechanical
Review, Vol. 24, No. 277, pp, 25-30 (1931). Mixture Of Mortar and Concrete. Ratio of
(5) Publication Ca 2-1934 with A .24-8, Ap- Cement to Aggregate in the Mix," Zement,
pendix VI, No. A 28-1934, Standards Assn., Vol. 17, p. 138 (1928).
Australia (1934). (13) Heinrich Hart, "Determination of the Mix
(6) F. James, "Analysis of Set Concrete," of Concrete," Zement, Vol. 17, p. 319
Commonwealth Engineer, June 1, 1935, (1928).
pp. 388-390. (14) Domenico Meneghini, "Determination of
(7) Robert Scheibe, "Determination of the the Quantity of Cement Used in Hydraulic
Proportions of Cement and Aggregates in Concretes," Annali, Scuola d'Ing-de Padova
Old Cement Mortars and Concretes," Ze- 2, p. 95 (1926).
ment, Vol. 24, pp. 473-476 (1935). (15) G. Gallo, "The Determination of Cement
KRIEGE ON CEMENT CONTENT OF H A R D E N E D CONCRETE 227
on Hydraulic Mixtures," Giornalo di Chi- (19) C. L. Ford, "A Study of Methods for the
mica Industriale ed Applieata, Vol. 9, p. 313 Determination of the Portland Cement
(1927). Content of Hardened Concrete," ASTM
(16) O. Frey, "Soluble Silica as a Means of BULLETIN, No. 181, April, 1952, p. 47
Works Control," Toninduslrie Zeitung, Voh (TP49).
49, p. 337 (1925). (20) S. R. Bowden and E. T. Green, "The
(17) "Cement Content Determination and Re- Analysis of Concrete," Technical Paper No.
active Aggregate Cooperative Laboratory 8, National Building Studies, Building Re-
Tests," Appendix to Report of Committee search Station, London, England (1950).
C-9, Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., (21) G. W. Burke, "Estimation of the Con-
Vot. 52, p. 282 (i952). stituents of Portland Cement Concrete,"
(18) M. J. Brocard, "Cement Content of Hard- Bulletin No. 61, Iowa Engineering Experi-
ened Mortars and Concretes," Annales de ment Station (1923).
l'[nstitut Technique du Batiment el des (22) Paolo NL Strocchi, "Determination of the
Travaux Publics, Nouvelle Serie, No. 231, Constituents in Mortars and Concretes,"
~lanuary, 1952. Applicata, Vol. 39, pp. 687-691 (1949).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Special Categories
READ.MIXED CONCRETE
BY STANTON WALKER1
Ready-mixed concrete is a processed sification is mixed in a central plant and

material which, in a plastic and un- delivered to the job in a truck mixer or
hardened state, is sold as a fnished prod- agitator or other transportation device;
uct ready for use. I t now consumes more that in the second classification is mixed
than one third of all of the cement in a truck mixer--generally in transit to
manufactured in the United States, and the job but frequently after the job is
that ratio is increasing, thus emphasizing reached. The capacity of a truck mixer
the importance of understanding its con- used as an agitator is significantly greater
trol and use. Its quality depends on the (25 to 40 per cent) than it is when used
ingredients, their proportions, and the as a mixer. The central and transit mix-
thoroughness with which they are coming operations each presents its special
bined. Ready-mixed concrete is perish- problems of control.
able; it will not remain in the plastic and Most problems of quality of ready-
unhardened state beyond a limited time, mixed concrete revolve about the meas-
the exact period of which depends upon urement of mixing water and the main-
circumstances. tenance of the desired consistency 3
Controlling the quality of ready-mixed Mixed concrete stiffens, and therefore the
concrete presents only a few problems water demand is affected by length of
not found in other concrete mixing opera- haul, amount and rate of mixing, time re-
tions. The use of materials of satisfactory quired to discharge the batch, tempera-
quality and uniformity is, of course, ture, characteristics of cement, etc. At-
fundamental in any case. The accurate tention should also be paid to minimizing
measurement of cement, aggregate, segregation during discharge and in hand-
water, and any other ingredients, ade- ling the concrete after discharge. Common
quate mixing, and proper handling to to both central- and transit-mixed con-
minimize segregation are equally im- crete are the large-size batches which, of
portant whether the concrete is job- themselves, introduce special conditions.
mixed or ready-mixed. Facilities and Three cubic yards is a small batch;
procedures for controlling these factors
m a y vary, however, depending upon the 2 The term consistency is used to refer to
type of operation. Certain conditions are properties of unhardened concrete. There is no
specific test for these properties. Concrete has
peculiar to ready-mixed concrete and the desired consistency when it is adequately
these are discussed here. plastic and workable, readily placed, and not
Ready-mixed concrete falls into two subject to objectionable segregation due to
transportation and handling. The most gen-
principal classifications, central-mixed erally used measure of consistency is the slump
and transit-mixed. T h a t in the first cIas- test. Other tests related to the plastic or cohesive
characteristics of unhardened concrete include
1Director of Engineering, National Ready the flow test and the ball penetration test. These
Mixed Concrete Assn. and National Sand and all measure different phenomena related to
Gravel Assn., Washington, D. C. "consistency."
228
WALKER ON READY-MIXED CONCRETE 229
4 to 5 CU yd represent moderate-size leaves the producer considerable lee-

batches; 5 to 6 cu yd are common; and way in the selection of proportions.
larger sizes up to more than 10 cu yd The minimum cement content, the
have been used when job conditions and maximum water-cement ratio, and the
load limits permit. range in slump may be specified, and
Responsibility for the final quality of these requirements may be accom-
concrete produced as ready-mixed con- panied by a statement of minimum
crete is divided. The producer delivers strength permissible. Under such a
it to the user who places it in the work specification the producer's responsi-
and gives it whatever subsequent treat- bility in the initial control is heavy.
ment it receives. Therefore, all tests 3. The purchaser specifies only the
which measure the acceptability of fresh materials and the minimum strength
concrete at the point where the responsi- and range in slump. Such a specifica-
bility for its handling passes from the tion not only places a heavy responsi-
producer to the user are of special sig- bility on the producer but permits him
nificance. Further, all tests, of any kind, to utilize his background of experience
of concrete as a material become of and knowledge to produce high and
particular importance because of the uniform quality concrete economically.
nature of the contractual relations in-
volved. TItE READY-MIXED CONCRETE
OPERATION
BASIS OF SALE
Central-Mixed Concrete:
Ready-mixed concrete is sold, for the
most part, to conform with detailed re- The characteristics of the central mix-
quirements established by the purchaser. ing plant more nearly approach those of
More frequently than not, ready-mixed the job plant--particularly the large
concrete specifications~ are merely sup- job--than those of the transit mixing
plementary to a general specification. operation. A principal difference is that
There are, generally, three classifications: the commercial ready-mixed concrete
plant must be flexible enough to pro-
1. The purchaser states the propor- duce any one of a large variety of mixes
tions of the ingredients and their on demand. The job operation, on the
characteristics. This type of specifica- other hand, is restricted to only a few
tion relieves the ready-mixed concrete classes of concrete and, generally, con-
producer of much, but not all, of the crete of a given class will be made in a
responsibility for the quality of the large number of consecutive batches.
concrete. That he must measure the Accordingly, the opportunities for auto-
materials accurately is axiomatic. His matic control are more readily available
major responsibility lies in mixing and in the job plant than in the commercial
in the control of mixing water and con- ready-mixed plant, where greater flexi-
sistency. bility is needed.
2. The purchaser specifies the ma- In spite of opportunities for controlling
terials and significant characteristics batching and mixing, a special consis-
of the concrete in a manner which tency control problem exists, especially
for long hauls or for conditions where the
a Specifications for Ready-Mixed Concrete
(C 94), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. haul is variable. Mixed concrete stiffens
with time, and significant reductions in the transit mixing operation, some quite
slump may occur. One investigator (18)4 different, and admittedly difficult, prob-
states that the reduction averages about lems are introduced. A major factor is
189 in. per hr for concrete hauled in a that the control is less centralized.
slowly revolving agitator. He suggests The amount of mixing in a truck mixer
compensating for that reduction by the should be measured by revolutions rather
addition of about 1 gal of water per cu yd than minutes. ASTM Specifications C 943
- - a perfectly valid procedure. Of course, specify a minimum of 50 and a maximum
temperature affects the reduction, and of 100 revolutions of the drum or blades
another investigator (19) found, for con- at mixing speed, with any additional
crete agitated at about 4 rpm, a reduc- mixing being done at agitating speed.
tion of slump of about 189 in. per 100 Tests (31) have shown that the thorough-
"degree-hours," where "degree-hours" ness of mixing resulting from 50 revolu-
is the concrete temperature in degrees tions at 4 rpm is at least as good as that
Fahrenheit multiplied by the time in from 50 revolutions at 10 rpm.
hours. Other factors affect the result-- Because of the significance of grinding
the rate of revolution of the truck mixer action (12, 13, 14, 26), as well as time to
or agitator and the grindability of the the consistency and water demand of
aggregates being two examples. Trans- the concrete, it is worth considering if
portation of mixed concrete in an agitator limitations on time should not also be
(or truck mixer used as an agitator) supplemented by limitations on the total
should be at a low rate of revolution 3 of number of revolutions of both mixing
the drum or blades. and agitating. That would make the
Central-mixed concrete is sometimes rate of less importance since, as pointed
transported in nonagitating equipment-- out, within limits applicable to truck
the approximate equivalent of ordinary mixers, the thoroughness of mixing is a
dump trucks. Truck bodies generally are function of the number of revolutions
specially designed to be water-tight and rather than of the rate. With the rate
to facilitate discharge. Well-proportioned properly controlled, a limitation of, say,
plastic mixtures--particularly those con- 350 revolutions would permit lengths of
taining entrained air--short hauls, and haul up to about 189 hr.
smooth roads present favorable condi- Insufficient control of rate and time of
tions for the use of such transportation mixing and agitation can contribute a
equipment. great deal to the lack of uniformity of
consistency. If one batch is mixed 10
Transit-Mixed Concrete: min at 10 rpm and another 10 rain at
There are more transit mixing opera- 5 rpm, the two consistencies are almost
tions than there are central mixing ones. sure to be measurably different. Also,
The facilities for controlling the quantity if one batch is mixed 50 revolutions and
of ingredients can be as good as for any another 200 revolutions, the consistencies
other operation. Control of consistency will again be different. The number of
is again the principal problem and is revolutions of mixing, particularly at
affected by mixing and agitating rate and the higher speeds, affects the rate of
time. It is most affected, of course, by the stiffening of the concrete due to the
quantity of mixing water, and here, in grinding of the cement and the aggre-
gates and the heat that is generated. To
4 The boldface numbers in parentheses refer ensure uniform consistency, the number
t o t h e list of r e f e r e n c e s a p p e n d e d to t h i s p a p e r ,
see p. 235. of revolutions at mixing and at agitating
WALKER ON RE~a)Y-MIxED CONCeET~ 231
speed should be regulated to be reason- Adjustment of Consistency:

ably uniform from batch to batch. Me-
However meticulous the control of
ticulous control is not necessary, but the
mixing water may be in either type of
fact that time and speed of mixing affect
operation, the need for adjustment of
consistency and water demand should be
consistency at the job frequently pre-
recognized (31).
It is desirable, but frequently not sents itself. Some operators, and some
consumers, argue for the desirability of
practicable, that mixing water be con-
carrying tempering water to permit such
trolled completely at the proportioning
adjustment of central-mixed concrete. To
plant. It may be measured there suc-
do that defeats a major advantage of the
cessfully only when the amount of mois-
central mixing operation--centralization
ture present in the aggregate is accurately
of responsibility for controlling the con-
known and is taken into account. Under
crete. The transit mixing operation lends
this procedure the required amount of
itself better to last-minute adjustments;
water, and no more, is introduced into
indeed such flexibility is one of its ad-
the truck mixer tank or directly into the
vantages.
mixer drum.
If circumstances require that water be
Modern truck mixers, when equipped
added to adjust the slump, it should be
with water tanks, have dual tanks, or
thoroughly incorporated by about 20 to
tanks with dual compartments, which are
30 or more revolutions of the drum or
independent of each other; one is for the
blades at mixing speed (27). The common
mixing water and the second for the wash
practice of too little mixing after a minor
water. Both tanks are equipped (or
adjustment in the amount of mixing
should be) with gages. The mixing-water
water is responsible for much of the
tank should also be equipped with a de-
lack of uniformity of consistency.
vice to limit the amount of water that
can be discharged without additional Wash Water:
manipulation.
With other factors controlled in uni- Wash water generally is carried both
form fashion, consistency alone is an ex- on agitators and mixers. If properly
cellent measure of mixing water--that is handled, there is no valid reason for ob-
to say, having determined the quantity of jecting to it, since it is needed if the agi-
water required to produce a given slump, tator or mixer is to be kept clean. In the
with other conditions the same, successive case of an agitator, wash water should be
batches of the same slump will contain completely discharged before the next
substantially the same amount of water. batch is loaded. When wash water is
It is interesting to consider just what permitted to be retained in the drum of a
effect variations in moisture content of truck mixer for re-use as a part of the
aggregates have on the concrete if the mixing water for the succeeding batch,
consistency is accurately controlled. it should be done only under the most
Calculations show that, for a given slump, careful supervision. There is no theoreti-
cal objection to using the wash water as
the cement factor and water ratio for
a part of the mixing water for the next
average concrete can be maintained
batch ff it is free of foreign matter such
within the limits of about =k2 per cent as hardened, set lumps of concrete
for ranges in moisture content of as much broken free from the mixing drum in the
as 2 to 8 per cent in the fine aggregate and cleaning process and if it is accurately
0 to 4 per cent in the coarse aggregate. measured.
D~schargeControl: of heat (due to grinding, solution, and

Discharge control is of outstanding some hydration), but it also affords more
importance for both the agitator and the time for the temperature to affect stiffen-
truck mixer. All of the advantages to be ing and water demand. The large-size
gained from meticulous control of opera- batch makes dissipation of heat a slower
tions prior to discharge may be thrown process than for the small-size batch.
away by careless or improper discharge Therefore, greater attention may be
methods. The mixer or agitator should be required in the control of temperature
rotated in the discharge direction and of ingredients and concrete for the ready-
the rate of discharge controlled by the mixed concrete operation than for the
speed of the drum. It should never be average job site operation.
controlled by varying the discharge open- THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TESTS
ing, since that practice tends to induce
segregation. The preceding description of the ready-
Unrestricted discharge at full drum mixed concrete operation affords a back-
speed, with a full discharge opening, is ground for a consideration of the par-
desirable whenever the concrete can be ticular significance to it of tests of con-
disposed of at the maximum discharge crete as a material, as well as certain
rate a b o u t 15 to 20 sec per cu yd. When related tests. Ready-mixed concrete is
discharge is intermittent, as into wheel- sold on the basis of specified properties.
barrows, buggies, etc., the rate should be Compliance with the requirements for
controlled, as already stated, by manipu- those properties, rather than the quality
lation of the drum speed. Under these of the finished end product (the struc-
circumstances, it sometimes may be ture), is the essence of the contract. The
desirable to require a few revolutions in accuracy of their determination is, there-
the mixing direction in the interval before, of special importance.
tween discharging operations.
Flat chutes should be avoided unless Sampling:
the concrete is helped along by means of The importance of sampling should be
shovels or hoes. Long chutes should also apparent. If a sample is really representa-
be avoided. In discharging from chutes tive and if test specimens are made and
or spouts, the discharge end should be handled properly, then the results may
near the surface of the concrete and be considered to reflect the quality of
should be swung back and forth to avoid the concrete. On the other hand, samples
coning and consequent segregation. In a that are carelessly taken cannot yield
road slab, a spreader is most helpful in significant results no matter how well
distributing the concrete with a mini- the tests are made. The exercise of in-
mum of segregation. formed judgment in selecting samples is
indispensable.
E~ect of Temperature (32, 33): ASTM Method C 1725 outlines pro-
High temperatures of fresh concrete cedures for taking samples from truck
and its ingredients are of more signifi- mixers, agitators, and dump trucks as
cance in the ready-mixed concrete opera- well as from stationary mixers. It re-
tion than in one at the job site because quires a minimum sample of 1 cu ft, and
of the time element and the size of the the problem of securing it is made more
batch. The elapsed time inherent in the difficult by the size of the ready-mixed
ready-mixed concrete operation not only Method of Sampling Fresh Concrete (C 172),
provides opportunity for the generation 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
concrete batch which will generally ex- Miscellaneous Consistency Controls:

ceed 100 cu ft and frequently 200 cu ft. The search for substitute controls that
It should be emphasized that ASTM will minimize the need for making the
Method C 172 requires that the sample slump test has been tong but not very
always be taken from the truck mixer, fruitful. There have been two ap-
agitator, or dump truck at the point of proaches: the measurement of free water
discharge, since it is there that the rein the aggregates to enable the mixing
sponsibility changes hands. No provision water to be measured accurately, and
is made for securing samples of ready- the direct measurement of the consis-
mixed concrete from the forms. The func- tency of the concrete.
tion of the ready-mixed concrete pro- Methods for measuring free water in
ducer is to furnish mixed concrete to the samples of aggregate have been devel-
purchaser at the job site. In his regular oped which permit reasonably accurate
capacity he has no control over the con- and rapid determinations. Most of these
crete after it is discharged from the trans- depend upon displacement of water r
portation vehicle. Many things can hap- (23, 37). Another approach has been to
pen to the concrete after it is discharged measure the pressure developed by the
and before it reaches its final resting gas evolved when calcium carbide is
place, but these must be the user's remixed with moist sand. The method is
sponsibility. fairly accurate, but a difficulty with it
Slump Test: is the small size of sample that can be
used. Electrical meters based on meas-
The first test commonly made on a urements of resistance or other electrical
sample of freshly mixed concrete is one characteristics have been offered on the
for slump. Slump is generally a basis for market, but they have not been very
acceptance. In spite of its apparent lack successful or popular. The practicability
of refinement, it is a good tool and an of determining the moisture content of
excellent measure of water content. In aggregate by drying with heat should not
ASTM Specifications C 94 the slump be overlooked.
test is used not only as an acceptance Recently, considerable attention has
test but also as a measure of the thor- been paid to the development of electrical
oughness and uniformity of mixing and meters for application to the aggregate
agitating; it is required that samples as it is being batched. Most of these de-
taken at approximately the one-quarter pend upon the measurement of electrical
and three-quarter points of the load shall resistance, although some that involve
differ in slump by not more than 2 in. the measurement of more complex elec-
The permissiveness of using nonagitating trical characteristics have been proposed
equipment for transportation is deter- or are in the development stage.
mined in a similar fashion. The approach to the direct measure-
The slump test is described in ASTM ment of consistency has been varied. The
Method C 143. 8 As stated, the method most direct has been to measure the
provides an excellent measure of water power required for the rotation of the
content, but in order for it to function mixer. Another approach has depended
and be reproducible, the procedures de- upon the measurement of the center of
scribed must be followed meticulously. gravity of the batch. Two or three meth-
e Method of Test for Slump of Portland- Method of Test for Surface Moisture in Fine
Cement Concrete (C 143), 1955 Book of ASTM Aggregate (C 70), 1955 Book of ASTM Stand-
Standards, Part 3. ards, Part 3.
234 TEsTs AND P R O P E R T I E S OF C O N C R E T E AND A G G R E G A T E S
TABLE I.--ESTIMATE OF COEFFICIENTS lies in the failure to understand the vari-

OF VARIATION FOR DIFFERENT
QUALITIES OF CONTROL.
ations inherent in them. When strength
tests are used as the basis for acceptance,
Coefficient of Variation
per cent
Quality oI Control it is essential that they be made strictly
in accordance with the standard pro-
Under 5 ......... A t t a i n a b l e o n l y in lab- cedures found in ASTM Method C 31. 8
oratory 15articular attention is directed to Sec-
5 to 10 . . . . . . . . . E x c e l l e n t f o r field
10 t o 15 . . . . . . . . . G o o d f o r field tion 7(b) which gives requirements for
15 t o 20 . . . . . . . . . F a i r f o r field handling "test specimens made to check
Over 20 . . . . . . . . . . P o o r for field
the adequacy of the laboratory design for
TABLE II.--REQUIRED OVER-DESIGN FOR DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF CONTROL.
Average Strength for Various Strengths to be Met (All Strengths Expressed as Per Cent of Specified
Strength)
Coefficient of
Variation of
Operation, 9 Chances in l0 a 99 Chances in I00 ~
per cent
100 90 8O 7o lOO 90 80 70
5 . . . . . . . . 107 113 102 ..o
10 . . . . . . . . 115 i;~ ' 130 117 i;i

12 . . . . . . . . 118 106 139 125 111
15 . . . . . . . . 124 111 iob 154 139 123
18 . . . . . . . . 130 117 104 173 155 138 121
20 ........ 135 121 108 188 169 150 131
25 . . . . . . . . 147 133 118 241 216 192 168
9 indivi d u a l t e s t r e s u l t s of 10, o r 99 of 100, s h o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o e x c e e d t h e p e r c e n t a g e s of t h e

s p e c i f i e d s t r e n g t h s h o w n in t h e c o l u m n h e a d s 100, 90, 80, a n d 70.
ods have involved some measurement of strength of the concrete, or as the basi s
displacement of a mechanism within the for acceptance."
mixer drum, the amount of displacement To state absolute minima for strength,
or the force applied depending upon the as is so frequently done, is not realistic.
consistency of the concre~e. Power and The conditions surrounding the molding,
center of gravity measurements have handling, and testing of a specimen con-
not proven to be sensitive enough to meet sisting of } cu ft of concrete taken from a
most demands. Devices inside the drum batch of 100 to 200 c u f t are such that
have proven difficult to maintain. All allowances must be made for substantial
in all, methods for the direct measure- variations. Comprehensive studies (2o,
ment of consistency cannot be said to 35, 35) of results of strength tests of both
have reached a stage of development field and laboratory concrete demonstrate
where they would be dependable. conclusively that values are distributed
so closely in accordance with the normal
Strength Tests: probability law that the theory of prob-
ability provides a very practical tool for
More and more ready-mixed concrete
their evaluation. A reasonably good
is being sold on the basis of strength.
picture of normal variations inherent
Even when strength is not specified, it is
in concrete testing is given in Table I.
very frequently used as a basis for
judging whether proportioning require- 8 M e t h o d of M a k i n g a n d C u r i n g C o n c r e t e
Compression and Flexure Test Specimens in the
ments have been met. A common error in F i e l d (C 31), 1955 B o o k of A S T M S t a n d a r d s ,
interpreting the results of strength tests P a r t 3.
W A L K E R ON READY-MIXED CONCRETE 235
Table I I translates this information to face will yield somewhat higher strengths
terms of "over-design" required to fit than they will if tested wet. Flexural test
conditions stated in Table I. specimens dried on the surface will yield
Although it is outside the scope of this substantially lower strengths than such
paper to discuss strength tests in detail, specimens tested wet.
some of the factors affecting strength,
Yidd:
which are especially pertinent to the
evaluation of ready-mixed concrete, will Tests for yield of concrete m a y de-
be mentioned. The temperature of the serve special mention in connection with
concrete at the time the specimens are ready-mixed concrete. Ready-mixed con-
molded has a significant effect on results crete is purchased on a volume basis.
of strength tests (32, 33); for example, Sometimes questions with respect to
concrete at 100 F for the first 24 hr m a y yield are raised because of the displace-
show a 28-day strength as low as 85 to ment of inadequately braced forms b y
90 per cent of the same concrete molded the large batches. A S T M Method C 1389
at 70 F. The adequacy of the molds (24) affords a satisfactory method for the
is of outstanding importance; absorptive determination of yield--one generally
paper molds have been found to result in more accurate than measurement in the
important reductions in strength. All form.
procedures involving handling, capping, CONCLUSION
curing, and testing are of great impor-
Because of the contractual relation-
tance.
ships between the producer and user of
The preceding discussion is based
ready-mixed concrete, all tests which
principally on compression tests, but
measure its acceptability are of special
it is equally applicable to flexure tests.
significance.
Mention should be made of the particular
importance of the moisture condition of 9 Method of Test for Weight per Cubic Foot,
Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Con-
the specimen at the time of test. Com- crete (C 138), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards,
pression test specimens dried on the sur- Part 3.
REFERENCES
(1) Duff A. Abrams, "Effect of Time of Mixing National Sand and Gravel Bulletin, Feb-
on the Strength and Wear of Concrete," ruary, 1930, p. 54; Rock Products, Febru-
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(1918). Bulletin, March, 1930, p. 17; Pit and
(2) W. K. Hatt, "Tests of a Concrete Mixer," Quarry, February 12, 1930, p. 57, and
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Civil Engrs., January, 1925. 1930, p. 90; Pit and Quarry, February 26,
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(6) Stanton Walker, "Ready-Mixed Concrete," for Ready-Mixed Concrete," Journal, Am.
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(10) T. C. Powers, "Constant Consistency As Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., September,
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News-Record, September 3, 1931, p. 368; (23) Stanton Walker, "Control of Quality of
mimeographed report, Nat. Ready Mixed Ready-Mixed Concrete," Journal, Am.
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Pit and Quarry, December 30, 1931, p. 31. Am. Concrete Inst., September, 1950;
(12) Willis A. Slater, "Tests of Concrete Con- Proceedings, Vol. 47, p. 17.
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STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Special Categories
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
BY RAY~IOND E. DAVIS1 AND J. W. KELLYa
Lightweight concrete as discussed in containing no aggregate, or at least no

this paper is that having a unit weight of coarse aggregate, with cellular structure
less than about 120 lb per c u f t ; thus it achieved through foaming or gas-forming
(11). 3
includes sand-cinder concrete but ex-
cludes concrete with air-cooled blast-
Table I gives the usual range of values
furnace slag as the coarse aggregate.
of unit weight and compressive strength
Lightweight concretes are of three prin- of lightweight concretes.
cipal types: ~
T A B L E I . - - W E I G H T A N D S T R E N G T H OF
1. StructuraL--Monolithic lightweight LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETES.
concrete for buildings, floors, roofs, load-
bearing partitions, bridge decks, ships, etc. Type of Lightweight Unit Compressive
Concrete -- Weight, Strength, psi
The main purpose is the reduction of weight m per cu It
and economy in design. Other desirable char-
acteristics of lightweight concrete such as Structural ........... 90 to 120 I 2000 to 5000
workability and strength are identical with Masonry units . . . . . . . / 75 to 95 I 1200 to 2000
those for plastic concrete containing aggre- Insulation or fill . . . . . . l 30 to 75t 300 to 800
gates of normal weight.
2. Masonry Units.--Machine-made units TYPES OF AGGREGATE
for walls and partitions either load-bearing
Lightweight aggregates m a y be classi-
or nonload-bearing; also used in prestressed
floor and wall assemblies. In addition to the fied with regard to source as either nat-
requisite light weight and moderate strength, ural or artificial; the artificial aggregates
it is usually desired that the assembly of are either by-products of some industrial
units be insulating and sound-deadening. operation or are specially processed b y
Lightweight masonry units are seldom used expanding, calcining, or sintering suit-
in exposed locations without a weather-re- able products or natural materials. Ex-
sistant coating or covering. amples are as follows:
3. Insulation or Fill.--Monolithic light-
weight concrete for overcoating or forming NaturaL--Pumice, scoria, volcanic
partitions and walls, or for floor and roof cinders.
fills. Precast units or panels may be em- By-product.--Cinders, coke.
ployed. Lightness and a high degree of in- Processed.--Clay, shale, slate, blast-
sulation are desired; strength is not impor- furnace slag, fly ash, diatomaceous shale,
tant. The concrete may even be "cellular," pumice or tuff, obsidian, perlite, vermiculite.
1 Director E meritu s, Engineering M a t e r i a l s

SPECIFICATIONS FOe ACGREGATE
L a b o r a t o r y , and Professor of Civil Engineering, Current ASTM specifications for
respectively, U n i v e r s i t y of California, Berkeley,
Calif. The boldface numbe rs in pa re nt he s e s refer
In addition, fireproofing coatings for s~ruc- to the list of references appended to t hi s paper,
rural steel are often of lightweight concrete. see p. 249.
238
DAVIS AND KELLY ON LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE 239
lightweight aggregate are C 3 3 0 (for Popouts: No surface popouts permitted.

structural concrete), 4 C 331 (for concrete Compressive strength, unit weight, and
masonry units), s and C 332 (for insulat- absorption: Aggregate for structural
ing concrete)3 I n most respects, Specifi- concrete only, to conform to tabulated
requirements.
cations C 330 and C 331 are alike; the
following tabulation summarizes their
Requirements of Specifications C 332
requirements but for brevity omits cer-
for lightweight aggregate for insulating
tain details and exceptions.
concrete are the same as those of Specifi-
Composition: Predominantly of lightweight cations C 330 and C 331 with respect to
cellular and granular inorganic material. composition, uniformity of grading, and
Cn'ading: To conform to tabulated require- uniformity of unit weight. The general
ments, which differ between the two types of lightweight aggregate for insulat-
specifications. ing concrete are as follows:
Uniformity of grading: Fineness modulus
should not vary by more than 7 per
cent from that of the sample submitted Group No. /.--Aggregates processed by
for acceptance. expanding materials such as perlite or ver-
Unit weight, oven-dry loose, lb per cuft, max: miculite, which generally produce concrete
Fine aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 weighing 15 to 50 lb per c u f t and having a
Coarse aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 thermal conductivity k factor of 0.45 to 1.50
Combined fire and coalse aggregate.. 65 Btu per in. per sq ft per hr per deg Fahr.
Uniformity of unit weight: Unit weight Group No. //.--Aggregates processed by
should not vary more than 10 per cent expanding, calcining, or sintering materials
from that of the sample submitted for such as blast-furnace slag, clay, diatomite,
acceptance. fly ash, shale, or slate; also those prepared by
Deleterious substances: processing natural materials such as pumice,
Organic impurities: Sample to pass stand- scoria, or tuff. These aggregates generally
ard test (ASTM Method C 40)3 produce concrete weighing 45 to 90 lb per
Staining: To pass specified staining test. cu It and having a thermal conductivity k
Clay lumps: Not to exceed 2 per cent by factor of 1.05 to 3.00 Btu per in. per sq ft per
dry weight. hr per deg Fahr.
Loss on ignition: Not to exceed 5 per cent,
except for cinder aggregates for masonry The grading and the unit weight of
units; in that case, not to exceed 35 per each group are required to conform to
cent. tabulated requirements, and maximum
Durability: In absence of proven record of permissible values of thermaI conductiv-
satisfactory durability, to pass an ac- ity of corresponding lightweight con-
celerated test. cretes are specified. There are no require-
Concrete-making properties: ments regarding deleterious substances
Drying shrinkage: Not to exceed 0.10 per or concrete-making properties.
cent.
4Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates SIGNIFICANT PROPERTIES OF CONCRETES
for Structural Concrete (C 330), 1955 Supple- AND AGGREGATES
ment to Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
5 Specifications for Lightweight Aggregate
for Concrete Masonry Units (C 331), 1955 Unit weight and strength of light-
Supplement to Book of ASTM Standards, weight concrete are of predominant con-
Part 3. cern to the user. For certain uses dur-
Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates
for Insulating Concrete (C 332), 1955 Book of ability, thermal conductivity, fire resist-
ASTM Standards, Part 3. ance, sound absorption, water absorption,
7 Method of Test for Organic Impurities in
Sands for Concrete (C 40), 1955 Book of ASTM shrinkage, and nailability are also im-
Standards, Part 3. portant. These characteristics apply also
240 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O~ CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
to the aggregates from which the con- concrete fresh, room-dry, and oven-dry.
crete is made. Usual ranges of values are shown in
Important but opposing relations are Table I.
that the strength of lightweight concrete
containing given aggregates varies Grading:
roughly with the unit weight, whereas Wh~re lightweight aggregates are em-
the thermal insulation varies inversely ployed in construction, the grading is
with the unit weight. usually about the same as that used for
A wide range of properties of concrete aggregates of normal weight. However, it
can be obtained with a given type of is desirable to employ the gradings that
lightweight aggregate, depending upon result from the manufacturing process,
the use (or nonuse) of natural sand, the and this is usually feasible because some
cement content, and the consistency of porosity due to harshness of grading is
the concrete. Accordingly, any quanti- not objectionable in lightweight concrete.
tative data cited here are to be consid- For most manufactured aggregates, it
ered as typical or rough average values. is difficult to produce satisfactory pieces
In general, methods of testing light- greater than about ~ in. in diameter.
weight concrete and aggregate are those ASTM specifications effectively limit the
employed for regular concrete. Differ- maximum size of lightweight aggregate
ences in test methods and special tests for structural concrete to ~ in. and that
are discussed in connection with the for masonry units to 89in~ For concrete to
properties under consideration. be used as insulation or fill, the maximum
size of commonly used aggregate (for ex-
Unit Weight: ample, perlite or vermiculite) is of the
The unit weight of lightweight aggre- order of that passing the No. 4 or No. 8
sieve.
gate is determined by ASTM Method
C 29, 8 utilizing the shoveling procedure, Associated with grading is shape and
except that the aggregate is tested in an surface texture of the particle. For plastic
concrete, it is desirable that the pieces be
oven-dry condition. The unit weight de-
pends upon the bulk specific gravity and rounded and fairly smooth. For machine-
the grading of the aggregate; it is directly made block, workability is less impor-
proportional to the specific gravity and tant.
inversely proportional to the percentage Specific Gravity:
of voids. Usual ranges and maximum
permissible values are shown in the pre- With respect to aggregate or concrete,
ceding tabulations. the bulk or over-all specific gravity is of
The unit weight of lightweight con- significance rather than the apparent or
crete depends principally upon the unit the true specific gravity. The standard
weight and amount of lightweight aggre- test for bulk specific gravity depends
gate. In testing masonry units it is cus- upon the use of a saturated surface-dry
tomary to work with air-dry specimens, sample. When applied to lightweight ag-
whereas for structural concrete it is gregates, which usually have rough
customary to use saturated specimens; vesicular surfaces, the test requires con-
however, in one extensive test series (I0), siderable skill and judgment, and rela-
the unit weight was determined with the tively low reproducibility is usual.
For graded aggregates produced by
8 Method of Test for Unit Weight of Aggre- processing individual pieces (instead of
gate (C 29), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards,
Part 3. crushing), usually the smaller the pieces
the higher the bulk specific gravity. In for perlite to 1060 psi for an expanded
order to reduce the specific gravity of the clay and shale.
smaller sizes, these pieces may be In general, for a given type of light-
processed separately. For aggregates weight aggregate, the strength of the ag-
produced by crushing expanded pieces, gregate (and consequently of the con-
those pieces of tow specific gravity are crete) varies roughly with the unit
likely to be relatively rough and angular, weight of the aggregate. Such a general
with resulting higher void content and relation between strength and unit
lower unit weight. weight is given by Price and Cordon (9).
The strength also varies inversely with
Strength: the absorption. ASTM Specifications
Two factors enter into the strength of C 330 require that structural concrete
lightweight concrete--the strength of the be produced that will satisfy one or more
aggregate and the strength of the hard- of the compressive strength requirements
ened cement-water paste. Among the in Table II, without exceeding the cor-
various types of lightweight aggregate, responding maximum absorption and
there are large differences in strength and unit-weight values.
For lightweight concrete with light-
TABLE II.--SPECIFIED RELATIONSHIP
OF THE PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL weight aggregate only, the practical up-
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE. per limit of compressive strength appears
to be of the order of 5000 psi, regardless
28-Day Compressive Absorption, Unit Weight of cement content, although, occasion-
Strength, rain, psi maX,byvolumePer
cent max, lb per cn ft
ally, higher values have been obtained.
4000 ............. I 15 115
For extremely light insulating or fill con-
aooo. . . . . . . . . . . . . I 18 1 lO cretes having a unit weight of, say, 35 lb
2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 21 1 lO5 per cuft, the upper limit of 28-day com-
pressive strength may be of the order of
toughness, and all but the strongest light- 200 to 300 psi.
weight aggregates are likely to be weaker The ratio of flexural strength to com-
than hardened cement-water pastes pressive strength is generally higher for
within the usual range of cement con- lightweight concrete than for regular
tents. As a general rule, the strength of a concrete. The strength in bond with rein-
lightweight concrete will be less than that forcing steel is about the same as that for
of a concrete of equal cement content but corresponding regular concrete.
containing aggregate of normal weight.
Also, with a given cement content, the Absorption:
lower the strength of the lightweight ag-
For lightweight concrete or aggregate,
gregate the lower will be the strength of
the percentage of absorption by weight
the lightweight concrete.
is not a value directly comparable to that
A simple test for the crushing strength
for concrete or aggregate of normal
of a lightweight aggregate (9) is to com-
weight. For comparative purposes, ab-
pact the aggregate lightly to a depth of
5 in. in a 3 by 6-in. cylinder and then to sorption should be expressed in terms of
apply a load through a piston fitted into volume.
the top of the cylinder. The unit load re- Low absorption is considered desirable
quired to compress the aggregate 1 in. is for structural lightweight concrete, as
taken as the measure of strength; in the evidenced by the specification require-
series of tests cited, it varied from 14 psi ments in Table II. Other things being
242 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCR~ETE AND AGGREGATES
equal, the lower the absorption of the sistency, the slump of lightweight con-
lightweight aggregate the lower will be crete is about one half that of regular
the absorption and the drying shrinkage concrete. However, consistency tests are
of the concrete in which it is employed. of value only in maintaining uniformity
Because of the open structure and ir- after the desired consistency has been
regular surface of most lightweight ag- established by judgment and experience.
gregates, the measurement of absorption The slump test is a less reliable indicator
is difficult and uncertain. Calculated of consistency changes for lightweight
water-cement ratios are correspondingly concrete than for regular concrete. Some
uncertain and are seldom used as the use has been made of the ball-penetration
direct basis of mix design and control. test for lightweight concrete, employing
Since the progress of absorption of ini- a 6-in. 20-1b ball instead of the 6-in. 30-
tially dry, porous, lightweight aggregates lb ball used for regular concrete2
during the concrete mixing period causes
Air Content:
rapid and large changes in consistency, it
is customary to presoak such aggregates. Measurement of the amount of en-
Absorption is not necessarily related to trained air in lightweight concrete is un-
specific gravity nor to total pore space. certain because of the large percentage of
It has been found possible to manufac- air in the pores of the aggregate. One
ture lightweight aggregate of low specific method of control of air content of light-
gravity but also of low absorption due weight concrete is to use the same
either to an impervious shell or to a amount of air-entraining agent as that
vesicular structure with discontinuous which, with the same cement, would pro-
pore spaces. duce the desired amount of air in cor-
responding regular concrete.
Workability: Shrinkage:
A characteristic feature of plastic Investigations have shown that the
lightweight concretes is the tendency of shrinkage upon drying of lightweight
the larger and lighter pieces of aggregate concrete is usually considerably greater
to work to the surface during placement than that of regular concrete having the
and finishing. This tendency should be same cement content. For certain manu-
overcome through the use of as stiff a factured lightweight aggregates of low
consistency as practicable and through absorption, however, the shrinkage may
the avoidance of overvibration or other be little or no greater than that of cor-
overmanipulation. Air-entrainment is responding regular concrete. One factor
often employed; it not only promotes tending to cause high shrinkage is the use
workability but also decreases weight of excessively wet mixes, which cause
somewhat and increases weathering re- high shrinkage in any concrete. Other
sistance. factors influencing shrinkage are the
In many cases, the desired workability rigidity of the aggregate (restraining the
and strength are attained through the use shrinkage of the paste) and the size of its
of natural sand as fine aggregate. The pores or capillaries.
unit weight of the concrete is correspond- Masonry units of lightweight concrete
ingly increased. should be dry at the time of being laid if
The surfaces of crushed lightweight ag- excessive shrinkage of the wall is to be
gregates are likely to be quite rough, avoided.
with a corresponding adverse effect on
9 Method of Test for Ball Penetration in
workability of plastic concretes. Fresh Portland-Cement Concrete (C 360), 1955
For concretes of apparently equal con- Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
DAVIS AND K E L L Y ON LIOHTW-EIGHT CONCRETE 243
High shrinkage alone is not necessarily regular concrete. This characteristic is

indicativ.e of any pronounced tendency favorable in that it tends to relieve local-
toward cracking, since resistance to ized high stresses, but it tends toward
cracking also involves tensile strength, eventual deformations which may result
modulus of elasticity, and creep (plastic in excessive deflection. Considerably
flow) of the concrete. The extensibility of greater loss of prestress is to be expected
lightweight concrete is generally higher in prestressed lightweight concrete.
than that of regular concrete. For certain
lightweight aggregates, the tendency to- Durability:
ward cracking may be no greater, and Although various lightweight struc-
perhaps even less, than for some aggre- tural concretes exhibit large differences
gates of normal weight; this observation in resistance to the destructive action of
has been borne out in structures in freezing and thawing, it appears that
service. those containing aggregate of low ab-
The test for shrinkage of lightweight sorption and having a compressive
concrete is essentially the same as that strength above 2000 psi can be classed as
for regular concrete (ASTM Method satisfactory. No disruption from alkali-
C 157)# o with modifications in details of aggregate reaction has been observed in
mix and consistency. Bars of mortar or lightweight concretes.
concrete, approximately 11 in. long, are Comparative tests on lightweight
cast and are standard-cured for 28 days, masonry units (4) indicate that the re-
then exposed to air of 50 4- 2 per cent sistance to freezing and thawing is af-
relative humidity at 73.4 q- 2 F. Obser- fected but little by the type of aggregate;
vations of change in length are made at the richness of the mix has a far greater
intervals, referred to the length at the effect. Masonry units made of very stiff
age of 1 day. mixes are often quite porous and there-
fore would not be expected to be highly
Elasticity and .Plasticity: resistant to freezing and thawing.
In general, the modulus of elasticity of Popout materials in lightweight aggre-
lightweight plastic concretes is relatively gate are prohibited by the current ASTM
low compared with that of regular con- Specifications C330 and C331. The
cretes. The modulus varies roughly with ASTM staining test is intended to reveal
the strength. For structural lightweight the presence of iron compounds; if stain-
concretes, the modulus of elasticity is ing is excessive a chemical analysis is
usually of the order of 2,000,000 psi. made, and such an aggregate that con-
Lightweight concretes used for insulation tains more than a specified amount of
or fill may have a modulus as low as ferric oxide is rejected.
200,000 psi. In structural concrete, the Corrosion of Reinforcement:
stiffness affects the division of load be-
tween concrete and steel, and the def- Natural and manufactured lightweight
ormation or deflection under load will aggregates are generally free from corro-
be greater for a lightweight concrete sive compounds and may be used safely
member than for one of regular concrete. in contact with steel. Cinder concrete has
The plastic flow or creep of lightweight been questioned with respect to the ef-
concrete is generally greater than that of fect of sulfur and perhaps of other com-
pounds, but large quantities of properly
10 Method of Test for Volume Change of
Cement Mortar and Concrete (C 157), 1955 made cinder concrete not exposed to
Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. moist conditions have been in service for
many years without ill effects on the Fire Resistance:

metal with which it is in contact. Within the range of unit weights com-
I t appears that lightweight concrete monly employed for lightweight struc-
can be used safely for reinforced structural concrete, fireproofing, and precast
tures exposed to weathering, provided the masonry units, it appears that the fire re-
absorption is low. In permeable con- sistance, as determined by standard fire
cretes into which moisture could pene- tests, offered by a 2-in. thickness of light-
trate readily, the steel would be inade- weight concrete is approximately the
quately protected. equivalent of that offered by a 3-in.
thickness of regular concrete.
Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity of dry light- Acoustical Properties:
weight concrete varies with the unit The transmission of sound through
weight; the type of lightweight aggregate concrete walls is so small that differences
appears to have little effect. If the ther- between lightweight concrete and regular
mal conductivity of regular concrete is concrete would appear to be negligible.
taken as 1, that of structural lightweight With regard to the acoustics within a
concrete will be of the order of -~, for room, however, lightweight concretes
masonry units ~, and for insulating or generally exhibit relatively high absorp-
fill concretes i~y. tion with resulting reduced reverbera-
Published values of thermal conduction, especially if the surface is rough-
tivity of lightweight concretes almost in- textured as is customary. In general, the
variably refer to the material in the dry better the insulating value the better the
state. The presence of a small amount of acoustic value in this respect.
moisture in the interior of a lightweight
concrete greatly increases its conductiv- Nailability and Sawability:
ity; hence under conditions of continuous
or intermittent exposure to moisture, an It is a matter of common experience
aggregate (and concrete) of relatively that lightweight concretes such as are
10w absorption should be used if a high used in the manufacture of masonry
degree of insulation is desired. units are readily nailable, and that the
Thermal conductivity is determined holding power of the nails is considerable
by the guarded hot-plate method, and lasting. Similarly many lightweight
ASTM Method C 177.11 concretes are easily sawed or cut. In
general, the lower the unit weight the
Thermal l~xpansion: better the nailability and sawability.
Regular concretes show very large dif- CELLULAR CONCRETES
ferences in thermal expansion, depending
upon the aggregate employed. Most, but Cellular concretes weigh 10 to 100 lb
not all, lightweight-aggregate concretes per cu ft, contain no lightweight aggre-
exhibit somewhat lower thermal expan- gate, and have a homogeneous void or
sion. Vermiculite concrete may have a cell structure. Means of attaining the
higher thermal expansion than that of cellular structure include the following:
regular concrete.
(a) Introduction of a preformed foam
n M e t h o d of Test for T h e r m a l Conductivity into a cement-pozzolan-water-ac-
of Materials by M e a n s of t h e Guarded H o t ce]erator mixture in a mixer.
Plate (C 177), 1955 Book of A S T M Standards,
P a r t 3. (b) Addition of a foaming agent to a ce-
ment- pozzolan - water - accelerator which is pozzolanic. Through autoclave

mixture in a mixer. curing the full strength is attained in
(c) Genelation of gas through the use of less than one day, and the shrinkage is
aluminum powder (hydrogen) or only a fraction of that for moist-cured
hydrogen peroxide (oxygen). concretes. Autoclaved concretes weighing
(d) Use of excess water.
40 lb per cu ft may exhibit compressive
Cellular concretes have long been used "strength of 500 to more than 2000 psi
in Europe but only to a limited extent and shrinkage of only 0.02 to 0.10 per
in the United States. An excellent review cent, depending upon the chemical and
and description of cellular concretes is physical nature of the ingredients. As
given by Valore (11), from whose work compared with moist-cured lightweight-
much of the present discussion is drawn. aggregate concretes of equal weight,
A given type of cellular concrete can autoclaved cellular concretes have
be made over a wide range of unit greater strength and lower shrinkage but
weights, with corresponding strengths higher absorption.
and insulating values, depending upon
whether the concrete is to be used for PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS O1~
fireproofing, insulation, load-bearing LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES
members, or fill. Thermal conductivity Pumice:
varies with density, as in the case of
lightweight-aggregate concretes. Absorp- True pumice is a light, spongy, lava
tion is relatively high. rock through which steam escaped while
In one group of cellular concretes, the the rock was still in the molten state.
desired properties are attained through Commercially, volcanic ash, the particles
moist curing (including steam curing) at of which have been cemented together in
atmospheric pressure. In another group, nature, is also referred to as pumice. In
the concretes are autoclaved (steam- the Western states are many deposits
cured under pressure) at temperatures of pumice varying greatly from one
near 350 F. another in strength and absorption. The
quality of those which are structurally
Molst-Cured Concretes: weak and of high absorption may be im-
Moist-cured concretes contain port- proved by calcination at the temperature
land cement, either neat or with sand. of incipient fusion.
Neat-cement mixtures having unit
weights of 10 to 20 lb per cu ft exhibit Cinders:
little strength and high drying shrinkage When cinders are available as a by-
but have good insulating properties. product from the burning of coal in
Cement-sand mixtures exhibit higher industrial furnaces, they are widely usod
strength and less drying shrinkage but as lightweight aggregate. Most cinder
are still not comparable with lightweight- aggregate is used in masonry units, al-
aggregate concretes of equal weight in though much is also employed in fire-
regard to strength, shrinkage, and ab- proofing and fill. Cinders vary widely in
sorption. quality, even those from the same plant,
depending upon the coal used and upon
Autoclaved Concretes: combustion conditions in the furnace.
Autoclaved concretes contain either The principal objections to the use of
portland cement or lime and a finely cinders for reinforced concrete construc-
divided siliceous material the effect of tion have been the possible presence of
deleterious sulfur compounds and hard- and too harsh for best results; the mix
burned lime and the exceedingly harsh should be designed by the trial method.
nature of the cinders which affects the
workability and makes the water require- Expanded Clay or Shale:
merit high.
Lightweight aggregates usually of
For small work, a simple procedure for
vesicular structure are produced by
judging the quality of cinders is given by
heating certain clays and shales to a
Christensen (2). For large or important
temperature of incipient fusion, when
work, he recommends the following
expansion usually takes place. Two
specifications:
general processes are used: (1) relatively
"Cinders, when used for concrete, shall be large pieces of the raw material are
the product of high-temperature combustion calcined and then are crushed into de-
of coal and/or coke---known as 'Industrial sired sizes (for example, Haydite) ; (2) the
Cinders,' 'Boiler Cinders,' or 'Steam raw material is first either crushed or
Cinders,' to the exclusion of residue from preformed into desired sizes and is then
domestic furnaces. The cinders shall be well calcined in such a manner as to prevent
burned, free from foreign matter, and so the individual pieces from sticking to-
graded horn coarse to fine as to produce a
gether, after which the product is cooled
cinder concrete (or sand-cinder concrete)
meeting the strength requirement of the and then screened (for example, Cel-Seal,
building code. The cinders shall contain not Gravelite, Nodutite, Rocklite). If the
more than 35 per cent of combustible con- clay does not expand naturally at high
tent by weight, nor more than 0.45 per cent temperatures, it may be treated with a
sulfur (S) as sulfide, nor more than 1.00 per small quantity of some material that will
cent sulfur trioxide (SO~) as sulfate." produce the desired expansion. For some
aggregates, a finely divided refractory
In addition, it would seem desirable to material is used during the burning proc-
perform autoclave tests on concrete bars ess to form a coating on the pieces of
to guard against excessive expansion or aggregate in order to prevent them from
popouts such as may be produced by sticking together and to seal and smooth
particles of hard-burned lime or other
the surfaces.
expansive compounds. For structural concretes in which ex-
For cinders that exhibit excessive expanded clay aggregates are employed
pansion or popouts, the difficulty may without natural sand, the saturated unit
usually be corrected by keeping the weight is normally 90 to 105 lb per cu ft.
cinders moist for several weeks before and for those containing natural sand,
they are used. However, this practice 105 to 120 lb per cu ft. For masonry units
will not correct unsoundness due to un- with their relatively low cement content
burned coal. and in some cases low content of natural
As in the case of other lightweight sand, the dry unit weight is of the order
aggregates, if workability is desired (as of 75 to 90 lb per cu ft.
for plastic concrete) it is necessary to
use some natural sand even though the Processed Diatomaceous Earth or Shale:
weight will thus be increased; cement-
cinder concrete weighs about 85 lb per Lightweight aggregates are produced
cu ft, whereas cement-sand-cinder con- from diatomaceous earths or shales which
crete weighs up to 115 lb per cu ft. The are first sized by crushing and are then
commonly used cement-sand-cinders mix calcined in such a manner as to prevent
of 1:2:5 by volume is probably too lean the individual pieces from sticking to-
~)AVIS AND KELLY ON LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE 247
gether. For one type (Diacrete and Processed Volcanic Glasses:

Raylite), an impure diatomaceous shale Some of the so-called pumices, which
is sprayed with oil before being fed to a are more accurately designated as tusffs,
rotary kiln; for another (Airox), the are composed principally of particles of
diatomaceous shale is naturally impreg- volcanic ash weakly cemented together.
nated with oil. These may be processed by calcining in a
One type of Airox is particularly rotary kiln to increase their strength and
suitable for lightweight concretes of decrease their absorption materially. The
high strength and low absorption. To raw material is screened and is then
produce this type, the material is proc- burned at a temperature as high as
essed in a rotary kiln by being heated to possible without sticking. The processing
the temperature of incipient fusion; at decreases the volume slightly and cor-
this time the pieces become sticky and respondingly increases the unit weight of
pick up a finely divided coating material the aggregate.
of higher fusion temperature which is When o3sidian is heated in a rotary
fed with the material into the kiln. The kiln to the temperature of fusion, gases
individual pieces of the processed aggre- are released which expand the material.
gate, down through the sand sizes, are of The interior of the glass is of vesicular
vesicular structure and have a nearly structure, the pieces are nearly spherical,
impervious outer shell. and the surfaces are smooth and quite
A second type of Airox is suitable for impervious. A coating material is fed into
the manufacture of masonry units and of the kiln in order to prevent sticking.
certain structural concretes where moder- t~erlite is another volcanic glass, similar
ate strength is required and where to obsidian but higher in combined water.
absorption is not of importance. To pro- When heated quickly, perlite expands
duce this type, the crushed raw shale is with disruptive force and breaks into
sintered in open beds at a temperature small expanded particles. Under properly
below fusion. The processed aggregate is controlled conditions, agglomerations of
expanded particles remain bound to-
light in weight but is not of vesicular
gether at their points of contact to pro-
structure; it is fairly high in absorption.
duce an aggregate of high void content
The unit weights and strengths of con-
and extremely light weight. Usually ex-
cretes containing processed diatomaceous panded perlite is produced in the sand
shales are comparable to those of corre- sizes. The unit weight of a well-graded
sponding concretes containing expanded aggregate is usually of the order of 10
aggregate processed from days, shales, to 12 lb per cu ft. It is employed in con-
and slags. cretes where a high degree of insulation
is desired and where low strengths are
Sintered Aggregates: permissible; the unit weight of the con-
One process for the production of crete is often as low as 30 lb per cuft and
lightweight aggregate is that of sintering the compressive strength about 300 psi.
suitable material on moving grates and Examples of commercial perlite aggre-
crushing the resulting product. One type gates are Permalite, Superlite, Ryolex,
(Lelite) is made by sintering a mixture of CBM Aggregate, and Per Alex.
anthracite coal and shale, another Expanded Vermiculite:
(Sinter-lite) by sintering fly ash and Another aggregate of extremely light
boiler-furnace slag. weight is made by sudden heating of
vermiculite, a micaceous mineral. The for high percentages of fine aggregate

expansion produces exfoliated or lami- and in some cases for some natural sand
nated grains which range in size up to or an air-entraining admixture. In many
or 88in. and which weigh 5 to 15 lb per cases, natural sand is employed to pro-
cu ft. Vermiculite concretes usually duce concrete of higher strength and
weigh 20 to 55 lb per c u f t and have lower absorption than would be obtained
compressive strengths of 50 to 500 psi. with lightweight aggregate alone.
They are excellent for insulation. Com- A paper by Price and Cordon (9) con-
mercial vermiculites include Alexite, tains a table showing, for various types
Vesco, Vosicon, and Zonolite. of lightweight aggregate, the cement
content, unit weight, and thermal con-
Expanded Slag: ductivity of lightweight concretes for
By sudden cooling of blast-furnace compressive strengths ranging from 200
slag with water or steam under controlled to 5000 psi.
conditions, as the slag flows from the Since the absorption of most light-
furnace or is poured from a ladle, the weight aggregates is high, the use of dry
molten slag can be broken up and its or moist aggregates in construction re-
structure greatly expanded to produce a sults in large arm rapid changes in the
lightweight aggregate. (Ordinary water- free-water content of the batch and
cooling by flooding produces granulated, hence in the consistency of the mix as the
not expanded, slag.) Control of the ex- batch is mixed and placed. To avoid these
panding process differs among manu- changes, when aggregates of high ab-
facturers. Some of the brands of ex- sorption are used, it is common practice
panded slag are Calicel, Celocrete Aggre- to presoak the aggregate. However, for
gate (or Pottsco), Foamed Slag, Slaglite, ready-mixed concrete which is to be in
Superock, Tuff-Lite, and Waylite. The the mixer for a considerable period of
aggregate usually weighs 30 to 60 lb per time, the use of dry aggregate may be
cuft, depending upon the grading. Light- preferred because of its greater uni-
weight concretes are made within the formity.
usual ranges of weight and strength The porous structure and rough sur-
previously mentioned for masonry units face of most lightweight aggregates
and structural concrete; they are com- render difficult, if not impossible, the
parable to those containing expanded- accurate determination of absorption
clay aggregates. and free moisture and therefore the
determination of the true water-cement
PROPORTIONING AND M A N U F A C T U R E OF ratio. Hence it is customary to control
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE the water content by controlling the
Proportions of materials for light- consistency. Because of the extremely
weight concrete are determined by trial, high water requirement of some aggre-
with consideration given to workability, gates, it is considered convenient, when
unit weight, strength, and any special these aggregates are used, to base the
requirements such as absorption, shrink- water content on the quantity of aggre-
age, insulation, and durability. Since the gate rather than on the quantity of
maximum size is usually less than ~ in., cement.
the proportion of fine aggregate is high. Because of the large difference in
The characteristic harshness of most density between the pieces of lightweight
lightweight aggregates, even those that aggregate and the cement, cement paste,
are relatively rounded in shape, also calls or any natural sand in the mix, there is a
pronounced tendency for the lightweight as tamping and does not cause segrega-
aggregate to rise toward the surface of tion (4).
plastic concretes, particularly those of The time of mixing required for light-
wet consistency. This undesirable tend- weight concrete is somewhat greater
ency toward segregation should be than that for ordinary concrete. I t is
minimized by avoidance of overmanipu-
usually considered desirable to mix the
lation. Special care should be taken in
aggregate with the water before the
the use of vibrators, since segregation
occurs quickly during vibration. Slabs cement is added. I n the case of perlite
should be screeded and troweled with as and vermiculite aggregates, however, it
few strokes as possible. For machine- is preferable to mix all the other in-
made masonry units of dry concrete, gredients (water, cement, and any admix-
vibration appears to be about as effective ture) before the aggregate is added.
P,.EFERENCES
(I) F. E. Richart and V. P. Jensen, "Construc- I. C. 7195, U. S. Bureau of Mines, 26 pp.
tion and Design Features of Haydite Con- (1942).
crete," Journal,, Am. Concrete Inst., Octo- (8) P. H. Petersen, "Burned Shale and Ex-
ber, 1930; Proceedings, Vol. 27, pp. 151-182. panded Slag Concretes with and Without
(2) Einar Christensen, "Cinders as Concrete Air-Entraining Admixture," Journal, Am.
Aggregate," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Concrete Inst., October, 1948; Proceedings,
February, 1931; Proceedings, Vol. 27, pp. Vol. 45, pp. 165-175.
583-646. (9) Walter H. Price and William A. Cordon,
(3) Carl A. Menzel, "Tests of the Fire Re- "Tests of Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete
sistance and Strength of Walls of Concrete Designed for Monolithic Construction,"
Masonry Units," Portland Cement Assn., Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., April, 1949;
215 pp. (1934). Proceedings, Vol. 45, pp. 581-600.
(4) Kurt F. Wendt and Paul M. Woodworth,
"Tests on Concrete Masonry Units Using (10) Ralph W. Kluge, Morris M. Sparks, and
Tamping and Vibration Molding Methods," Edward C. Tuma, "Lightweight-Aggre-
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., November, gate Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete
1939; Proceedings, Vol. 36, pp. 121-163. Inst., May, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. 45, pp.
(5) Gregory P. Tschebotareff, "Design of 625-642.
Light-Weight Zonolite Mixes," Journal, (11) Rudolph C. Valore, Jr., "Cellular Con-
Am. Concrete Inst., February, 1941; Pro- cretes," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May,
ceedings, Vol. 37, pp. 509-515. June, 1954; Proceedings, Vol. 50, pp. 773-
(6) George W. Washa and Kurt F. Wendt, 796, 817-836.
"The Properties of Lightweight Structural (12) G. W. Washa, J. C. Saemann, and C.
Concrete Made with Waylite Aggregate," Warren, "Effect of Curing on the Proper-
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., June~ 1942; ties Affecting Shrinkage Cracking of Con-
Proceedings, Vol. 38, pp. 505-517. crete Block," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
(7) Forrest T. Moyer, "Lightweight Aggre- May, 1955; Proceedings, Vol. 51, pp. 833-
gates /or Concrete," Information Circular 852.
PART III
Tests and Properties of Concrete
Aggregates
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete Aggregates
PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION*
BY RICHARD C. 1V[IELENZ1
Petrographic examination of concrete method has been applied similarly by

aggregate is visual examination and the Corps of Engineers since before
analysis of the material in terms of both 1940 (2). Techniques of petrographic ex-
lithology and properties of the individual amination are described in several papers
particles. The procedure requires use of published during and since 1946 (1, 2, 3,
a hand lens and petrographic and stereo- 4, S, 5). Petrographic examination of
scopic microscopes; less commonly, aggregates is performed also in several
X-ray diffraction or differential thermal other governmental agencies and state
analysis is a necessary part of the pro- highway departments and may be ob-
cedure. By petrographic examination, the tained through commercial laboratories.
relative abundance of specific types of In 1952, the ASTM accepted a Tenta-
rocks and minerals is established; the tive Recommended Practice for Petro-
physical and chemical attributes of each,
graphic Examination of Aggregates for
such as particle shape, surface texture,
Concrete (C 295), 3 and the procedure was
pore characteristics, hardness, and po-
adopted as standard in 1954. Reference
tential alkali reactivity, are described;
coatings are identified and described; and to petrographic analysis is included in
the presence of contaminating substances the Tentative Specifications for Concrete
is determined. Aggregates (C 33). 3
As will be discussed subsequently, The abundant data obtained and the
petrographic examination contributes in rapidity with which petrographic exam-
several ways to the investigation, selec- ination can be completed justify more
tion, testing, and control of aggregates. general use of the method in investiga-
Consequently, the method is being tion, selection, manufacture, and use of
progressively more widely applied. Since concrete aggregate.
1936, all aggregates used in concrete con- This paper summarizes the objectives
struction by the Bureau of Reclamation and applications of petrographic exam-
were examined petrographically as a part ination of aggregates with reference to
of the basis for their selection (1).2 The gravel, sand, crushed stone, slag, and the
*Presented at the Fifty-seventh Annual most common types of lightweight aggre-
Meeting of the Society, June 13-18, 1954. Ad- gate. Techniques of the examination are
ditional information on the petrography of ag-
gregates is given in a similar paper by the au- treated very briefly because satisfactory
thor, published in the Proceedings, Am. Soc. instructions have been published (2, 3, 6)
Testing Mats., Vol. 54, p. 1207 (1954).
1Head, Petrographic Laboratory, Bureau of and are included in ASTM Recom-
Reclamation, Denver, Colo. mended Practice C 295. 3
to the list of referencesappended to this paper,
s e e p. 272. 3 1955 Book of ABTM Standards, Part 3.
253
www.astm.org
PURPOSE OF THE PETROGRAPHIC liar sources can be compared with aggre-

EXAMINATION OF CONCRETE gates upon which information is avail-
AGGREGATES able. This application is discussed below.
Preliminary Determination of Quality:
Correlation of Samples with Aggregates
Preliminary petrographic examination Previously Tested or Used:
of concrete aggregate is performed either
in the field or in the laboratory as an Detailed petrographic examination
permits the comparison of samples with
adjunct to geologic examination, ex-
aggregates previously tested or used.
ploration, and sampling. As will be shown
subsequently, the examination assists the This correlation can be made only by
geologist or materials engineer in deter- petrographic examination. Thus, data
and experience previously obtained by
mining the extent to which consideration
of an undeveloped deposit is justified.
Also, the preliminary petrographic ex-
amination indicates the relative quality
of aggregates from alternate sites. By
revealing variations in the material, ex-
amination of exposures or core from pilot
drill holes establishes the minimum pro-
gram of exploration and sampling neces-
sary for acceptance or rejection of the
deposit.
Establishing Properties and Probable Per-
orma~ce:
Petrographic examination is primarily
a supplement to the acceptance tests. FIo. 1.--Popouts Produced by Claystone,
Shale, and Chert in Concrete Pavement near
Probable performance of concrete ag- Jackson, Mich.
gregate is estimated in two general ways Courtesy of the Michigan State Highway De-
by petrographic examination. First, the partment.
examination reveals the composition and
physical and chemical characteristics of use and time-consuming tests of similar
the constituents. From this information, aggregates can be applied in the selection
the probable response of the aggregate to of materials proposed for current work,
such phenomena as attack by cement even though the materials may not have
alkalies, freezing-thawing, wetting-dry- come from the earlier used sources.
ing, and heating-cooling, usually can be By relating the sample to aggregates
estimated. The rapidity with which the previously used in construction, aggre-
petrographic examination predicts poten- gate which is indicated to be unsound by
tial alkali reactivity of aggregate is espe- standard tests may be found adequate,
cially valuable because of the long time or conversely, aggregate indicated to be
commonly required by tests of concrete sound in standard tests might be found
or mortar. unsatisfactory for the intended use.
Second, petrographic examination es- For example, gravel in certain deposits
tablishes the fundamental nature of ag- near Jackson, Mich. meets usual specifi-
gregates so that aggregates from unfami- cation requirements for soundness, abra-
MIELENZ ON PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION 255
sion resistance, and content of soft parti- complete breakdown of a small propor-
cles, yet produces objectionable popouts tion of unsound or soft particles or partial
in pavements after exposure for two disintegration of the greater proportion
winters (Fig. 1). Petrographic examina- of the aggregate?
tion of the gravel and of particles produc-
ing popouts during service has revealed Detection of Contamination:
the identity of the unsound rock types. Petrographic examination is the best
Examination of proposed materials will method by which deleterious and ex-
demonstrate the presence or absence of traneous substances can be detected and
these rock types and thus will indicate, determined quantitatively. Inadvertent
in the light of other data, whether the contamination with natural substances,
aggregate should be accepted, rejected,
industrial products, or wastes, such as
or subjected to special tests.
Selecting and Interpreting Other Tests:

All properties of aggregates influenc-
ing performance of concrete are not
ordinarily evaluated by test prior to
selection of the aggregate to be used in
the work, primarily because of cost and
time required. Such factors as thermal
properties and volume change with wet-
ting-drying rarely are determined. Other
properties, such as chemical reactivity or
effect of the aggregate on the freezing-
thawing resistance of concrete, usually
are not determined for lack of time or
facilities. Consequently, it is worthwhile Fla. 2.--Coal in Sintered Clay Before Crush-
ing (X 2.7) (reduced one-half in reproduction).
to apply a test by which the relative sig-
nificance of such properties can be de- from overburden or from trucks or rail-
termined and the need for supplementary road cars not properly cleaned of previous
quantitative tests indicated. cargo, may decrease the quality of aggre-
Petrographic examination aids inter- gate markedly. Similar contamination
pretation of other tests. For example, are introduced by containers may invalidate
the particles identified as clay lumps in samples. Such substances as clay, soil,
accordance with ASTM Method C 1423 coal, vegetable matter, petroleum prod-
indeed clay lumps or are they merely ucts, or refractories containing calcium
friable or pulverulent particles? What is or magnesium oxides are especially im-
the cause of unexpected failure of con- portant. Contamination of synthetic
crete specimens in freezing and thawing? aggregates also results from incomplete
Is it the presence of unsound particles processing and consequent presence in
which do not disintegrate in the sulfate the finished product of raw or partially
soundness test, yet expand in freezing fired raw materials or coal (Fig. 2).
and thawing? Is it the result of alkali- Undesirable substances that are in-
aggregate reaction? Is failure in the herent in the material, such as coatings,
soundness or abrasion test the result of clay, plant remains, coal, and soluble
salts, are detected easily and can be de- the source. Recommended procedures for
termined quantitatively by petrographic sampling and for preparation of the sam-
methods. pie for analysis are covered by the ASTM
Determining Effects of Processing: Standard Methods of Sampling Stone,
Slag, Gravel, Sand, and Stone Block for
Petrographic examination aids in pro- use as Highway Materials (D 75) ~ and
duction and processing of aggregate. The the Recommended Practice for Petro-
relative merit of alternative processing graphic Examination of Aggregates for
methods and equipment can be deter- Concrete (C 295). 3
mined quickly by comparison of the The petrographic examination may be
original material with the processed ag- performed in a preliminary way in the
gregate. Comparison can be based on field as an adjunct to geologic examina-
particle shape, content of unsound or tion, exploration, and sampling, or in the
chemically reactive constituents, pres- laboratory as a part of the program of
ence of coatings, or production of rock testing and selection.
dust.
The feasibility of beneficiation by re- Examination in the Field:
moval of unsound or deleterious constitu- Petrographic analysis of samples in the
ents depends upon the properties of the field usually is qualitative or only semi-
particles and their abundance. By petro- quantitative because lack of facilities
graphic examination, the undesirable makes detailed work difficult. However,
particles can be identified and separated. detailed examination in the field may be
Their properties then can be evaluated warranted if very coarse aggregate (for
and compared with properties of the re- example, that retained on the 3-in. sieve)
mainder of the aggregate. If the particles is to be used in the work, inasmuch as a
are unusually soft, friable, dense, light- representative sample of this size frac-
weight, or high in magnetic susceptibility, tion necessarily weighs several hundred
separation may be feasible on a commer- pounds and transportation of the sample
cial scale. to the laboratory is costly. Chips from
Petrographic examination can be used cobbles not adequately identified by the
to control the manufacture of synthetic hand lens are taken to the laboratory for
aggregate, such as expanded shale or further study.
clay, perlite, slag, and others. Examina- If the deposit or rock formation is vari-
tion and analysis by microscopy, X-ray able, samples should be selected from
diffraction, and differential thermal each zone, and detailed notes made at
analysis reveal quantitatively the pres- the site should relate each sample to a
ence of raw or underburned materials; particular zone and portion of the de-
deleterious substances, such as free lime posit or formation. The relative propor-
or magnesia; and alkali reactive phases tion of unsound, fractured, or chemically
or contaminants such as coal, in relation deleterious materials should be estimated
to processing equipment and methods. from measurements made at exposures.
These notes and the results of the tests
PERFORMANCE OF THE PETROGRAPHIC
on the samples will be the basis for opera-
EXAI~INATION
tion of the deposit inasmuch as it may be
Samples for Petrographic Examination: desirable to waste or avoid zones or por-
Samples of aggregate for petrographic tions containing inferior or unsuitable
examination should be representative of materials.
M I E L E N Z ON PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION 257
Examination in the Laboratory: have proved convenient in the Petro-

graphic Laboratory of the Bureau of
Petrographic examination of aggregate Reclamation for obtaining the small
in the laboratory may be brief or de- samples of fine aggregate for the analysis.
tailed. Brief examination indicates the Details of procedure are outlined by
relative merit of materials from alternate Mather and Mather (2) and in ASTM
sources and supplies justification for Recommended Practice C 295. 3
abandonment or continued investigation During the analysis, helpful clues to
of undeveloped deposits. The preliminary
examination should not replace the
quantitative analysis included in the
program of acceptance tests.
Samples supplied to the laboratory
comprise: (1) granular materials, such as
gravel, sand, crushed stone, slag, or syn-
thetic aggregate; (2) quarried stone in
blocks and irregular pieces; or (3) drilled
core. For granular materials, the exam-
ination should be performed on all size
fractions included in the aggregate. The
sample of each size fraction should com-
prise a minimum of 300 particles. For
natural sand and gravel and crushed
stone, the minimum representative sam-
ples are as follows:
Size fraction Weight of 300

particles
3 to 1 89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 lb
1 89 ...................... 19 lb
to ] in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 lb
to f~ in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 lb
No. 4 to 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 g FIG. 3 . - - P e r f o r m i n g the Petrographic E x a m -
No. 8 to 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 g ination of Aggregate w i t h the Stereoscopic M i -
No. 16 to 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.28 g croscope.
No. 30 to 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.033 g
No. 50 to 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0066 g
identity and physical condition can be
Samples for petrographic examination obtained by noting such features as: (1)
are obtained by sieving in accordance friability or pulverulence in the fingers;
with the ASTM Standard Method of (2) resonance when struck; (3) ease of
Test for Sieve Analysis of Fine and fracturing; (4) nature of the fracture sur-
Coarse Aggregates (C 136) 3 and the face and fracture fillings; (5) odor on
Standard Method of Test for Amount of fresh fracture; (6) color and its variation;
Material Finer than No. 200 Sieve in (7) internal structure, such as porosity,
Aggregates (C 117). 3 The fractions are granularity, or lamination; and (8) reac-
quartered or, for fine aggregate, split re- tion to water, such as absorption of drop-
peatedly on an appropriate riffle. Specially lets on fresh fracture, evolution of air on
calibrated and fabricated cups holding immersion, capillary suction against the
100 grains in the various size fractions tongue, slaking, softening, or swelling.
258 TESTS AND PROPERTIES 0]~ CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
Fractions retained on the No. 30 sieve polished surfaces always should be used
are best identified, examined, and in analysis of blast-furnace slag. X-ray
counted under the stereoscopic micro- diffraction and differential thermal analy-
scope (Fig. 3). The finer fractions usually sis may be required to identify or deter-
are identified most easily in immersion mine quantitatively constituents that
I I I '
.Sandstonewith Kaoh'nite
A SisgaDam,Colombia,SA. _._.~ ~----
-AlteredOiabaseContain/rig
/ Nontrom'te,NewYork I
~ k ~ ~ - I / l i h . c Limestonewith OrganicMatter
nearKansasCity,Kansas
-
-LimestonewithOrgamcMatter
/1.< \,
Heating Rote II C per min

I I I
0 I00 200 300 400 500 600
700 800 900 I000 1100
Temperature, deg Cent
FIG. 4 . - - T y p i c a l D i f f e r e n t i a l T h e r m a l A n a l y s i s R e c o r d s O b t a i n e d on C o n c r e t e A g g r e g a t e s .
Kaolinite is indicated by the endotherm (downward shift) at 500 to 730 C and the exotherm (upward shift) at 990 to
1025 C. Nontronite is revealed by endotherms at 100 to 350 C and 450 to 550 C. Illite produces the small endotherms at
100 to 200 C and 500 to 615 C. Organic matter produces large exotherms at 430 to 500 C or 440 to 600 C. Pyrite develops a
marked exotherm at 400 to 485 C.
oils under the petrographic microscope. are finely divided or dispersed through
However, better continuity in the analy- particles of aggregate (Fig. 4).
sis is obtained if analysis of fractions Ordinarily, analysis is performed on at
passing the No. 30 sieve and retained on least three size fractions of coarse aggre-
the No. 100 sieve is performed under the gate and six size fractions of fine aggre-
stereoscopic microscope. gate. The results may be used to compute
Thin sections occasionally are neces- the petrographic composition of the ag-
sary in examination of natural aggregate. gregate in any gradation comprising the
They usually are employed in the study analyzed fractions. Occasionally, one
of quarried stone. Thin sections or analysis only may be performed on a
graded aggregate. For such an analysis, Cation exchange reactions

the composition by count usually differs Organic substances
greatly from the composition by weight. Alkali reactivity
Numerical results of the analysis may The significance of these properties is
be expressed by weight or count for discussed by Rhoades and Mielenz
particles retained on the No. 30 sieve, but (4, 5).
for the finer fractions, the results are It is intended that the properties indi-
based only upon count of grains unless a cated above be determined qualitatively
correction factor is applied. Conse- by observation of the mineralogic com-
quently, consistent analyses of all frac- position and texture of the particles or
tions of fine and coarse aggregate can be by simple tests, if appropriate. If other
reported only by count. Analysis by test data are available or if the particles
count is the more appropriate technically can be compared petrographically with
because the influence of particles of given previously tested materials, the proper-
type upon performance of concrete de- ties can be evaluated semiquantitatively
pends primarily upon their frequency or quantitatively.
and distribution in the mass. However,
when applied to coarse aggregate only, Condition of the Particles:
the petrographic analysis is more rapid The following classification of proper-
if the relative proportion of the several ties is that used by the Bureau of
rock types or facies is determined by Reclamation to catalogue the physical
weight. and chemical condition of particles con-
Details of calculating and reporting stituting an aggregate. Physical condition
are summarized in ASTM Recommended is defined by three terms: satisfactory,
Practice C 295. 3 fair, and poor; chemical stability in con-
crete is designated by two terms: in-
Observations Included in the Petrographic nocuous and deleterious, as follows:
Examination:
Satisfactory.--Particles are hard to firm,
In reporting the results of the petro- relatively free from fractures, and not flat
graphic examination, the petrographer or chiplike; capillary absorption is very small
should supply information on the fol- or absent, and the surface texture is rela-
lowing subjects as necessary to evalua- tively rough.
tion of the aggregate: Fair.--Particles exhibit one or two of the
following qualities: Firm to friable; mod-
Mineralogic and lithologic composition erately fractured; capillary absorption small
Particle shape to moderate; fiat or chiplike; surface rela-
Surface texture tively smooth and impermeable; very low
Fracturafion compressibility; coefficient of thermal ex-
Coatings pansion approaching zero or being negative
Porosity, permeability, and absorption in one or more directions.
Volume change, softening, and disintegra- Poor.--Parficles exhibit one or more of
tion with wetting and drying. the following qualities: Friable to pul-
Thermal properties verulent; slake when wetted and dried;
Strength and elasticity highly fractured; capillary absorption
Density moderate to high; marked volume change
Hardness with wetting and drying; combine three or
Chemical activity more qualities indicated under "fair."
Solubility Innocuous.--Partieles contain no consti-
Oxidation, hydration, and carbonation tuents which will dissolve or react chemically
Sulfates to a significant extent with constituents of
260 TESTS A N D P R O P E R T I E S 0]~ C O N C R E T E AND AGGREGATES
TABLE I . - - E X A M P L E OF T A B U L A T I O N OF A P E T R O G R A P H I C ANALYSIS OF GRAVEL.

Plant, Company, near Denver, Colo.
Sample No.
Size Fraction, pei

cent by weighta
1
Rock Types "'fi c} .~ Descriptionof Rock Types Physical Chemical

Quality Quality
o o.
Granite. 29.540.0 48.f Medium- to fine-grained, Satisfac- Innocuous

rounded to fragmental l tory
Weathered granite. 12.0 17.7 17.~ Fractured, weathered, Fair Innocuous
rounded to fragmental I
Deeply weathered granite . . . . . . 0.5 .. Fractured, slightly friable, Poor Innocuous
rounded to fragmental
Coarse-grained granite 6.4 6.1 8.4 Pink, rounded, includes Satisfae- Innocuous
some free quartz tory
Fractured coarse-grained
granite . . . . . 0. g .. Pink, rounded, includes Fair Innocuous
some free quartz
Rhyolite porphyry . . . . . . . . 0.8 0.2 1.1 Microcrystalline, porphyri- Satisfac- Innocuous
tic, white to brown tory
Andesite porphyry 2.2 1.2 0.1 Mieroerystalline, porphyri- Satisfac- Innocuous
tie, tan to green tory
Weathered andesite por-
phyry.. 0.~ .. As above, fractured and Fair Innocuous
weathered
Basalt. 0.2 .. 0.6 Weathered, fractured, black, Fair Innocuous
microcrystalline
Diorite . . . . . 0.4 0.4 0.1 Medium- to fine-grained, Satisfac- Innocuous
hard, massive tory
Granite gneiss. 32.3 14.3 15.8 Hard, banded, fine- to Satisfac- Innocuous
medinm-grained tory
Weathered gneiss. 10.3 7.8 2.7 As above, fractured to Fair Innocuous
slightly friable
Deeply weathered gneiss.. 0.2 .. As above, intensely frac- Poor Innocuous
tured to friable
Schist. 2.2 2.3 2.2 Hornblende schists, hard, Satisfae- Innocuous
rounded tory
Fractured schist... 0.4 0.2 As above, fractured Fair Innocuous
Quartzite. 2.~ 6.2 2.0 Fine-grained, hard, massive Satisfac- Innocuous
to schistose tory
Milky quartz. 0 . f 1.0 0.5 Massive, hard, brittle, dense, Fair Innocuous
smooth
Quartzose sandstone. 0.1 Fine-grained, massive, firm Satisfac- Innocuous
to hard tory
Ferruginous sandstone. 0.4 .. Porous, brown, platy, quart- Fair Innocuous
zose
Shale. 0.2 0.5 Soft, absorptive, rounded, Poor Innocuous
gray
Rhyolite. 0.2 .. Cryptocrystalline, porphyri- Satisfac- Deleterious
tic, pink to gray tory
a Based upon analysis of 19.0 lb of 11/~- to 3//-in., 2.7 lb of a/~_to s/~-in., and 0.80 lb of s/~_ to a/~6-in.
aggregate.
MIELENZ ON PETROGRAPHIC EXM~INATION 261
the atmosphere, water, or hydrating port- Summarizing the Petrographic Examina-

land cement while enclosed in concrete or tion:
mortar under ordinary conditions.
Deleterious.--Particles contain one or Tables I, II, I I I , and IV exemplify a
more constituents in significant proportion variety of forms in which the petro-
which are known to react chemically under graphic analysis may be reported. All are
conditions ordinarily prevailing in portland- based upon samples received as a part of
cement concrete or mortar in such a manner engineering investigations. The tabula-
TABLE II.--EXAMPLE OF TABULATION OF A PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF

NATURAL SAND.
Plant, C o m p a n y , n e a r D e n v e r , Colo.
Sample No. - -
Amount, as number of particles in per cent
In Size Fractions Indicated a In Whole Sample b

Constituents
No.
Pass- Physical quality Chemical quality
No, No. No. No. No. 100-
ing
4-8 8-16 16-30 30-50 50-100 200
No.
200 Sc F c pe i c D r T r
Granite and granite gneiss 34.91 3 3 . 6 21.0 4.8 13.5 15.1... 15.1
Pegmatite .............. 34.2 28.7 2.t3 8.2 9.2 I 9.2
Rhyolite tuff ........... 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.3~ 0 . 3
Basalt .................
Serieite schist . . . . . . . . . .
Quartz and quartzite ....
Feldspar ...............
Claystone ..............
2:
2.6
0.5 ~
1.0
0.7
41.2
3.3
...
59.2
16.7
9.5
65.0
11.1
11.2
43.0
18.7
1.1
48.8
23.8
1.2
...
...
0.2
4.7
28.8 51.6
10.5 ..
........
........
........
11.4 ...
0.2
0.2 ...
4.7 ..
51.6
11.4 i
o.2
0.2
4.7
:1 51.6
114
... i 0.2
Chalcedonic chert ....... 0.6 ... 3.3 1.2 1.2' 1.2
Mica .................. 0.8 6.3 10.2 8.3 51.1 .. 3.8 ... 3.8...i 3.8
H o r n b l e n d e , g a r n e t , zir- i
con, e t c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9 16.8 9.6 2.3 2.3...! 2.3
Total ................ 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 [ 1 0 0 . 0 100.0182.G 1 7 0 1 0 95 0

L i
a B a s e d o n c o u n t of 500 p a r t i e I e s i n e a c h s i e v e f r a c t i o n .
b B a s e d on g r a d a t i o n of t h e s a m p l e r e c e i v e d , a n d on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c o n s t i t u e n t s b y size
f r a c t i o n s s h o w n a t t h e left a b o v e .
S = Satisfactory; F = Fair; P = Poor; I = Chemically innocuous; D = Potentially chemically
d e l e t e r i o u s ; T = T o t a l of c o n s t i t u e n t in w h o l e s a m p l e .
as to produce significant volume change, in- tions always are accompanied by ap-
terfere with the normal course of hydration propriate discussion and supplementary
of portland cement, or supply substances description. Table I is in the form gen-
which might produce harmful effects upon erally employed by the Bureau of
mortar or concrete.
Reclamation (7). I t departs somewhat
Coatings should be evaluated sep- from the format recommended in ASTM
arately inasmuch as coatings usually are Practice C 295, 3 but the inclusion of per-
confined to portions of a deposit and, for tinent description simplifies interpreta-
crushed stone, the nature and abundance tion of the analysis. The summary of
of coatings varies with processing meth- physical and chemical quality is included
ods and equipment. in a separate tabulation.
T a b l e I I is t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e s a n d coarse a g g r e g a t e p a s s i n g t h e 189 in. sieve.

produced with the gravel whose com- The analysis was obtained because the
p o s i t i o n is s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e I. T h e a g g r e g a t e a p p a r e n t l y r e t a r d e d or p r e -
f o r m a t a c c o r d s w i t h AST1V[ R e c o m - v e n t e d d e v e l o p m e n t of specified s t r e n g t h
TABLE I I I . - - E X A M P L E OF TABULATION OF A PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF

EXPANDED CLAY AGGREGATE.
Plant, Company
Sample No.
Amount, as numberof particles in per cent
In size fractions indicateda

Constituent I~emarks
to ~ to No. No. No. No. No. Pass- ~'6~
ing100 ~
~~
in. ~16 in. 4-8 8-16 15-30 30-50 50-100 No.
Black to gray, vesicu-

larpartieles. 44.6 30.2 36.2 44.1 46.5 55.0 62.2 64.4 42.4 Vesicular, hard
Black to gray, vesicu-
lar particles. 13.1 1.7 1.~ Vesicular, friable
Red to tan, vesicular
particles. 26.1 29.5 20.2 25.0 15.4 24.C 21.8 20.6 23.5 Vesicular, hard
Red to tan, vesicular
particles. 7.7 1.8 0.S Vesicular, friable
Red to brown, brick-
like particles . . . . . . 4. c 23.6 32.3 22.0 25.6 12.4 7.8 4.9 21.~ Not vesicular, firm
to fragile
Gray to pink, brick- I
like particles 2.~ 9.8 7.7 8.8 9.2 3.0! 1.6 1.1 7.1 Not vesicular, fra-
gile, many slake
in water
Gray to pink, brick-
like particles . . . . . 0.6 1.0 0.4 0.4 Not vesicular, fri-
able, many slake
in water
Gray to black, friable
particles. 1.7 2.C . . . 0.8 0.3 ... 1.0 Not vesicular, con-
tain coal
Granite. 0.2 0.4 0.4 . . . 1.4 2.8 4.7 7.C 1.4 Hard, dense
Sandstone. 0.2 . . . 0.I Hard, fine-grained
Coal. 0.1 0.8 0.1 1.1 2.5 1.9 2.C 0.8 Hard to friable
Total. 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.C 100.0 100.0 100.0 i00.'0
a Based on count of 500 particles in each size fraction.

b Based on gradation of the sample received, and on the distribution of constituents by size frac-
tions shown at left above.
m e n d e d P r a c t i c e C 295. 3 T a b l e I I I is by the concrete under certain conditions.

s i m i l a r e x c e p t t h a t t h e d e s i g n a t i o n s of I n t h e t a b u l a t i o n , t h e d e n o t a t i o n of "in-
q u a l i t y are n o t u s e d b e c a u s e t h e y are in- n o c u o u s " a n d " d e l e t e r i o u s " is r e s t r i c t e d
a p p r o p r i a t e for d e s c r i p t i o n of l i g h t - t o p o t e n t i a l d e l e t e r i o u s alkali r e a c t i v i t y
weight aggregate. b e c a u s e t h e significance of t h e sulfides
T a b l e I V is a n a n a l y s i s of a s a m p l e a n d o r g a n i c m a t t e r in t h e s t o n e c o u l d n o t
representing a commercial crushed stone be evaluated.
IVIlELENZ O N PETROGRAPHIC E X A M / N A T I O N 263
PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF or strata. The concrete-making qualities

NATURAL AGGREGATES of the aggregate are influenced by these
changes.
Examination o/Natural Aggregates in the Examination in the field should reveal
Field: the variability of the deposit, especially
Sand and gravel result from weather- with reference to unsound or deleterious
ing and natural abrasion of rock and the particles, clay, and organic matter.
TABLE IV.--EXAMPLE OF TABULATION OF A PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF

CRUSHED STONE COARSE AGGREGATE. a
Plant, Company
Sample No. - -
Amount, per cent by weightb
Rock Type or Facies Description of the Rock Type or Facies Physical Quality Chemical Quality
Sc Fc pc ic Dc Tc
Dense dolomitic l i m e s t o n e . . . G r a y t o buff, c o n t a i n s s p a r s e or- 5 6 . 2 56.2 .. 56.~

ganic m a t t e r with pyrite and
marcasite
Soft dolomitic l i m e s t o n e . . . . G r a y to buff, soft t o friable . . . . . . 33,9 ... 33.9 .. 33. c
slightly porous, s p a r s e o r g a n i c
matter with pyrite and marcasite
Soft, o r g a n i c d o l o m i t i c l i m e -
stone.. S a m e as a b o v e e x c e p t c o n t a i n i n g . . . . . 4.2 ... 4.2 .. 4,~
one or m o r e s e a m s of iron sul-
fides a n d o r g a n i c m a t t e r
Limestone. W h i t e to g r a y , coarse- t o m e d i u m - 2.4 2.4 .. 2.4
grained
Laminated limestone L a m i n a t e d , fine-grained, iron s u n . . . . . 2.1 ... 2.1 .. 2.
tides a n d o r g a n i c m a t t e r a b u n d -
ant
Chalcedonic limestone.. W h i t e to g r a y , p a r t i c l e s or zones of 1.0 1.(3 1 .(
chalcedony evident
Chalcedonie chert Conehoidal fracture, dense ..... 0.1 ........ 0.1 0.
Sandstone 9i I n c l u d e s also g r a i n s of q u a r t z a n d 0.1 ... 0.i . . . . 0.l
feldspar
Total. 59.7 40.3 9s.;UY i00 (

a S a m p l e g r a d e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h specifications of t h e State Highway De-
p a r t m e n t for 11~ in. to N o . 4 a g g r e g a t e for c o n c r e t e h i g h w a y p a v e m e n t .
b B a s e d u p o n analysis of 25.9 lbs of a g g r e g a t e split f r o m t h e s a m p l e .
c S = S a t i s f a c t o r y ; F = F a i r ; P = P o o r ; I = N o t d e l e t e r i o u s l y alkali r e a c t i v e ; D = P o t e n t i a l l y
d e l e t e r i o u s l y alkali r e a c t i v e ; T = T o t a l of c o n s t i t u e n t in t h e s a m p l e .
deposition of the resulting particles along Deposits of sand and gravel commonly
streams, in lakes or marine basins, or by are changed by deposition of mineral
wind or glaciers on the earth's surface. matter from ground water or by weather-
Consequently, sand and gravel are more ing of the particles. Examination in the
or less complex mixtures of different
field should indicate the lateral and
kinds of rocks and minerals. Moreover,
deposits of sand and gravel usually vary vertical extent and the physical nature
vertically by stratification and laterally of the coatings. Areas of the deposit free
because of the lenticular nature of zones from coatings and zones so heavily coated
264 TESTS A N D PROPERTIES O17 C O N C R E T E A N D A G G R E G A T E S
as to preclude processing should be delin- more rock types commonly can be com-
eated. bined into a single category with con-
Weathering of gravel and sand after siderable saving in time and without loss
formation of the deposit is common on in validity of the analysis. For example,
terraces and at lower levels of deposits granites, quartz monzonites, and granite
along existing stream channels. The ex- gneisses or rhyolites, dacites, and latites
amination should indicate the extent and of similar composition and physical con-
distribution of such weathering. dition might be combined, thus eliminat-
Close observation of gravel and sand ing the need for tedious examination
exposed on the surface of the deposit sufficient to effect a separation.
commonly will reveal unsound particles Soft and altered particles may be
which slake or fracture with freezing-
thawing or wetting-drying (Fig. 5).
Identification of such particles will aid
evaluation of the petrographic examina-
tion performed in the laboratory. Repre-
sentative specimens of such particles
should be packaged separately and trans-
mitted to the laboratory with samples of
the gravel and sand. Water-soluble salts
in coatings or ground water also may be
revealed by efflorescence at or near the
surface of the deposit. Their presence
forewarns of the need for quantitative
determination of their concentration in
the aggregate.
Examination of Natural Aggregates in the Fie. 5.--Cobbles of ArgillaceousLimestone

Laboratory: Disrupted by Freezlng-Thawlng in the De-
posit, near Charlevoix,Mich.
Samples and data from the field should Observation of natural disintegration forewarns of possible
difficulty in service,
be examined to determine: (1) the
abundance of individual lithologic or
mineralogic types; (2) the abundance of original constituents of sand and gravel,
particles in various physical conditions others are developed by weathering in
and degrees of chemical reactivity; (3) the deposit. Weathering in the deposit is
the composition, frequency, abundance, especially significant because the altera-
and physical nature of coatings; and (4) tion affects most or all particles, causing
in a qualitative way, the possible con- softening and absorptivity in the super-
tribution of particles of the several types ficial portion of the particles. This action
to properties of concrete (Tables I and decreases both the bond with cement and
II). the strength and durability of the con-
Natural aggregates may contain more crete.
than 20 rock and mineral types. Conse- Coatings on gravel and sand vary from
quently, petrographic examination com- minute spots and films to a cement which
monly is time-consuming. Based upon produces zones of sandstone or con-
the similarity in composition and prob- glomerate in the deposit. Coatings usu-
able performance in concrete, two or ally are composed of silt, clay, and
MIELENZ ON PETROGRAPHICEXAMINATION 265
calcium carbonate; but organic matter, tufts; at least certain artificial siliceous
iron oxides, opal, manganiferous sub- glasses; and at least certain phyllites.
stances, alkali and alkali-earth sulfates, Any rock containing a significant propor-
and soluble phosphates have been identi- tion of these substances is potentially
fied (5, 8). The petrographic examination deleteriously reactive.
FIG. 6.--Location of Structures in the United States Known to be Affected by Alkali-Aggregate

Reaction in Concrete, and Rivers Known to Carry Reactive Sand or Gravel.
should reveal the composition, abund- PETROGRAPEIC EXAMINATION OF

ance, physical properties, probable po- CRUSHED STONE
tential chemical reactivity, and the ease
with which the coatings are removed by Examination of Stone in the Field:
impact and abrasion. Rock formations are massive or strati-
Potentially alkali reactive gravel and fied; the strata can occur in any attitude
sand occur along many important rivers with respect to the horizontal; and rock
in the United States and have been re- may vary widely in porosity, hardness,
sponsible for serious distress in many toughness, or degree of fracturing. Rock
concrete structures (Fig. 5). The location formations commonly contain zones of
of many known deposits of alkali reac-
faulting, jointing, or local shearing,
tive natural aggregate in western United
within which the materials are fractured
States has been reported by Holland and
Cook (9). The known alkali reactive sub- or chemically decomposed. Certain zones
stances are the silica minerals, opal, chal- may contain deleterious or unsound sub-
cedony, tridymite, and cristobalite; stances, such as chalcedonic or opaline
glassy to cryptocrystalline rhyolites, chert and clay or shale in limestone or
dacites, latites, and andesites, and their dolomite. Especially in warm humid
areas, rock formations commonly are (10). Shale, claystone, and argillaceous
fractured, leached, and partially decom- rocks may slake and fracture following
posed near the surface. exposure. Soluble salts usually will be
These features should be discovered by revealed by efflorescence at exposed sur-
geologic and petrographic examination of faces.
natural exposures, quarried faces or
other excavations, and drilled core. Examination of Crushed Stone in the
Petrographic examination in the field Laboratory:
should include scrutiny of portions of the
As is iaadicated above, crushed stone
formation, excavated material, or stone
aggregates commonly are complex petro-
previously used in the area for fill, ballast, graphically. Consequently, they should
riprap, or other construction. This may
be examined in the detail required for
reveal unsound portions which have
natural aggregate (Table IV).
Petrographic examination of quarried
stone in the form of blocks or irregular
pieces should include inspection of the
entire sample. The examination should
be performed in a manner analogous to
the petrographic examination of coarse
aggregate to establish the relative abun-
dance of individual rock types or facies.
Specimens representative, of each type
should be obtained by sawing or coring
of typical pieces; these specimens serve
for special tests, detailed petrographic ex-
amination, and reference.
FIG. 7 . - - D i s i n t e g r a t i o n of Argillaceous Fa-
If the sample of stone was submitted
cies of L i m e s t o n e Used as R i p r a p a t Chicka- for crushing tests in the laboratory,
m a u g a Dam, Tenn. samples of the aggregate produced by the
Observation of such disintegration indicates unsoundness
of stone in at least portions of a quarry. crushing processes employed also should
be subjected to petrographic examina-
failed in the natural exposure to freezing- tion. This will establish the significance
thawing or wetting-drying or to oxidation of fracturation and internal texture on
and hydration (Fig. 7). For example, dis- particle size and shape; frequency of
integrated granite commonly appears fractures and seams within the particles;
sound on fresh exposure, yet disinte- distribution of unsound or deleterious
grates rapidly thereafter. The Chiplima substances in the size fractions; and the
granite considered for use as aggregate abundance and composition of crusher
in construction of Hirakud Dam, India, dust. These qualities should be correlated
appeared satisfactory immediately fol- with the processing equipment and
lowing blasting, but after one monsoon methods employed.
season, was stained brown and micro- Inspection of the stone prior to process-
fractures were evident as the result of oxi- ing is important because only thus can
dation of jarosite (K2Fe6~OH)12(SO4)4), the examination of the finished aggregate
releasing iron oxides and soluble sulfates. be interpreted fully. For example, if un-
Disintegration of rock on natural ex- sound or deleterious particles constitute
posure commonly does not coincide with 10 per cent of the finished aggregate, was
results of the sulfate soundness tests this proportion derived from approxi-
mately one piece in ten of the original 125). 4 Three general types of blast-
sample, or does a typical piece of the furnace slag are used for concrete aggre-
stone contain approximately 10 per cent gates, namely, air-cooled slag, granu-
of unsound material? The former possi- lated slag, and lightweight slag (11).
bility suggests that the quarry should be Petrographic examination of lightweight
examined to determine whether the un- slag will be discussed in a later section.
sound zones can be avoided or wasted;
the latter suggests that the material
Performance of the Petrographic Examina-
should not be used as aggregate in per-
tion of Blast-Furnace Slag:
manent construction. The procedure for petrographic ex-
If the samples are in the form of drilled amination of blast-furnace slag is not
core, the entire length of core should be included specifically in ASTM Recom-
examined and compared with logs avail- mended Practice C 295. 3 However, the
able from the driller and geologist. Espe-
cial attention must be given sections in
which core loss was high or complete,
inasmuch as such zones commonly repre-
sent fractured, altered, or otherwise
unsound rock. The core should be ex-
amined by means of the hand lens,
stereoscopic microscope, and petro-
graphic microscope, as necessary, to
establish variations in lithology; fre-
quency and intensity of fracturation;
content of clay and shale, regardless of
rock type; and presence of deleterious Fla. 8.--Photomicrograph of Granulated
substances, such as sulfides, soluble salts, Blast-furnace Slag. Note the vesicles (bubbles)
and alkali reactive substances. These in the glass phases (white) (X 80) (reduced 89
in
reproduction).
observations should be correlated from The dark areas are concentrations of microcrystalline
hole to hole so that the variation in melilite and merwinlte.
lithology or quality of the rock, both in instructions provided for examination of
depth and laterally, is established. ledge rock, crushed stone, and manu-
The quality of the aggregate to be ex- factured sand are applicable. In addition
pected from the formation represented to the indicated microscopical methods,
by the core also will be indicated by polished and etched surfaces for study in
crushing tests and subsequent petro- reflected light are a valuable technique,
graphic examination of the aggregate. being preferred by some petrographers
over thin sections because of the ease of
PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF preparation, greater area, and two-
BLAST-FURNACE SLAG dimensional aspect.
Blast-furnace Slag: Air-cooled slag is more or less well
crystallized, depending primarily upon
Blast-furnace slag is the nonmetallic the method of disposal employed at the
product, consisting essentially of sili- steel plant. Such slag crushes to angu-
cates and aluminosilicates of calcium and lar and approximately equidimensional
of other cations, which is developed
4 S t a n d a r d D e f i n i t i o n s of T e r m s R e l a t i n g t o
simultaneously with iron in a blast C o n c r e t e a n d C o n c r e t e A g g r e g a t e s (C 125),
furnace (see ASTM Specifications C 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
pieces whose surface texture is pitted, stituent of blast-furnace slag is meli-

rough, or conchoidal. Crystals range from lite, a compound between akermanite
submicroscopical to several millimeters (2 CaO- MgO. 2SiO2) and gehlenite
in size. Abrasion resistance relates to (2CaO.A12Ov SiO2). High-lime blast-
glass content and the condition of in- furnace slags commonly contain one or
ternal stress (11). Well-granulated slag is more forms of calcium disilicate (a', r
substantially all glass; crystals occur 3' forms of 2CaO. SiO2). Magnesian blast-
individually or in clusters scattered furnace slags usually contain monticel-
through the glass matrix. Incipient lite, forsterite, or merwinite. Calcium
crystallization produces brown or opaque sulfide almost always is present in small
areas in thin section (Fig. 8). proportion. Sulfides of manganous man-
The petrographic examination of blast- ganese and ferrous iron are common.
TABLE V.--COMPOUNDS OCCURRING IN BLAST-FURNACE SLAG.
Compound Chemical Formula Compound Chemical Formula
Gehlenite .................. 2 C a O . A1203' Si02 Oldhamite ..... CaS

Akermanite ................ 2 C a O . M g O . 2SIO2 F e r r o u s sulfide. FeS
P s e u d o w o l l a s t o n i t e ......... aCaO.SiOe Manganous
sulfide . . . . . MnS
Wollastonite ............... f l C a O . SiO2 Spinel . . . . . . . . (Mg, Fe)0.AI~O3
Bredigite .................. a'2CaO-Si02 Anorthite ..... C a O . A12Oa. 2SIO2
Larnite .................... f l 2 C a O . SiO~ Periclase MgO
"Y-dicalcium silicate . . . . . . . . ~,2CaO 9Si02 Lime ........ CaO
Olivine ................... 2 ( M g , Fe)O-SiO~.
Merwinite ................ 3CaO" MgO.2SiO2 Cristobalite .. Si02
Rankinite ................. 3 C a O ' 2SIO2 Calcium alum-
inate ....... CaO-AI~03
Monticellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C a O . M g O . SiO2 Cordierite ..... 2 M g O " 2A1203" 5SiO~
Pyroxene group
Diopside ............... C a O . ( M g , F e ) O .2SIO2 Sillimanite .... A1203" SiO2
Enstatite ............. M g O . SiO2 Mullite 3A1~O3' 2SiO~
Clinoenstatite ........ M g O . SiO.o Madisonite... 2CaO'2MgO'AI~Oa-
3SiO~
" C o m p i l e d f r o m s e v e r a l sources, p r i m a r i l y N u r s e a n d M i d g l e y (13), M e C a f f e r y et al (17), a n d

A m e r i c a n C o n c r e t e I n s t i t u t e C o m m i t t e e 201 (19).
furnace slag aggregate should include Properties and techniques for identifica-
description of the various types of slag tion of these compounds are summarized
as well as of contaminating substances. by Rigby (12), Nurse and Midgley (13),
The slag constituent usually can be and Snow (14, 15), and in standard works
segregated into two or more varieties, on mineralogy. X-ray diffraction meth-
depending upon particle shape, surface ods are necessary if crystalline phases are
texture, color, vesicularity, crystallinity, submicroscopical and are a great aid if a
petrographer is developing experience
or presence of products of weathering.
independently in this field.
Each type should be studied in some de-
Several original constituents of blast-
tail to assure identification of potentially
furnace slag may be deleterious to the
deleterious compounds. performance of concrete. Sulfides or their
More than 20 compounds have been alteration products might affect ad-
identified in blast-furnace slag (Table V), versely the hydration of the portland
but even well-crystallized slag rarely con- cement. Presence of colloidal sulfides is
tains more than five compounds (Table suggested by yellow or brown coloration
VI). The commonest crystalline con- of the glass phase (n). Inversion of /3
i~IELENZ ON PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION 269
dicalcium silicate to the 7 dicalcinm Free-lime (CaO) and magnesia (MgO)

silicate, with the accompanying 10 per are not common in air-cooled blast-
cent increase in volume of the crystals, furnace slag and are not likely to form
causes "dusting" or "blowing" of slag either as a primary phase or devitrifica-
(n, 16). The inversion ordinarily takes tion product in granulated blast-furnace
place before the slag has cooled, and the slag (13). Nevertheless, their absence or
disintegrated material is removed by presence and abundance should be estab-
screening in the production of coarse lished by the petrographic examination.
aggregate. These compounds are deleterious because
In less severe occurrences the disinte- of the increase in solid volume resulting
gration takes place slowly, producing from hydration or carbonation in place.
TABLE VI.--MOST FREQUENTLY OCCURRING COMBINATIONS OF COMPOUNDS

OF CaO-MgO.A1203.SiO~ PRODUCED BY CRYSTALLIZATION OF BLAST-
FURNACE SLAG."
Combination of Compounds b
Flux Stone
I i - -
x x I
Limestone.
Dolomite ...................
:: ii x
a After Nurse a n d M i d g l e y (13).
b K e y : C2AS = gehlenite.. ; m e l i l i t e C3S~ = rankinite MA = spinel
C2MS2 aKermanl~e) C3MS~ = merwinite M2S = f o r s t e r i t e
C2S = d i c a l c i u m silicate CMS2 = diopside MS = ensta~ite
CS = w o l l a s t o n i t e or CMS = monticellite M g O = periclase
pseudowolIastonite CASe = anorthite
pieces that are partly or wholly weak and Cristobalite has been reported as a con-
friable. Such slag is not considered suit- stituent of blast-furnace slag (17). This
able for concrete aggregate. Dicalcium compound is potentially alkali reactive;
silicate can be identified microscopically if identified, its abundance should be
in slag by special techniques (16). This determined. The glass phase of normal
action of dicalcium silicate can be blast-furnace slag is not deleteriously
avoided by maintaining a ratio of CaO reactive with cement alkalies.
to SiO~ in the slag sufficiently low to Contaminating substances whose pres-
prevent formation of the compound, or ence or absence should be established by
by chilling the molten slag so that the petrographic examination are metallic
compound does not crystallize (11). If iron, iron carbide, coke, and incompletely
air-cooled slag is poured in thin layers, fused fluxstone. The last is important
rapid cooling ordinarily arrests the com- because delayed hydration and carbona-
pound in the B modification. tion of free lime and magnesia may pro-
duce expansion of the concrete and pop- of manufacturing methods and equip-
outs. Metallic iron and iron carbides rust ment, and process control.
by oxidation and hydration if exposed at
the surface of concrete.
Cinders:
Cinders used as concrete aggregate are
PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF the residue from high-temperature com-
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE bustion of coal and coke in industrial fur-
AGGREGATES naces. Petrographic examination should
determine the physical nature of the
Expanded Clay, Shale, and Slate: cinder particles on the basis of composi-
Petrographic examination of light- tion, friability, softness, particle shape,
weight aggregate should include segrega- and surface texture. Especial attention
tion of the particles into as many cate- should be given to identification of
gories as required to adequately describe sulfides, sulfates, coal, and coke.
the sample (Table III). Particles of ex-
panded material may be segregated on
the basis of particle shape, surface tex-
ture, development of a coating or "skin,"
vesicularity, and friability. To be dis-
tinguished from vesicular particles are
those which are incompletely or not
expanded. These should be separated on
the basis of porosity, absorptivity,
density, friability, softness, and reaction
to water (softening, slaking, or swelling).
The petrographic examination supple-
ments standard tests in distinguishing FIG. 9 . - - T y p i c a l Basaltic Scoria Aggregate
clayey particles from "clay lumps" de- (Natural Size) (reduced 89in reproduction).
termined in accordance with ASTM The pieces are black, gray. and reddish brown. Note the
rounded vesicles.
Method C 142.8 Other materials to be
identified and determined quantitatively Expanded Blast-furnace Slag:
are underbunled or raw material, coal, Expanded blast-furnace slag is pro-
and rock particles. The content of raw duced by carefully controlled intermin-
material commonly can be most easily gling of molten slag and water or steam in
and accurately established by X-ray dif- one of several ways (11). The petrographic
fraction or differential thermal analysis. examination should describe the aggre-
The individual types of particles also gate in terms of the nature of the ex-
should be analyzed petrographically to panded particles, including their particle
establish the presence of free magnesia shape, surface texture, friability, or
or lime. These result mainly from de- softness, and content of contaminating
composition of calcium and magnesium substances, such as dense slag.
carbonates in the feed during firing. They
may produce distress or popouts in con-
Pumice, Scoria, Tuff, and Volcanic
crete or concrete products unless the
Cinder:
aggregate is water- or steam-cured prior Pumice, scoria, tuff, and volcanic cin-
to use (18). der used for lightweight aggregate are
Petrographic examination also assists naturally-occurring porous or vesicular
selection of raw materials, development volcanic materials. Pumice is a very
MIELENZ ON PETROGRAPHIC EXA~INATION 271
highly porous and vesicular volcanic per cent expansion of a high-alkali

rock composed largely of natural glass cement mortar during 1 yr of moist
drawn into approximately parallel or storage in accordance with ASTM
loosely entwined fibers and tubes. Scoria Method C 227,5 yet the specimen con-
is a highly porous and vesicular volcanic tained abundant alkalic silica gel. A
rock in which the vesicles typically are similar but dense tuff from near Castle
rounded or elliptical in cross-section, the Rock, Colo. produced an expansion of
interstitial 'glass occurring as thin films 0.400 per cent under the same conditions.
(Fig. 9). Tuff is a general term designat-
ing consolidated volcanic .ash of any lPerlite:
lithologic type or physical character. When heated rapidly to fusion, certain
Volcanic cinder is a loose accumulation obsidians and pitchstones release gases
of highly vesicular (scoriaceous) frag- which, being trapped within the molten
ments of lava, predominantly ranging glass, vesiculate the rock, and cause dis-
from 4 to 32 mm in diam. ruption into small pieces. The product is
Petrographic examination of these known commercially as Perlite.
types of aggregate includes segregation Petrographic examination should indi-
of the particles on the basis of particle cate the composition of the aggregate in
shape, surface texture, porosity or vesicu- terms of particle shape, surface texture,
larity, fracturation, friability or softness, composition, density, friability, or fra-
weathering, specific gravity, secondary gility, and potential alkali reactivity.
deposits in voids, coatings, and potential Perlite may contain particles of dense
alkali reactivity. Extraneous or con- volcanic rock or individual crystals.
taminating substances are primarily Being composed of volcanic glass,
dense particles of volcanic rock and typical Perlite is potentially reactive
organic matter. In production of light- with cement alkalies, although significant
weight aggregate, two types of volcanic expansion may not occur because of the
materials are occasionally intermixed for porosity of the particles. However,
economy or to control gradation or unit laboratory tests demonstrate that certain
weight. The type and relative proportion Perlites produce significant expansion of
of the materials can be established by mortar stored in accordance with Method
petrographic examination. C 227 in combination with either high-
VoIcanic glass with an index of refrac- alkali or low-alkali cement. Such volume
tion less than 1.535 is potentially del- change will not necessarily cause struc-
eteriously reactive with cement alka- tural distress if appropriately accommo-
lies; glass whose index is in the range dated in the design.
1.535 to 1.570 probably is alkali reactive.
Opal, chalcedony, tridymite, and cristo- Exf oliated Vermiculite:
balite are also common alkali reactive Exfoliated vermiculite is produced by
constituents of volcanic aggregates. How- rapid heating of the micaceous mineral,
ever, in spite of alkali-aggregate reaction vermiculite. Release of combined water
and formation of alkalic silica gel, ex- expands the crystals--like an accordian
pansion usually is prevented by the --increasing the volume to as much as 30
abundant voids into which the hydrating times its original size. The degree of ex-
gel can escape without development of pansion varies widely, depending upon
excessive stress in the mortar. For ex-
ample, a very highly porous rhyolite tuff Method of Test for Potential Alkali Re-
activity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations
from Hideaway Park, Colo., containing (C 227), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part
abundant tridymite caused only 0.041 3.
mineralogic properties and purity and CONCLUSION

the conditions of firing.
Petrographic examination should be
During petrographic examination, the included in the investigation and testing
particles of vermiculite are segregated by of concrete aggregate for use in perma-
degree of expansion, elasticity or brittle- nent construction. Applied in the field, the
ness of the flakes, and fragility of the method aids exploration and sampling
expanded crystals. These differ signifi- and permits preliminary evaluation of
cantly within individual samples from materials from alternative sources. De-
some sources, especially from marginal tailed examination of aggregate in the
deposits where the vermiculite grades laboratory s the standard
into hydrobiotite or biotite. Also to be acceptance tests, especially by: (1) de-
reported is intermixture of the vermicu- tecting adverse properties; (2) comparing
lite with particles of rocks and minerals the aggregate with aggregates for which
occurring with the vermiculite in the service records or previous tests are
deposit. available; (3) explaining results of tests
and justifying special tests as required;
(4) detecting contamination; and (5) de-
Diatomite:
termining the efficiency and relative
Crushed and sized natural diatomite merit of processing and manufacturing
typically is soft, porous, absorptive, and methods.
ranges from firm to pulverulent. Finely Validity of the results depends upon
the training and experience of the
divided opal and opaline skeletons of
petrographer. However, with proper
diatoms are the predominant constitu-
training and the adoption of uniform
ents. Fine sand, silt, clay, and volcanic techniques and nomenclature, subjective
ash are present in widely differing pro- elements in the examination are not sig-
portions. At least certain diatomites nificant.
produce significant expansion of mortars The methods can be applied effectively
stored in accordance with ASTM to sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, and
Method C 227, 5 with both high- and natural or synthetic lightweight aggre-
low-alkali cement. gate.
REFERENCES
(1) R. C. Mielenzand L. P. Witte, "Tests Used (5) Roger Rhoades and R. C. Mielenz,
by the Bureau of Reclamation for Identify- "Petrographic and Mineralogic Charac-
ing Reactive Concrete Aggregates," Pro- teristics of Aggregates," Symposium on
ceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 48, Mineral Aggregates, Am. Soc. Testing
p. 1071 (1948). Mats., p. 20 (1948). (Issued as separate
(2) Katharine Mather and Bryant Mather, publication, ASTM STP No. 83.)
"Method of Petrographic Examination of (6) E. P. Rexford, "Some Factors in the Selec-
Aggregates for Concrete," Proceedings, Am. tion and Testing of Concrete Aggregates for
Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 50, p. 1288 (1950). Large Structures," Transactions, Am. Inst.
(3) R. C. Mielenz, "Petrographic Examination
of Concrete Aggregates," Bulletin, Geol. Mining and Metallurgical Engr., Vol. 187,
Soc. Am., Vol. 57, p. 309 (1946). No. 3, p. 395 (1950).
(4) Roger Rhoades and R. C. Mielenz, (7) Bureau of Reclamation, "Concrete Man-
"Petrography of Concrete Aggregates," ual," U.S. Dept. Interior, 5th Ed. (1949).
Proceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., Vol. 42, (8) A. T. Goldbeck, "The Nature and Effects
p. 581 (1946). of SurfaceCoatings on Coarse Aggregates,"
Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Etched Polished Sections," Am. Inst. Min-
Vol. 12, Part I, p. 305 (1933). ing and Metallurgical Engr., Technical
(9) W. Y. Holland and R. H. Cook, "Alkali Publications No. 2167, (1947).
Reactivity of Natural Aggregates in West- (15) R. B. Snow, "Examination of Refractory
ern United States," Mining Engineering, Specimens in Reflected Light," Journal,
p. 991 (1953). Am. Ceramic Soc., Vol. 36, No. 9, p. 299
(10) G. F. Loughlin, "Usefulness of Petrology in (1953).
the Selection of Limestone," Rock Products, (16) T. W. Parker and J. F. Ryder, "Investiga-
Vol. 31, March 17, 1928, p. 50. tions on 'Falling' Blast Furnace Slags,"
(I1) G. W. Joseplison, F. Sillers, Jr., and D. G. Journal, Iron and Steel Inst., Vol. 146,
Runner, "Iron Blast Furnace Slag: Produc- No. II, p. 21 (1942).
tion, Processing, Properties, and Uses," (17) R. S. McCaffery, J. F. Oesterle, and Leo
Bureau of Mines, U.S. Dept. Interior, Schapiro, "Composition of Iron Blast
Bulletin No. 479 (1949). Furnace Slag," Am. Inst. Mining and
(12) G. R. Rigby, "The Thin Section Mineral- Metallurgical Engr., Technical Publication
ogy of Ceramic Materials," The British No. 19 (1927).
Ceramic Research Assoc., 2nd Ed. (1953). (18) Bror Nordberg, "The Basalt Rock Com-
(13) R. W. Nurse and H. G. Midgley, "The pany Story," Rock Products, Vol. 57, p. 104
Mineralogy of Blast Furnace Slag," Sili-
cates Industriels, Vol. 16, No. 7, p. 211 (1954).
(1951). (19) Am. Concrete Inst. Committee 201, Report
(14) R. B. Snow, "Identification of CaO.MgO on Blast Furnace Slag as Concrete Aggre-
Orthosilicate Crystals, Including Merwinite gate, Proceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., Vol.
(3CaO.MgO.2SiO2), Through the Use of 27, pp. 183,661 (1930-31).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete Aggregates
GRADING AND SURFACE AREA

BY WALTER H. PRICE1
This discussion will be limited to the the aggregate, and differences in cements
effect of grading and maximum size of from different mills (1)3 Grading speci-
aggregate on the properties of concrete fications have been developed, however,
used in ordinary construction. No-slump, which on the average will produce a
lightweight, and heavy concrete will not concrete of satisfactory properties from
be considered, although much of the materials available in a particular area.
discussion is applicable to all types of
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
concrete because aggregate, cement,
water, and entrained air, of which con- As early as 1845, W. H. Wright dis-
crete is composed, fit together as abso- cussed the grading of aggregates in his
lute volumes and in no other way. "Treatise on Mortars" in which he
Aggregate comprises about 55 per states that sands of various sizes may be
cent of the volume of mortar containing mixed together with great economy of
aggregate graded up to ~-~6-in. maximum cementing matter; the fine sands, in
size and about 85 per cent of the volume this case, fill up the interstices of the
of mass concrete containing aggregate coarser kinds and 'a greater density is
graded up to 6-in. maximum size. Thus obtained in the same volume (2). This
it is not surprising that the way the is at variance with the conclusions
particles of aggregate fit together in the reached by the great French investigator,
mix, as influenced by their gradation, R. Feret, whose classical papers were
shape, and surface texture, has an im- published between 1890 and 1900 (3).
portant effect on the workability and Feret concluded that the best mixture of
finishing characteristics of the fresh sand and cement for mortar is made up
concrete and the properties of the of coase and fine grains only, with no
hardened concrete. The influence of intermediate grains. Many since Feret
aggregate grading on the properties of have pointed out the advantages of
concrete has been studied since the "gaps" or "jump grading," the most
invention of portland cement, and many recent being the Australian, L. Boyd
methods have been proposed for arriv- Mercer, in a paper published in 1951 (4).
ing at an "ideal" grading that would be Feret also concluded that the grading of
applicable for all aggregates. None of concrete aggregate had little effect on
these has been universally successful the compressive strength of mortars as
because of economic considerations, seen in the following statement: "For
effect of particle shape and texture of all series of plastic mortars made with
1 Chief, Engineering Laboratories Div., to the list of references appended to this paper,
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo. see p. 283.
274
www.astm.org
PRICE oN GRADING AND SURFACE AREA 275
the same cement and inert sands, the re- concrete which is made from aggregate
sistance to compression after the same having the least surface area wilt require
time of set under identical conditions is the least water in excess of that required
C to wet the cement and wilI consequently
solely a function of the ratio
E+V be the strongest. Abrams and others
whatever may be the nature and size of found that the surface area of the aggre-
the sand, the proportions of the ele- gate may vary widely without any ap-
m e n t s - s a n d , cement, and water--of preciable difference in the concrete
which each is composed." In the formula, strength, and that water rquired to
E and V represent the volume of water produce a given consistency is dependent
and air, and C, the volume of cement. to a large extent on the character of the
In 1907, Fuller and Thompson pub- aggregate apart from its surface area.
lished their celebrated paper, "The Laws Abrams (10) proposed the "fineness
of Proportioning Concrete" (S), in which modulus" for arriving at a satisfactory
they concluded that grading for dense- grading. He stated: "Any sieve analysis
ness gives greatest strength, and that curve of aggregate which will give the
the grading curve of the best mixture same fineness modulus will require the
resembles a parabola. In spite of the fact same quantity of water to produce a mix
that many experimenters since then have of the same plasticity and gives concrete of
found that grading affects the strength the same strength, so long as it is not too
only indirectly, and that aggregate coarse for the quantity of cement used."
graded to produce maximum density The fineness modulus is an index of the
produces extremely harsh concrete, coarseness or fineness of an aggregate,
credit is given these authors for the but, because different gradings wili give
popularity of the smooth grading curve the same fineness modulus, it does not
for aggregate which exists today. In define the grading. The usefulness of the
1916, Wig, Williams, and Gates con- fineness modulus was extended bySwayze
cluded that there is no definite relation and Gruenwald (n) and Walker and
between the gradation of an aggregate Barrel (12) by including the cement in
and the compressive strength of the the calculations of the modulus.
concrete and that the so-called maximum ,Weymouth in 1933 and in subsequent
density curve (Fuller's curve) does not publications proposed a "particle inter-
represent the curve for maximum density ference" method for arriving at a satis-
except for the particular materials used factory grading (13, 14, 15). He computed
in the tests from which it was derived (~). the volume relationships between succes-
In 1923, Talbot and Richart agreed that sive size groups of particles based on the
aggregate graded to produce maximum assumption that the particles of each
density gave a harsh mixture that is very group are distributed throughout the
difficult to place, and that these mini- mass in such a way that the distance
mum-voids gradings of aggregate, and
between them is equal to the mean diam-
even the next finer ones, cannot be con-
eter of the particles of the next smaller
sidered usable gradings for ordinary con-
creting operations (7). size group plus the thickness of the ce-
In 1918 Edwards (8) and in 1919 ment film between them. He stated that
Young (9) proposed a method of pro- particle interference occurred between
portioning based on the surface area of two successive sizes when the distance
the aggregate to be wetted. Other things between particles is not sufficient to
being equal, it was concluded that the allow free passage of the smaller particles.
276 TESTS AND PI~OPZI~TIES O~" CONCRETE AInU AGGREGATES
The determination of gradings by the tinuous gradings which will cause hard-
Weymouth method usually results in ship or unduly increase the cost of the
gradings finer than necessary for satis- work, unless it has been established be-
factory workability. yond doubt that such grading is essen-
Many other methods and formulas tial. Grading specifications should be
Percent Fine and Percent Fine and

S~eve Coarse Separated Coarse Combined
Size Indi- Ret- Pass- Indi- Ret- Pass-
vidual ained ing vidual ained ing
3Inch
IV21nch I I 99 I I 99
3/4 Inch 43 44 56 27 28 72
5/8 Inch 55 77 Z3 21 49 51
No, 4 2:5 I00 0 14 65 57
No, 4 ~ 99 o - I -
No, B 14 15 85 5 6B ~ 32
No. IS 15 30 70 6 74 i 26
No. 30 25 55 45 9 83 17
No. 50 25 80 20 9 92 8
No.IO0 18 98 2 7 99 I
Pan 2 I00 0 I I00 0
FM 2,79
Percent Bond 37
Sieve Sizes are Based on Square O~ening
Size of Opening in Inches

o o o o
o o o
d
I00
I
901
80
~ Combined
and oor,.l ,
\\
5
\
\
\
\
..... I0
20
7O 30
\
\
c 60 ASTM ..... 40 "~
o \ Specgf/cotion no
\
I im its
n~ 50 ~ II 50
40 60 ~
o.
\
30 70
\x
20 B0
ASTM
Speclficotion~ 9O
I0 \\
I Li~#s \
tO0
No.IO0 No.50 No.50 No.16 No.8 No.4 3/! n. 3In. Bin.
Sieve Size
FIC. t.--Typical Size Distribution for Aggregate Graded up to 189 Maximum Size.
have been proposed for proportioning different for different localities and
concrete and arriving at an optimum should take into account available local
grading, but they only point up the fact materials and conditions." Some of the
that none is completely acceptable and modern grading specifications used by
that a reliable final selection can be made national and state organizations are shown
only by trial of the materials ii1 a con- in the tables included in a paper by the
crete mix. This is well stated by Mercer author on grading of mineral aggregates
(4): "It is undesirable to demand con- (1).
PRICE ON GRADING AND SURFACE AREA 277
NOMENCLATURE cal analysis testing work the term "sieve"

applies to an apparatus in which the
The particle size distribution of aggre- apertures are square and the term "screen"
gate as determined by separation with to an apparatus in which the apertures
standard sieves is known as its gradation.
are circular. Specifications for sieves are
Sieve analysis, screen analysis, and
given in ASTM Specifications E 11.'~
mechanical analysis are terms used
synonymously in referring to the grada- SIZE SEPARATION
tion of aggregate.
A convenient system of expressing the It is common practice to separate
gradation of aggregates is one in which aggregate into its component sizes for
the consecutive sieve openings are con- recombining in selected proportions in
stantly doubled, such as ~, ~, and 189 in. the concrete mix. Such separation is
Under such a system employing a log- necessary for the production of uniform
arithmic scale, lines can be spaced at concrete, and it has been found to be
constant intervals to represent the suc- economical for any sizable job, since the
cessive sizes. Figure 1 is an example of a amount of cement saved more than
chart drawn on this basis. offsets processing costs (16).
Gradings are expressed as the total The average grading of a sand and
percentage passing each sieve, the total gravel deposit in many cases is accept-
percentage retained on each sieve, or the able, but it is never uniform throughout,
percentage retained between consecutive and it is not uncommon to have the
sieves. It makes little difference which percentage of sand range from 20 to
method of expression is employed as long 75 per cent from adjacent locations in
as it is understood. Generally it is best the deposit. For concrete containing
to conform to the custom of the area. aggregate graded up to l{-in, maximum
The fineness modulus shown in the size, it would be impossible to produce
table of Fig. 1 is used as a ready index of a workable concrete free from segrega-
coarseness or finenesss of the material. tion with 20 per cent sand, and 75 per
I t is an empirical factor obtained by cent sand would require about 2 sacks
adding the cumulative percentages of the of cement above that required with a
material retained on each of the partic- normal amount of sand to produce a
ular sieves shown in Fig. 1 and dividing desired strength. In other words, to make
the sum by 100. Thus, the larger the sure of a certain minimum strength with
figure, the coarser is the material. ASTM such a variation in sand percentages,
Definitions of Terms C 1258 define fine- the cement content would have to be
ness modulus and other terms relating to maintained at 2 sacks above that re-
concrete and concrete aggregate. quired with a normal percentage of
ASTM Definition E 134 defines a sand. The grading of the coarse ag-
screer/ (sieve) as a plate or sheet or a gregate also varies from one location
woven cloth or other device with regu- to another in a deposit, and it is necessary
larly spaced apertures of uniform size to separate it into sizes to meet the
mounted in a suitable frame or holder requirements of ASTM Specifications
for use in separating material according C 332 This separation for recombining
to size. A note indicates that in mechanl-
Specifications for Sieves for Testing Pur-
3Definitions of Terms Relating to Concrete poses (Wire Cloth Sieves, Round-Hole and
and Concrete Aggregates (C 125), 1955 Book Square-Hole Screens or Sieves) (E 11), 1955
of ASTNI S~andards, Part 3. Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
~Definition of the Term Screen (Sieve) Specifications for Concrete Aggregates
(E 13), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. (C 33), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
in the mix pays dividends through the that the grading of fine aggregate shall
ease with which the resulting uniform be controlled so that the fineness
workable mix can be placed and the modulus of at least 9 of 10 test samples
saving in cement that is realized. As in of the fine aggregate as delivered to the
the case of natural aggregates, it is mixers shall vary not more than 0.10
desirable to separate manufactured from the average fineness modulus of all
aggregates into sizes, because the product samples previously taken (17).
from any one crusher extends over a Perfect separation of aggregates can-
wide range, and as many as four crushers not be accomplished at reasonable cost,
may be used consecutively in reducing a and each size produced contains some
rock or slag to the desired sizes. undersize material. Specifications usually
TABLE I.--MORTAR REQUIREMENTS FOR WORKABLE CONCRETE WITH

V A R I O U S M A X I M U M A G G R E G A T E SIZES.
~Maximumsize aggregate ..... (sand) ~ in. 1/~in, ~ in. 1 in. 1~ in. 2 in. 3 in. 6 in.
NONAIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE
Water, lb per cu yd a. . . . . . . . . . / 4 6 5 13853~7365 I 3254~ 285 1270 235

9C e m e aggregate,
Fine n t , saoks perpereucent
yd~c .. .. .. .. .. .. . h 100
0~ 6~ 429
571/~ 3403~ 40
304.3 28
E n t r a p p e d air, per cent d . . . . . . . . 2.5 1.5 1 0.5 0.2
AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE
Water, l b p e r c u y d . . . . . . . . . . . I 415 ' 340 325 / 300 285 2651/4]

37 250 235
4 } ~ ] 200
Cemen% lb per eu y d . . . . . . . . . I 81/~1 6NI 61/4 53~1 4
Fine
Total aggregate,
air, per cent pere .cent
. . . . . ............ . 100
13 588 50 45 40 4.5 34 3.5 253
a Approximate a m o u n t of mixing water in p o u n d s per cubic yard of concrete required for 3-in
slump with reasonably well-shaped angular coarse aggregate.
b C e m e n t required in sacks per cubic yard of concrete for 0.53 water-cement ratio, 6 gal of water
per sack.
c A p p r o x i m a t e percentage of fine aggregate of total aggregate by absolute volume.
d A p p r o x i m a t e percentage by volume of air e n t r a p p e d in nonair-entrained concrete.
e R e c o m m e n d e d average total percentage of air required for frost resistance, from Table 3,
R e c o m m e n d e d Practice for Selecting Proportions for Concrete, Am. Concrete Inst. (1954).
Although many different gradings have limit the amount of oversize and under-
been found to produce suitable concrete, size permitted in any size fraction. I t
the gradings cannot vary suddenly or has been found that, where there is an
widely during concreting operations excessive amount of either, segregation
because of their pronounced effect on will occur in the stockpiling and batch-
the slump and workability of the coning operations, and slugs of fines or
crete. Once a grading has been selected, coarse material will reach the mixer.
it must be maintained within rather Because of the segregation which usually
close limits for uniform workability and occurs in handling, it is desirable that
desired properties in the hardened the ratio of the size openings of the upper
concrete. and lower screens which determine any
Uniformity of concrete is of such size fraction be not greater than 2 to 1.
importance on large jobs that some This practice is generally followed
specifications for these projects require except for the finest size of coarse
aggregate where the ratio is usually are governed more by the ratio of water
increased above the 2 to 1 figure, and to cement used and the amount of air
in this fraction it is common practice to entrained than by other factors. The
extend the size from ~ in. to } or l in. grading and maximum size of the ag-
Segregation in such finer size fractions gregate affect these properties indirectly
may be very pronounced, with portions through their influence on the amount
of the material to reach the mixer con- of water required to produce a workable
taining a preponderance of fines below concrete. About equal compressive
the g-in. size. Under such conditions it strengths are obtained under the same
is difficult to obtain uniformly workable test conditions at the same water-cement
concrete. The condition is further ratio for the range of maximum size
aggravated by breakage and segregation aggregates listed in Table I (18). There
which occurs in the larger sizes of coarse is some evidence that smaller maximum
aggregate during stockpiling and han- sizes produce slightly higher flexural
dling. Lenses of fines which form in strengths (19). For the same water-
cement ratio, compressive strengths of
TABLE II.--MAXIMUM SIZES OF AG- air-entrained concretes for the recom-
GREGATE FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CON-
STRUCTION. mended percentages of total air listed in
Table I are about 20 per cent less than
Maximum Size of Aggregate, Based on
Square Openings, in. for comparable nonair-entrained con-
crete.
Minimum
Dimension of Rein- Lightly For a given concrete, drying shrinkage
Section, in. forced Unreln- -Ieavily Rein-
Wails, forced
Rein- [orced or decreases as the amount of mixing
Beams forced Unrein-
and Walls Slabs forced water is decreased; also, in massive struc-
2olumn Slabs tures it is desirable to maintain the
2~-5 . . . . . . . 89 aA-1 ~ - 1 ~ cement content of the mix at a minimum
6-11 . . . . . . . . ~-I} 188 189 to reduce the volume change resulting
12-29 . . . . . . . 188 3 from the temperature rise caused by
30 or m o r e . . . ~-3 6 3-6
the heat of hydration of the cement
(20). From a quality standpoint, there-
large stockpiles are another constant fore, it is desirable to use aggregate
source of trouble. Breakage and segrega- graded up to the largest practicable
tion can be minimized through careful maximum size.
and proper handling of the aggregate. The maximum size aggregate that
Some have found it economical to can be used in a mix is limited by the
finish-screen the aggregate just before it type and thickness of the section to be
goes into the batching bins, and where constructed, the amount and spacing of
this is done, acceptable separation can reinforcement, the mixing and placing
be assured. equipment, and the availability of the
aggregate in the desired sizes (21). The
~V~AxIi~IUI~ SIZE AGGREGATE maximum size should not be larger than
Table I shows the amount of mortar one fifth of the narrowest dimension
(water, cement, sand, and entrained between sides of forms, nor larger than
air) required, on the average, to produce three fourths of the minimum clear
a workable concrete with aggregates spacing between reinforcing bars. Table
graded up to the maximum sizes listed. II, taken from the Recommended
For a given set of materials, the Practice for Selecting Proportions for
strength and other properties of concrete Concrete of the American Concrete
Inst., gives the maximum sizes of ag- should be satisfactory for most con-
gregate recommended for various types cretes.
of construction, r Under these specifications the mini-
mum percentage of material passing the
Grading of Fine Aggregate: No. 50 and No. 100 sieves may be
The grading of fine aggregate has a reduced to 5 and 0, respectively, if the
much greater effect on workability of aggregate is to be used in air-entrained
concrete than does the grading of the concrete containing more than 489 bags
coarse aggregate. If the mortar is work- of cement per cubic yard, or in nonair-
able and satisfactory in other respects, entrained concrete containing more than
it is usually possible to secure workable 589 bags of cement per cubic yard, or if
concrete by using enough mortar to fill an approved mineral admixture is used
the voids among the coarse aggregate to supply the deficiency in fines passing
TABLE III.--SOME FINE AGGREGATE GRADINGS OUTSIDE ASTM SPECIFICATIONS

WHICH PRODUCED ADEQUATE CONCRETE.
Percentage Passing
Sieve Size
ASTMSpecifica- Falcon Webster Wu Sheh Gateway Norris
tions C 33 Dam a Dam b Dame i Tunnel ~t Dam e
//Sin ........................... 100 100 100 100 100 100

No. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 t o 100 100 100 100 100 100
No. 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 t o 100 59 96 72 91 77
N o . 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 t o 85 35 86 47 82 51
N o . 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 t o 60 3O 61 22 i 70 31
N o . 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 t o 30 28 13 6 30 20
N o . 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 t o 10 2O 1 2 7 11
Fineness modulus ................ 3.28 2.43 3.51 2.20 3.10
a Sand used in Falcon Dam, lower Rio Grande River, Tex.

S a n d u s e d in W e b s t e r D a m , S o u t h F o r k of S o l o m o n R i v e r , K a n s .
c Sand used in Wu Sheh Dam, Formosa.
a Sand used in Gateway Tunnel, Weber Basin Project, Utah.
A manufactured Sand. (The other four sands were natural river-worn material.)
NOWE.--All c o n c r e t e s c o n t a i n e d e n t r a i n e d a i r e x c e p t N o r r i s D a m .
particles and separate them so that these sieves. Specifications C33 also
there is ample room for them to move require that fine aggregate shall have
in the mortar without interference. not more than 45 per cent retained
Experience has shown that usually very between any two consecutive sieves of
coarse sand or very fine sand is un- those shown in the table, and that the
satisfactory for concrete mixtures. The fineness modulus shall be not less than
coarse sand results in harshness, bleed- 2.3 nor more than 3.1.
ing, and segregation; and the fine sand Fine aggregates having gradings out-
requires a comparatively large amount side the C 33 specifications have pro-
of water to produce the necessary fluidity duced satisfactory concrete in some
and also tends to cause segregation. instances, but where the behavior of an
Fine aggregate gradings falling within available sand having a grading falling
the specification limits of ASTM Specifi- outside accepted limits is unknown, and
cations C33, shown in Table III, where the size of the job does not warrant
the expense of trial mixes before specifi-
7 Recommended Practice for Selecting Pro- cations are written, it is recommended
portions for Concrete, Am. Concrete Inst.
(1954). that an accepted specification such as
C 33 be used. On large jobs involving 34 per cent passing the No. 50 sieve and
many thousands of cubic yards of con- 12 per cent passing the No. 100 sieve.8
crete, it is recommended that the average In general, specifications permit more
grading as produced from the deposit fines in manufactured sand than in
or quarry without blending or wasting natural sand. In the construction of
to bring it within some predetermined Norris Dam, in which manufactured
limits be tried in trial mixes to deter- fine and coarse aggregates were used, it
mine whether the aggregate can be used was found that a deficiency between the
without expensive processing. It is No. 100 and No. 28 sieves could not be
stressed, however, as has been discussed made up at a reasonable cost. It was
under Size Separation, that regardless of determined that the effect of this
the grading selected it must be main- deficiency--that is, poor workability
tained within certain limits without and excessive "water gain"---could be
sudden variations if satisfactory econom- minimized by using additional material
ical concrete is to be produced. finer than No. 100 but from which par-
Table III lists five fine-aggregate ticles finer than No. 325 had been re-
gradings, each of which does not meet moved (22).
C 33 specifications in some respect; yet It is sometimes difficult to finish a
very satisfactory workable concrete was floor because of the grading of the sand
produced with the first four gradings in which causes "chattering" or waves to
air-entrained concrete. The Norris Dam form under the trowel. In one case this
fine aggregate was a crushed dolomite "chattering" was eliminated by increas-
and gave satisfactory workability with- ing the amount of material passing the
out entrained air. No. 50 sieve from 12 per cent to 18 per
In the case of Falcon, Wu Sheh, and cent and the amount passing the No.
Norris Dams, because of the large 200 sieve from 1 per cent to 4 per cent.
quantities of concrete involved, it was Coarse Aggregate:
possible to investigate the aggregate and
As a rule it is less difficult to provide
concrete prior to writing the specifica-
tions and permit gradings approaching satisfactory grading in coarse aggregate
those shown. In the case of Webster than in sand. It is practicable to make
Dam and Gateway Tunnel, where the size separation of the coarser material
quantities of concrete were relatively by screening at comparatively small
expense and to recombine the separated
small, grading data on the source of
aggregate used were not available until sizes in desired proportions. Table II
after the contract was let, and the usual of Specifications C 33 shows the approxi-
Bureau of Reclamation grading limits mate ranges over which it will usually
were specified. be practicable to vary the relative
It has already been mentioned that proportions of size fractions of coarse
Specifications C 33 permit a reduction aggregate for concretes having various
maximum sizes of aggregates and for
in the minimum amount of material
optimum sand percentages. The com-
passing the No. 50 and No. 100 sieves
bination of available materials which
from that shown in Table III in the
requires the least amount of mixing
case of rich or air-entrained mixes. On
water for the conditions of placing and
the other hand, increased percentages of workability is the one that should be
these sizes may be desirable in the case used.
of the lean concrete used in mass
8 Specifications No. 1532 for Folsom Dam
construction, and recent specifications and Appurtenan% Works, Corps of Engineers,
of the Corps of Engineers permit up to U. S. Army, Sacramento, Calif., July, 1951.
AIR ENTRAINMENT AND GRADING usual specifications are relaxed or

Since 1938, when it was realized that changed. As the amount of fines--
purposefully entrained air in concrete cement, mineral admixture, or fines in
materially improves the resistance of aggregate---is increased, the amount of
concrete to frost action, improves its air entrained for a given amount of
workability, and reduces segregation in air-entraining agent is decreased. This is
the mix, its use has gradually increased of little consequence, however, because
until now it is required by many organi- the desired amount of air can usually be
zations for all types of concrete. The obtained by increasing or decreasing the
effect of the finely dispersed air bubbles amount of air-entraining agent used.
obtained through the use of air-entrain- CONCLUSION
ing agents is entirely different from that
of the larger air voids which result from Many methods have been proposed
poorly graded aggregates; the larger for arriving at an "ideal" grading, but
voids do not improve the quality of the none have been universally accepted
concrete and contribute to poor work- because of economic considerations,
ability and segregation. Table I shows particle shape and texture of the aggre-
the reduction in fine-aggregate per- gate, or differences in portland cements.
centages which may be realized through Grading affects the strength of concrete
the use of air entrainment in concrete. only indirectly through its effect on the
In addition to a reduction in the amount amount of water required to produce a
of fine aggregate which may be ac- plastic mix. On the other hand, particle
complished for a given set of materials shape and surface texture of the aggre-
and grading, it is sometimes possible to gate may have an appreciable effect on
use a coarser or finer grading or a jump strength apart from what indirect effect
grading and obtain concrete of satis- they may have on the water requirement
factory workability with the proper of the mix. Coarse, fine, and gap gradings
amounts of entrained air. ASTM have produced satisfactorily workable
Specifications C 33 recognize the effect concrete under certain conditions, but
of entrained air on workability and unless trial mixes are made beforehand
permit a smaller percentage of fines for to determine whether they can be used,
air-entrained concrete. Table III of this it is recommended that gradings be re-
paper lists a number of fine-aggregate quired to meet a specification such as
gradings which produced workable con- ASTM Specifications C 33. 6 Economical,
crete with entrained air but were un- uniform concrete cannot be produced
satisfactory without entrained air. In with pit-run or crusher-run aggregate,
general, more poorly graded aggregates and it is necesssary that the aggregate
can be used for air-entrained concrete, be separated into its compoment sizes
but it is recommended where such so that it can be combined in the con-
aggregates are being considered that crete mix within the limits of variation
they be tried in trial mixes before the permitted by the specifications.
REFERENCES
(1) W. H. Price, "Grading of Mineral Aggre- (12) S. Walker and F. Bartel, discussion of
gates for Portland Cement Concrete and paper by Swayze and Gruenwald (11),
Mortars," Symposium on Mineral Aggre- Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., December,
gates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 134 1947; Proceedings, Vol. 43, p. 844-i.
(1948). (Issued as separate publication (13) C. A. G. Weymouth, "Effects of Particle
ASTM STP No. 83.) Interference in Mortars and Concretes,"
(2) W. H. Wright, "Treatise on Mortars" Rock Products, February 25, 1933, p. 26.
(1845). (14) C. A. G. Weymouth, "A Study of Fine
(3) R. Feret, Bulletin de la Soci~t~ d'Encourage- Aggregate in Freshly Mixed Mortars and
ment pour l'Industrie Nationale (1897). Concretes," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
(4) L. Boyd Mercer, "The Law of Grading for Mats., Vol. 38, Part II, p. 354 (1938).
Concrete Aggregates," Melbourne Tech- (15) C. A. G. Weymouth, "Designing Workable
nical College Press (1951). Concrete," Engineering News-Record, De-
(5) William B. Fuller and Sanford E. Thomp- cember 29, 1938, p. 818.
son, "The Laws of Proportioning Con- (16) S. Walker, "Relation of Aggregates to Con-
crete," Transactions, Am. Soc. Civil crete," Bulletin No. 2, Nat. Sand and
Engrs., Vol. LIX, p. 67 (1907). Gravel Assn. (1928).
(6) R. J. Wig, G. M. Williams, and E. R. (17) "Standard Practice for Concrete with
Gates, "Strength and Other Properties of Guide Specifications," Dept. of the Army,
Concrete as Affected by Materials and Corps of Engineers (1953).
Methods of Preparation," Technical Paper (18) R. F. Blanks and C. C. McNamara, "Mass
No. 58, Nat. Bureau Standards. Concrete Tests in Large Cylinders,"
(7) Arthur N. Talbot and Frank E. Richart Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., January-Feb-
"The Strength of Concrete and Its Re- ruary, 1935; Proceedings, Vol. 31, p. 280.
lation to the Cement, Aggregate, and (19) W. F. Kelterman, "Effect of Type and
Water," Bulletin No. 137, University of Gradation of Coarse Aggregate upon
Illinois, October, 1923. Strength of Concrete," Public Roads, June,
(8) L. N. Edwards, "Proportioning of Mortars 1929.
and Concretes by Surface Area of Aggre- (20) "Concrete Manual," 5th Ed., Bureau of
gates," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Reclamation, Dept. of the Interior.
Mats., Vol. 18, Part II, p. 235 (1918). (21) R. F. Blanks, E. N. Vidal, W. I-I. Price, and
(9) R. B. Young, "Some Theoretical Studies on F. M. Russell, "The Properties of Concrete
Proportioning Concrete by the Method of Mixes," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Surface Areas of Aggregates," Proceedings, April, 1940; Proceedings, Vol. 36, p. 433.
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 19, Part II, (22) I. L. Tyler, "Concreting at Norris Dam,"
p. 444 (1919).
Bulletin of the Engineering and Construc-
(10) Duff A. Abrams, "Design of Concrete Mix-
tures," Bulletin No. 1, Structural Materials tion Departments, Tennessee Valley Au-
Research Laboratory, Lewis Inst., Chicago, thority, September, 1937.
Ill. (23) I-I.J. Gilkey, "Size, Shape, Surface Texture,
(11) M. A. Swayze and E. Gruenwald, "Con- and Grading of Aggregates," Report on
crete Mix Design--A Modification of the Significance of Tests of Concrete and Con-
Fineness Modulus Method," Journal, Am. crete Aggregates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats.,
Concrete Inst., March, 1947; Proceedings, p. 92 (1943). (Issued as separate publica-
Vol. 43, p. 829. tion ASTM ST.P No. 22-A.)
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete Aggregates
SHAPE, SURFACE T E X T U R E , AND COATINGS
BY BRYANT MATI-I-ERI
A property of aggregate may be con- differ with respect to them. The nature
sidered significant, from the viewpoint and degree of differences between aggre-
of this publication, only if it has a gates with respect to these properties
significant effect on the behavior of must be satisfactorily determined before
portland-cement concrete in service. their effect on the behavior of concrete
Similarly, a test of aggregate may be can be properly evaluated.
considered significant only if it yields use- The absence of satisfactory data is not
ful information about a significant prop- due to failure of previous writers to sug-
erty or group of properties. The behav- gest the probable significance of these
ior of concrete in service is determined by properties. They are mentioned or dis-
the interaction of certain of its proper- cussed in four of the papers in the ASTM
ties and the significant characteristics of Report on Significance of Tests of Con-
the exposure to which it is subjected. crete and Concrete Aggregates: Gilkey
Variations in shape and surface texture (38),~Hubbard (49), Kriege (54), and Lang
of, or the presence of coatings on, ag- (60) ; and in five of the papers in the 1943
gregate particles 2 may significantly af- ASTM Symposium on Mineral Aggre-
fect properties of concrete that are im- gates: Allen (1), Rhoades and Mielenz
portant to its behavior in service. (TS), Rockwood (77), Sweet (91), and
No ASTM methods exist by which Woolf (107). Reports of work done in
quantitative determinations of particle Australia, Denmark, France, Germany,
shape, surface texture, or coatings may Great Britain, Japan, Sweden, Switzer-
be nlade. Almost no satisfactory data land, and the United States are cited in
are available concerning the relations the list of references. Standardized test
that may exist between variation in methods have been developed by Mark-
these properties of aggregates and be- wick (63, 64) and Shergold (87, 88) of the
havior of concrete. These properties have Road Research Laboratory in G r e a t
not been adequately defined, and ade- Britain; by Schiel (78, 79, 80), Walz
quate definitions are necessary before sat- (100), Schulz (83, 84, 8S), Schulze (86),
isfactory information can be obtained re- Rothfuchs (72), and Pickel (71, 72) in
garding the degree to which aggregates Germany; by yon Matern (65) in Sweden;
by Feret (34, 35) in France; and by Gold-
1Civil Engineer (Concrete Research), Con- beck (43) and the Corps of Engineers (21,
crete Division, Waterways Experiment Station,
Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, Jackson, Miss. 101, 102) in the United States.
~The term "particle" should perhaps be The most careful studies of concepts
restricted to fine aggregate and the term "piece"
used for coarse aggregate. Since "particle" has The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
often been employed to apply to both, it will %0the list of references appended to this paper,
be so used in this paper. see p. 292.
284
MATIIER ON SHAPE, SURFACE TEXTURE, AND COATINGS 285
and definitions of particle shape and of crushing equipment influence spheric-

surface texture have been made by sedi- ity of crushed particles; generally, the
mentary petrologists, notably Went- greater the reduction ratio the lower the
worth (104, 105, 106), Wadell (95, 96, 97), sphericity (15, 23, 63, 77, 00). Roundness
Zingg (I08), Krumbein (55, 56, 57), and is primarily a function of the strength
Pettijohn (70). However, their work has and abrasion resistance of the material
received little attention, especially in the and the amount of wear to which the
United States. particle has been subjected. Surface
Two relatively independent properties, texture depends on hardness, grain size,
sphericity and roundness, control particle pore structure, and texture of the rock,
shape. Sphericity is the property that and the degree to which forces acting on
measures, depends upon, or varies with the particle surfaces have smoothed or
the relative surface area of the particle roughened it. Hard, dense, fine-grained
to its volume, the relative lengths of its materials will generally have smooth
principal axes or those of the circum- fracture surfaces. Soft, loosely bonded
scribing rectangular prism, the relative coatings include clay coatings on inade-
settling velocity, and the relative volume quately scrubbed gravel particles and
of the particle to that of the circumscrib- dust coatings on crushed particles. Hard,
ing sphere. Roundness is the property tightly bonded coatings are usually
that measures the relative sharpness or formed by precipitation of materials
angularity of the edges and corners of carried in solution in ground water on
the particle. sand and gravel particles in natural de-
Surface texture is the property that posits.
measures the relative degree to which The ASTM Tentative Recommended
particle surfaces are polished or dull, Practice for Petrographic Examination
smooth or rough, and the type of rough- of Aggregates for Concrete (9) notes that
ness. such examinations are made to determine
Coatings are layers of material, cover- the physical and chemical properties of
ing part or all of the surface of the par- the material that may be observed by
ticle, that have been deposited on the petrographic methods and that bear on
particle after its formation. Coatings usu- the quality of the material for its in-
ally, but not necessarily, consist of ma- tended use, and to describe and classify
terials differing physically or chemically, the constituents of the sample. It directs
or in both respects, from those composing that pieces of coarse aggregate be ex-
the particle, and are not derived from the amined to establish whether coatings are
particle itself. present. If they are, it should be deter-
Sphericity, roundness or angularity, mined whether the coatings consist of
smoothness or roughness, and coatings materials likely to be deleterious in con-
of a particle are the result of the inter- crete (opal, gypsum, easily soluble salts,
action of the nature, structure, and organic matter) and how firmly the coat-
texture of the rock (or other material, ings are bonded to the pieces. The rele-
for example, slag) of which the particle vant features of each rock type found in
consists and the forces to which it was the sample may include particle shape,
subjected during and after its formation. particle surface, grain size, texture, and
Rocks having close-spaced partings or structure, including observations of pore
cleavages in one or two directions tend space, packing of grains, and cementation
to yield fiat or elongated particles of low of grains. This recommended practice
sphericity (75). The design and operation points to the desirability of getting in-
formation on these properties but does Since these statements provide no

not provide procedures for obtaining "specified value," they a~e descriptions
such information nor define the proper- of procedures for defining rather than
ties. definitions. The property with which
The remainder of this paper consists they deal is sphericity. Sphericity was
of a review and discussion of procedures defined by Wadell (gs, 96, 97) as the cube
for the measurement of these properties root of the ratio of the volume of the
and of their effects and significance. particle to the volume of the circum-
W/T
5.0,.03.0 Z.O ,.5 ,.o
1.0
T
i i,ks\Flatl ~
Dst \ ( , . )
~ TT.SphericoI
neither" F l a t not
09 :\ \ \ ,ongo,od !
0.67 0.6,,, "

o6 \ : \ !\ \
b/~ 0.5 a5 2.o
0.4 \ i ~o4 I ~
0.25 4.0
0.2 9 5.0
' I I
0.1 : ' i I . . . . , TV Rods 9
"m" Blodes(LFIot Ond E l o g o t e d ) .: (Elongated)
O0 0.1 0.2 0 3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 09 1.0
0.25 0,33 0.67
%
(b)' = sphericity 8
Fro. 1.--Relation of Sphericity (Curves) Calculated from c/b , Zingg Classes
(I-IV), and ASTM Definitions C 125 Classes (W/T, L/W). After Krumbein (56, Fig. 4).
Stippled area indicates particles classed as flat, elongated, or both by the Corps of Engineers
(101) using W/T and L/W = 3 as criteria.
MEASUREMENT OF PROPERTIES scribing sphere. Let d equal the nominal

diameter of a particle, that is, the di-
Sphericity: ameter of a sphere of the same volume
Since 1942, ASTM Definitions of as the particle, and let a equal the long
Terms C 125 (3) has included the follow- dimension of the particle, that is, the
ing statements: diameter of the circumscribing sphere.
Then:
"Flat Piece.--One in which the ratio of
the width to thickness of its circumscribing Sphericity = ,i/ ~ "l/ a~ a
rectangular prism is greater than a specified
value."
"Elongated Piece.--One in which the Krumbein (S6) has pointed out that
ratio of the length to width of its circum- for most particles d~ is approximately
scribing rectangular prism is greater than a equal to abc, the product of the longest,
specified value." intermediate, and shortest axes of the
MATHER ON SHAPE, SURFACE TEXTURE, AND COATINGS 287
particle. Therefore: ticles by the ratios a/b and c/b, respec-

tively, where a is minimum thickness, c
Sphericity= A ~ - - A)//b~ is maximum length, and b is mean size.
'V Or/6) aa "V a~ Markwick (63) devised the procedure
and: used in British Standard 812 (15) based
on classifying as fiat ("flaky") those par-
c/b
( b ) ' - Sphericity~ ticles having a thickness less than 0.6
times the mean sieve size and as elon-
gated ("long") those with a length
The ratios b/a and c/b were used by greater than 1.8 times the mean sieve
Zingg (1o8) in developing a sphericity size. The weights of material passing the
classification that closely approximates respective gages expressed as a per-
that contemplated by ASTM Definitions centage of the sample are designated
C 125 which uses the ratios L/W (= a/b) "flakiness index" and "elongation index"
and WIT (= b/c).4If 1.5 is taken as the (sT). AASHO Designation M 80 (2) does
"specified value" in the statements in not differentiate flat and elongated par-
ASTM Definitions of Terms C 125, the ticles since its reference is to those having
resulting definitions will yield the four "length greater than 5 times the average
sphericity classes proposed by Zingg: thickness." Schiel (78) devised a formula
Zingg Based on ASTMDefinitions C 125
Class Name b/a c/b Name L/W WIT
I . Disks (oblate) >2/3 <2/3 Flat <1.5 >1.5

II .. Spherical (equiaxial) > 2/3 > 2/3 Neither flat nor elongated < 1.5 < 1.5
[II Blades (triaxial) <2/3 <2/3 Both flat and elongated > 1.5 > 1.5
IV. Rods (prolate) <2/3 >2/3 Elongated > 1.5 < 1.5
Figure 1 shows that each class as de- involving specific gravity, settling ve-
veloped by Zingg and contemplated by locity (a function of thickness), and siev-
ASTM Definitions C 125, using 1.5 as ing (a function of width), the results of
the "specified value," includes particles which are expressed as values from 100
of widely differing sphericity and that to about 70. Good particle shape = 100,
sphericity alone fails to differentiate cubical = > 86.5, fairly cubical = 83.5
the kinds of departure of the particle to 86.5, flaky = 80.5 to 83.5, and very
from spherical. The dashed lines drawn flaky = <80.5.
at the ratios of -~ and 3, defining the Feret (34, 35), Pickel (71), Pickel and
stippled area, indicate the classes set up Rothfuchs (72), and Stern (89) have used
by the Corps of Engineers' test method procedures based on the number of par-
(101) based on the use of 3 as the "spec- ticles of a given sieve size that can be
ified value." Walz (lOO) proposed a plot held in a container of a given volume.
indicating four classes based on L/T as Plum (73) states that the number of
abscissa and W/T as ordinate. particles of desirable shape, when com-
Plum (73) suggests expressing the de- pacted, needed to fill a container of a
gree of content of flat and elongated par- given volume is smaller than it is if the
4L, W, T refer to length, width, thickness;
particles are flat but greater than it is if
L>W>T. they are elongated.
288 TESTS A N D PROPERTIES OP C O N C R E T E A N D AGGREGATES
The Corps of Engineers (101) and untouched),

Schulze (86) have developed proportional 3. Subrounded (considerable wear, faces re-
duced in area),
calipers or gages to permit rapid deter- 4. Rounded (faces almost gone), and
mination of dimensional ratios of par- 5. Well rounded (no original faces).
ticles. These calipers or gages operate so
that as one of two jaws or slits is adjusted Roundness is independent of spheric-
to a dimension of the particle the other ity. Data are not available to indicate
jaw or slit adjusts to a given submultiple the relationship, if any, between empiri-
thereof. Schulze's device involves two cal procedures designed to measure
slits having a 1 : 3 ratio. The Corps of roundness (or angularity) of aggregate
Engineers, device has two jaws normally and the property, "roundness," as de-
having a 1 : 3 ratio but capable of being fined above. Shergold (88) has suggested
set also at 1 : 2 or 1 : 5. Schulze contem- a procedure involving determination by
plates setting for length and rejecting the a standard method of the percentage of
particle if its width is less than one third voids in compacted samples of individual
of its length. The Corps of Engineers, pro- sieve fractions of coarse aggregate. He
cedure, as noted earlier, involves classi- proposes the term "angularity num-
fication on criteria of both W / T and ber" = percentage voids -- 33. The angu-
L / W - 3. A particle is classed as fiat if larity number ranges from 0 for well-
the ratio of width to thickness is greater rounded gravel to 11 for very angular
than 3 and elongated if the ratio of length material. Goldbeck (43) described a simi-
to width is greater than 3. lar method of determining voids in manu-
Heywood (46) has discussed a method factured sands. Loudon (62) determines
developed by Hogan that is applicable an "angularity factor" based on specific
to large particles. Surface area is calcu- surface.
lated from the weight of the wax coating Methods based on measurements of
produced by immersing the particle in radii of curvature have been described
molten paraffin at a prescribed tempera- by Wentworth (lOS, lO6) and Wadell (95,
ture. The sphericity of sand particles has 96, 97).
also been studied by determinations o f
Surface Texture:
surface area by Davies and Rees (28),
using the air permeability method sug- Jones (51) has suggested that a device
gested by Robertson and Emodi (76) such as the replica surface analyzer de-
based on the work of Carman (20) and scribed by Herschmann (45) might find
Lea and Nurse (61). some application in the study of aggre-
gate surface texture and has cited various
Roundness: reports on surface texture, surface finish,
and surface roughness (11, 19, 68, 74).
Roundness may be defined as the ratio Roughness of aggregate particle surfaces
of the average radius of curvature of the
should probably be expressed in terms
corners and edges of the particle to the of arithmetic average deviation of the
radius of the maximum inscribed circle actual surface from the mean surface.
(57). Numerical values of roundness are Mechanical Engineering for December,
less frequently employed than are de- 1954 (Vol. 76, No. 12) includes references
scriptive terms based on the following to procedures for the evaluation of sur-
categories (70): face roughness developed by Brush Elec-
1. Angular (little evidence of wear), tronics Co., Cleveland, Ohio (p. 20), and
2. Subangular (evidence of some wear, faces General Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y.
MATHER ON SHAPE, SURFACE TEXTURE, AND COATINGS 289
(p. 58), for use in the evaluation of metal ally preferred to fiat or elongated par-
surfaces. Roughness has also been ex- ticles for use as concrete aggregates be-
tensively studied in connection with cause they present less surface area per
pavement surfaces and hydraulic model unit volume and generally produce
surfaces. Such determinations of the ef- tighter packing when consolidated. For
fect of aggregate surface textures as have these reasons, equidimensional particles
been made have described the aggregates of a given grading require a minimum of
studied only in terms such as "rough," cement paste for a given degree of work-
"fairly rough," "smooth," and "very ability of concrete. The extent to which
smooth." Kriege (54) reports that in cer- the undesirability attributed to effects of
tain limestones the degree of roughness fiat and elongated particles may have re-
was found to range from 1.3 to 3.0 times sulted from the use of gradings that work
the surface measured from plane polished best with equidimensional particles is not
shapes, but he does not relate these dif- known. When the strength of the ma-
ferences to performance in concrete. In terial of which the particles is composed
addition to the quantitative measure- is greater than that of the matrix, and
ment of roughness, the types of rough- the bond between the particles and the
ness may be of importance. Pettijohn matrix is well developed, it would be ex-
(70) lists the following varieties of rough- pected that a concrete made with spheri-
ness: furrowed, grooved, scratched, cal aggregate particles would have less
ridged, pitted, dented, striated, frosted, strength than one made with nonspher-
and etched. Blanks (14) differentiates the ical particles. Shergold's results (88) in-
relative significance of undulatory and dicate that changing sphericity (from 20
abrupt rugosity. Knight and Knight (53) to 40 per cent flat particles) had little
list these types of surface texture: glassy, effect on percentage voids, whereas
smooth, granular, crystalline (fine, me- changing roundness had a direct progres-
dium, coarse), pitted, honeycombed, and sive effect.
porous. A number of investigations of the ef-
fects of fiat and elongated particles have
Coatings: been reported (36, 41, 59, 90, 98). Mark-
The presence of a coating, its nature, wick (63) observes that "there is wide-
thickness, continuity, and degree of ad- spread unanimity of opinion" that "flaky
hesion or tenacity can best be established and elongated material is unsatisfactory"
by petrographic examination. Blanks but "so far as can be ascertained, there
(14) has listed the following types of coat- are no references in the relevant litera-
ings noted by the Bureau of Reclama- ture to actual failures attributed" to
tion: "silt, clay, gypsum, impure carbon- such material. Gilkey (38) states that
ates of lime and magnesia, iron oxides, flat or elongated particles may be posi-
opal, manganiferous substances, soluble tively objectionable either because of un-
phosphates, or mixtures of these sub- economic grading that they cause or be-
stances." These are the characteristic cause of structural weakness introduced
natural coatings; artificial coatings in- within the mass. Blanks (14) says: "Flat
clude asphalt and portland-cement paste. or elongated particles.., tend to de-
EFFECTS AND SIGNIFICANCE crease workability and thus to require
OF PROPERTIES more sand, cement, and water. They
tend to reduce bulk weight and decrease
Sphericity: compressive strength. If fiat particles be-
Equidimensional particles are gener- come oriented with their large faces in a
290 TESTS AND PROPERTIES 01~ CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
horizontal position, bleed water will be as contact load was found to be:
entrapped under them, a condition
which prevents the development of good
bond." Scholer (82) regards this latter Sphericity Range
Relative Weights of
Particles of Equal Suscep-
phenomenon as likely to develop pores tibility to M o v e m e n t
along which weathering may progress.

0.5-0,6 .............. 0.63
Mercer (66), on the other hand, found 0.6-0.7 .............. 0.67
it practical to proportion concrete mix- 0,7-0.8 .............. 1.25
0.8-0.9 ............. '. 1.67
tures of adequate workability and a
water-cement ratio of 0.6 by weight with
aggregates 50 to 90 per cent of the par-
Elongated particles have also been re-
ticles of which were fiat, elongated, or
ported (1) to have had objectionable
both. He therefore concludes that speci-
effects in pavement concrete by interfer-
fication limits on particle shape are un- ing with finishing operations; such ef-
duly restrictive and notes that "there is fects were not found in the studies dis-
good reason for preferring 'poor shape' cussed by Walker (98).
whenever the controlling features are Gilkey (37) reported tests in which con-
bond between aggregate particles and crete was made with broken scraps of
paste, and the modulus of rupture." plate glass crushed to pass a 1-~-in. sieve.
In another study Mercer (67) has Concrete made with }-in. glass had lower
shown that compressive strength can be compressive strength than that made
materially reduced when flat particles of with }-in. glass, which, in turn, had lower
coarse aggregate are present in large strength than that made with normal
numbers and oriented vertically. Cylin- aggregate. He concluded that fiat pieces
ders containing hand-placed fiat particles are a source of weakness because they
that were then grouted gave the follow- are loaded as beams. In other fields their
ing results: effects may be of more significance; for
example, a limit of 10 per cent was placed
on fiat and elongated pieces in specifica-
Compressive . . 9 .., , -
tions for trickling filter media (33). This
Condition Strength, 7 y~"te~'gOt, was based on ratios of 1.5 : 1 for L / W
and W / T and hence corresponds to the
Stone vertical ......... / 1330 ] 159.0 classification of Zingg (108) (see Fig. 1).
Stone horizontal ....... / 2235 / 159.5
Mortar grout ......... | 2255 / 136.0
Normal arrangement...~ 2260 ] 160.0
Roundness:
Almost all studies in which roundness
was a variable have compared the per-
Studies by Lane and Carlson (58) of formance of "rounded" gravel with
the movement of gravel bed material in "angular" crushed stone without indi-
canals developed data on the relation of cating the degree to which roundness
sphericity of gravel particles to move- varied or the degree to which sphericity,
ment that may be applicable to the surface texture, and other properties also
effects of sphericity on workability of varied. Well-rounded particles might be
concrete. The effect of sphericity on sus- expected to require less cement paste for
ceptibility to movement by flowing water equal workability than angular particles
MATHER ON SHAPE, SURe'ACE TEXTtm~., AND COATINGS 291
of equal sphericity and similar surface layer of paste to lubricate its movement
texture. Shergold (88) has shown that de- with respect to other aggregate particles.
creasing roundness or increasing angu- I t will therefore permit a tighter packing
larity directly affects the percentage of for equal workability and hence will re-
voids in aggregate; this in turn affects quire a lower paste content than a rough
workability or mixture proportions in particle of similar roundness and spheric-
concrete. ity. Goldbeck (39) has reported tests in
Blanks (lS) reports experience on two which pieces of aggregate shaped to a
similar projects where sand particles 1-in. square area were embedded in ce-
were in one case "well rounded" and in ment briquets and tested for bond
the other "harsh and angular." He strength in tension. The different surface
states: textures and bond strengths in tension
reported are:
"For concrete with 189 maximum size
and a water-cement ratio of 0.50, by weight,
using the angular material, 300 lb of water Bond Strength in Tension, psi
and 6.39 sacks of cement per cu yd of con-
crete were required. Using the rounded ag- Surface Texture of 28 Days in 1,28 ~'aY~s i n
Aggregate
gregate, the same factors were 220 lb of 28 Days Water Then ~ e r , then
' 9 i 8 t~ycies of
in Water 28 JJays in t "
water and 4.69 sacks of cement per eu yd Air We t m g and
Drying
of concrete... The latter concrete, in addi-
tion to being of higher quality by reason of Rough, porous... 350 260 235
its lower water requirement, saved 1.7 sacks Rough .......... 240 275 230
of cement per cu yd, which would more than Rough .......... 215 300 245
pay for an effective abrading operation t o Fairly rough .... 250 185 160
Smooth ......... 120 45 ...
improve the characteristics of the angular Smooth, con-
aggregate." choidal ....... 285 170 45
Very smooth .... 195 40 25
Shergold (8a) has provided a procedure
by which "angularity number" may be
determined and notes that it was de- No specifications are known in which re-
veloped for use in connection with the quirements are imposed for surface tex-
British Standard for Concrete Aggre- ture of aggregate particles.
gates (B.S. 882:1944, Appendix M) Blanks (14) states:
which distinguishes "rounded" from "Salients and depressions on the particles,
"angular" but gives no method of defin- particularly when the sides of these rough-
ing or measuring roundness. Knight and nesses are almost perpendicular to the gen-
Knight (S3) note that, in the case of sed- eral surface, assist the adherence of the paste
imentary rocks, angularity indicates high to the aggregate. Undulatory roughness is
quality, whereas rounded grains usually less helpful and may even be harmful to
indicate a relatively low structural bond as the mortar changes in volume.
strength. Rugosity is probably less significant than
physical penetration of cement into the
Surface Texture: aggregate."
As surface smoothness increases, con- The beneficial effects of rough texture
tact area decreases; hence a highly pol- of aggregate on flexural strength were
ished particle will have less bonding area shown by some unpublished data de-
with the matrix than will a rough par- veloped by the Corps of Engineers for
ticle of the same volume. A smooth par- concrete made with a 5.5-bag-per-cu-yd
ticle, however, will require a thinner cement factor and a 189 maximum
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authoriz
size aggregate as follows: quence of its effect on water demand,

will cause a 1 to 189 per cent decrease in
Per Cent of Strength, 28 Days, flexural strength and a 0 to 2 per cent
Particles Water-Cement psi decrease in compressive strength of con-
Ratio, gal per
bag crete.
_ _ - - S m ~ 1Ro~h
76 Flexural pressive
Com-
CONCLUDING STATEMENT
100 6.0 50514850
50 ?00 ~ 645 ] 4500 Engineers, who are required to evalu-
0 6.7 670 l 4125 ate the concrete-making properties of
aggregates or to discuss the factors re-
Coatings: sponsible for variations in the behavior
Coatings that are removed from aggre- of concrete, are generally aware that
gate particles during the mixing of the variations in aggregate particle shape,
concrete have only the effect of altering surface texture, and coatings m a y pro-
the grading by adding the coating ma- duce effects of significance to these con-
terial to the mixture. Coatings that re- siderations. They have not been provided
main on the particles after the concrete with adequate information with which
has been placed affect the properties of to convert their general awareness of the
the concrete exactly as if the materials potential significance of these variations
of which they are composed were present into useful tools that they can employ in
other than as coatings. An opal coating making engineering judgments. To pro-
or a gypsum coating may be undesirable vide such information it will be necessary
because of its composition, but if so, it is for scientists, engineers, and technolo-
only incidental that it is a coating. Speci- gists concerned with these questions to:
fications for concrete aggregates exist in (1) develop adequate definitions and con-
which "adherent coatings," "asphalt cepts of the properties; (2) develop suit-
coatings," and "incrustations" or merely able techniques for determining the de-
"coatings" are the basis for regarding gree to which aggregates differ with
the particles possessing them as deleteri- respect to them; (3) determine the ef-
ous or objectionable. fects of such differences on the behavior
Lang (6o) notes that adherent clayey of concrete. The results of such work
coatings may interfere with bond, that may justify the use of aggregates that are
nonadherent dust coatings will increase now regarded as unsuitable and the es-
fines and water demand, and that little tablishment of new requirements for ag-
is known of the effects of cemented coat- gregates. In any case they will shed light
ings. Goldbeck (40) reports that each 1 on a field of knowledge now in nearly
per cent of dust, probably as a conse- complete darkness.
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(69) Henry B. Milner, "Sedimentary Petrog- Vol. 10, p. 132 (1931).
raphy," Thomas Murphy & Co., London, (83) F. Schulz, "The Problem of Particle Shape
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(70) F. J. Pettijohn, "Sedimentary Rocks," Vol. 6, No. 11, pp. 340~45 (1952); (Road
Harper & Brothers, New York, N. Y. Abstracts, Vol. XX, No. 8, August, 1953).
526 pp. (1949). (84) F. Schulz and G. Stelzer, "An Accurate
(71) W. Pickel, "Die Bestimmung und Bewer- Rapid Method for the Determination of
tung der Kornform yon Edelsplitt," Particle Shape," Strasse und Autobahn,
Betonstrasse, Berlin, May, 1937, p. 104. Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 48-53 (1954); (Road Ab-
(72) W. Pickel and G. Rothfuchs, "Bewertung stracts, No. 755, October, 1954).
der Kornform yon Edelsplitt," B#umen, (85) Addendum to (84), Strasse und Autobahn,
Vol. 8, Berlin, pp. 88-91, 116-118 (1938); Vol. 5, No. 6, p. 210 (1954).
Strassenbau, Vol. 29, pp. 273-277 (1938). (86) K. Schulze, "Rapid Method for Particle-
(73) Niels M. Plum, "Concrete Manual," Shape Determination and Suggestions for
Bulletin No. 39, Christiani and Nielsen, Definition of Ordinary and High-Quality
Copenhagen, 253 pp. (1944). (In English, Chippings," Strasse und Autobahn, Vol. 4,
see pp. 12, 179, 216.) No. 8, pp. 253-257 (1953); (Road Ab-
(74) P,. E. Reason, et at., "Conference on stracts, Vol. XXI, No. 4, April, 1954).
Surface Finish," Proceedings, Inst. (87) F. A. Shergold and J. R. Manning, "The
Mechanical Eng., Vol. 15, No. 10 (1945). Assessment of Shape in Roadmaking Ag-
(75) Roger Rhoades and Richard C. Mielenz, gregates," Roads and Road Construction,
"Petrographic and Mineralogic Charac- Vol. 31 (361), January, 1953, pp. 4-7.
(88) F. A. Shergold, "The Percentage Voids in fect of Flat Particles on Concrete Making
Compacted Gravel as a Measure of Its Properties of Gravel," Proceedings, Am.
Angularity," Magazine of Concrete Re- Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 29, p. 322 (1929);
search, No. 13, August, 1953, pp. 3-10. National Sand and Gravd Bulletin, July,
(89) Ottokar Stern, "Mittetbare Bewertung 1929.
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No. 43-43, Berlin, October, 1937, pp. Shape of Aggregates," Betonstrasse, Vol.
693-696, 706-711. 11, No. 2, Berlin, pp. 27-32 (1936).
(90) D. A. Stewart, "The Design and Placing (101) Waterways Experiment Station, "Method
of High Quality Concrete," E. & F. N. of Test for Flat and Elongated Particles
Spon, Ltd., London, 112 pp. (1951). in Coarse Aggregate," Designation CRD-
(91) Harold S. Sweet, "Physical and Chemical C 119-48,-52,-53, Handbook for Concrete
Tests of Mineral Aggregates and Their and Cement, Vicksburg, Miss. (1949, 1952,
Significance," Symposium on Mineral Ag- 1953).
gregates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 49 (102) --, "Method of Test for Flat and Elon-
(1948). (Issued as separate publication gated Particles in Fine Aggregate," Desig-
ASTM STP No. g3.) nation CRD-C 120-54, Handbook for Con-
(92) A. C. Tester, "The Measurement of the crete and Cement, Vicksburg, Miss. (1954).
Shape of Rock Particles," Journal of Sedi- (103) --, "Method of Petrographic Examination
mentary Petrology, Vol. 1, No. 1, May, of Aggregates for Concrete," Designation
1931, pp. 3-11. CRD-C 127-54, Handbook for Concreteand
(93) A. C. Tester and H. X. Bay, "The Shap- Cement, Vicksburg, Miss. (1954).
ometer: A Device for Measuring the (104) C. I(. Wentworth, "A Laboratory and
Shapes of Pebbles," Science, Vol. 73, No. Field Study of Cobble Abrasion," Journal
1899, May 22, 1931, pp. 565-566. of Geology, Vol. 27, p. 507 (1919).
(94) D. Thoenes, "Straatzand," Wegen, Vol. (105) --, "A Method of Measuring and Plotting
23, No. 2, February, 1949, pp. 25-31. the Shapes of Pebbles," Bulletin, U. S.
(95) Hakon WadeU, "Volume, Shape, and Geological Survey, No. 730, pp. 91-102
Roundness of Rock Particles," Journal of (1922); Professional Paper No. 131, U. S.
Geology, Vol. 40, pp. 443-451 (1932). Geological Survey (1923).
(96) --~ "Sphericity and Roundness of Rock (106) --, "The Shapes of Rock Particles: A Dis-
Particles," Journal of Geology, Vol. 41, cussion," Journal of Geology, Vol. 41, No.
pp. 310-331 (1933). 3, April-May, 1933, pp. 306-309.
(97)--, "Volume, Shape, and Roundness of (107) D. O. Woolf, "Needed Research," Sym-
Quartz Particles," Journal of Geology, posium on Mineral Aggregates, Am. Soc.
Vol. 43, pp. 250-280 (1935). Testing Mats., p. 221 (1948). (Issued as
(98) Stanton Walker, "Effect of Flat and separate publicationASTM STP No. 83.)
Elongated Particles in Mineral Aggre- (108) Th. Zingg, "Beitrag zur Schotteranalyze,"
gates," Proceedings, Highway Research Schwelzerische mlneralogische und petro-
Board, Vol. 10, pp. 93-100 (1931). graphische Mitteilungen, Vol. 15, pp. 39-
(99) Stanton Walker and C. E. Proudley, "El- 140 (1935).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete Aggregates
W E I G H T , D E N S I T Y , ABSORPTION, AND SURFACE M O I S T U R E

BY A. G. TIMMS1
Variations in weight, density, absorp- of 2 in. or less, and the jigging procedure
tion, and surface moisture of aggregates is applicable to aggregates of a nominal
have an effect on the essential properties maximum size greater than 2 in. but
of concrete. The essential properties not exceeding 4 in. The shoveling pro-
considered here are defined as worka- cedure for the determination of loose
bility of the plastic concrete and strength unit weight is the method used for light-
and durability of the hardened concrete. weight aggregates of the types used in
lightweight concrete products, light-
UNIT W E m ~ weight structural concrete, and in insu-
lating concrete.
Methods of Testing for Unit Weight:
The ASTM standard unit weight de-
The unit weight of a concrete ag- terminations are required to be made on
gregate is the weight of a stated volume. room-dry aggregates.
In the United States, unit weight is
usually expressed as the weight of 1 Significance of Unit Weight Test:
cu ft, and it is determined by ASTM A knowledge of the unit weight of an
Method of Test for Unit Weight of aggregate is Valuable because this in-
Aggregate (C 29), 2 using ~o, 89 89 or 1 formation has many uses. From the
c u f t containers, depending on the nomi- unit weight, the voids in a unit volume
nal maximum size of the aggregate to of an aggregate can be calculated; from
be tested. the unit weight it can be ascertained
The method includes the determina- whether the weight qualifies the ag-
tion of the dry compact weight of the gregate for special uses; and in some
aggregate placed in a measure by the cases the uniformity of the unit weight
rodding and jigging procedures and the determinations of an aggregate is used
determination of the loose weight by as a measure of quality.
the shoveling procedure. The compaction The unit weight of an aggregate, to
methods are employed in determining have significance in relation to its con-
the unit weight of aggregates for use in crete-making properties, must be de-
the usual paving or structural types termined on the aggregate graded as it
of concretes and for the very heavy will be when used in concrete. Changes
concretes used for special purposes. in the grading of an aggregate change
The rodding procedure is applicable to the percentage of voids which in turn
aggregates of a nominal maximum size controls the unit weight.
Hubbard (1)~ reports that crushed
l Supervising Highway Physical Research
Engineer, Physical Research Branch, Bureau of s The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
Public Roads, Washington, D. C. to the list of references appended to this paper,
1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. see p. 302.
297
blast-furnace slags below 189 in. in size Sparks, and T u m a (2). They state that
and weighing less than 70 lb per c u f t aggregates lightest in weight usually
compacted do not produce concretes of require more cement in concrete to de-
so high a strength as do slags with unit velop strengths comparable to the
weights in the range of 70 to 113 lb per strength of concrete made with heavier
cu ft. Experience has also indicated aggregates.
that concrete made with slag aggregates The types of lightweight concrete used
lighter than 70 lb per c u f t are more for insulating purposes require very
difficult to place. For these reasons lightweight aggregate. Table I I presents
many specifications 4 require the mini- unit weight limitations that have been
mum unit weight of slag aggregate to proposed for various aggregates for con-
be 70 lb per cu ft. crete for insulating purposes in the
The increased use of lightweight ASTM Tentative Specifications for
concrete has resulted in new specifica- Lightweight Aggregates for Insulating
tions for lightweight concrete and light-
TABLE II.mUNIT WEIGHT REQUIRE-
TABLE I.--UNIT WEIGHT REQUIRE- MENTS FOR LIGHTWEIGHT AGGRE-
MENTS OF LIGHTWEIGHT AGGRE- GATES FOR INSULATING CONCRETE.
GATES FOR CONCRETE MASONRY
UNITS. Dry Loose Weight, lb
per cu ft
Unit Weight, Type and Size Designation
Measured Dry
Size Designation and Loose, lb Min Max
per cu It,
maximum
Group I:
70 Perlite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789 1~
Fine aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vermiculite . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 10
Coarse aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Group II:
Combined fine and coarse uggre- Fine aggregate . . . . . . . . . 70
gut~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Course aggregate . . . . . . . ... 55
Combined fine and coarse
aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 65
weight aggregates. Specifications refer
to the unit weights (dry loose) as a basis
of classification. The ASTM Tentative Concrete (C 332). 2 I t is also proposed
Specifications for Lightweight Aggre- that the unit weight of the aggregate
gates for Concrete Masonry Units (C shall differ by not more than 10 per cent
331) e stipulate the unit weight require- from that of the sample submitted for
ments shown in Table I. acceptance tests.
As a control of uniformity these speci- Davis and Kelly 5 discuss at some
fications provide that successive ship- length the importance of unit weight of
ments of aggregate shall have a unit lightweight aggregate. ~They also show
weight that differs not more than 10 tabulations of the usual ranges in unit
per cent from that of the unit weight of weight and maximum permissible values.
the sample of lightweight aggregate The advent of the nuclear energy in-
submitted for acceptance. dustry has brought about a demand for
The relation between the unit weight economical radiation shielding. Callan
of lightweight aggregates and the prop- (3) has shown that concrete is an excel-
erties of the resulting lightweight con- lent shielding material and that, al-
cretes are discussed quite fully by Kluge, though ordinary concrete in sufficient
4 Specifications for Concrete Aggregates
(C 33), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. See p. 238, this publication.
T~s ON CONCRETE AGGREGATES 299
thickness will provide satisfactory shield- in Aggregate for Concrete (C 30) 2 re-
ing, heavy concrete, made from special quires calculation of the voids from the
aggregates of high unit weight, is often unit weight and specific gravity determi-
preferable due to smaller thickness re- nations. Voids in concrete aggregates are
quirements. The few papers that have the spaces between the individual par-
been written on heavy concrete deal ticles of the aggregates. The percentage
principally with the use of heavy aggre- of voids, on a volumetric basis, is de-
gates such as barite, iron ore, or mixtures pendent upon the grading of the aggre-
of iron ore and scrap iron. Callan quotes gate, the degree of compaction, and the
tests of concrete containing barite in angularity of the particles. An aggregate
which the coarse aggregate up to a composed of smooth, rounded particles
nominal maximum size of 189 in. had a of a certain grading will contain less void
dry rodded unit weight of 159 lb per cu space than another aggregate of identical
ft and the fine aggregate a dry rodded grading but composed of rough, angular
unit weight of 163 lb per cu ft. particles.
DENSITY Significance of Specific Gravity:

Density is used sometimes as a syno- In the lightweight aggregate field, the
nym for specific gravity and at other specific gravity of the particles in the
times it is used to refer to the mass in a different size ranges becomes a very im-
given volume. It would avoid confusion portant item in the design of concrete
if density were not used as a substitute mixes for workability.
for specific gravity and its meaning re- Sweet (7) concluded from an investi-
stricted to indicate the proportion of a gation of the concrete-making properties
unit volume that is occupied by the of lightweight aggregates, locally avail-
aggregate particles. able in Wyoming, that the finer sizes of
lightweight aggregates have a much
Method of Determining Specific Gravity higher specific gravity than the coarser
and Voids: sizes. He further states from a study of
the literature on lightweight aggregate
The terms used in referring to specific that this is probably typical of many
gravity determinations are defined in the lightweight aggregates.
ASTM Definitions of Terms Relating to In connection with the use of very
Specific Gravity (E 12). 2 As applied to heavy aggregates such as barite, Witte
aggregates for use in concrete, specific and Backstrom (8) found that their be-
gravity is usually referred to as bulk spe- havior in concrete was similar to that of
cific gravity on a saturated surface-dry an ordinary crushed aggregate such as
basis or dry basis. Most of the State basalt, and no special problems were
highway specifications refer to the encountered in proportioning the con-
saturated surface-dry basis. stituents of the concrete.
The ASTM Methods of Test for Spe- It has been recognized for a long time
cific Gravity and Absorption of Fine that certain impurities such as shale,
Aggregate (C 128) 2 and for Specific coal, and lignite, usually of low specific
Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Ag- gravity, are harmful in concrete. For this
gregate (C 127) ~ are used for determining reason most specifications for concrete
specific gravity as it relates to concrete aggregates place limitations on the
aggregates. amounts of these deleterious materials
The ASTM Method of Test for Voids that may be present. These low-strength
materials usually have lower specific volume of coarse aggregate in a unit

gravities than the normal aggregate par- volume of coarse aggregate.
ticles. The ASTM Method of Test for In a recent paper, Goldbeck and Gray
Coal and Lignite in Sand (C 123) 2 (6) describe a method of concrete mix
provides for the separation of coal and design in which use is made of the ratio
lignite particles by flotation in a liquid b/bo proposed by Talbot and Richart.
having a specific gravity slightly higher The same general system, without em-
than the undesirable particles. In the ploying the term b/bo is used in the
case of coarse aggregates, the lightweight American Concrete Institute Standard
particles may be separated by handpick- ACI 613 - 54. 6 In this specification there
ing or by the flotation process. is shown a table of the dry rodded vol-
Only recently, according to Walker (9), umes of coarse aggregate per unit volume
has the sand- and gravel-producing of concrete.
industry made use of the differences in Price7 discusses in more detail the in-
specific gravities of the lightweight dele- fluence of denseness of grading.
terious material and heavier sound
ABSORPTION AND FREE MOISTURE
aggregate particles to separate and re-
move the objectionable lightweight con- Method of Testing for Absorption and Free
stituents by flotation methods. This Moisture:
commercial use of flotation methods The absorption of coarse aggregate is
stresses the importance of accurate spe- determined by ASTM Method of Test
cific gravity determinations. for Specific Gravity and Absorption of
Coarse Aggregate (C 127), 2 and the ab-
Significance of Denseness of Grading: sorption of the fine aggregate by ASTM
The denseness of the grading of a Methods of Test for Specific Gravity and
coarse aggregate is important as a means Absorption of Fine Aggregate (C 128).=
of determining the proper proportions of The free moisture in the fine aggregate is
fine and coarse aggregate to produce the determined by the ASTM Method of
desired workability of the plastic con- Test for Surface Moisture in Fine Aggre-
crete and the desired strength in the gate (C 70). 2 There is no standard
hardened concrete. method for determining the free moisture
Fuller and Thompson in 1903 (4) pro- in coarse aggregate, although the method
posed determining the combination of for fine aggregate contains a note sug-
sizes of fine and coarse aggregate par- gesting that it can be used for coarse
ticles which when mixed with cement aggregate.
would give the densest concrete. Later Significance of the Absorption and Mois-
Talbot and Richart (S) made a very ture Tests:
comprehensive study of the relation be- Tests for free moisture and absorption
tween the density of the aggregates and are made to determine the amount of
the strength of the resulting concrete. water that will be contributed or ab-
They developed a relationship to show sorbed by the aggregates in a concrete
the desirable volumes of dry rodded mixture, and the results are used to
coarse aggregate to use per cubic foot of calculate the effective (net) water-
concrete. The relationship is expressed by 6 ACI Standard Recommended Practice for
the formula b/bo, where b is the solid Selecting Proportions for Concrete, Journal,
Concrete Inst., October, 1953; Proceedings,
volume of coarse aggregate in a unit Am. Vol. 50, p. 105.
volume of concrete a M b0 is the solid See p. 274, this publication.
T n ~ s oN CONCRETE AGGREGATES 301
cement ratio. Also the yield, consistency, In discussing causes of the failure of
and strength of concrete cannot be main- concrete to withstand weathering, Sweet
tained constant unless the water in the and Woods (12) state that there are
aggregate and that added at the mixer probably two primary reasons why
are controlled. standard tests of aggregates fail to detect
Some control of the total water con- adequately all materials that are non-
tent may be obtained by control of the resistant to the action of frost. These are:
slump of the concrete, without the aid of (I) failure to consider the degree of
tests for the moisture content of the saturation of the material at the time it
aggregates. However, unless the quan- is incorporated in the concrete; and (2)
tities of aggregates are adjusted to com- failure of any of the aggregate ~[ests to
pensate for free moisture, the proportions duplicate the action of the mortar sur-
of fine to coarse aggregate, the quantity rounding the particles. In other words a
of cement paste and the yield of concrete durability test of aggregates must be
per unit volume of cement will vary. made on concrete containing these ag-
Such variations will be considerable if gregates and not on the aggregates alone.
the moisture content of the aggregates Sweet and Woods further state that
changes 3 per cent or more, as it fre- many types of aggregates are susceptible
quently does under field conditions. to deterioration through freezing of
Aggregate that has no free water on water in the aggregate pores. Among
the surface and will absorb no further these aggregates are porous cherts,
water is described as "saturated and shales, ocher, laminated and other lime-
surface dry." stones, and sandstone. From the stand-
ASTM Method C 702 suggests that point of specification writing, the per-
the same procedure with appropriate centage absorptions of these rocks do
changes in the size of the sample and the not appear to present a sufficiently accu-
dimensions of the container may be used rate index of their durability. Although
to determine the surface moisture of most of the nondurable types of aggre-
coarse aggregate. Many engineers think gates have a high absorption, m a n y
the method is not well adapted to the durable rocks also have a high absorp-
testing of coarse aggregates in the field tion.
because of the size of the sample required Kluge, Sparks, and Tuma (2), in in-
to be representative and the inadequacy vestigations of lightweight aggregate
of any small type of container. concrete, found that highly absorptive
Myers (lO) has discussed the advan- aggregates, such as exfoliated vermicu-
tages and disadvantages of the several lite, sintered diatomite, and perlite, pro-
methods in use prior to 1943. As he duced concretes having relatively high
points out, displacement methods of test
shrinkage.
are most satisfactory for use in the field
It has been shown by Mather (13) that
where speed and rugged simple apparatus
are required. absorption can be used as a statistical
Vail (11) has proposed the use of the air prediction of the probable results of
pressure meter instead of the Chapman magnesium sulfate soundness tests for
flask as a container for use in the dis- groups of similar aggregates for over-all
placement method. He claims that this behavior but not for behavior in indi-
method has the advantages of being vidual cases.
quicker and of employing a larger sam- Myers (lO) called attention to the need
ple. for a standard method for the determi-
302 TESTS AND I)ROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
nation of the a m o u n t of water t h a t will however, and a search of the literature

be contributed to or absorbed from a con- indicates very little research work has
crete mixture b y the aggregates. A been conducted which would be helpful
method of test has not been developed, in developing such a test method.
~EFERENCES
(1) Fred Hubbard, "Specific Gravity, Unit BULLETIN, No. 184, September, 1952, p.
Weight, and Voids in Aggregates," Report 44 (TP128).
on Significance of Tests of Concrete and (g) L. P. Witte and J. E. Backstrom, "Proper-
Concrete Aggregates, Am. Soc. Testing ties of Heavy Concrete Made with Barite
Mat~., p. 108 (1943). (Issued as separate Aggregates," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
publication ASTM STP No. 22-A.) September, 1954; Proceedings, u 51, p.
(2) R. W. Kluge, M. M. Sparks, and E. C. 65.
Tuma, "Lightweight-Aggregate Con- (9) Stanton Walker, "Production of Sand and
crete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.; May, Gravel," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
1949; Proceedings, Vol. 45, p. 625. October, 1954; Proceedings, Vol. 51, p.
(3) E. J. Callan, "Concrete for Radiation 165.
Shielding," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., (10) Bert Myers, "Free Moisture and Absorp-
September, 1953; Proceedings, Vol. 50, p. tion of Aggregates," Report on Significance
17. of Tests of Concrete and Concrete Aggre-
(4) W. B. Fuller and S. E. Thompson, "The gates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 129
Laws of Proportioning Concrete," Trans- (1943). (Issued as separate publication
actions, Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., ~ol. 59, ASTM STP No. Z2-A.)
pp. 67-143 (1907). (11) P. G. Vail, "Use of Pressure Type Air En-
(5) A. N. Talbot and F. E. Richart, "The trainment Indicator for Aggregate Moisture
Strength of Concrete, Its Relation to the Tests," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Cement, Aggregates and Water," Bulletin November, 1949; Proceedings, Vo]. 46, p.
No. 137, Engineering Experiment Station, 221.
University of Illinois (1923). (12) H. S. Sweet and K. B. Woods, "Evaluation
(6) A.T. Goldbeck and J. E. Gray, "A Method of Aggregate Performance in Pavement
of Proportioning Concrete for Strength, Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
Workability, and Durability," Bulletin june, 1948; Proceedings, Vol. 44, p. 1033.
No. 11, Nat. Crushed Stone Assn. (1942). (13) Katharine Mather, "Relation of Absorp-
Revised November, 1953. tion and Sulfate Test Results on Concrete
(7) H. S. Sweet, "Variation in Density of Sands," ASTM BULLETIN,No. 144, Janu-
Lightweight Concrete Aggregates," ASTM ary, 1947, p. 28.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete Aggregates
POROSITY AND ABSORPTION
BY D. W. LEwIs I AND W. L. DoLcl~ ~
The words "pore" and "void" are used versions of aggregate quantities. The
interchangeably in this paper and refer standard tests are adequate for this
to the space unoccupied b y solid matter purpose but are not designed to yield
in the piece of aggregate. The terms do information on the basic quality of the
not refer to the space between pieces of aggregate.
aggregate, which is the "void space" Absorption is only one of the physical
measured b y the A S T M test for voids in properties controlled b y the aggregate
aggregates} nor tO the pore space in con- porosity characteristics. This paper is
crete which is discussed by Verbeck in primarily concerned with the more gen-
another paper in this publication. 3 eral problem and is divided into two
The absorption of an aggregate is main p a r t s - - t h e importance of aggre-
defined as the amount of water in the gate porosity and methods for its meas-
pore system under certain conditions urement.
and is usually stated as a percentage
SIGNIFICANCE OF POROSITY
of the dry weight of the aggregate.
A S T M test methods for the absorp- The characteristics of the pore space in
tion and specific gravity of both fine 4 concrete aggregates have been described
and coarse 5 aggregates specify immer- as the most important of all aggregate
sion of oven-dried material for 24 hr. physical properties (6, 51).G The impor-
The absorption and bulk specific gravity tance of porosity is due to its influence on
values so obtained are useful in mix de- the other physical and chemical proper-
sign calculations--the absorption to ties of the aggregate and to its control of
correct the water-cement ratio for water durability in freezing and thawing. The
in or absorptipn b y the aggregate and the pore characteristics determine the
specific gravity for weight-volume con- amount of water the aggregate can ab-
sorb, its absorption rate, its ease of
i Chief Engineer, National Slag Assn., Wash-
ington, D. C. (formerly Research Engineer, Joint draining, its internal surface area, and
Highway Research Project) and Research As- the portion of its bulk volume that is oc-
sistant, Joint Highway lZeseareh Project, Purdue cupied by solid matter.
University, Lafayette, Ind., respectively.
2 Method of Test for Voids in Aggregate for
Concrete (C 30), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Effect on Chemical and Physical Proper-
Part 3. ties:
3 See p. 136.
4 Methods of Test for Specific Gravity and Aggregates having large total pore
Absorption of Fine Aggregate (C 128), 1955 volumes, especially if the individual pores
Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
5 Method of Test for Specific Gravity and The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
Absorption of Coarse Aggregate (C 127), 1955 to the list of references appended to this paper,
Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. see p. 310.
303
304 T E S T S A N D PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E A N D A G G R E G A T E S
are relatively small, have greater specific crete aggregates is their influence on the
surfaces that may be susceptible to durability of the concrete in freezing and
chemical attack than do those with thawing (6, 51). For damage to occur,
smaller pore volumes or larger pores. critical conditions of water content and
Thus, for an aggregate type that is sub- lack of drainage must be present7 The
ject to chemical reactions in concrete, the size and continuity of the pores control
rate of reaction and the chemical sta- the rate and amount of absorption and,
bility are influenced by the porosity similarly, the rate at which the water can
characteristics. escape from the aggregate particle.
The physical properties of bulk specific To obtain complete information on the
gravity, strength, elasticity, and abrasion pore structure of an aggregate, measure-
resistance are similarly affected by the ment of the characteristics of total
porosity (Sl). Larger void volumes mean porosity, pore size, pore shape, contin-
smaller proportions of solids per unit uity, and tortuosity would be required.
bulk volume. In addition to the obvious Of these characteristics, only the total
effect of reduced specific gravity, the porosity has been measured adequately
more porous materials have a smaller by test methods actually applied to con-
net area of solids to resist load. For crete aggregates. As noted later under
aggregates of similar composition, there- "Measurement of Porosity," several
fore, the more porous materials will have methods for determining other pore
the lower strength values. characteristics exist but have not been
The bond of cement paste to the aggre- applied to aggregates. The lack of ex-
gate particles is determined by complex tensive porosity data on aggregates has
and poorly understood physicochemical precluded any general correlation of
properties of the surface. Both roughness durability with actual porosity charac-
and the pore characteristics of the sur- teristics. Instead, past investigators have
face zone affect the surface texture attempted to make correlations of dur-
and the quality of the bond with the ability with either a single porosity
cement paste. Pore characteristics that measurement or some physical property
permit no penetration of the surface of that is dependent on porosity. Included
the aggregate particle are not conducive in these categories are correlations in-
to a good bond (50). volving the voids ratio of pores smaller
Aggregate thermal characteristics are than 5u in diameter, absorption, specific
influenced by the porosity. In an indirect gravity, and degree of saturation. The
manner, through the control of absorp- correlations obtained are, ill general,
tion, the porosity affects the thermal limited to the materials tested and to
properties of water-containing material. similar materials exposed to the same
Reports by Lu (38), Fox and Dolch (27), conditions. Despite the lack of any gen-
and Clark (16) indicate significant changes eral correlation of freezing-and-thawing
in coefficient of expansion, diffusivity, and durability with the fundamental porosity
conductivity, respectively, with changes characteristics, the studies that have been
in the water content of the stone. Pore made serve to emphasize the importance
characteristics probably also influence of porosity and have led to the develop-
the thermal properties of dry aggregate. ment of theories of the mechanism of dis-
ruption.
Effect on Freezing-and-Thawing Dur- Investigations of the porosity of con-
ability: crete aggregates have been conducted
The most significant effect of porosity almost entirely during the last 20 yr.
characteristics on the suitability of con- 7 See p. 182.
LEWIS AND DOLCH ON POROSITY AND ABSORPTION 305
Prior studies of porosity were made on gravity, pore structure, and dye pene-
building stone and brick; the techniques tration. These correlations, although
developed were later applied to aggre- imperfect and limited to a specific ma-
gates. terial, were important in establishing the
Attempts to correlate the durability of influence of porosity on the durability of
building stone with its absorption and concrete aggregates.
specific gravity date back to at least Wray and Lichtefeld (71) reported re-
1847 (18). Later work by Hirschwald (31) sults of freezing-and-thawing tests on
and Howe (32) involved total porosity gravels having varying degrees of satura-
measurements and calculation of the tion. The more water the aggregate con-
degree of saturation. Howe noted that tained, the poorer was the durability.
the type of porosity was more important Later work by Sweet (64) correlated the
than the total pore volume and that the degree of saturation with both laboratory
degree to which the pores became filled freezing-and-thawing tests and the field
with water under natural conditions durability of concrete in which the ma-
determined the durability in freezing and terials were used.
thawing. Similar porosity studies on Correlation of the volume of pores less
brick and ceramics were made by Douty than 5~ in diameter with freezing-and-
and Beebe (21), Washburn (67), and thawing durability of Indiana limestones
others. has been reported by Sweet (64) and by
Seipp (60) calculated that, theo- Fears (2s). The aggregates with the
retically, the degree of saturation of poorest durability had voids ratios of
building stone should be less than 0.91 the small pores several times as great as
to obtain good durability. Higher satura- did some of the most durable materials.
tions would leave insufficient space for Blanks (6) reported a similar correlation
the expansion that occurs when the water and stated that the pores having a diame-
freezes. Kreuger (36) later found critical ter of less than 4~ were especially critical.
degrees of saturation on the order of The application of porosity studies to
0.85, due apparently to nonuniform dis- concrete aggregates has paralleled, in
tribution of water in the pore system. both techniques and results, the previous
Some of the pores could be almost com- work on building stone. Most correla-
pletely saturated while others remained tions were of durability with some
relatively empty, but extensive damage property affected or determined by the
from freezing and thawing could still porosity characteristics rather than with
Occur. these characteristics themselves. As a
Schaffer (SS) reported test results of result, limitations are placed on the
pore-size determinations on building applicability of the correlations to aggre-
stone. The volume of pores having diame- gates in general. Despite these limita-
ters less than 5~ was correlated with the tions, such correlations are superior to
resistance of the stone to freezing and standard tests in many cases and have
thawing. been suggested for acceptance testing of
The earliest correlations of the porosity aggregates (13, 37, 65).
properties of concrete aggregates with The lack of durability of an aggregate
durability appear to be confined to in freezing and thawing is primarily de-
cherts. Cantrill and Campbell (13), pendent upon its ability to become and
Wuerpel and Rexford (72), and Sweet stay highly saturated under the given
and Woods (65) correlated the freezing- conditions of exposure. The harmful pore
and-thawing durability of chert with size is large enough to permit water
such factors as absorption, bulk specific readily to enter much of the pore space
but not so large as to permit easy drain- (40), and the subject is further referred to
age. According to Dorsey (2o) the pres- in this publication by PowersY
sure exerted by freezing water (if no ex- The most important aggregate proper-
pansion or escape of water is possible) ties that control the freezing-and-thaw-
ranges from 0 psi at 32 F to about 29,000 ing durability, according to the hypoth-
psi at --4 F. Pressures in this range may esis discussed above, are the pore-size
be developed in aggregate particles when distribution and the permeability. Since
the saturation is so high that the remain- the permeability is controlled by the size
ing void space is less than the expansion and continuity, of the pores, these two
that takes place when the water freezes. porosity characteristics may be con-
To avoid the development of pressures in sidered the important ones, with total
excess of the tensile strength of either the porosity of secondary importance.
aggregate particle or the surrounding
mortar, the pore water must be able to MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY
flow into unfilled pores or escape from The description of the pore structure
the particle. Escape from the particle of a consolidated porous medium is
may be blocked by a frozen zone around difficult. Reasons for this difficulty be-
the outside, resulting in the development come obvious if one imagines a random
of high pressures in the interior. Even structure the details of which vary con-
when flow away from the freezing zone is tinually from point to point. The indi-
possible, the hydraulic pressures neces- vidual pore spaces vary in size, shape,
sary to cause movement through small direction, frequency of occurrence, and
capillaries may be so high as to cause dis- manner of interconnection and termina-
ruption of the material. Blanks (6) stated tion. Such a structure cannot, by the
that pores less than 4# in diameter will nature of things, be described in detail.
drain effectively only at pressures high And so the interpretation of porosity
enough to cause failureof some rocks and measurements has involved various ap-
concretes in tension. It is not necessary proximations and models in terms of
that the aggregate particle itselfbe dis- which the structure is described. A dis-
rupted for the concrete in which it is cussion of some of these models was
used to suffer damage from freezing and given by Scheidegger (56). He has also
thawing (58). The aggregate m a y have recently given a novel analysis in which
enough strength and elasticity to with- he applied statistical methods to the
stand the stresses without failure, but description of an entirely random model
the surrounding mortar may be disrupted (57).
by the expansion of the particle. Freez- The pore structure of a solid can be
ing-and-thawing tests of the aggregate thought of as involving several related
alone m a y not, therefore, be indicative concepts. We have taken these to be (1)
of its effect in concrete (58, 64).The rate total porosity, (2) pore size, (3) pore
at which water must escape from the shape, (4) continuity, and (5) tortuosity.
freezing zone and the pressures required All porosity measurements involve one
to cause such flow are dependent on the or more of these properties.
rate of freezing and the permeability of The total porosity is expressed as the
the material. An hypothesis of this ratio of void volume to either bulk vol-
nature for the effectof freezing and thaw- ume or solid volume. The first ratio is
ing on concrete has been presented and called simply the porosity, and the sec-
discussed in detail by Powers (43), ond the voids ratio. The size of pores can
Powers and Helmuth (47), and Pickett be interpreted in terms of the hydraulic
LEWIS AND D O L C H O N POROSITY AND ABSORPTION 307
radius or of some simplified model, for of saturation of a liquid is questionable,

example, a circular cross-section. An gases are frequently substituted. Air or
important aspect of the situation that helium are the most commonly used gases
involves both the volume and the size with helium being preferred because it is
of pores is the frequency distribution so little adsorbed. The gaseous volume is
curve. This curve usually is a plot of the obtained from expansion or compression
distribution of pore volume according to experiments and the assumption of the
the size of pores involved. It is obtained validity of the gas laws. Early forms of
as the variation in slope of the curve of the apparatus were given by Washburn
cumulative pore volume as a function of and Bunting (69) and by Karns (34);
size. many modifications, improvements, and
Pore shape is frequently inherent in adaptations have subsequently been
the chosen model. By far the most com- made (7, 45, 59, 62).
monly assumed shape is that of circular Bulk and apparent specific gravities
cross-section. If an irregular cross-section are determined by weighing in air and
is assumed, the problem is treated by w a t e P (19). But such a procedure for
the inclusion of shape-factor constants in bulk gravity involves the uncertainties
the appropriate expressions. The con- of surface drying the specimen. For this
tinuity of the pores involves such things reason other methods (for example, dis-
as the frequency of interconnection and placement of mercury, geometric meas-
the number of dead-end pores. These fac- urement, coating of the sample, and
tors are expressed inherently in, for weighing immersed) have frequently
instance, the results of permeability ex- been used. Reif (49) evaluated some of
periments, but they do not appear as these methods. Ergun (22) gave a com-
explicit parameters. Tortuosity is defined prehensive list of various methods and
either as the ratio of the length of the also a novel method for use on crushed
actual average flow path to the straight- solids. The value obtained for bulk
line length of the flow path or as the specific gravity will depend on the
square of this ratio-generally the latter. method of measurement.
Many experimental methods have Total porosity can also be determined
been used to give information on pore by the use of the porosimeter of Washburn
structure. Only a few of these have been and Bunting (70). This apparatus is
used on concrete aggregates. Of the re- simple, and the method has advantages
maining number, some have very special- over specific gravity measurements. The
ized application, but others could, and measurement of the total porosity of con-
perhaps should, be applied in aggregate crete aggregates is a commonly per-
research. They are therefore included in formed test. This property and those of
the r6sum6 that follows. absorption and saturation are the only
Total porosity is most frequently de- ones which have been investigated to
termined by the measurement of specific any great extent in aggregate studies.
gravity. Voids ratio or porosity is easily An investigation that goes deeper than
calculated from values of true and bulk a simple porosity measurement is soon
specific gravity. True specific gravity is involved in questions of pore size. Com-
determined pycnometrically. Water is paratively few determinations of pore
generally used as the saturant} but other size have been made on aggregates, and
liquids can also be used. Since the degree these have been made largely by the
Method of Test for Specific Gravity of Soils less refined methods. Even so, the re-
(D 854), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. sults showing the freeze-and-thaw dur-
ability of concrete to be rather intimately the sorbent is then calculable. Harkins

associated with the pore size of the aggre- and Jura (29) devised a method which is
gate have provided the best insight so far independent of a knowledge of the area
into the problem. of the sorbed molecule. In Brunauer's
Most of the work on aggregates has comprehensive book (10), the B E T
been done by the microscopic method, method is reviewed along with other
which gives information on volumes of theories of sorption and methods of sur-
voids larger and smaller than a certain face-area and pore-structure measure-
size. Sweet (64) and Fears (25) used the ment. A review of experimental methods
technique on aggregates, Verbeck (66) on was given by Joy (33). Other inform-
concrete, and Schaffer (Ss) on building ative reviews were written by Foster
stone. The method is relatively inac- (26) and by Ergun (23), the latter cover-
curate and time-consuming (2S). It is ing various methods of surface area
theoretically capable of being used to determination. Sorption measurements
obtain a distribution curve of sorts by have been made on aggregates by Blaine,
choosing several, rather than only two, Hunt, and Tomes (5) and on rocks by
groups of sizes, but this would be a very Brooks and Purcell (9). Powers and
lengthy process. The statement of 4 to Brownyard (44) and Gleysteen and
5~ as the critical size for durability is Kalousek (28) used this method on
based largely on the results of micro- hardened portland-cement paste. The
scopic measurements and perhaps should latter paper gives a simplified procedure
not be interpreted too literally, since the that has much to recommend it from a
measurements on which it is based were practical point of view. Generally speak-
made at magnifications with which 4 to ing, the sorption method is somewhat
5~ objects could not clearly be distin- difficult for use on aggregates because of
guished. their comparatively small specific sur-
In a general sense which avoids any faces.
particular model, the only "pore size" Another method for the determination
that can be dealt with is the hydraulic of hydraulic radius is the measurement
radius. This can be determined by meas- of permeability, an attractive feature of
urements of porosity and specific surface which is its comparative simplicity.
and use of the relation that the hydraulic Darcy's law and the definition of per-
radius is the ratio of total porosity to meability are discussed in Muskat's
specific surface. Adsorption measure- book (39). Either liquids or gases may be
ments provide one of the most widely used for the measurement, but the use
used methods for surface area determina- of gases is more rapid and convenient for
tion. The sorbate can be a solute or a relatively impermeable samples. Also,
gas. Gaseous sorption is probably more some of the troubles of liquid perme-
commonly used, and various theories ability measurements are avoided, but a
have been advanced by means of which new one is encountered--the pressure
the surface area can be determined. One dependency due to slip flow, first investi-
of the most successful of the theories of gated by Klinkenberg (35).
sorption is that of Brunauer, Emmett, With materials such as hardened ce-
and Teller (BET) (11). Use of their equa- ment paste and concrete, the use of water
tion gives the amount of the monolayer as a permeant is necessary to avoid the
(the layer one molecule in thickness) of structural changes caused by drying.
the sorbate. If the area covered by one Aggregates do not usually suffer from
molecule is known, the specific surface of this restriction.
LEwis .AND DOLCH ON POROSITY AND ABSORPTION 309
Examples of apparatus for perme- pore structure; the other is a derivation

ability measurements on concrete are using the capillary pressure curve.
given in papers by Ruettgers, Vidal, and Brooks and Purcell (9) applied the latter
Wing (54) and by Cook (17). Powers et al. method to sandstone samples and found
(40) measured the permeability of hard- tortuosities many times that of bead
ened cement paste. Stull and Johnson packs. But even with this correction
(63) made measurements on bricks. applied, the values of surface area still
Papers showing apparatus for both liquid differed considerably from those obtained
and gaseous measurements on petroleum by sorption. Inhomogeneous pore size
sands are those by Wyckoff et al. (73), distribution and penetration of the sor-
Fancher, Lewis, and Barnes (24), and bate into places not contacted by the
Klinkenberg (35). Bonillas (s) gave an flowing fluid were given as reasons. The
apparatus for use on cores of low perme- general subject of fluid flow was reviewed
ability. The foregoing are only a few by Barrer (2), who recently introduced a
examples of experimental methods. method for pore size measurement based
Many variations of technique have been on non steady-state diffusive flow (3).
made. Several experimental methods can be
The application of permeability meas- grouped under the general heading of
urements to pore size determination de- meniscus phenomena. A curved interface
pends on the use of the Kozeny equation in a pore is associated with a pressure
or one of its analogs. This equation re- difference across the meniscus which is a
lates permeability to porosity, hydraulic function of the radius of curvature, that
radius, and shape and tortuosity factors. is, of the radius of the pore if it is small.
It is derived and discussed in a paper by The basic idea of capillary pressure
Carman (14). It has been modified by experiments is to measure this pressure
Arnell (1) and others to include a term at varying degrees of saturation. Such
for the slip flow so that it can be used data constitute a basis for the construc-
successfully with gaseous measurements tion of the aforementioned cumulative
made on finely porous samples. The volume curves, and from them the pore-
Kozeny equation has been extensively size distribution curves can be obtained.
tested experimentally and the shape and The properties of capillary-held liquids
tortuosity factors established. But most were reviewed by Carman (lS) and the
of this work was on unconsolidated media general subject of capillary pressure and
composed of spherical particles (bead its meaning was discussed by Rose and
packs or powders). When applied to Bruce (53) and by Wyllie and Spangler
consolidated media such as sedimentary (74). Rose and Bruce gave a modern
rocks, the equation gave specific surfaces version of the conventional type of ap-
greatly different from those obtained by paratus and Hassler and Brunner (30)
sorption experiments. A factor that gave a centrifugal technique. An ap-
could be responsible for this discrepancy paratus that involves the measurement
is a difference in tortuosity between the of capillary pressures and that was used
two types of media. Wyllie and Spangler on aggregates was described by Blanks
(74) postulated fairly constant shape fac- (6). Experiments with this apparatus
tors but differing tortuosities. They gave more or less confirmed the critical pore
two independent methods for determin- size for aggregates which had been ar-
ing tortuosity. One is based on an rived at by the microscopic method.
analogy between the flow of fluid and the The same principle of capillary pres-
flow of electrical current through the sure measurement is used in the mercury
porosimeter. In this technique, however, eral workers (12, 48, 74) have combined
the pressure measured is that required to static and dynamic principles and de-
force a nonwetting liquid into the pores rived expressions for permeability in
rather than that required to force a terms of capillary-pressure data. The re-
wetting liquid out. It is possible, there- verse operation (the calculation of capil-
fore, to cover a complete pressure range, lary pressure and size-distribution data
avoiding the air-penetration and irre- from permeability measurements) is pre-
ducible-saturation troubles of the usual yen ted by the fact that a number of dis-
technique. The basic idea was mentioned tributions can give the same permeabil-
by Washburn (68), and the apparatus was ity. All capillary pressure measurements
developed by Ritter and Drake (52). suffer from the defects of the model--
Purcell (48) developed a simplified ap- generally that of circular capillaries.
paratus for use on sedimentary rocks Research on concrete aggregates has
with comparatively large pores and at been limited to total porosity measure-
consequently lower pressures. Brooks ments, a small amount of work with
and Purcell (9) and Burdine, Gournay, microscopic techniques, and still less
and Reichertz Gz) used this technique on with capillary and sorption methods.
rocks. It is a very promising method for
use with concrete aggregates. S~Ru
In the region of high capillary pres- Pore characteristics are probably the
sures, the data are frequently obtained most important of all the physical prop-
by measuring the reduction (for a erties of a concrete aggregate. The abun-
wetting liquid) of the equilibrium vapor dance, size, shape, and continuity of the
pressure over the meniscus. The general pores control durability in freezing and
phenomenon is called capillary condensa- thawing and affect such properties as
tion, and the basic relationships are bulk specific gravity, absorption,
given by the Kelvin equation. The data strength, abrasion resistance, bond qual-
come from the high relative pressure ity, and susceptibility to chemical re-
part of sorption measurements. action.
Capillary condensation is discussed in Previous investigations have estab-
many references, among which are lished correlations of durability with some
Brunauer's book (10) and reviews by property controlled by the porosity, such
Foster (26) and by Pierce and Smith (42). as the degree of saturation, but these
The Kelvin equation has been modified correlations are limited to specific ma-
to account for the presence of multilayer terials and are not generally applicable.
films on the pore walls and several meth- The properties that determine aggregate
ods have been given for calculating the quality and performance cannot be fully
pore-volume distribution (4, 41, 61). All explained and predicted until an under-
capillary-condensation experiments, how- standing of the pore characteristics and
ever, deal with a pore size that is small, adequate means for evaluating them are
compared, at least, to the generally ac- available. A need exists for fundamental
cepted critical size for aggregates. Sev- studies of these characteristics.
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try, Vol. 57, p. 64 (1953). (54) A. Ruettgers, E. N. Vidal, and S. P. Wing,
(43) T. C. Powers, "A Working Hypothesis for "An Investigation of the Permeability of
Further Studies of Frost Resistance of Mass Concrete with Particular Reference
Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., to Boulder Dam," Journal, Am. Concrete
February, 1945; Proceedings, Vo]. 41, p. Inst., March-April, 1935; Proceedings, Vol.
245. 31, p. 382.
(44) T. C. Powers and T. L. Brownyard, (55) R.J. Schaffer, "The Weathering of Natural
"Studies of the Physical Properties of Building Stones," Special Report No. 18,
Hardened Portland Cement Paste. Part 2. Dept. of Scientificand Industrial Research,
Studies of Water Fixation," Journal, Am. p. 53, His Majesty's Stationery Office,
Concrete Inst., November, 1946; Proceed- London (1932).
ings, Vol. 43, p. 249; "Part 3. Theoretical (56) A. E. Scheidegger, "Theoretical Models of
Interpretation of Adsorption Data," Jour- Porous Matter," Producers Monthly, Vol.
nal Am. Concrete Inst., December, 1946; 17, No. 10, p. 17 (1953).
Proceedings, Vol. 43, p. 469. (57) A. E. Scheidegger, "Statistical Hydrody-
(45) T. C. Powers and T. L. Brownyard, namics in Porous Media," Journal of Ap-
"Studies of the Physical Properties of plied Physics, Vol. 25, p. 994 (1954).
Hardened Portland Cement Paste. Part 5. (58) C. H. Scholer, "The Durability of Con-
Studies of the Hardened Paste by Means of crete," Proceedings, Highway Research
Specific Volume Measurements," Journal, Board, Vol. 10, p. 132 (1930).
Am. Concrete Inst., February, 1947; Pro- (59) W. C. Schumb and E. S. Rittner, "A
ceedings, Vol. 43, p. 669. Helium Densitometer for Use with Pow-
LEwis AND DOLCtt ON POROSITY AND ABSORPTION 313
dered Materials," Journal, Am. Chemical (68) E. W. Washburn, "Note on a Method of

Soc., Vo]. 65, p. 1692 (1943). Determining the Distribution of Pore
(60) H. Seipp, "On the Theory of the Action of Sizes in a Porous Material," Proceedings,
Frost on Natural Building Stones," Pro- Nat. Acad. Science, Vol. 7, p. 115 (1921).
ceedings, Fifth International Congress (69) E. W. Washburn and E. N. Bunting,
Testing Mats. (1909). "Porosity. VI. The Determination of
(61) C. G. Shull, "The Determination of Pore Porosity by the Method of Gas Expan-
Size Distribution from Gas Adsorption sion," Journal, Am. Ceramic Soc., Vol. 5,
Data," Journal, Am. Chemical Soc., Vol. p. 112 (1922).
70, p. 1405 (1948). (70) E. W. Washburn and E. N. Bunting,
(62) R. C. Smith, Jr. and H. C. Howard, "Den- "Porosity. VII. The Determination of the
sity and Porosity of Carbonaceous Ma- Porosity of Highly Vitrified Bodies,"
terials," Industrial and Engineering Chemis- Journal, Am. Ceramic Soc., Vol. 5, p. 527
try, Vol. 34, p. 438 (1942). (1922).
(63) R. T. Stull and P. V. Johnson, "Some (71) F. N. Wray and H. J. Lichtefeld, "The
Properties of the Pore System in Bricks Influence of Test Methods on Moisture Ab-
and Their Relation to Frost Action,"
sorption and Resistance of Coarse Aggre-
Journal of Research, Nat. Bureau Stand-
ards, Vol. 25, p. 711 (1940). gate to Freezing and Thawing," Proceed-
(64) H. S. Sweet, "Research on Concrete Dura- ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 40, p.
bility as Affected by Coarse Aggregates," 1007 (1940).
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. (72) C. E. Wuerpel and E. P. Rexford, "The
48, p. 988 (1948). Soundness of Chert as Measured by Bulk
(65) H. S. Sweet and K. B. Woods, "A Study of Specific Gravity and Absorption," Pro-
Chert as a Deleterious Constituent in Ag- ceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 40,
gregates," Engineering Bulletin, Research p. 1021 (1940).
Series No. 86, Purdue University, Sep- (73) R. D. Wyckoff, H. G. Botset, M. Muskat,
tember, i942. and D. W. Reed, "The Measurement of the
(66) G. J. Verbeck, "The Camera-Lucida Permeability of Porous Media for Homo-
Method for Measuring Air Voids in Hard-
geneous Fluids," Review of Scientific Instru-
ened Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete
Inst., May, 1947; Proceedings, Vo]. 43, p.
ments, Vol. 4, p. 394 (1933).
1025. (74) M. R. J. Wyllie and M. B. Spangler, "Ap-
(67) E. W. Washburn, "Porosity. 1. Purpose of plication of Electrical Resistivity Measure-
the Investigation. II. Porosity and the ments to Problems of Fluid Flow in Porous
Mechanism of Absorption," Journal, Am. Media," Bulletin, Am. Assn. Petroleum
Ceramic Soc., Vol. 4, p. 916 (1921). Geologists, Vol. 36, p. 359 (1952).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete Aggregates
TOUGHNESS, HARDNESS, ABRASION, S T R E N G T H ,

AND ELASTIC P R O P E R T I E S
BY D. 0. WooEr 1
The mechanical properties of aggre- sistance of the material to failure by im-

gates may or may not have an effect on pact. The test as described in ASTM
the strength of concrete. Since concrete Method D 32 is made on small cylinders
is an assemblage of individual pieces of drilled from rock or large pieces of ag-
aggregate bound together by a cementing gregate. The test values are empirical
medium, its strength is primarily a func- and indicate the distance in centimeters
tion of the quality of the cement paste. through which a 2-kg hammer falls to
Its strength is also dependent on the cause failure of the specimen.
bond between the cement paste and the At one time when horse-drawn or
aggregate. If either the strength of the steel-tired traffic was common, deter-
paste or the bond between the paste and minations of the toughness of rock were
the aggregate is low, a concrete of poor considered of importance. With the vir-
quality will be obtained irrespective of tual disappearance of this traffic, the
the quality of the aggregate. But when need of a direct test of resistance to im-
cement paste of good quality is provided, pact became remote. The method has,
and its bond with the aggregate is satis- however, been found useful for tests on
factory, then the mechanical properties samples too small for testing by other
of the aggregate wiU influence the means, or for the classification of aggre-
strength of the concrete. gates with respect to weathering. With
The tests considered in this paper are careful operation of the test procedure,
ordinarily applied to coarse aggregate or the results can be used to show whether
to rock from which aggregate is pro- the material in question is fresh or has
duced. Mention will be made of non- been adversely affected by weathering
standardized methods of test which have and solution. Average values for tough-
been used to determine the quality of ness of the more common types of rock
fine aggregates. I t is unfortunate that used as concrete aggregates are given in
more consideration has not been given to Table I.
the quality of fine aggregate since, next Because the toughness test is made
to the cement paste, this size of aggre- only on shaped cylinders that are drilled
gate may have a marked influence on the from the material under test, the test
quality of the concrete. cannot be made on aggregate of the
sizes usually used in concrete. Several at-
TOUGHNESS
tempts to develop a method of test for
With respect to concrete aggregates, sized aggregate have been made. Pos-
toughness is usually considered the re- sibly the most successful of these resulted
1 Physical Research Engineer, Physical
Research Branch, Bureau of Public Roads, 2 Method of Test for Toughness of Rock
Washington, D. C. (D 3), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
314
WOOLF ON PIIYSICAL PROPERTIES 315
in a readily portable apparatus known as values obtained in the hardness test were
the Jackson nut-cracker in which single considered of significance when steel-
pieces of aggregate are subjected to im- tired traffic was common. With disap-
pact by a freely-falling steel ball (1).3 A pearance of this traffic, the hardness test
number of refinements of the apparatus was discontinued, and no mention of it is
have been made to simplify the test pro- found in the methods used by the Ameri-
cedure and to permit testing material as can Association of State Highway Offi-
small as 89 or ] in. The apparatus was cials as early as 1928. Hardness tests on
used in an investigation of soft pieces in rock were continued by the Bureau of
aggregate (2). I t was concluded that, for Public Roads, however, until 1934.
complete information, three different In themselves, hardness test values
sizes of steel balls were needed to test are principally of interest for comparison,
aggregate ranging in size from 2 or 289 in. but they do give information concerning
to ~ in. With some changes that are being the effect of weathering and alteration
contemplated, the method is considered for particular classes of rock. Average
well adapted for field or laboratory use values for the principal kinds of rock
in determining the quality of aggregates used as concrete aggregates are shown in
as measured by their resistance to im- Table I. Materials giving Dorry hard-
pact. ness values appreciably below those
shown may be considered of questionable
HARDNESS quality.
As usually considered in connection Mention should be made of the use of
with aggregates for concrete, hardness the scleroscope for measuring the hard-
refers to the resistance of the material to ness of nonmetallic materials. Extensive
surface abrasion. No method for hard- use of the Shore scleroscope has been
ness tests on aggregates has been adopted made by the Bureau of Mines (4) in a
by the ASTM. M a n y state highway study of the physical properties of mine
laboratories have used a Dorry hardness rock. In the use of this instrument, the
machine for tests of the quality of rock. hardness of the material is measured by
In this test, a cylindrical core of rock is the rebound of a diamond-tipped ham-
subjected to surface wear by finely mer dropped vertically on the test sur-
crushed quartz carried by a revolving face. Since the diamond point has a di-
metal table (3). The loss in weight of the ameter of about 0.03 in., it may strike a
rock after 1000 revolutions of the table single mineral crystal in the rock. I t is
is determined and the hardness expressed necessary therefore to make a consider-
as an empirical value: able number of tests at random locations
on the specimen to obtain a good value
loss in grams
Hardness = 20 for the hardness of the material. The
3
method appears to be suitable for use on
No particular basis for this formula is aggregate, even material of a heterogene-
known. I t is possible that it was devel- ous nature, since with judicious sampling
oped to have the test value agree closely the fragments tested may be held to a
with that for the "French coefficient of reasonable number.
wear" obtained in the Deval abrasion ABRASION
test.
Deval Abrasion:
Like those for the toughness test, the
The Deval abrasion test has been used
3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer since 1878 as a measure of the quality of
see p. 323. rock. In 1908 it was adopted by the
316 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O:F CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
A S T M as M e t h o d D 24 a n d h a s b e e n re- corners are tumbled in a cast iron cylin-

v i s e d b u t s l i g h t l y since t h e n . A m e t h o d d e r for 10,000 r e v o l u t i o n s . T h e s a m p l e is
of t e s t for g r a v e l w a s a d o p t e d in 1928 as t h e n s i e v e d o n a N o . 12 sieve w i t h o p e n -
A S T M M e t h o d D 289~; t h i s h a s b e e n ings a b o u t ~ - i n . s q u a r e , a n d t h e w e i g h t
r e v i s e d s e v e r a l t i m e s to p e r m i t t h e t e s t - of t h e m a t e r i a l p a s s i n g t h e sieve is ex-
ing of c r u s h e d or u n c r u s h e d g r a v e l as well p r e s s e d as a p e r c e n t a g e of t h e o r i g i n a l
as c r u s h e d s t o n e a n d c r u s h e d slag. A w e i g h t of t h e s a m p l e . A " F r e n c h coeffi-
t a b u l a t i o n of r e q u i r e m e n t s for c o a r s e c i e n t of w e a r " m a y also b e c a l c u l a t e d b y
a g g r e g a t e for c o n c r e t e s h o w s t h a t in 1954 d i v i d i n g 40 b y t h e p e r c e n t a g e of w e a r .
seven state highway departments used I n A S T M M e t h o d D 289 for g r a v e l or
t h e D e v a l t e s t or a m o d i f i c a t i o n t h e r e o f c r u s h e d a g g r e g a t e , a g r a d e d s a m p l e is
for t h e a c c e p t a n c e of m a t e r i a l s (S). T h r e e u s e d w i t h a n a b r a s i v e c h a r g e of steel or
TABLE I.--AVERAGE VALUEI FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK. a
Toughness Hardness .. Loss by Abrasion
Kind of Rock Deval Test Los AngelesTest

mber A~erage N Average
o rests o~ lmber Average, Numb~ Average,
Tests per cent of Tests percent
Amphibolite . . . . . . . 70 I4 16 87 3.9 30 35
Basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 t9 17 203 3.1 24 14
Chert . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 12 19 78 8.5 6 26
Diabase . . . . . . . . . . . 285 20 18 34O 2.6 63 18
Diorite . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 15 18 60 3.1
Dolomite . . . . . . . . . . 612 14 708 5.5 134 25
Felsite l~. . . . . . . . . . . 127 1 18 150 3.8 9 18
Gabbro . . . . . . . . . . . 42 14 18 45 3.0 4 18
Gneiss . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 18 602 5.9 293 45
Granite c . . . . . . . . . . . 703 18 718 4.3 174 38
Limestone . . . . . . . . . 315 14 .677 5.7 350 26
Marble . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 13 175 6.3 41 47
Quartzite . . . . . . . . . . 161 16 19 233 3.3 119 28
Sandstone . . . . . . . . . 681 11 15 699 7.0 95 38
Schist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 12 17 314 5.5 136 38
Syenite . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 14 18 31 4.1 14 24
a From "Results of PhysicaI Tests of Road-Building Aggregate" (7).

Including andecite, dacite, rhyolite, and trachyte.
c Including granodiorite, pegmatite, and unakite.
other departments used the Deval test, cast iron spheres. Four different gradings
or a m o d i f i c a t i o n of it, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a r e n o w p e r m i t t e d w i t h m a x i m u m sizes
L o s A n g e l e s a b r a s i o n test. of 2, 189 1, a n d ~ in., a n d a f i f t h size for
I n t h e D e v a l t e s t for r o c k ( A S T M { in. to N o . 4 a g g r e g a t e h a s b e e n p r o -
M e t h o d D 2), a p p r o x i m a t e l y c u b i c a l posed.
p i e c e s of r o c k w i t h s h a r p e d g e s a n d As s e e n in T a b l e I, t h e D e v a l p e r -
c e n t a g e s of w e a r for m a n y of t h e c o m -
4Method of Test for Abrasion of Rock by m o n l y - u s e d t y p e s of rock, s u c h as l i m e -
Use of the Deval Machine (D 2), 1955 Book of
ASTM Standards, Part 3. s t o n e , d o l o m i t e , m a r b l e , gneiss, schist,
Method of Test for Abrasion of Graded a n d s a n d s t o n e , d o n o t differ v e r y m u c h .
Coarse Aggregate by Use of tile Deval Machine B e c a u s e of this, it h a s n o t b e e n f o u n d
(D 289), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part
3. p o s s i b l e to c o r r e l a t e t h e loss i n t h e D e v a l
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions a
WOOL]? ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 317
test for rock with service records of these of quartz in gravels cause the loss for the
types of rock when used as concrete ag- graded aggregate method to be appreci-
gregates. The loss in the Deval test can ably greater than that for Method D 2.
be used for comparative purposes as an A principal objection to the use of
approximate measure of the quality of Method D 289 for the acceptance of
the rock. Many specifications in the past materials concerns the different losses
permitted a percentage of wear of 8.0, or that might be obtained for the same ma-
a French coefficient of 5.0, as an indica- terial. The method permits the use of
tion of rock of suitable quality for use in four or five different gradings of the test
concrete. sample, and only in exceptional cases are
The Deval test for gravel or crushed the losses for these different gradings ap-
aggregate appears to be more severe than proximately the same. Usually the losses
that for rock and normally gives a higher vary with the different gradings, as is
percentage of wear for material of pre- shown in Table II for a particular sample
TABLE II.--EFFECT OF GRADING OF
of gravel, with t h e differences between
T E S T S A M P L E O N LOSS I N D E V A L the losses frequently being much more
ABRASION TEST. marked. Unless the specifications for the
Grading Grading GradingIGrading material state the grading of the test
A B C I D sample to be used, the acceptance or re-
jection of the material may be based on
COMPOSITION OF TEST SAMPLE, PER CENT BY
WEIGHT
chance grading selected for the test.
Although the Deval test has merit, it
2 to 11/~ in . . . . . . i 25 _ _ . .
is time-consuming, requires meticulous
11~ to 1 in . . . . . . : 25 50 preparation of test samples for rock, and
1 to 3~ in . . . . . . . 25 25 50
3/~ to 1/~ in . . . . . . 25 25 50 50 gives test results that do not reflect sig-
1/~ in. to No. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 nificant differences in the materials
tested. The application of the test for
WEAR, PER CENT
graded material is defective in that sig-
13.0 11.0 9.3 12.0 nificant differences between the losses
for the different gradings permitted are
sumably identical quality. It has been seldom acknowledged in specifications
customary to consider rock with a loss of for aggregate.
about 7 per cent as determined by ASTM
Method D 2 to be of the same quality as Los Angeles Abraslor~:
gravel with a loss of about 15 per cent, The Los Angeles abrasion test was de-
as determined by ASTM Method D 289. veloped to overcome some of the defects
This relation is not supported by experi- found in the Deval test. The Los Angeles
mental data. In separate investigations test is characterized by the quickness
made by two laboratories, rock that had with which a sample may be tested, the
been milled to the shape of gravel and high loss obtained, and the applicability
tested by Method D 289 had only slightly of the method to all types of commonly
more wear than rock from the same used aggregates. With material of uni-
quarry tested by Method D 2. It must be form quality, the loss varies directly
concluded that the results of the two with the number of revolutions of the
methods are not directly comparable. machine. Consequently, a comparison of
The difference in the shape of the pieces the losses after 100 and 500 revolutions
tested, the greater amount of impact in will reveal the presence of soft material
Method D 289, and the usual presence in the sample.
The Los Angeles test is described in til more information has been secured, it
ASTM Method C 131. 6 I t was adopted would be best to consider that the losses
in 1939 and at that time provided for for the three large sizes m a y not be the
testing aggregate with either a 11 or a-in. same as those for gradings A or B, and
maximum size. Later two other sizes specification requirements should be
were added to permit the testing of finer written accordingly.
sizes of aggregate, such as those used for The Los Angeles abrasion test is con-
sealing or covering bituminous pave- sidered by most material engineers to be
ments. In 1951 three more gradings were superior to the Deval abrasion test for
adopted to permit the testing of aggre- the determination of the quality of coarse
gates of large size prepared for use in aggregate. Wear or loss in the Los Ange-
trickling filters or base courses for pave- les test appears to result from both im-
ments. By changes in the abrasive pact and surface abrasion, with the first
charge, the weight of the sample, or the possibly causing more loss. Although im-
length of the test, an attempt was made pact does not appear to be a destructive
to obtain the same percentage of wear influence of aggregates in concrete, the
TABLE IlL--EFFECT OF R O U N D E D OR, ANGULAR, P I E C E S O N LOS A N G E L E S

ABRASION TEST RESULTS.
Percentage of Wear
Material Shape of Piece Condition
Maximum Minimum Average
As received 33.8 33.2 33.4

Limesto ne No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crushed...
Rounded 32.2 30.9 31.4
Angular 24.2 23.5 23.9
Limes/rune No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cubical...
Rounded 22.7 21.9 22.4
As received 27.6 26.8 27.1
Limestone No. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crushed...
Rounded 27.0 24.9 25.8
Angular 63.7 61.8 62.8
Sandstone No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cubical...
Rounded 66.1 62.1 64.4
with each grading when a material of loss in the Los Angeles abrasion test has
uniform quality was tested. With a been correlated with the strength of con-
reasonable margin for error, such uni- crete prepared with a wide variety of
formity was obtained for gradings A, B, aggregates (6).
and C involving samples ranging in size When the Los Angeles test was con-
from 189 in. to the No. 4 sieve. No. 4 to sidered for adoption as a standard, criti-
No. 8 aggregate (grading D) usually cism was made of the use of both rounded
gave a loss varying only slightly from the and angular aggregates in the test. Doubt
three gradings mentioned above. Ex- was expressed that with aggregates of
tensive tests have not been made with the same quality the same percentages
gradings E, F, and G for large pieces of of wear would be obtained for materials
aggregates; some limited tests have been composed of rounded or angular pieces.
made that showed a fair agreement with A number of different series of tests were
the loss for gradings A or B, but con- made in the laboratory of the Bureau of
trary data have also been obtained. Un- Public Roads to investigate this. Tests
were made both on plant-crushed stone
6 M e t h o d of Test for Abrasion of Coarse and on stone that had been broken into
Aggregate b y Use of the Los Angeles M a c h i n e
(C 131), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, P a r t
very nearly cubical shape. In the case of
3. each material, the entire amount was
WOOLF ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 319
mixed thoroughly and then divided into develop in the future. In the preparation
two equal portions. One portion of each of a summary of tests of coarse aggre-
stone was rounded in the Deval machine gates made in the laboratory of the Bu-
to simulate gravel. Three to six test speci- reau of Public Roads (7), opportunity
mens were prepared with each of the was afforded to collect data for samples
rounded materials as required for grad- tested by both methods. The results of
ing A (189 to ~ in.) and an equal number abrasion tests for approximately 100
with the unrounded stone. The results samples of gravel and over 700 samples
given in Table III were obtained. Al- of stone were obtained. The values for
though the values for the rounded and the Los Angeles test were restricted to
angular portions of each material are not samples tested with gradings A or B.
the same, they agree sufficiently well to The results for the Deval test were lim-
25
t00O
(.9
20 84
/
15
o~
I0 /
-- O /
J
oo
ed
O
/ j f
Z;
,g /
t- 0 IO 20 30 40 50 60 70
tO
Los Angeles per cent of Wear
ASTM Method CI31, Grodings A or B
Fie. 1.--Relation Between Results of Abrasion Tests of Aggregates.
warrant testing crushed or uncrushed ag- ited to samples of rock tested in accord-
gregate in the Los Angeles machine. ance with ASTM Method D 2 and to
More variation in the Los Angeles per samples of gravel prepared and tested as
cent of wear is caused by the shape of the required by grading A of ASTM Method
pieces tested, that is, whether the pieces D 289.
are fiat and elongated or cubical and Curves showing these relations are
spherical. As might be expected, fiat and plotted in Fig. 1. These curves differ
elongated pieces cause an increase in the somewhat from similar ones presented in
loss. The ratio between the losses at 100 an earlier paper (s), but many more sam-
and 500 revolutions will be high if the ples are represented by the data given
aggregate contains undesirably thin or here.
elongated pieces.
Questions of the relation between the STRENGTH
losses for the Deval and Los Angeles Most specifications for aggregates re-
tests have frequently risen and more may quire the material to be "strong." This
320 TESTS AND PROPERTIES Of? CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
does not necessarily imply the use of a National Sand and Gravel Assn. and the
test for compressive strength, but such a National Slag Assn. (9). In one case,
test is the one principally employed on 3000-g samples of ballast, graded uni-
natural materials. Because the test re- formly from 1-in. to No. 4 sieve, were
quires the use of a specimen of constant placed in a 6-in.-diameter steel cylinder
cross-section, it consequently is seldom and loaded to 3000 psi through a steel
applied to material other than ledge rock piston. The reduction in fineness modulus
or large pieces of discrete aggregate from of each sample was determined. Crushing
which specimens of regular shape may be tests were made on 88 to 89 and { to
prepared. ~-in. size samples of slag, each tested
It is probable that specification writers separately. A sample of 98 cu in. of com-
have no firm opinions regarding the pre- pacted aggregate was weighed and di-
cise application of the word "strong."
They desire that the pieces comprising TABLE IV.--COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
the aggregate shall not be so weak or OF TYPES OF ROCK COMMONLY USED
AS C O N C R E T E A G G R E G A T E S .
friable as to reduce the strength of the
concrete. Concrete with a compressive Compressive Strength, psi
strength of 6000 psi is quite common,
and it might be assumed that aggregate Numbe After Deletion
Type of Rock of of Extremes v
should have at least this strength. The Sample Averageb
compression test is, however, inconven- Maxi- I Mini-
mum mum
ient to make on aggregates composed of
heterogeneous materials, and a test that Granite ..... 278 26 200 37 300116 600
can be made on the bulk aggregate should Felsite ...... 12 47 000 76 300117 400
Trap ....... 59 41 100 54 700129 200
find favor. Although no such test is now Limestone.. 241 23 000 34 900113 500
in generaI use in this country, a test of Sandstone.. 79 19 000 34 8001 6 400
this type is described in British Standard Marble ..... 34 16 900 35 4001 7 400
Quartzite... 26 36 500 61 300118 000
812:1951. 7 In this test, 89to -~-in. aggre- Gneiss ..... 36 21 300 34 100113 600
gate is placed in a steel cylinder, a steel Schist ...... 31 24 600 43 100113 200
plunger placed on the aggregate, and a
a F o r m o s t samples, t h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h
load of about 3170 psi applied to the is a n a v e r a g e of 3 to 15 s p e c i m e n s .
plunger. The amount of material broken b A v e r a g e of all s a m p l e s .
to pass a No. 7 British Standard sieve c 10 p e r c e n t of all s a m p l e s t e s t e d w i t h h i g h e s t
or l o w e s t v a l u e s h a v e been d e l e t e d as n o t t y p i c a l
(nominal opening 2.411 mm) is deter- of t h e m a t e r i a l .
mined. The opening in this sieve is
slightly larger than that in a No. 8 sieve vided into three equal parts for three
defined in ASTM Specifications E 11.s tests on each size. The test sample was
The use of this British method for the placed in a steel cylinder with a diameter
determination of the quality of coarse of 589in. and loaded through a steel piston
aggregates for concrete may furnish valu- to a total load of 11,000 lb. The sample
able information. was then sieved, and a crushing factor
Some limited aggregate crushing tests computed. This factor was the difference
on railway ballast were made by the between the sum of the total percentage
S a m p l i n g a n d T e s t i n g of M i n e r a l A g g r e - of material retained on the 89 ~-in.,
g a t e s , Sands, a n d Fillers, B r i t i s h S t a n d a r d and No. 4 sieves before and after testing.
812:1951, B r i t i s h S t a n d a r d s I n s t . , L o n d o n
(1951). Information regarding the compres-
s S p e c i f i c a t i o n s for Sieves for T e s t i n g P u r - sive strength of different types of rock
p o s e s ( W i r e C l o t h Sieves, R o u n d - H o l e a n d will be found in many reference sources.
S q u a r e - H o l e Screens or Sieves) ( E 11), 1955
B o o k of A S T M S t a n d a r d s , P a r t 3. The data presented seldom show the
WOOLF ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 321
number of samples represented by the usually made by compression, and the

average value given, nor is the range of ratio of the applied load to the deforma-
the compressive strength for normal tion of the specimen parallel to the ap-
samples shown. Although the informa- plied load is determined. Other methods
tion presented here cannot be considered of test may be or are used, but the com-
to represent an exhaustive compilation pression test is the most simple and re-
of test results, it is believed that the quires the least instrumentation. The
values given may be found of value in deformation of the specimen m a y be
consideration of the quality of aggregate measured by mechanical, optical, or
for concrete. These data were compiled electronic methods. Since the precision
from the results of routine tests made in of this measurement has improved with
the laboratory of the Bureau of Public the development of the apparatus used,
Roads (7). As shown in Table IV, an it is probable that the more recent values
average value for all samples tested is are more reliable than those determined
included, in addition to a value for a some years ago.
possible maximum or minimum strength An extensive series of tests of the
of rock of normal quality. These maxi- modulus of elasticity of concrete was re-
mum and minimum values were obtained ported by Walker (lO). Four coarse ag-
by considering that 10 per cent of all gregates--a dolomite gravel, limestone,
samples tested were too weathered for blast-furnace slag, and granite--were
use in concrete and that a like number used to prepare the concrete. No data
had abnormally high test strengths. For were given showing tests of quality for
example, in the case of granite, the 28 the aggregates. I t was stated that little
samples with the lowest strengths and variation in either the compressive
the 28 with the highest strengths were strength or the modulus of elasticity of
deleted. The maximum and minimum the concrete made from the different ag-
values then represent approximately 80 gregates was found. This uniformity was
per cent of all samples of granite tested attributed to the use of the same grading
and are believed to show the range in for each aggregate and allowance for
strength for rock of the usual quality. the water absorbed by the materials.
Koenitzer (11) conducted tests for the
]~LASTIC PROPERTIES elastic properties of stone and concrete
A number of investigations have been using stone of the same type but from
made of the effect of the elastic proper- five different locations. He concluded
ties of coarse aggregates on the proper- that the elastic properties of the stone
ties of concrete. Although some investi- are not indicative of the results secured
gators have found that concrete of in the tests of concrete. LaRue (12), on
superior quality is prepared with the the other hand, found an agreement be-
harder, more elastic aggregate, no at- tween the elastic properties of stone and
tempt to use this information in the concrete. Four limestones having a mod-
preparation of specifications for coarse ulus of elasticity varying from 1.877 to
aggregate is found. I t is possible that 11.370 X 106 were used to prepare the
this results from the difficulty in making test specimens of concrete. I t was con-
such tests on aggregates. cluded that such aggregates had a de-
The modulus of elasticity of an aggre- cided effect on the elastic properties of
gate may be defined as the ratio of an the concrete. The stones with a high
increment of stress to a corresponding modulus furnished concrete that was ap-
increment of deformation. With respect preciably higher in elastic properties than
to aggregates, tests for this modulus are that prepared with stones having low
322 TESTS AND PROPERTIES 0~' CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
moduli. In tests of concrete made by Important studies of this problem

Noble (13), the concretes prepared with have been made by members of Subcom-
the harder, and presumably more elastic, mittee B-12 on Structural Properties of
aggregates were found to have the higher Mineral Aggregates of ASTM Committee
values for the modulus of elasticity. D-4 on Road and Paving Materials. The
The fact that several investigators investigations have centered largely on
present different conclusions regarding abrasive or crushing tests. In most of the
the relation between the elastic proper- work, tests were made on individual
ties of concrete and its aggregate may be sizes of sand grains or on sands prepared
resolved by one consideration--it is ex- to a common grading. One very interest-
ceedingly difficult to prepare absolutely ing series of tests was made on samples
identical test specimens of concrete. from a single source but with random
Should the investigator be so fortunate gradings.
as to obtain sets of concrete specimens Abrasion tests on sands were made us-
differing only in the quality of the aggre- ing the standard Deval machine (ASTM
gate, he may find the elastic properties Method D 2), ~ a one-third scale model of
of the aggregate to influence those of the the Los Angeles abrasion machine, and a
concrete. Too often, however, some vari- tumbler machine in which 3 by 6-in.
able may not be controlled well enough cylinders were rotated at right angles to
to permit development of the influence their longitudinal axis. The most inter-
of a characteristic of secondary impor- esting of the tests made were described
tance, such as the elastic property of the by D. L. Bloem 9 in a report to Subcom-
aggregate. Then again, if every item be- mittee B-12. In the method used, 600-g
tween two lots of concrete specimens samples of graded and washed sand were
were controlled except the coarse aggre- placed in the I)eval machine with an
gate, it is believed that the shape of the abrasive charge of six l~-in, steel balls
fragment and the surface characteristics and the machine run for 2000 revolu-
of the material may have a more pro- tions. Each sample was then sieved and
nounced effect than the elastic proper- the change in fineness modulus deter-
ties. mined. Tests on only one sand were re-
ported, but many different gradings of
MECHANICAL TESTS OF SAND this sand were used. The results obtained
Attention is given here to methods of show a very close agreement between the
test intended to measure the quality of fineness modulus of the sand before the
sand with reference to the structural test and the reduction in the fineness
properties of the grains. For years the modulus. I t is believed that this is a
mortar strength test has been considered promising method and that a full ex-
to furnish this information. Only recently ploration of it should be made. In con-
have testing engineers concluded that trast to practically all other sand abra-
this test shows mainly the presence or sion methods, this one appears suitable
absence of contaminating materials, such for use with sand as received. The labor
as organic matter, which would impair involved in sieving sand to individual
the hardening of cement. Consequently sizes, or in preparing sand with a pre-
attention has been given to other tests on scribed grading, would be eliminated.
the fine aggregate itself in an attempt to A summary of crushing tests of sand
develop a means of determining the qual- grains made by six laboratories in con-
ity of the materials comprising the aggre- 9 IZeport of 2kbrasion Tests oil Fine Aggre-
gate. gates, M a y 23, 1951 (ASTM Committee D-4).
WOOL]? ON PII-YSICAL PROPERTIES 323
nection with the work of Subcommittee nificant indication of the structural

B-12 was also reported b y Bloem (14). strength of the sand grain.
Although each laboratory worked inde- A review of the investigations of sand
pendently, the testing procedures used mentioned above supports Bloem's con-
were similar. I n each case, samples of clusion regarding the shape of the par-
sand of a limited size range were sub- ticle if both natural and manufactured
jected to pressure in a metal cylinder sands are included. If natural and manu-
through a piston or pistons acting on one factured sands are considered separately,
or both sides of the sample. The material it is believed that the shape of the par-
broken to pass the original retaining ticle m a y be found to have only a small
sieve was considered the loss. The cylin- influence on the test result.
ders varied in internal diameter from 1.3 I n some of the reports summarized by
to 4.0 in. and the samples varied from Bloem, attention was called to the failure
25 to 200 g. One laboratory used samples of a given method of test to show marked
having a constant bulk volume to correct differences between the test results for
for differences in specific gravity or void different natural sands. Because m a n y
content. Some laboratories varied the natural sands used in concrete consist
applied load to obtain the same loss with principally of quartz or quartz-family
different sizes of sand. Others used the minerals, pronounced differences between
same load for each size of grain tested. the results of tests for structural proper-
I n his summary, Bloem concluded ties of these materials need not be ex-
that although the method is simple and pected. Fairly uniform test results on
quick, the losses appeared to be affected different samples of natural sand of satis-
too much b y the shape of the particle, factory quality should be considered de-
or possibly b y other factors, to give a sig- sirable in these determinations.
RE]?ERENCES
(1) F. H. 5ackson, "Impact Test for Gravel," (6) D. O. Woolf, "The Relation Between Los
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. Angeles Abrasion Test Results and the
22, Part II, p. 571 (1922). Service Records of Coarse Aggregates,"
(2) D. O. Woolf, "Methods for the Determi- Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Vol.
nation of Soft Pieces in Aggregate," Pro- 17, p. 350 (1937).
ceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 47, (7) D. O. Woolf, "Results of Physical Tests of
p. 967 (1947). Road-Building Aggregate," Bureau of
(3) Standard and Tentative Methods of Sam- Public Roads (1953).
pling and Testing Highway Materials (8) D. O. Woolf and D. G. Runner, "The Los
Recommended by the Second Conference Angeles Abrasion Machine for Determining
of State Highway Testing Engineers and the Quality of Coarse Aggregate," Pro-
Chemists, Bulletin No. 949, U. S. Dept. of ceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 35,
Agriculture, October 10, 1921. Part II, p. 511 (1935).
(4) Leonard Obert, S. L. Windes, and W. I. (9) Report of Committee 1--Roadway and
Duvall, "Standardized Tests for Determin- Ballast, Bulletin, Am. Railway Engineering
ing the Physical Properties of Mine Rock,"
Report of Investigations 3891, Bureau of Assn., Vol. 54, No. 507, February, 1953, pp.
Mines, Washington, D. C., August, 1946. 1145-1148.
See also Reports of Investigations 4459 and (10) Stanton Walker, "Modulus of Elasticity of
4727 for test data. Concrete," Bulletin No. 5, Structural Ma-
(5) Charted Summary of Concrete Road Pave- terials Research Lab., Lewis Inst., April,
ment Specifications Used by State Highway 1923.
Departments, Portland Cement Assn. (11) L. H. Koenitzer, "Elastic and Thermal
(1954). Properties of Concrete as Affected by Simi-
lar Properties of the Aggregate," Proceed- of Concrete," Appendix VII of Report of

ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., VoI. 36, Committee C-9 on Concrete and Concrete
Part II, p. 393 (1936). Aggregates, Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
(12) H. A. LaRue, "Modulus of Elasticity of Mats., Vol. 31, Part I, p. 399 (1931).
Aggregates and Its Effect on Concrete," (14) D. L. Bloem, "Crushing Tests of Sand,"
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. Appendix I of Report of Committee D-4 on
46, p. 1298 (1946). Road and Paving Materials, Proceedings,
(13) P. M. Noble, "The Effect of Aggregate and Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 51, p. 349
Other Variables on the Elastic Properties (1951).
STP 169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete Aggregates
THERMAL PROPERTIES
:BY HERBERT K. COOK I
The attention that has been given to The significance of other thermal
the thermal properties of concrete properties has been given much less
aggregates is small indeed compared with attention than has thermal expansion,
the amount of research and the volume as evidenced by the fact that the great
of testing performed in connection with majority of the references appended
other aggregate properties. This may be hereto deal with thermal expansion.
explained in part on the basis that the The references to the literature are
significance of tests of thermal properties
believed to be reasonably complete
is not so apparent as that of other
since a search was made of the Fifty-
properties.
A discussion of the significance of the Year Index of the ASTM (4), the
thermal characteristics of concrete ag- 20-Year Index of the Am. Concrete
gregates is further complicated by the Inst. (S), the Purdue University bibliog-
effect of the relationship between the raphy (6), and other standard references.
thermal properties of the concrete as a The thermal properties of aggregate
whole and the thermal properties of the referenced in the literature are thermal
component materials. Insofar as possible coefficient of expansion, specific heat,
the discussion in this paper is confined thermal conductivity, and thermal dif-
to the significance of tests of thermal fusivity, and they are discussed here in
properties of the aggregates; however, that order.
in some instances it has been necessary
to discuss briefly the thermal properties THERMAL COEF:FICrEI}ITOF EXPANSION
of the concrete as affected by the ag-
gregates. The significance of tests of The thermal coefficient of expansion
thermal properties of concrete is dis- of concrete aggregates has received more
cussed in another paper in this publica- attention than have the other thermal
tion .2 properties because it can have a direct
The need for a better understanding effect on all types of concrete, whereas
of the effect of the thermal characteristics the effect of the other properties normally
of aggregates, particularly the thermal has been of concern only with respect to
coefficient of expansion, on the durability mass concrete and lightweight concrete
of concrete, has been expressed by
for insulation purposes.
Allen (1),8 Woolf (2), Scholer (3), and
The earliest reference to work on this
others.
subject, included in this paper, is by
1Assistant Director of Research, The Master Hallock (7) and is entitled, appropriately
Builders Co., Cleveland, Ohio.
2See paper by Mitchell, p. 129. enough, "Preliminary Notes on the
8The boldface numbers in parentheses refer Coefficients of Thermal Expansion of
see p. 331. Certain Rocks."
325
Copyright
9 by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 23 22:24:11 EDT 2013
Copyrigh~ 1956 by ASTM International www.astm.org
326 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE ANn AGGREGATES
Numerical Values for Thermal CoeFficients investigating the thermal properties of

of Expansion: aggregates.
Although values for the thermal Effect of Thermal Expansion:
coefficients of expansion of aggregates
from specific locations are contained in There seems to be fairly general
nearly all of the references listed and agreement that the thermal expansion
are available from many other sources, of the aggregate has an effect on the
references (8) through (16) list more durability of concrete, particularly under
values than most of the others. I t should severe exposure conditions or under
be noted that reference (16) is concerned rapid temperature changes. The agree-
with the thermal coefficient of expansion ment as to whether a high or a low
of portland cement rather than ag- coefficient of expansion is most desirable
gregates. I t is included because a dis- is not so general. In one of the earliest
cussion of the thermal properties of papers on the subject, Pearson (17) at-
concrete aggregates would not be com- tributes a concrete failure to the use of
plete without some information on the an aggregate of low thermal coefficient
thermal properties of the cements with subjected to severe frost action. Subse-
which they are used. quent laboratory investigations de-
An average value for the linear thermal scribed in the paper and in a subsequent
coefficient of expansion of concrete may paper (18) included freezing-and-thawing
be taken as 5.5 X 10-8 in. per in. per tests of concrete containing aggregates
deg Fahr, but the range may be from of both low and high thermal coefficients.
about 3.2 X 10-6 to 7.8 X 10-6, depend- The indications were that the concretes
ing upon the type and quantities of the containing the aggregates of low thermal
aggregates, the mixture proportions, and coefficient failed much more rapidly
other factors. Hydrated cement pastes under the freezing cycle employed.
m a y range from 6 X 10-6 to 9 X 10-8 , Walker, Bloem, and Mullen (19), on the
and mortars from about 4.4 X 10-6 to other hand, report the results of heating
7.0 X 10-% The linear thermal coefficient and cooling concrete specimens over the
of expansion of common rocks ranges temperature range of 40 to 140 F at
from about 0.5 X 10-8 to about 8.9 X various rates. They found that "changes
10--8 (14). I t should be kept in mind that in temperature were destructive to the
some minerals exhibit anisotropic char- c o n c r e t e with sudden changes in tem-
acteristics or the property of expanding perature being much more severe than
more in one direction or parallel to one slower ones; and concretes having higher
crystallographic axis than another. The coefficients of expansion were less
most notable example is calcite, which resistant to temperature changes than
has a linear thermal coefficient of concretes with lower coefficients." I t
expansion of 14.3 X 10-8 parallel to its was also determined that the thermal
"c" axis and minus 2.6 X 10-8 per- coefficients of expansion of concrete
pendicular to this direction. Potash and mortar containing different ag-
feldspars are another group of minerals gregates varied approximately in pro-
exhibiting anisotropy. I t is for this portion to the thermal coefficient and
reason that the cubical expansion of quantity of aggregate in the mixture.
rocks and minerals is not always directly The anomalous results obtained by
related to the linear expansion, and this Pearson and by Walker, Bloem, and
possibility should be kept in mind when Mullen perhaps may be explained by
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions author
COOK ON THERMAL PROPERTIES 327
the fact that the concrete in Pearson's tion between the resistance of concrete
studies was subjected to temperatures to freezing and thawing and differences
below the freezing point whereas that in thermal expansion between the
used by the other workers was not. The coarse aggregate and the mortar, the
above is conjecture but is somewhat correlation is probably usually of lesser
supported by Koenitzer (2o), who ob- importance than other characteristics
tained coefficients of linear expansion of of the concrete.
several concretes and of the aggregates All of the above discussion has dealt
used in them over temperature ranges of with the effect of thermal expansion of
9 to 80 F, 85 to 190 F, and 9 to 190 F, aggregates over temperature ranges that
in both moist and dry conditions. One can occur under natural exposure condi-
of Koenitzer's conclusions was that the tions. Much less is known about these
elastic and thermal expansion properties effects under more extreme ranges as, for
for any one material vary with the example, under the conditions that may
conditions of test, the greatest variation exist in burning buildings. The U. S.
being caused by freezing. Bureau of Reclamation reports (IS) that
Callan (21, 2z) has statistically ana- at a temperature of 1063 F quartz
lyzed 78 combinations of aggregate in changes state and suddenly expands 0.85
concrete with respect to durability in per cent, usually producing a disruptive
freezing and thawing and differences in effect at the surface of concrete in which
thermal expansion between the coarse it is used. Endell (24) has reported the
aggregate and the mortar. He concludes results of experiments to determine the
that, where the difference between structural and expansion changes of
coefficients of expansion of coarse concrete aggregates with temperatures
aggregate and mortar is large, the up to 1200 C. These are considered to
durability of the concrete may be be highly specialized conditions and are
considerably lower than would be not discussed further here.
predicted from the results of the usual
acceptance tests. Where the differences Methods of Determining Thermal Ex-
between these coefficients exceeds 3.0 X pansion of Aggregates:
10-6 , caution should be used in the Several ingenious methods have been
selection of the aggregate combination developed for determining the thermal
for highly durable concrete. Walker, coefficient of expansion of coarse ag-
Bloem, and Mullen (19) found no re- gregate. The majority of the test
lationship between resistance of concrete methods are based on the measurement
to temperature changes and differences of linear expansion over a temperature
between thermal coefficients of aggre- range. This range is usually 100 degrees
gates and mortar. Again Callan's work or more because the change in unit
is based on studies over the freezing- length per degree is extremely small,
and-thawing range, whereas the results and the multiplication of the change over
of the other workers were based on a substantial temperature range greatly
experiments above the freezing tempera- increases the facility and precision of
ture. Kennedy and Mather (23), in the measurements. Likewise, the longer
attempting to correlate laboratory- the specimen the greater is the accuracy
accelerated freezing and thawing with and precision of the determination.
natural weathering at Treat Island, However, obtaining a representative
Maine, state among other conclusions specimen of coarse aggregate of desired
that, while there appears to be a correla- length rapidly approaches a practical
maximum. Except in the case of a directions, two of these directions to

crushed aggregate of sufficient uni- lie in the major structural plane of the
formity to permit obtaining a larger rock, if such plane can be located. The
specimen that will be representative of SR-4 gages are then mounted so as to
the sand sizes, this means of multiplying measure strain in each of the three direc-
the change in unit length is not available tions. The purpose of this requirement
[or determining the linear expansion of is to determine if anisotropy or pre-
fine aggregate. Another device that has ferred crystal orientation exist.
been used to obtain additional multi- Because of the size and usually
plication of the length change is the heterogeneous nature of fine aggregate,
optical lever. none of the above methods is readily
The method described by Willis and adaptable to the determination of the
DeReus (2S) is an example of measure- thermal coefficient of expansion of this
ments made over a considerable tempera- material. The usual approach has been
ture range with the use of an optical to determine the linear expansion of
lever. The specimens were 1-in. diameter mortar bars containing the fine ag-
cores 2 in. long drilled from the aggregate. The results obtained include, of
gregate specimens to be tested and course, the effect of the length change
placed in a controlled-temperature oil contributed by the cement. Verbeck and
bath with a range of 37 4- 3 to 140 4- Hass (zg) have developed a dilatometer
5 F. The vertical movement of the method for determining the thermal
specimen as the temperature was varied coefficient of expansion which is par-
was measured by reading the image ticularly adaptable for use with fine
reflected by the mirror of the optical aggregate. The method determines the
lever, having a 1-in. lever arm, on a verti- cubical thermal coefficient of expansion
cal scale placed 20 ft from the mirror, from which the linear expansion may be
by means of a precise level. It is re- calculated. The apparatus consists of a
ported that consideration of the possible l-liter dilatometer flask to which is
errors involved in the measurements attached a capillary-bulb arrangement
indicates that the calculated coefficients containing electrical contacts spaced
are probably accurate to 4-2.0 X 10-L over a calibrated volume. The flask is
Another method is the interferometer filled with aggregate and water and the
method described by Merritt (26) and apparatus allowed to come to equi-
modified by Saunders (z7). Detailed librium at one of the controlling electrical
descriptions of the apparatus, of the contacts. The equilibrium temperature
preparation of specimens, and of the is noted and the procedure repeated at
test procedure are also given by Johnson the other electrical contact. After proper
and Parsons (9). A third method for calibration, the only measurements
determining the thermal coefficient of required are the weight of the water
expansion of coarse aggregate is that placed in the flask and the temperature
developed by the Corps of Engineers needed to produce an expansion equiva-
(22, 28) in which an SR-4 gage is bonded lent to the volume between the electrical
to a prepared piece of aggregate and contacts. This method offers a tool for
readings taken over a temperature determining directly the average thermal
range of 35 to 135 F. This method expansion properties of the smaller
requires that the piece of aggregate be aggregate sizes that has not been avail-
sliced in three mutually perpendicular able heretofore.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, THERMAL For the same reason, as indicated by

DIFFUSIVITY, AND SPECIFIC HEAT Tyner (31), moisture has a tremendous
effect on thermal conductivity. He
Thermal conductivity, thermal dif-
reports that in a 1:5 mix of Florida
fusivity, and specific heat are largely
limerock concrete an increase of moisture
interrelated, and all three are normally from 0 to 5 per cent increases the thermal
determined only for mass concrete as
conductivity by 23 per cent and an
used in such structures as large gravity increase from 0 to 10 per cent increases
dams (30) in connection with computing
the conductivity by 46 per cent. Davis
concrete placement temperatures and and Kelly (32) also state that "the
designing cooling systems, and in other
presence of a small amount of moisture
thermal calculations aimed at reducing
in the interior of a lightweight concrete
thermal volume change and thus crack- greatly increases its thermal conduc-
ing. Thermal conductivity is also of
tivity; hence under conditions of con-
importance in lightweight concrete for
tinuous or intermittent exposure to
insulation purposes. It has been indicated
moisture, if a high degree of insulation is
by some that diffusivity may have an
desired, an aggregate (and concrete) of
important effect on concrete durability.
relatively low absorption should be
Thermal conductivity, measured as
used." Kluge, Sparks, and Tuma (33)
the rate of heat flow through a body of
and Price and Cordon (34) also have
unit thickness and unit area with a unit
found pronounced reductions in the
temperature difference between two
thermal conductivity of concrete con-
surfaces, is normally expressed in the
taining lightweight aggregate, but they
English system as Btu per sq ft per ft
indicate that the reduction seems to be
per hr per deg Fahr.
influenced more by the reduction in
Thermal diffusivity is defined as the
density of the concrete than by the
thermal conductivity divided by the
characteristics of the aggregate.
specific heat and density and is a physical
property of the material which deter- Thermal Diffusivity:
mines the time rate of change of tempera-
Relatively recent investigations have
ture of any point within a body. Its
indicated that the thermal diffusivity of
units are square feet per hour.
the aggregate may have an influence on
Specific heat is the amount of heat
the durability of the concrete in which
required to raise the temperature of a
it is used. Thomson (3S) states that for a
unit mass of material one degree. Its
English units are Btu per lb per deg given body with specified boundary
conditions the thermal stresses depend
Fahr.
on certain physical properties of the
materials. In a homogeneous body such
Thermal Conductivity of Lightweight
Aggregates: physical properties as thermal con-
ductivity, specific heat, and the density
One of the more useful properties of of the material influence the temperature
lightweight concrete is its insulating distribution and the thermal stresses
value which depends upon low thermal during the transient period only in a
conductivity for its efficiency. Since certain combination known as the
thermal conductivity varies directly thermal diffusivity. If in a mixture such
with density, aggregates of low density as concrete the thermal diffusivities and
produce concrete of lower conductivity. conductivities are the same for each
330 TESTS A N D PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E AND AGGREGATES
material, the body can be thought of as Methods of Test for Conductivity, Dif-
being thermally homogeneous. Since a fusivity, and Specific Heat:
difference in diffusivities would result in Methods are available for the direct
different rates of diffusion of heat determination of thermal conductivity,
through the aggregate and cement, it is thermal diffusivity, and specific heat.
believed that such a combination would However, as a matter of practical
result in higher thermal stresses than convenience, it is customary to deter-
those existing in homogeneous bodies. mine diffusivity and specific heat and
Nothstine (36) and Weiner (37) have calculate conductivity or to determine
reported the results of their approach to conductivity and specific heat and cal-
the problem. Weiner's work was insti- culate diffusivity. This is possible because
gated by the failure of a gravel concrete, the formula includes all three values,
exposed to natural freezing and thawing and knowing the values for any two, and
accompanied by thermal shock and the density, permits solving the equation
characterized by bond failure and by for the unknown property. The formula
internal expansion. He attributes the is:
failure to the relatively high thermal
coefficient of expansion of the concrete,
k=hep
which is responsible for surface stress, where:
and to the diffusivity of the gravel which, k = conductivity in Btu per sq ft per ft
being higher than the mortar, responds per hr per deg Fahr,
more quickly to temperature changes, h = diffusivity in sq ft per hr,
resulting in differential volume change. c = specific heat in Btu per lb per deg
Fox and Dolch (38) in an investigation of Fahr, and
four limestones found a large change in p = density in lb per cu ft.
the thermal diffusivity with a relatively Whether conductivity is determined
small degree of saturation. The increases directly and diffusivity calculated, or
in diffusivity ranged from 20 to 59 per vice versa, is largely a matter of the most
cent for saturations of less than 5 per convenient equipment setup available
cent. The authors of the references cited and the preference of the laboratory
essentially agree that the thermal doing the work. Since the conductivity
diffusivity of the aggregates apparently of a mixture is not an additive function
has an effect on the durability of concrete of the constituents (39), the conduc-
but that further work is needed to tivity and diffusivity of aggregate
determine the significance of the effect cannot be obtained indirectly by de-
and to find a practical means for apply- termining these properties of the con-
ing this knowledge to the improvement crete and mortar. Some of the test meth-
of concrete durability. ods included in the references to this
paper are based on determinations made
Specific Heat of Aggregates: on concrete specimens, but in most cases
Specific heat is of considerable im- they are equally applicable to use with
portance in connection with the cal- aggregates if properly modified with re-
culations involved in the control of spect to specimen size and shape.
placement temperatures and the limiting The Corps of Engineers (28), Thomson
of thermal volume change of mass (35), and Fox and Dolch (38) describe
concrete. The specific heat of the ag- methods for the direct determination of
gregate contributes materially to the diffusivity of stone and concrete. All of
specific heat of the concrete (30). the methods depend basically on obtain-
C O O K ON T H E R M A L PROPERTIES 331
ing time-temperature differential curves ally determined by a procedure known

between the temperatures at the center as the method of mixtures (28). It is a
and the surface of a specimen by starting calorimetric procedure wherein the net
at essentially equilibrium temperature, heat required to raise the temperature of
then changing the surface temperature, a specimen of known weight a given
and plotting the time-temperature curve amount is measured.
until equilibrium conditions are obtained References (42) through (50) provide
at the new surface temperature. Depend- additional background information on
ing upon the degree of accuracy desired, the theory and mathematics of thermal
refinements can be made by grinding the tests. Other references may be found ap-
specimen to a sphere, for example, and pended to many of the references cited
by refining the instrumentation. The de- here.
termination is by no means routine in
nature and requires careful experimenta- CONCLUSIONS
tion, precise equipment, and a capable Test methods are available which
operator. when used with proper attention to pro-
Thermal conductivity when measured cedure, specimen size and shape, instru-
directly is determined by the ASTM mentation, and technique are entirely
guarded hot plate method 4 or similar adequate for the determination of the
methods (31, 40). Since the equipment is thermal properties of aggregates.
designed for use with a flat specimen
There appears to be no doubt that the
either square or round, it is not easily thermal properties of the aggregates,
adapted to precise determinations of the particularly thermal expansion, have an
conductivity of such materials as con- effect on the durability and other quali-
crete aggregates. For this reason it is
ties of concrete. Investigations reported
generally considered better to determine
to date do not present a clear-cut picture
diffusivity and calculate conductivity for of the effects that might be expected, and
such materials. The Bureau of Reclama-
some aspects of the problem are contro-
tion (41) has developed a method for the
versial. The ultimate solution must be
determination of the thermal conductiv- based on the performance of aggregates
ity of concrete by the use of an 8 by 16-in.
of known thermal properties in concrete,
hollow cylindrical concrete specimen.
and, as is normal in this field of investi-
This procedure could probably be used
gation, the major difficulty is to separate
for coarse aggregate provided a specimen
the effects of the thermal properties of
of the required size and shape could be
the aggregates from the numerous other
fabricated from a large rock specimen.
variables existing in the concrete. There
The specific heat of aggregate is usu-
is a real need for additional research
4Method of Test for Thermal Conductivity work on the subject, both to resolve ex-
of Materials by Means of the Guarded Hot isting controversy and to improve con-
Plate (C 177), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards,
Part 3. crete further as a construction material.
REFERENCES
(1) C. H. Alien, "Influence of Mineral Aggre- (2) D. O. Woolf, "Needed Research," Sym-
gates on the Strength and Durability of posium on Mineral Aggregates, Am. Soc.
Concrete," Symposium on Mineral Aggre- Testing Mats., p. 221 (1948). (Issued as
gates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 153 separate publication A S T M S T P No. 83.)
(1948). (Issued as separate publication (3) C. H. Scholer, "Durability of Concrete,"
A S T M S T P No. 83.) Report on Significance of Tests of Con-
crete and Concrete Aggregates, Am. Soc. (17) J. C. Pearson, "A Concrete Failure At-
Testing Mats., p. 29 (1943). (Issued as tributed to Aggregate of Low Thermal
separate publication ASTM STP No. Coefficient," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
22-A .) September, 1941; Proceedings,Vol. 38, p. 29.
(4) "Fifty-Year Index, 1898 to 1950," Am. Also discussion, Journal, Am. Concrete
Soc. Testing Mats. (1952). Inst., June, 1942; Proceedings, Vol. 38, p.
(5) "20-Year Index to the Journal of the 36-1.
American Concrete Institute, 1929 to 1949" (18) J. C. Pearson, "Supplementary Data on
(1950). the Effect of Concrete Aggregate Having a
(6) F. O. Slate, "Comprehensive Bibliography Low Thermal Coefficient of Expansion,"
of Cement and Concrete, 1925-1947," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., September,
Joint Highway Research Project, Engineer- 1943; Proceedings, Vol. 40, p. 33.
ing Experiment Station, Purdue University, (19) S. Walker, D. L. Bloem, and W. G. Mullen,
Lafayette, Ind. "Effects of Temperature Changes on Con-
(7) W. Hallock, "Preliminary Notes on the crete as Influenced by Aggregates," Jour-
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion of Cer- nal, Am. Concrete Inst., April, 1952; Pro-
tain Rocks," Bulletin No. 78, U. S. Geo- ceedings, Vol. 48, p. 661.
logical Survey (1891). (20) L. H. Koenitzer, "Elastic and Thermal Ex-
(8) J. H. Griffith, "Thermal Expansion of pansion Properties of Concrete as Affected
Typical American Rocks," Bulletin No. by Similar Properties of the Aggregate,"
128, Iowa Engineering Experiment Station Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
(1936). 36, Part II, p. 393 (1936).
(9) W. H. Johnson and W. H. Parsons, "Ther- (21) E. J. Callan, "Thermal Expansion of Ag-
mal Expansion of Concrete Aggregate Ma- gregates and Concrete Durability," Jour-
terial," Journal of Research, Nat. Bureau nal, Am. Concrete Inst., February, 1952;
Standards, Voh 32, p. 101 (1944). (RP Proceedings, Vol. 48, p. 485. Also discus-
1578.) sion, Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., De-
(10) W. H. Parsons and W. H. Johnson, "Fac- cember, 1952; Proceedings, Vol. 48, p. 504-1.
tors Affecting tile Thermal Expansion of (22) E. J. Callan, "The Relation of Thermal Ex-
Concrete Aggregate Materials," Journal, pansion of Aggregates to the Durability of
Am. Concrete Inst., April, 1944; Proceed- Concrete," Bulletin No. 34, February, 1950,
ings, Vol. 40, p. 457. Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of
(11) "Laboratory Investigations of Certain Engineers, U. S. Army, Vicksburg, Miss.
Limestone Aggregates for Concrete," Tech- (23) T. B. Kennedy and It. Mather, "Corre-
nical Memorandum No. 6-371, October, lation Between Laboratory Accelerated
1953, Waterways Experiment Station, Freezing and Thawing and Weathering at
Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, Vicks- Treat Island, Maine," Journal, Am. Con-
burg, Miss. crete Inst., October, 1953; Proceedings, Vol.
(12) "Test Data on Concrete Aggregates in 50, p. 141.
Continental United States," Technical (24) K. Endell, "Experiments on Concrete Ag-
Memorandum No. 6-370, Vols. 1-5, Sep- gregate Materials to Determine Structural
tember, 1953, Waterways Experiment and Linear Expansion Changes with Tem-
Station, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, peratures up to 1200 C," Ernst und Sohn,
Vicksburg, Miss. Berlin; (Revised) Tonindustrie-Zeitung, Vol.
(13) R. Rhoades and R. C. Milenz, "Petrog- 53, p. 1472 (1929); Ceramic Abstracts, Vol.
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Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1946; Proceed- p. 2265.
ings, Vol. 42, p. 581. (25) T. F. Willis and M. E. DeReus, "Thermal
(14) R. Rhoades and R. C. Milenz, "Petro- Volume Change and Elasticity of Aggre-
graphic and Mineralogic Characteristics of gates and Their Effect on Concrete," Pro-
Aggregates," Symposium on Mineral Ag- ceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 39,
gregates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 20 p. 919 (t939).
(1948). (Issued as separate publication (26) G.E. Merritt, "The Interference Method of
ASTM STP No. 83.) Measuring Thermal Expansion," Journal of
(15) "Concrete Manual," U. S. Bureau of Recla-
mation, 5th Ed., September, 1949, p. 59.
Research, Nat. Bureau Standards, Vot. 10,
(16) S. L. Meyers, "Thermal Coefficient of Ex- p. 591 (1933). (RP 515.)
pansion of Portland Cement," Industrial (27) J. B. Saunders, "Improved Interferometric
and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 32, August, Procedure with Application to Expansion
1940, p. 1107. Measurements," Journal of Research, Nat.
Bureau Standards, Vol. 23, p. 179 (1939). (30) J. B. Austin, "Factors Influencing the
(RP 1227.) Thermal Conductivity of Non-Metallic
(28) "Handbook for Concrete and Cement," Materials," Symposium on Thermal Insu-
Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of lation Materials, Am. Soc. Testing Mats.,
Engineers, U. S. Army, Vicksburg, Miss. p. 17 (1939). (Issued as separate publication
(1949). ASTM STP No. 39.)
(29) G. J. Verbeck and W. E. Hass, "Dila- (40) "Projected Testing Method for Conduc-
tometer Method for Determination of tivity of Materials," Bulletin No. 19, Inter-
ThermM Coetficient of Expansion of Fine national Assn. of Testing and Research
and Coarse Aggregate," Proceedings, High- Labs. for Materials and Structures,
way Research Board, Vol. 30, p. 187 (1950). R.I.L.E.M., November, 1954, p. 3.
(30) "Cement and Concrete Investigations," (41) "Materials Laboratory Procedures Man-
Boulder Canyon Project Final Reports, ual," U. S. Bureau of Reclamation (1951).
Part VII; "Thermal Properties of Con- (42) Alfred Shack, Translated from the German
crete," Bulletin No. I, Bureau of Recla- by Hans Goldschmidt and E. P. Partridge,
mation (1940). "Industrial Heat Transfer," John Wiley
(31) M. Tyner, "Effect of Moisture on Thermal and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. (1933).
Conductivity of Limeroek Concrete," (43) W. H. McAdams, "Heat Transmission,"
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., September, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York,
1946; Proceedings, Vol. 43, p. 9. S. Y. (1942).
(32) R. E. Davis and J. W. Kelly, "Lightweight (44) H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger, "Conduc-
Aggregates," Symposium on Mineral Ag- tion of Heat in Solids," Oxford University
gregates, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 160 Press, London (1947).
(1948). (Issued as separate publication (45) H. Clark, "The Effects of Simple Com-
ASTM STP No. 83.) pressing and Wetting on the Thermal Con-
(33) R. W. Kluge, M. M. Sparks, and E. C. ductivity of Rocks," Transactions, Am.
Tuma, "Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete," Geophysical Union, Part III, p. 543 (1941).
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May, 1949; Cf. Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 36, p. 2820
Proceedings, Vol. 45, p. 625. (1942).
(34) W. H. Price and W. A. Cordon, "Tests of (46) H. Clark and F. Birch, "Thermal Conduc-
Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete Designed tivities of Rocks and Its Dependence upon
for Monolithic Construction," Journal, Temperature and Composition," American
Am. Concrete Inst., April, 1949; Proceed- Journal of Science, Vol. 238, p. 529 (1940).
ings, Vol. 45, p. 581. Cf. Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 34, p. 7796
(35) W. T. Thomson, "A Method of Measuring (1940).
Thermal Diffusivity and Conductivity of (47) L. R. Ingersoll, O. J. Zobel, and A. C.
Stone and Concrete," Proceedings,Am. Soc. Ingersoll, "Heat Conduction with Engi-
Testing Mats., Vol. 40, p. 1073 (1940). neering and Geological Applications,"
Disc., p. 1081. McGraw-Itill Book Co., Inc., New York,
(36) L. V. Nothstine, "Thermal Diffusivity and N. Y. (1948).
Modulus of Elasticity in Relation to the (48) M. Jakob, "Heat Transfer," John Wiley
Durability of Concrete," Kansas State and Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y. (1949).
College, Manhattan, Kans. (1940). (49) C. D. Niven, "Thermal Conductivities of
(37) A. Weiner, "A Study of the Influence of Some Sedimentary Rocks," Canadian
Thermal Properties of the Durability of Journal of Research, Vol. 18, p. 132 (1940).
Cf. Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 28, p. 7455
Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
(1934).
May, 1947; Proceedings, Vol. 43, p. 997. (50) W. D. Kingery and M. C. McQuarrie,
(38) R. G. Fox, Jr., and W. L. Dolch, "A Tech- "Concepts of Measurements and Factors
nique for the Determination of a Thermal Affecting Thermal Conductivity of Ceramic
Characteristic of Stone," Proceedings, Materials," Journal, Am. Ceramic Soc.,
Highway Research Board, Vol. 30, p. 180 Vol. 37, No. 2, Part II, February, 1954,
(1950). p. 67.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete Aggregates
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
BY WILLIAMLERCtI1
BENEFICIAL CHEMICAL REACTIONS dicated. The entire problem of the chemi-
The bond between the aggregate and cal and physical factors that influence
the matrix has a significant effect on the bond between aggregate and matrix
the strength, permeability, and dura- is one that deserves further study.
bility of concrete. It is probable that ~)ELETEt~IOUS CttEMICAL REACTIONS
the bond is affected by chemical reac-
tions at the surface of the aggregate The recognition of deleterious chemical
and by the surface texture or other reactions of aggregates in concrete is
characteristics of the aggregate. There relatively recent. Prior to about 1940,
is no suitable direct method available most aggregates were usually considered
for measuring this bond between the to be chemically inert as used in concrete
aggregate and the matrix. The strengths The publication in 1940 of papers by
obtained in testing the mortar-making Thomas E. Stanton on "Influence of
properties of fine aggregates (ASTM Cement and Aggregate on Concrete
Method C 87),2 the compressive strength Expansion" (1)5 and "Expansion of
of concrete cylinders (ASTM Method Concrete Through Reaction Between
C 39), ~ and the flexural strength of con- Cement and Aggregate" (2) clearly
crete (ASTM Method C 78), 4 and visual demonstrated that certain reactive silica
observations made in connection with constituents, present in some aggre-
these tests provide some information gates, can react with the alkalies in
about the bond. High strengths are an cements to cause abnormal expansion
indication of a good bond. When it is and map cracking in mortars and con-
observed that breaks occur through the cretes. These observations led to an
aggregate, there is evidence of good intensive study in many different labora-
bond. When the break occurs around tories of the entire problem of chemical
the aggregates and they can be pulled reactions of aggregates in concrete.
out of their sockets, a poor bond is in- These studies confirmed the original
finding by Stanton that the alkali-
1 Head, Performance T e s t s Group, Portland aggregate reaction can cause abnormal
C e m e n t Assn., Chicago, Ill. expansion in concrete, and they have
2 M e t h o d of T e s t for M e a s u r i n g M o r t a r - indicated, in addition, that there proba-
M a k i n g Properties of Fine Aggregates (C 87),
1955 Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3. bly are other, not yet clearly defined,
s M e t h o d of T e s t for Compressive S t r e n g t h chemical reactions of aggregates in con-
of Molded Concrete Cylinders (C 39), 1955 crete that can cause abnormal expansion.
Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3. The studies have been directed also
4 M e t h o d of T e s t for Flexural S t r e n g t h of
Concrete (Using Simple B e a m with Third- 5 T h e boldface n u m b e r s in p a r e n t h e s e s refer
Point Loading) (C 78), 1955 Book of A S T M to t h e list of references appended to this paper,
Standards, P a r t 3. see p. 343.
334
www.astm.org
LERCI~ ON CHEMICAL REACTIONS 335
toward developing (1) methods of test combinations in mortar bars during storage
for aggregates to determine their po- under prescribed conditions of test.
tentialities for producing deleterious
chemical reactions in concrete, and (2) I t can be used for both fine and coarse
methods of test for inhibitors, including aggregate. The fine aggregates are tested
reactive siliceous admixtures, that mini- in a grading meeting the requirements
mize or eliminate the abnormal expansion of the specifications for the project.
resulting from the reactions. The coarse aggregates are crushed,
sieved, and recombined to a grading
TESTS FOR DELETERIOUS REACTIONS specified for the test. The test has been
used extensively b y a number of different
Field Service Records:
laboratories and is usually considered
From the standpoint of deleterious to be the most reliable one now available
reactions of aggregates in concrete, the for determining the potential alkali re-
service records of concrete structures activity of aggregates. I t can be used
provide the best information for the also for studies of inhibitors that reduce
selection of aggregates. When an ag- or eliminate the expansion. The disad-
gregate has been used extensively with vantage of this method is that it requires
cements of different compositions and several months to obtain conclusive
the structures have good service records, results.
it can be assumed that the aggregate The A S T M Tentative Specifications
does not contain material that produces for Concrete Aggregates (C 33) ~ con-
deleterious chemical reactions in contain the following note for both fine and
crete. However, it is often necessary to coarse aggregate:
use aggregates from new sources of
supply, or in different combinations, NOTE.--Fine (Coarse) aggregates producing
excessive expansions, when tested for potential
where such service records are not avail- alkali reactivity in accordance with the Tenta-
able. I t then becomes necessary to make tive Method of Test for Potential Alkali Reac-
laboratory tests to determine the po- tivity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations
tential reactivity of the aggregates. (ASTM Designation: C 227), contain injurious
amounts of reactive materials. Fine (Coarse) ag-
gregates that have shown harmful reactions in
Mortar Bar Test: concrete generally have produced expansions of
Beginning with the work by Stanton more than 0.05 per cent at 6 months or 0.10 per
cent at 1 yr when tested with a cement contain-
in 1940, followed b y that of a number of ing alkalies in excess of 0.8 per cent expressed as
other investigators, a mortar bar test sodium oxide. However, aggregates that produce
for potential reactivity of cement-ag- expansions of more than 0.05 per cent at 6
gregate combinations was evolved. I n months but less than 0.10 per cent at 1 yr should
1950, it was issued as an A S T M Tenta- not be expected to be harmful.
tive Method of Test for Potential Alkali Stanton (2) made up mortar and con-
Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate Combi- crete bars of California (Oro Fino and
nations (C 227). 6 The scope of this test
Coyote) fine and coarse aggregates and
states that:
then subjected some of these bars to
This method of test is intended to deter- continual wetting, some to continual dry
mine the potential expansive alkali reactiv- exposure under normal laboratory tem-
ity of cement-aggregate combinations by perature and humidity conditions, and
measuring the expansion developed by the some to alternate wetting and drying.
6 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Par~ 3. I n some cases the wetting-and-drying
336 TESTS AND :PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
cycle involved drying in an oven at 150 F had been cast and retained in a tin
and soaking in water at 70 F and drying container for one year, the specimen
at 150 F and soaking in water at 160 F. was observed to be covered with blotches
P o t cent AIkoli
2500
/./4=
Oro Fino Sand
f .,~
,092
0.92
2000
~ 0.90
1500
O.~j ,OZF
,
c
IOOO
o.
500
t~
(,AS Z 0.45
*6 150 1 4 v
l=S.
.=_ 1000
.E
Salinos River Sand
g 500
(oA~.-
ID
,,, ( -DL
5O(
~-As
f l
C l ! ~ ~ i
Monrovio Send
I
0 2 4 6 8 I0 1?_
Age , months
FIG. 1.--Expansion of Sand-Cement Mortars as Influenced by the Type of Sand and the Alkali
Content of the Cement. (From Stanton (2).)
No excessive expansion was observed fringed with a white efflorescence, and

under any of these conditions of test, in a short time the entire specimen be-
even though pavements constructed came covered with cracks similar to
with these aggregates had developed those observed in pavements and struc-
excessive expansion and map cracking. tures in the area under investigation.
However, when the cover was removed I t was apparent that, when the speci-
from a 2 by 4-in. mortar cylinder that mens were kept in sealed containers, or
LERCH ON CHEMICALREACTIONS 337
at least protected from any drying out, result of these findings, the method for
but at the same time prevented from any determining the flow of the mortar was
leaching of salts by immersion in water, modified in Method C 227 to permit the
a chemical reaction was taking place use of a higher amount of mixing water.
which caused an excessive expansion of The Subcommittee on Durability of
the mortar. These observations led to Concrete of ASTM Committee C-9 on
the procedure of storing the mortar Concrete and Concrete Aggregates con-
bars over but not in contact with water, ducted a cooperative series of tests to
in tightly sealed metal containers (ASTM determine the reproducibility of results
Method C 227).6 obtained in the mortar bar test (8).
Figure 1 illustrates the expansion of Other investigators have also reported
sand-cement mortars in the mortar bar on results obtained by using the test
test as influenced by the type of sand (9-16). I t has been found, in most cases,
and the alkali content of the cement. that when natural reactive aggregates
The six cements used in these tests are used with different cements the ex-
had total alkali contents expressed as pansion increases with increasing alkali
Na~O ranging from 0.45 to 1.14 per cent. content of the cement. However, Hanna
These results reported by Stanton (2) (10) and Woolf (16) obtained excessive
show that the Monrovia sand is not expansion with low-alkali cements when
reactive and does not develop excessive small amounts of a highly reactive
expansion with any of the cements. The opaline material were used in combina-
Salinas River and Oro Fino sands are tion with a neutral aggregate; results of
reactive, and with these sands the ex- this type have not been reported in
pansion appears to be related to the tests using natural-occurring aggregates.
alkali content of the cement; it is not There appears to be a very good cor-
excessive when the sands are used with a relation between results obtained with
low-alkali cement. the mortar bar test and the performance
A number of investigators (3, 4, 5, 6) of the aggregates in pavements and
have studied the effect of storage tem- structures. Stanton (17) has reported
perature on the expansion obtained with that it is seldom possible to establish as
the mortar bar test in an attempt to positive a correlation between laboratory
accelerate the test. The results of these tests and field experience as has been
studies have shown that the expansion established by the mortar bar test of
occurs more rapidly and is usually higher ASTM Method C 227. He lists a number
for specimens stored in the covered of typical cases of failure of concrete
containers at 100 F than it is for com- structures through an adverse reaction
panion specimens stored at 70 F or at between cement and aggregate where
temperatures slightly higher than 100 F. the field experience was in each case
These observations led to the adoption subsequently checked by laboratory
of the storage temperature of 100 -4- 3 F tests. In other cases when laboratory
in ASTM Method C 227. tests indicated potential reactivity,
Stanton (7) reported that the rate of subsequent field inspection confirmed
expansion of the mortar bars may be the suspected activity in structures in
materially accelerated by increasing the which the same aggregates had been
percentage of mixing water used in the used with a high-alkali cement. Tremper
preparation of the mortars; these ob- (18), Mielenz and Witte (12), and Blanks
servations were confirmed by tests made and Meissner (19) have reported similarly
by the Portland Cement Assn. As a good correlations.
The mortar bar test can be used also of aggregates in concrete may have a
for studying inhibitors that reduce or significant effect on the durability of
eliminate the expansion associated with concrete. The ASTM has adopted a
the cement-aggregate reaction (10, 15, Recommended Practice for Petrographic
22-27). Certain calcined reactive siliceous Examination of Aggregates for Concrete
materials have been very effective in (C 295) 6 which outlines procedures for
reducing the expansion of the mortars the petrographic examination of samples
as illustrated in Fig. 2, and some of them representative of materials proposed for
have been used with satisfactory results use as aggregates in concrete.
in large dams (22, 26). Although a nat- A number of papers have been pub-
urally occurring reactive aggregate could lished that show the value of petro-
0.6
f
t I I
/ %Gontfo/- No Pozzo/an
0.5
g / ~Pure Ouartz-Raw
00.4
goz
/ ~ L_ -Davis Dam Pozzolan-Raw
C
O
e~ / f,'F'riant Pum/cite
t~o.2
~---~r,, A,h* ~3er
O.l -'-------~ "-Davis Dam Pozzolan- Oo/c 1500F
~~Row ~' Op ~/M~ [ [ I
Shale-Ca/c/ned t/4OOF,I t
I 2 :3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 iI I;
Aoe. months
FIO. 2.--Pozzolans Variously Reduce the Expansion of Reactive Mortar. (From Meissner (22).)
be used for such tests, a more uniform graphic examinations as a means of

supply of reactive material would be identifying potentially reactive minerals
desirable. The Bureau of Reclamation in aggregates, the source of reactive
has recommended the use of pyrex glass, materials, and the characteristics of
crushed, screened, and recombined to a reaction products in affected mortars
specified grading, for this purpose (20-21). and concretes (2, 3, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 4S).
Some minerals that may be deleteriously
Petrographic Examination: TABLE I.--MINERALS D E L E T E R I -
OUSLY REACTIVE WITH HIGH-ALKALI
The microscope provides a useful tool CEMENTS.
for identifying the mineral constituents
Reactive Chemical Physical
in aggregates. ~ The petrographic exami- Minerals Composition Character
nation of aggregates assumed a role of
increased importance when it became Opal . . . . . . . SiO~. nH20 Amorphous
Chalcedony. SiO2 Cryptocrystal-
recognized that the chemical reactions line fibrous
Tridymite. 9 ]J SlOe Crystalline
See p. 253, this publication.
LERCH ON CHEMICAL REACTIONS 339
700
600
u
r~
500
o
o
1/3
-r 400
0
.=
1
..2
300
E
>.
c
==
r
.S 2 0 0
g
IZ
IOO
0
I 0.5 5.0 7.5 t0 25 50 75 I 0 0 250 500 750t000 2500
Silica Dissolved from No. 5 0 to No. IO0 Aggregate Material (raM./I.) by I N. No OH Solution (Quantity So)
Fro. 3.--Results of Chemical Test with NaOtt Solution. (From Mielenz and Witte (12).)
1 by 1 b y 10-in. bars. 1:2.25 mortar made with high-alkaIi cement (1.20 per cent Na20, 0.04 per cent K~O) and
crushed pyrex glass sand. Pozzolans replace 20 per cent by weight of the cement. Specimens stored sealed with
moisture at 100 F.
reactive with cements (9) are shown in for Potential Reactivity of Aggregates
Table I. (Chemical Method) (C 289). 6 The scope
states:
Chemical Tests:
A number of laboratories have studied This method of test covers a chemical
chemical tests for use in determining method for determining the potential alkali
the potential reactivity of aggregates. reactivity of aggregates and their potential-
As a result of these studies, the ASTM ity for producing abnormal expansion in con-
accepted the Tentative Method of Test crete when used with high-alkali cement. I t
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions au
340 TESTS A N D PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E A N D AGGREGATES
is based on the amount of reaction of the Potential Volume Change:

aggregate with a sodium hydroxide solution
under controlled laboratory conditions of Conrow (35) has described a mortar
test. bar test for detecting excessive volume
change of cement-aggregate combina-
The test is based on extensive studies tions subjected to variations of tempera-
by Mielenz, Greene, and Benton (33). ture and water saturation. For this test
The potential reactivity of an aggregate the mortar bars are first cured in the
is measured by the amount of silica molds one day and in water under pre-
dissolved by a 1N sodium hydroxide scribed conditions at standard tempera-
solution from a representative sample of ture for 27 days. They are stored in
aggregate crushed to the No. 50 to No. water for 7 days at 130 F, followed by
100 size and the concomitant reduction storage in a drying oven for 7 days at
in alkalinity of the solution. It is a rapid 130 F, and are then returned to continu-
test--the samples can be prepared, the ous water storage at normal tempera-
test run, and the necessary chemical tures. The expansion of the test speci-
analyses completed in three working mens is taken as an indication of the
days. I t is an empirical or experience relative potential reactivity of the ce-
test. Mielenz and Witte (12) tested a large ment-aggregate combination. Special
number of aggregates by the chemical containers are required for storing the
method and used the same aggregates specimens in a minimum amount of
in combination with a high-alkali cement water to reduce the leaching of soluble
in the mortar bar test (C 227). 6 They salts from the test specimens. Tests of a
then plotted the results of the chemical large number of cement-aggregate com-
test, silica dissolved versus reduction binations were reported. A considerable
in alkalinity, and drew a line through number of aggregates used in these tests
the diagram to separate the innocuous developed excessive expansion. From a
aggregates, those showing less than 0.1 study of the data, Conrow concluded that
per cent expansion at one year in the the abnormal expansion cannot be defi-
mortar bar test, from the reactive ag- nitely related to any one cement con-
gregates, those showing more than 0.1 stituent but rather to the following items:
per cent expansion, as illustrated in 1. The quantity and rate of release of
Fig. 3. calcium hydroxide during the hydration
Since a large number of aggregates of the cement,
were used in the preparation of this 2. The alkali content of the cement,
diagram, it is assumed that other ag- 3. The fineness of the cement, and
gregates can be identified as innocuous or 4. The compound composition of the
reactive by subjecting them to the cement.
chemical test, plotting the results in a The excessive expansion, as developed
diagram similar to Fig. 3, and using the by this test, can be prevented or greatly
same line of demarcation. Results ob- decreased by the addition of a suitable
tained with the chemical test have been
pozzolanic material. It has not been
discussed in other publications (12, 14,
shown that the results obtained in this
iS, 34). The results can be used to identify
the presence of reactive material in the test are related to the performance of
aggregate, but they do not always give similar cement-aggregate combinations
assurance that it is present in the pro- when used in pavements or structures.
portion required to cause abnormal Mielenz (36) has reported the results
expansion. obtained from a cooperative series of
LERCI:[ ON CHEMICAL REACTIONS 341
tests conducted to determine the repro- temperature of 70 to 80 F for 16 hr.

ducibility and significance of the test The cycle is repeated 6 days each week,
procedure. As a result of these studies, the specimens remaining immersed over
the ASTM accepted the Tentative Sunday. The percentage expansion de-
Method of Test for Potential Volume veloped by the test specimens provides
Change of Cement-Aggregate Combina- a measure of the potential cement-ag-
tions (C 342). 6 This method is regarded gregate reaction. An expansion of 0.07
as having particular applicability to per cent or more at one year (285 cycles)
certain cement-aggregate combinations indicates a reactive cement-aggregate
common in the central part of the United combination. The results obtained with
! 1 I
TotoI Alkolies as
0.10 No2 0, percent
I I ~=o5o
P.O56
G,~o, ~ ~e.,eo,o S~ ,:o.o9
o.o~ : i _ o.o.~,,
O.00 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~HM H=0.56
C =0.62
E=0.48
a =0.56
O.lO //-C Z =0.44
G=059
= Group "rr _~:::::~ ~ ~ ~/'~-~7 J =0.53
_---~.6 S=0.50
t Z-.~--- ~ ~-- ---.- 7.~.v ,,.o.~o
~x ooo~176 ~ ~ - ~g B.o~,
W.=O
F=046
57
K =0.83
K i/ I =0.59
Group TIT J ~, n U=0.67
o.I o //~ e _ Y J ~_ ~ R :x Y = o.sz
B =0.64
0.05 ~
50 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 2500 330 360 390 420 450
Age, days
Fro. 4.--Expansion of Concretes Made with Kaw River, Kans., Aggregate and 24 Different
Cements. (From Scholerand Gibson (37).)
States (that is, in Oklahoma, Kansas, this laboratory test are in good agree-
Nebraska, and Iowa). ment with the performance of com-
parable specimens in long-time outdoor
A Wetting-and-Drying Test:
exposure and with the performance of
Scholer and Gibson (37) and Scholer similar materials when used in pavements
(38) have described a heating-drying and and structures. The type of results ob-
cooling-soaking test for studying dele- tained with this test are shown in Fig. 4
terious cement-aggregate reactions. It
where Kaw River, Kans., sand-gravel
is a modification of a test used earlier by
Gibson (39) and provides for exposing aggregate was used in combination with
saturated specimens of concrete to a 24 different cements for these tests.
drying condition at 130 F for 8 hr, fol- Mielenz (36) has reported the results
lowed by immersion in water at an initial of a cooperative series of tests conducted
to determine the reproducibility and crack the jar and the number of cracks
significance of the test procedure. provide a measure of the chemical reac-
The wetting-and-drying test can be tion of the aggregates in the concrete.
used also for studying inhibitors that Woolf and Smith claim thgt a period of
can reduce or eliminate the abnormal test of 28 days appears to be sufficient
expansion resulting from a deleterious for the detection of aggregates which
cement-aggregate reaction. Figure 5 may be considered too susceptible to
shows how additions of neutral coarse reaction with high-alkali cement to
aggregates reduce the expansion that warrant their use in concrete and that
occurs with Republican River, Nebr., the method is suitable for use in the field,
sand-gravel aggregate. Other publica- since the equipment necessary is inex-
tions have described the use of this test pensive and can be obtained readily.
for studying pozzolans (40, 41). The test can be used also to study inhibi-
Scholer and Smith (42) have reported tors that may prevent the excessive
on an accelerated modification of this expansion. Walker (43) concluded from
0.1'5
9 I.- S i,9
uJ __ 17N3_ 9l
o - .
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
Age. days
FIo. 5.--Expansion of Concretes Made with Republican River, Nebr., Sand-Gravel (N3-9) and
Additions of Coarse Aggregates. (From Scholer and Gibson (37).) The heavy dashed line N3-9 repre-
sents the expansion of the sand-gravel aggregate concrete.
method of test that consists of heating similar tests that some significant trends
and cooling the specimens with a con- are indicated, although clear-cut rela-
tinuous spray of water. tionships are not shown. He expressed
doubt about assigning to a field test so
The Mason Jar Test: important a responsibility as determining
Woolf and Smith (43, 44) proposed the the chemical reactivity of aggregates.
Mason jar test as a rapid qualitative
Miscellaneous Tests:
method of testing mortar or concrete for
alkali-aggregate reaction. The interior A number of additional tests have been
surface of the jar is coated with a chlori- described (28, 4S, 46, 47). Although it has
nated rubber or vinyl resin- base paint not been shown that the results obtained
to prevent a reaction between the glass by these tests bear any relation to the
and the concrete. The jar is then filled performance of the aggregates in con-
to the neck with concrete, 'the cap crete, they are referred to here to com-
fastened, and the concrete allowed to plete the record.
harden. A small amount of water, about
CONCLUSION
25 ml, is added, the cover replaced, and
the jar set aside for observation. Expan- Progress has been made in developing
sive reactions within the concrete crack methods of test for aggregates to deter-
the Mason jar. The time required to mine their potentialities of producing
LERCH ON CHEMICAL REACTIONS 343
deleterious chemical reactions in con- significant results t h a t t h e y are not

crete. Some of these tests can be used suitable for use as acceptance tests.
also for the s t u d y of reactive siliceous T h e rapid tests provide valuable infor-
admixtures or other inhibitors t h a t m a y m a t i o n t h a t can be used to identify the
reduce or eliminate the expansion. How- presence of reactive constituents in the
ever, there is an urgent need for further aggregate, b u t t h e y do not always give
s t u d y of test procedures. Some of the assurance t h a t the reactive m a t e r i a l is
most reliable methods currently available present in the proportion necessary to
require such a long time to provide cause a b n o r m a l expansion.
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(1) Thomas E. Stanton, "Influence of Cement (10) W. C. Hanna, "Unfavorable Chemical
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February 1, 1940, p. 59. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 47, p. 986 (1947).
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and Aggregate," Proceedings, Am. Soe. Council of Scientific and Industrial Re-
Civil Engrs., Vol. 66, p. 1781 (1940). search (Australia), p. 55 (1947).
(3) Thomas E. Stanton, O. J. Porter, L. C. (12) Richard C. Mielenz and Leslie P. Witte,
Meder, and Allan Nicol, "California Ex- "Tests Used by the Bureau of Reclama-
perience with the Expansion of Concrete tion for Identifying Reactive Concrete
Through Reaction Between Cement and Aggregates," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Test-
Aggregate," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., ing Mats., Vol. 48, p. 1071 (1948).
January, 1942; Proceedings, Vol. 38, p. 209. (13) T. M. Kelly, L. Shuman, and F. B. Horni-
(4) Thomas E. Stanton, "Studies to Develop brook, "A Study of Alkali-Aggregate Re-
an Accelerated Test Procedure for the activity by Means of Mortar Bar Expan-
Detection of Adversely Reactive Cement- sion," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Sep-
Aggregate Combinations," Proceedings, tember, 1948; Proceedings, VoI. 45, p. 57.
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 43, p. 875 (14) F. O. Slate, "Chemical Reactions of In-
(1943). diana Aggregates in Disintegration of
(5) Roy W. Carlson, "Accelerated Tests of Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Concrete Expansion Due to Alkali-Ag- Mats., Vol. 49, p. 954 (1949).
gregate Reaction," Journal, Am. Concrete (15) William Lerch, "Studies of Some Methods
Inst., January, 1944; Proceedings, Vol. 40, of Avoiding Expansion and Pattern Crack-
p. 205. ing Associated with the Alkali-Aggregate
(6) R. F. Blanks and H. S. Meissner, "The Reaction," Symposium on Use of Pozzo-
Expansion Test as a Measure of Alkali- lanic Materials in Mortars and Concretes,
Aggregate Reaction," Journal, Am. Con- Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 153 (1950).
crete Inst., April, 1946; Proceedings, Vol. 42, (Issued as separate publication ASTM
p. 517. STP No. 99.)
(7) Thomas E. Stanton, "Report on Further (16) D. O. Woolf, "Reaction of Aggregate with
Studies to Develop an Accelerated Test Low-Alkali Cement," Public Roads, Vol.
Procedure for the Detection of Adversely 27, No. 3, p. 50 (1952).
Reactive Cement-Aggregate Combina- (17) Thomas E. Stanton, "Correlation of Lab-
tions," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing oratory Tests with Field Experiences of
Mats., Vol. 51, p. 1087 (1951). Excessive Concrete Expansion Induced by
(8) R. F. Blanks, "Effect of Alkalies in Port- a Reaction Between the Cement and Ag-
land Cement on Durability of Concrete," gregate," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
ASTM BUr~LETIN,No. 142, October, 1946, Mats., Vol. 48, p. 1057 (1948).
p. 28. (18) Bailey Tremper, "Correlation of Labora-
(9) Duncan McConnell, Richard C. Mielenz, tory Tests with Field Experience in Alkali-
William Y. Holland, and Kenneth T. Aggregate Reaction," Proceedings, Am.
Greene, "Cement-Aggregate Reaction in Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 48, p. 1067 (1948).
Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., (19) R. F. Blanks and H. S. Meissner, "De-
October, 1947; Proceedings, Vol. 44, p. 93. terioration of Concrete Dams Due to
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction," Transactions, (31) Katharine Mather and Bryant Mather,

Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol. 111, p. 743 "Method of Petrographic Examination of
(1946). Aggregates for Concrete," Proceedings, Am.
(20) "Calcined Reactive Siliceous Material for Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 50, p. 1288 (1950).
Use in Concrete," Specification No. 1904, (32) Katharine Mather, "Applications of Light
United States Department of Interior, Microscopy in Concrete Research," Sym-
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo., posium on Light Microscopy, Am. Soc.
August 21, 1947. Testing Mats., p. 51 (1952). (Issued as
(21) J.L. Gilliland and W. F. Moran, "Siliceous separate publication ASTM STP No. 143.)
Admixtures Specified for Davis Dam," (33) Richard C. Mielenz, Kenneth T. Greene,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 142, No. 5, and Elton J. Benton, "Chemical Test for
p. 62 (1949). Reactivity of Aggregates with Cement Al-
(22) H. S. Meissner, "Pozzolans Used in Mass kalies; Chemical Processes in Cement-Ag-
Concrete," Symposium on Use of Pozzo- gregate Reactions," Journal, Am. Concrete
lanic Materials in Mortars and Concretes, Inst., November, 1947; Proceedings, Vol.
Am. Soe. Testing Mats., p. 16 (1950). 44, p. 193.
(Issued as separate publication ASTM (34) R. F. Blanks, "Modern Concepts Applied
STP No. 99.) to Concrete Aggregates," Proceedings, Am.
(23) Richard C. Mielenz, L. P. Witte, and O. J. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol. 75, p. 441 (1949).
Glantz, "Effect of Calcination on Natural (35) A. D. Conrow, "Studies of Abnormal Ex-
Pozzolans," Symposium on Use of Pozzo- pansion of Portland Cement Concrete,"
lanic Materials in Mortars and Concretes, Proceedings, Am. Soe. Testing Mats., Vol.
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., p. 43 (1950). 52, p. 1205 (1952).
(Issued as separate publication ASTM (36) Richard C. Mielenz, "Potential Reactivity
STP No. 99.) of Aggregate in Concrete and Mortar,"
(24) T. E. Stanton, "Studies of Use of Pozzolans ASTM BVLLETIN,No. 93, October, 1953,
for Counteracting Excessive Concrete p. 41 (TP173).
Expansion Resulting from Reaction Be- (37) C. H. Scholer and W. E. Gibson, "Effects
tween Aggregate and the Alkalies in the of Various Coarse Aggregates upon the
Cement," Symposium on Use of Pozzolanic Cement-Aggregate Reaction," Proceedings,
Materials in Mortars and Concretes, Am. Am. Concrete Inst., Vol. 44, p. 1009 (1948).
Soc. Testing Mats., p. 178 (1950). (Issued (38) C. H. Scholer, "A Wetting-and-Drylng
as separate publication ASTM STP Test for Predicting Cement-Aggregate Re-
No. 99.) action," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
(25) Herbert P. Cox, Robert B. Coleman, Jr., Mats., Vol. 49, p. 942 (1949).
and Locke White, Jr., "Effect of Blast- (39) W. E. Gibson, "A Study of Map-Cracking
Furnace Slag Cement on Alkali-Aggregate of Sand-Gravel Concrete Pavements,"
Reaction in Concrete," Pit and Quarry, Vol. Proceedings, Highway Research Board,
45, No. 5, p. 95 (1950). Vol. 18, Part I, p. 227 (1938).
(26) Robert F. Blanks, "The Use of Portland- (40) C. H. Scholer and R. L. Peyton, "Experi-
Pozzolan Cement by the Bureau of Recla- ence with Pozzolanic Materials in Kansas,"
mation," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Symposium on Use of Pozzolanic Materials
October, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. 46, p. 89. in Mortars and Concretes, Am. Soc. Testing
(27) W. J. McCoy and A. G. Caldwell, "New Mats, p. 31 (1950). (Issued as separate
Approach to Inhibiting Alkali-Aggregate publication ASTM STP No. 99.)
Reactions," /ournal, Am. Concrete Inst., (41) C. H. Scholer and G. M. Smith, "Use of
May, 1951; Proceedings, Vol. 47, p. 693. Chicago Fly Ash in Reducing Cement-
(28) Willard H. Parsons and Herbert Insley, Aggregate Reaction," Journal, Am. Con-
"Alkali Etching Tests on Concrete Aggre- crete Inst., February, 1952; Proceedings,
gates," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Jan- Vol. 48, p. 457.
uary, 1944; Proceedings, Vol. 40, p. 229. (42) C. H. Scholer and G. M. Smith, "A Rapid
(29) Roger Rhoades and Richard C. Mietenz, Accelerated Test for Cement-Aggregate Re-
"Petrography of Concrete Aggregates," action," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1946; Mats., Vol. 54, p. 1165 (1954).
Proceedings, Vol. 42, p. 581. (43) D. O. Woolf and Theodore R. Smith, "A
(30) Bryant Mather, "Petrographic Identifica- Rapid Method for Testing Materials for
tion of Reactive Constituents in Concrete the Alkali-Aggregate Reaction," Proceed-
Aggregate," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 48, p.
Mats., Vol. 48, p. 1120 (1948). 1108 (1948).
LERCH ON CHEMICALREACTIONS 345
(44) D. O. Woolf and Theodore R. Smith, September, 1944; Proceedings, Vol. 41, p.
"Rapid Method of Testing Materials for 37.
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction," Public Roads, (47) A. R. Alderman, A. J. Gaskin, and H. E.
Vol. 25, No. 6, p. 118 (1948). Vivian, "A Qualitative Test for Cement-
(45) D. G. Runner, "A Study of the Pat Test Aggregate Reaction," Journal, Council of
for Determining Alkali-Aggregate Reac- Scientific and Industrial Research (Aus-
tion," Public Roads, Vol. 24, No. 2, p. 47 tralia), Vol. 18, p. 433 (1945).
(1944). (48) Richard C. Mielenz, "Petrographic Exam-
(46) Leonard Bean and J. J. Tregoning, "Reac- ination of Concrete Aggregate," Proceed-
tivity of Aggregate Constituents in Alkaline ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mat., Vol. 54, p.
Solutions," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., 1188 (1954).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Concrete Aggregates
SOUNDNESS AND D E L E T E R I O U S SUBSTANCES
BY DEL~A~ L. B L O ~ t
Soundness may be defined as the wide diversity of specification require-

ability of an aggregate to resist ex- ments and test methods exists (7, 12, 16).3
cessively large or permanent changes in
volume when subjected to destructive EFFECTS ON CONCl~E~E
agencies, particularly freezing and thaw- Unsound aggregate particles fall into
ing, heating and cooling, or wetting and two general categories depending upon
drying. Volume changes of unsound the nature of their changes in volume.
aggregate particles may result in deteri- In the case of one class of particles--the
oration of concrete, ranging from local- soft sandstones, ochers, clay lumps,
ized pitting and scaling to extensive etc.--disintegration of the concrete re-
cracking and deep-seated disintegration. sults from failure of the aggregate par-
The former is usually of little structural ticles to maintain their integrity. The
significance but may be detrimental to volume change may be considered as
the appearance of the structure; the negative, with the particles breaking into
latter may be sufficient to cause struc- numerous smaller pieces. Depending
tural failure of the concrete. upon the quantity of such particles,
Substances classed as deleterious m a y deterioration m a y be general or, more
be harmful to concrete in several differ- often, m a y be evidenced primarily b y
ent ways. Excessive amounts of very surface pitting or scaling (27).
fine material may increase the mixing A second and more dangerous class of
water requirement. Organic impurities unsound particles consists of those which
may interfere with the hardening char- expand disruptively in the concrete.
acteristics of cement. Certain mineral Examples of this type are certain laminar
constituents may react harmfully with rocks--principally limestone containing
ingredients of the cement, a subject expansive clays--and porous chert. Such
discussed elsewhere in this publication? materials, when frozen in a saturated
Finally, certain particles individually condition or, in some cases, when merely
m a y be so manifestly unsound as to exposed to water, increase in volume
require more direct attention than is pro- with the development of sufficient pres-
vided by usual tests for over-all ag- sure to cause deep-seated disintegration
gregate soundness. The nature of dele- of the concrete (21, 27).
terious substances varies greatly from Other deleterious substances of most
locality to locality with the result that a general concern are organic impurities,
1Assistant Director of Engineering, National clay and clay lumps, soft particles, and
Sand and Gravel Assn. and the National Ready
Mixed Concrete Assn., Washington, D. C. 3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
e W. Lerch, "Chemical Reactions of Ag- to the list of references appended to this paper,
gregates in Concrete," see p. 334. see p. 351.
346
BLOEM ON SOUNDNESS AND DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES 347
lightweight pieces, including coal and Because of shortcomings of the sul-

lignite. Organic impurities, in some but fate soundness test, discussed later, there
not all cases, retard the hardening of have been attempts to develop methods
cement and reduce concrete strength, that would indicate more accurately the
particularly at early ages. Finely divided potential field performance of ag-
coal or lignite in sufficient quantity also gregates ill concrete. One method which
will retard hardening (S). However, in has received considerable attention is the
the more common form of small quanti- unconfined freezing-and-thawing test
ties of discrete particles, it has no signifi- (8, 17,22). It resembles the sulfate test
cant effect on strength but may detract except that, instead of being alternately
from appearance by producing surface immersed in salt solution and oven dried,
pits (27). Certain types of clay, princi- the sample is alternately frozen and
pally the bentonites, may cause large in- thawed, usually while immersed in
creases in the mixing water requirement water. The method is more time-consum-
with accompanying reductions in ing than the sulfate test and, since it
strength of the concrete. However, fnely provides no more, and possibly less, in-
divided material per se is generally not formation, it has not received wide ac-
harmful in typically occurring amounts, ceptance.
and there is evidence that specifications Probably the most reliable measure of
are over-restrictive in limitations on over-all aggregate soundness is derived
fines (13). Soft particles may in rare cases from freezing-and-thawing tests of con-
cause reductions in strength and abrasion crete in which the aggregate is in-
resistance but more frequently are con- corporated. 5 That method is the subject
sidered to be in the unsound category of a separate paper in this report 6 and
(4, 6). Partides of low density and shale will not be discussed in detail here. It
also are generally considered to be un- should be mentioned, however, that no
sound (2, 12, 16, 31). general agreement has been reached as
to which of the several freezing-and-
M E T H O D S Or TEST
thawing tests is best for evaluating
The over-all soundness of an ag- aggregates (3, 9, 11, 24, 28). Further, there
gregate is most often specified in terms has been only moderate success, as yet,
of a maximum permissible loss in the in correlating quantitatively the field
sulfate soundness test3 That test con- performance of aggregates with their
sists of alternate immersion of a carefully resistance to laboratory freezing and
graded and weighed test sample in a thawing (18, 20). In their present stage of
solution of sodium or magnesium sul- development, freezifig-and-thawing tests
fate and oven drying under specified are of value chiefly in comparing per-
conditions. The enlargement of salt
crystals in the pores of the aggregate Method of Test for Resistance of Concrete
tends to cause the breakup of the par- Specimens to R a p i d Freezing and Thawing in
ticles, presumably simulating the action W a t e r (C 290); M e t h o d of Test for Resistance
of Concrete Specimens to R a p i d Freezing in
of freezing water. Loss is measured after Air a n d T h a w i n g in W a t e r (C 291); Method of
a specified number of cycles, usually Test for Resistance of Concrete Specimens to
either 5 or 10, in terms of the amount of Slow Freezing and T h a w i n g in W a t e r or Brine
(C 292); M e t h o d of Test for Resistance of Con-
the sample that will pass the sieve upon crete Specimens to Slow Freezing in Air and
which it was originally retained. T h a w i n g in W a t e r (C 310), 1955 Book of
A S T M Standards, P a r t 3.
4 M e t h o d of T e s t for Soundness of Aggre- T. C. Powers, "Basic Considerations Per-
gates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or M a g n e s i u m taining to Freezing-and-Thawing T e s t s , " see
(C 88), 1955 Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3. p. 182.
formance characteristics of different ag- eral relationships between sulfate loss

gregates and studying methods for im- and field service records (8, 9, 10, 22), no
proving weathering resistance. claim is made that the test provides a
The colorimetric test is the usual one quantitative indication of field per-
for detecting organic impurities in fine formance. However, the lack of more
aggregate. A measured quantity of the dependable methods has led specifying
sand is covered with a 3 per cent solution agencies to put inflexible limits on
of sodium hydroxide, and the color of the soundness loss and to disregard the need
solution is compared with a standard for engineering judgment in interpreta-
after a specified period. 7 Because of tion of the test results. These arbitrary
their lower surface area and the greater limits have caused rejection of highly
ease with which they can be washed, acceptable aggregates and permitted
coarse aggregates are unlikely to contain acceptance of materials that contributed
harmful amounts of organic matter. to extensive concrete disintegration.
Methods of test are also provided for Nevertheless, recent years have seen an
measuring the quantity of fine material, encouraging trend toward more reliance
including clay, in aggregate, s and for on actual performance in concrete, either
detecting clay lumps, 9 soft particles, ~~ in the field or in laboratory freezing-and-
and lightweight pieces,n For other so- thawing tests, with sulfate tests being
called deleterious substances--usually relied upon principally when data from
particles which, in a particular area, are more reliable sources are not available.
considered objectionable---visual exam- It has been suggested that the sulfate
ination is relied upon for detection. Errors soundness test might be used to accept
in personal judgment may be at least aggregates but not reject them, the as-
partially eliminated by use of accepted sumption being that any aggregate that
procedures for petrographic examina- will satisfactorily withstand the test is
tion3 ~- good but those that break down are
not necessarily bad. Unfortunately the
INTERPRETATIOI~ Or TEST REStlLTS test is not reliable even to that extent.
The sulfate soundness tes0 is described Certain aggregates with extremely fine
in the scope of the ASTM method as pore structure show almost no loss in the
"helpful in judging the soundness of sulfate test but disrupt concrete with
aggregates subject to weathering action." explosive violence when frozen in a
In spite of published data showing gen- saturated condition. Conversely, certain
highly porous aggregates disintegrate
Method of Test for Organic Impurities in readily in the sulfate test but produce
Sands for Concrete (C 40), 1955 Book of ASTM
Standards, Part 3. concretes of high resistance to freezing
8 Method of Test for Amount of Material and thawing. A low soundness test loss is
Finer T h a n No. 200 Sieve in Aggregates (C 117),
1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
usually, but not always, evidence of good
9 Method of Test for Clay Lumps in Ag- durability, whereas a high loss places the
gregates (C 142), 1955 Book of ASTM Stand- aggregate in a questionable category
ards, Part 3.
10 Method of Test for Soft Particles in Coarse until performance data become available.
Aggregates (C 235), 1955 Book of ASTM The use of unconfined freezing-and-
Standards, Part 3. thawing tests to measure aggregate dura-
1~ Method of Test for Lightweight Pieces in
Aggregate (C 123 T), 1955 Book of ASTM bility has not been extensive. Such data
Standards, Part 3. as are available suggest that the method
121Zecommended Practice for Petrographic
Examination of Aggregates for Concrete (C
is essentially no more indicative of po-
295), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3. tential field performance than the sul-
~BLOEM ON SOUNDNESS AND DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES 349
fate soundness test, and probably less so. serves as a warning that mortar strength
Also, the fact that it is much less severe tests 13 are needed to determine whether
and hence more time-consuming has or not the organic matter is harmful.
discouraged its use (17).
t~EPRODUCIBILITu OF TESTS
There is strong evidence that standard-
ized freezing-and-thawing tests of con- Sulfate soundness tests, even when
crete may provide the best information conducted within the requirements of
on the relative performance of different the prescribed ASTM method, * are
aggregates. In several cases data have highly sensitive to minor differences in
been developed showing a good cor- procedure and equipment (14, 15, 17, 26,
relation between the field performance 29). Much difficulty has been encountered
of aggregates and the resistance to freez- in reproducing results on the same ma-
ing and thawing in the laboratory of terial in different laboratories or even in
concretes made with them (18, 2o, 30). As the same laboratory at different times.
yet, the laboratory methods have not Major sources of variation appear to be:
been refined to the point where specifi- (1) lack of uniformity in oven efficiency
cation limits can be established or the and length of drying time; (2) variations
test results interpreted quantitatively in saturation of the sulfate solutions; (3)
with respect to aggregate soundness. dii~iculty of securing a representative
This can be attributed to the large num- sample, particularly in the larger sizes
ber of variables other than aggregate where relatively few particles are in-
which affect the results, including ce- volved; (4) differences in the type of
ment, amount of air in the concrete, sample container; and (5) differences in
water-cement ratio, age of the concrete the sieving technique, including failure
at the time of test, moisture condition of to use an identical procedure before and
the aggregate and concrete, and the after test.
nature of the freezing-and-thawing ex- Further confusion in the use of the
posure. sulfate test arises from its recognition of
In connection with the interpretation three different test gradings for coarse
of results, the test for organic impurities aggregate (39). Largely because of differ-
should be mentioned. 7 The results are ences in the spread of individual sizes
highly reproducible and give an accurate within these alternates, losses may vary
indication of the presence of organic considerably depending upon which
matter. One complication arises from grading is selected for use.
the fact that all types of organic matter Recommendations have been made
are not harmful to concrete. Although from time to time for revisions in the
the products of decay of vegetable mat- soundness test to remove ambiguities,
ter (principally tannic acid and its de- increase reproducibility, and simplify
rivatives) interfere with the hardening procedures to be consistent with the
of cement, materials such as sticks and limited significance of the method (lO,
small amounts of coal or lignite, which 17, 19,26,20). Those efforts have met
produce a dark color in the test, are with little success. Users of the test have
harmless from the standpoint of retarda- been reluctant to make the necessary
tion of strength development (5). The changes in specification limits which
absence of excessive color in the organic modified procedures would entail. Fur-
impurities test is reliable evidence of ther, the abandonment of quantitative
freedom from harmful amounts of or- 13Specifications for Concrete Aggregates (C
ganic matter. A dark color in the test 33), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
limits and the reversion of the test to its full-size sieve. It has been shown that
rightful place as a rough qualitative in- losses by the two methods correlate well
dication of soundness would leave (29). However, the change would require
specification writers with no firm basis revision of current specification limits,
for rejecting unsound materials. almost all of which are based on the full-
In spite of the considerable amount of size sieve.
inertia to be overcome in making Regardless of which of the proposed
changes, it appears that there will be changes are accepted, they will not
improvements, particularly with re- eliminate the need for judgment in evalu-
spect to removing ambiguities in the ating results of the sulfate soundness test.
present method and improving repro- The evaluation of aggregate soundness
ducibility. It has been suggested that, by freezing and thawing, either uncon-
to reduce the number of possible com- fined or ill concrete, has not been done
binations of procedure, the test be extensively enough to provide much
limited to the use of one type of salt-- information on reproducibility. Uncon-
sodium or magnesium sulfate but not fined tests have not been widely accepted
both; that either five or ten cycles be or used for reasons discussed earlier.
established as standard; and that the Freezing-and-thawing tests of concrete
number of permissible test gradings for have been almost entirely on a research
coarse aggregate be reduced from three basis. Although standardized methods
to one. Except for some readjustment by have been used for evaluating aggregates,
agencies which have used other than the specification limits on freezing-and-
more closely standardized procedures, thawing resistance in concrete have not
these changes would entail relatively been established. The wider use of con-
minor dislocation of established methods. crete freezing-and-thawing tests recently
Also, it can probably be agreed that more adopted by the ASTM may provide data
rigid limitations on oven efficiency are on reproducibility and the feasibility of
needed to reduce variations from that setting specific limits for that type of test.
source.
Other proposed revisions are more CONCLUSION
controversial. For example, it has been This report has dealt primarily with
suggested that the test be limited to a the sulfate soundness test since that is
single size of either coarse or fine ag- the only method currently used to any
gregate. That would reduce the amount extent for evaluating aggregate sound-
of testing and do away with calculation ness. On the basis of published data and
of weighted losses based on grading. On the expressions of those responsible for
the other hand, it can seriously be development of the method and future
questioned that any one size adequately
revisions of it, the following remarks
represents the soundness of a graded
appear warranted:
aggregate. Particularly in the case of
1. At present, the sulfate test, al-
heterogeneous gravels, there may be
large differences in soundness between though far from being perfectly reliable,
the various size fractions. is the best available method for securing
Another proposal in the more-or-less an indication of potential durability of
revolutionary category is to specify loss aggregate in concrete.
on the basis of material passing a sieve 2. Freezing-and-thawing tests of un-
having one half the clear opening of the confined aggregates are no more, and
original retaining sieve instead of the probably less, dependable than the sul-
BLOEI~ ON SOUNDNESS AND DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES 351
fate method. Because t h e y are more are, however, extremely valuable for
time-consuming and require more elab- comparing potential performance of
orate equipment, t h e y have not been different concrete materials and study-
widely used. ing the factors which affect concrete
3. I t appears t h a t the d u r a b i l i t y of durability.
aggregates for concrete can best be 4. N o n e of the tests for aggregate
evaluated b y freezing-and-thawing tests soundness is sufficiently q u a n t i t a t i v e to
of concrete m a d e with them. Although p e r m i t its a r b i t r a r y use as a basis for
progress has been made in standardiza- accepting or rejecting aggregates ex-
tion of such tests, they have not y e t clusive of other considerations. A n y one
reached a stage of development to per- test generally provides only a clue to
m i t their general use as a basis for ac- potential performance which m u s t be
ceptance or rejection of aggregates. evaluated in the light of other tests and,
Freezing-and-thawing tests of concrete where possible, the field service record.
REFERENCES
(1) D. O. Woolf, "Relation Between Sodium Highway Research Board, Vol. 11, p. 312
Sulfate Soundness Tests and Absorption (1931); Crushed Stone Journal, December
of Sedimentary Rock," Public Roads, De- 1931, p. 5.
cember, 1927, p. 225; Rock Products, (9) F. C. Lang and C. A. Hughes, "Accel-
January 7, 1928, p. 39. erated Freezing and Thawing as a Quality
(2) F. C. Lang, "Summary of Tests on Effect Test for Concrete Aggregates," Proceed-
of Shale in Gravel on Compressive Strength ings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 31,
of Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Concrete Part II, p. 435 (1931).
Inst., Vol. XXIII, p. 592 (1927). (10) Ira Paul, "Magnesium Sulfate Accelerated
(3) C. H. Scholer, "Some Accelerated Freezing- Soundness Test on Concrete Aggregates,"
and-Thawing Tests on Concrete," Pro- Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Vol.
ceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 28, 12, p. 319 (1932).
Part II, p. 473 (1928). (11) C. H. Scholer and A. E. Stoddard, "Pro-
(4) W. F. Kellermann, "Effect uf Type and posed Method of Testing Concrete and
Gradation of Coarse Aggregate upon the Concrete Aggregates by Freezing and
Strength of Concrete," Public Roads, Vol. Thawing," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
10, No. 4, p. 72 (1929). Mats., Vol. 32, Part I, p. 364 (1932).
(5) P. J. Freeman, "Effect of Coal and Lig- (12) Stanton Walker and C. E. Proudiey, "Shale
nite in Sand for Concrete," Proceedings, in Concrete Aggregates," Proceedings,
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 29, Part I, Highway Research Board, Vol. 12, p. 273
p. 328 (1929). (1932).
(6) W. J. Emmons, "The Effect of Soft Par- (13) Inge Lyse, "Tests Indicate Effect of Fine
ticles of Coarse Aggregate on the Strength Clay in Concrete," Engineering News-
and Durability of Concrete," Proceedings, Record, Vol. 113, August 23, 1934, p. 233.
Sixteenth Annual Conference on Highway (14) Leo V. Garrity and Herbert F. Kriege,
Engineering (University of Michigan), "Studies of Accelerated Soundness Tests,"
Vol. 31, p. 45 (1930); Circular No. 6, Proceedings, Highway Research Board,
Nat. Sand and Gravel Assn. (1930). Ab- Vol. 15, p. 237 (1935). Reviewed in Journal,
stracted in Rock Products, August 2, 1930, Am. Concrete Inst., May-June, 1936, p.
p. 42. 723.
(7) F. C. Lang, "Deleterious Substances in (15) Stanton Walker and C. E. Proudley,
Concrete Aggregates," Butletin, Nat. Sand "Studies of Sodium and Magnesium Sulfate
and Gravel Assn., April, 1931, p. 17; Soundness Tests," Proceedings, Am. Soc.
Circular No. 10, Nat. Sand and Gravel Assn. Testing Mats., u 36, Part I, p. 327
May, 1931. (1936).
(8) Verne McCown, "The Significance of So- (16) R. R. Litehiser, "The Effect of Deleterious
dium Sulfate and Freezing-and-Thawing Materials in Aggregates for Concrete,"
Tests on Mineral Aggregates," Proceedings Circular No. 16, Nat. Sand and Gravel
352 TESTS AND PROPERTIES 0~" CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
Assn. (1938). Abstracted in Rock Products, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 45, p. 813
September, 1938, p. 39. (1945).
(17) C. E. Wuerpel, "Factors Affecting the (25) Katherine l~Iather, "Relation of Absorp-
Testing of Concrete Aggregate Durability," tion and Sulfate Test Results of Concrete
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. Sands," ASTM BULtETIN, No. 144, Janu-
38, Part I, p. 327 (1938). ary, 1947, p. 26.
(18) Curtis Cantrill and Louis Campbell, (26) D. L. Bloem, "Effect of Drying Time on
"Selected Aggregates for Concrete Pave- Results of Magnesium Sulfate Soundness
ment Based on Service Records," Pro- Tests," ASTM B~LL~TIN, No. 152, May,
ceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 39, 1948, p. 76.
p. 937 (1939). (27) Stanton Walker and D. L. Bloem, "The
(19) Charles E. Wuerpel, "Modified Procedure Problem of Deleterious Particles in Ag-
for Testing Aggregates Soundness by Use gregates," Circular No. 35, Nat. Sand
of Magnesium Sulfate," Proceedings, Am. and Gravel Assn. (1950).
Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 39, p. 882 (1939). (28) Stanton Walker and D. L. Bloem, "Per-
(20) F. V. Reagel, "Freezing-and-Thawing formance of Automatic Freezlng-and-
Tests of Concrete," Proceedings, Highway Thawing Apparatus for Testing Concrete,"
Research Board, Vol. 20, p. 587 (1940). Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
(21) Harold Sweet, "Chert as a Deleterious 51, p. 1120 (1951). (Reprinted as Circular
Constituent in Indiana Aggregates," Pro- No. 46 of the Nat. Sand and Gravel Assn.)
ceedings, Highway Research Board, Vol. (29) D. O. Woolf, "Improvement in the Uni-
20, p. 599 (1940). formity of the Accelerated Soundness
(22) W. E. Gibson, "Evaluating the Significance Test of Coarse Aggregate," ASTM BI~L-
of the Soundness Test of Aggregate," LETIN, No. 187, January, 1953, p. 42.
(30) T. B. Kennedy and Katherine Mather,
Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Vol.
"Correlation Between Laboratory Ac-
21, p. 283 (1941). celerated Freezing and Thawing and
(23) Andrew Adams and H. A. Pratt, "A Com- Weathering at Treat Island, Maine,"
parison of Absorption and Soundness Tests Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., October,
on Maine Sands," Proceedings, Am. Soc. 1953; Proceedings, Vol. 50, p. 141.
Testing Mats., Vol. 45, p. 771 (1945). (31) Stanton Walker and D. L. Bloem, "Effect
(24) C. E. Wuerpel and H. K. Cook, "Auto- on Heavy-Media Processing on Quality
matic Accelerated Freezing-and-Thawing of Gravel," Circular No. 55, Nat. Sand and
Apparatus for Concrete," Proceedings, Gravel Assn. (1953).
PART IV
Tests and Properties of Other
Materials
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Other Materials
WATER FOR MIXING AND CURING CONCRETE*
BY W. J. McCo'z ~
SYNopsis
Information is presented regarding the effects of waters containing various
organic and inorganic compounds on the different properties of concrete, cor-
rosion of reinforcement, and staining.
Procedures for evaluating the suitability of waters for mixing and curing
concrete are discussed. From the data presented, it can be concluded that the
classical expression, "Water that is suitable for drinking is satisfactory for mak-
ing concrete," is not always the best criterion.
The quality of cements and aggregates tute 3 has only two references (7, 13)4 on
is often exhaustively investigated, but this subject. This same general scarcity
usually little attention is given to the re- of information and data is also true in
quirements for the water to be used with the case of curing water.
these materials. This paper is concerned
MIXING WATER
primariIy with the significance of tests of
various types of waters for mixing and A popular expression as to the suitabil-
curing concrete and makes no attempt to ity of water for mixing concrete is "If
include the effect of unit water content water is fit to drink it is all right for
on the various properties of concrete. making concrete." This does not appear
There is an abundance of information to be the best basis for evaluation since
and test data in the literature dealing some waters containing small amounts of
with the effects of the quantity of mixing sugars or citrates would be suitable for
water but only a limited amount with drinking but not for mixing concrete (1)
reference to the quality of mixing water. and, conversely, not all water unsuitable
For example, the 50-yr index of A S T M for drinking is unsatisfactory for use in
papers ~ does not contain a reference to a concrete. I n a n a t t e m p t to be more realis-
paper concerning the quality of mixing tic, some specifications attempt to en-
water, and the 20-yr index to the publica- sure that water used in making con-
tion of the American Concrete Institu- crete is suitable b y requiring that it be
clean and free from deleterious materials.
* Presented at the Fifty-seventh Annual
Meeting of the Society, June 13-18, 1954. a "A.C.I. 20-Year Index 1929-1949," Am.
1 Director of Research, Lehigh Portland Ce- Concrete Inst. (1950).
ment Co., Allentown, Pa. 4 The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
"Fifty Year Index 1898 to 1950," Am. Soc. to the list of references appended to this paper,
Testing Mats. (1952). see p. 360.
355
Other specifications require that if the cement mixed with impure waters was
water is not obtained from a source about the same as for that mixed with
that has proved satisfactory, the clean fresh waters with only a few excep-
strength of concrete or mortar made with tions. In most instances, the samples
the questionable water should be com- giving low concrete strength ratios were
pared with similar concrete or mortar slow setting, but, generally speaking,
made with water of known suitability. the tests showed that time of setting is
For example, the latest U. S. Army not a satisfactory criterion for suitability
Corps of Engineers Specifications (2) re- of a water for mixing concrete.
quire that water of questionable quality 2. None of the waters caused unsound-
be tested in mortar cubes and have a ness of the neat portland cement pat
7- and 28-day strength equal to at least when tested over boiling water.
90 per cent of companion test specimens 3. In spite of the wide variation in the
in which distilled water is used. Other origin and type of the waters used, most
than comparative tests of this type, no of the samples gave good results in con-
special test has been developed for de- crete due to the fact that the quantity
termining the quality of mixing water, of injurious impurities present was quite
small.
and hence it is difficult for the man in the
field to judge the fitness of water for use 4. The quality of mixing water is best
in concrete (3). measured by the ratio of its 28-day con-
The two principal questions regarding crete or mortar strength to that of similar
mixing water appear to be: (1) how do mixes using pure water. Waters giving
impurities in the water affect the con- strength ratios which, in general, are
crete; and (2) what degree of impurity is below 85 per cent should be considered
permissible? The following discussion is unsatisfactory.
a r6sum6 of available information on 5. Neither odor nor color is any indica-
these two items. tion of quality of water for mixing con-
crete. Waters that were most unprom-
Effect of Impurities in Mixing Water: ising in appearance gave good results.
The most extensive series of tests on Distilled waters gave concrete strengths
this subject were those conducted by essentially the same as fresh waters.
Duff A. Abrams (4). Approximately 6000 6. Based on a minimum strength ratio
mortar and concrete specimens represent- of 85 per cent as compared with pure
ing 68 different water samples were water, the following samples were found
tested in this investigation. Among the to be unsuitable for mixing concrete:
waters tested were sea and alkali waters, (a) Acid water.
bog waters, mine and mineral waters, and (b) Lime-soak water from tannery
waters containing sewage and solutions waste.
of salt. Tests with fresh waters and dis- (c) Carbonated mineral water dis-
tilled water were included for compara- charge from galvanizing plants.
tive purposes. Setting-time tests on (d) Water containing over 3 per cent
cement and concrete strength tests from of sodium chloride or 3.5 per
3 days to 2.33 yr were conducted for each cent of sulfates.
of the various water samples. Some of (e) Waters containing sugar or similar
the more significant conclusions based on compounds.
these data are as follows: 7. Based on the minimum strength
1. The time of setting of portland ratio of 85 per cent, the following waters
McCoY ON WATER FOR MIXING AND CURING 357
were found to be suitable for mixing effect on strength at early ages than at
concrete: later ages.
(a) Bog and marsh water. A. Kleinlogel (8) in his book, "In-
(b) Waters with a maximum concen- fluences on Concrete," claims that mixing
tration of 1 per cent S04. water should not contain humus, peat
(c) Sea water, but not for reinforced fiber, coal particles, sulfur, or industrial
concrete. wastes containing fat or acid. The U.S.
(d) Alkali water containing 0.15 per Bureau of Reclamation (9) has a tur-
cent Na2SO4 and 0.15 per cent bidity limit of 1000 to 2000 ppm for
NaCI. suspended solids.
(e) Pumpage water from coal and
gypsum mines. Use of Sea Water in Mixing Concrete:
(f) Waste water from slaughterhouses, In addition to the supporting reference
breweries, gas plants, paint previously mentioned in Abrams' paper
and soap factories. (4), the above article (7) also states that
Many of the specifications for water sea water with a maximum concentration
for mixing concrete, especially those that of salts of the order of 3.5 per cent does
require that it be potable, would have not appreciably reduce the strength of
excluded nearly all of the above waters, concrete, although it may lead to cor-
but contrary to this rather general rosion of reinforcement.
opinion, the test data show that many of Recently an article by M. Liebs ap-
the polluted types of water did not result peared in the German publication Bau-
in any appreciable detrimental effect to technik (lO) in which the results of com-
the concrete. The important question is parative 7-, 28-, and 90-day compressive
not whether impurities are present, but strength tests of concrete mixed with
do the impurities occur in injurious fresh water and with sea water showed
quantities? If the p H of the water is that the sea water concrete had about
between 6.0 and 8.0 and if the water is 6 to 8 per cent lower strengths than those
free from organic matter, it m a y be of the fresh water concrete; no efflores-
regarded as safe for use in mixing con- cence was observed. The Portland Cement
crete (5). A possible exception to this is Association (11) claims that sea water
the case where sodium sulfates or other gives compressive strengths 10 to 20 per
neutral salts are present in excessive cent lower than fresh water.
amounts. Homer Hadley (12) points out that sea
A "Concrete Manual" (5) published in water was used in the concrete mix for
Denmark in 1944 points out that humic the foundation of the lighthouse, built
acid and other organic acids should be by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers in
avoided because their presence means a 1910, at the extremity of the Los An-
danger to the stability of concrete. geles breakwater, and that 25 yr later it
An article appearing in a 1947 issue of was examined and found to be in good
the British publication "Concrete and condition, with sharp edged corners and
Constructional Engineering" (7) dis- no disintegration. There are several
cusses the harmful effects of using acid references in the literature which indi-
waters in concrete and claims that the cate that salt water has been used in
harmful effects of organic acid are not mixing plain concrete without incurring
evident as soon as those of mineral adds, trouble at later periods. Much of the
while deleterious salts have a greater concrete in the Florida East Coast Rail-
358 TESTS A N D PROPERTIES OF C O N C R E T E AND A G G R E G A T E S
way was mixed with sea water, with no CURING WATER

detrimental effect due to its use (13).
Most engineers are of the opinion that There are two primary considerations
sea water should not be used for mixing with regard to the suitability of water for
reinforced concrete; however, John G. curing concrete. One is the possibility
Dempsey (14) in a recent article, which that it might contain impurities that
describes construction of military bases would cause staining, and the other is
in Bermuda using coral aggregate, con- that it might contain aggressive impuri-
cludes that sea water seems to be satis- ties that would be capable of attacking
factory for making reinforced concrete, or causing deterioration of the concrete.
that it develops no problem beyond an The latter possibility is unlikely, espe-
acceleration in stiffening of the mix, and cially if water satisfactory for use in mix-
that no observable harmful effect on the ing concrete is employed. In some in-
durability of reinforced concrete has oc- stances the staining or discoloration of
curred at the end of 4 yr. the surface of concrete from curing water
would not be objectionable. The most
TABLE I.--EFFECT OF ALGAE WATER common cause of staining, in this regard,
ON AIR CONTENT AND STRENGTH. is due to relatively high concentrations of
Algae in Mix Air in 28-Day iron or organic matter in the water; rela-
Mix Water, Concrete, Strength, tively low concentrations of these im-
per cent per cent psi
purities, however, may cause staining,
N o . 10 . . . . . . . None 2 . 2 4 8 3 0 especially if the concrete is subjected to
(control) prolonged wetting by runoff of curing
No..8 ....... 0.03 2.6 4840
No. 7 ....... 0.09 6.0 4 0 4 0 water from other portions of the struc-
No. 5 ....... 0.15 7.9 3320 ture (S).
No. 9 ....... 0.23 10.6 2470 Test data, included in an unpublished
Waterways Experiment Station Mis-
E~:ect of Algae Water on Air Content and cellaneous Paper by the U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers (16), show that there
Strength:
is no consistent relation between dis-
A rather extensive series of laboratory solved iron content and degree of
tests reported by B. C. Doell (15) has staining. In some cases 0.08 ppm of iron
shown that the use of water containing resulted in only a slight discoloration,
a]gae had the unusual effect on concrete and, in other cases, waters with 0.06 ppm
mixes of entraining considerable quanti- of iron gave a moderate rust colored
ties of air with an accompanying decrease stain, while 0.04 ppm produced consid-
in strength. Table I is a tabulation of erable brownish black stain. Generally
data extracted from Doell's paper for speaking, the conditions of these tests
l-in. maximum size aggregate concrete were such as to accentuate the staining
with a water-cement ratio of 0.5, a slump properties of the water, since consider-
of 1.5 to 3 in., and a constant ratio of ably more water is evaporated over a
coarse to fine aggregate. unit area than would be the case in most
Aside from the detrimental effect on instances in the field.
strength, one of the important aspects of With respect to organic impurities in
these data is that considerable quantities water, it is virtually impossible to deter-
of air can be entrained in concrete by the mine from a chemical analysis if the
use of mixing water containing algae. water would cause objectionable staining
M c C o Y ON WATER :FOR MIXING AND CURING 359
when used for curing concrete. It is occuring water suitable for drinking pur-
advisable to use a test procedure of the poses can be used as mixing water for
performance type, an example of which concrete, and that most naturally oc-
is Test Method CRD-C 401-54 of the curing waters ordinarily used for indus-
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (17). This trial purposes are satisfactory. Many
method of test outlines three procedures waters which upon casual examination
for evaluating the staining properties of would be judged to be unsuitable because
water proposed for use in curing con- of color, odor, or contamination with
crete. The Preliminary Method is in- impurities (as in the case of marsh water,
tended for use in selecting sources that alkaline sulfate waters, and water con-
are worthy of more complete investiga- taining industrial wastes), would be
tion and consists of evaporating 300 ml found to be satisfactory when tested in
of the test water in the concave area mortar or concrete since, in many in-
formed by the impression of a 4-in. watch stances, the strength would be greater
glass in the surface of a neat white ce- than 85 to 90 per cent of the strength of
ment or plaster of Paris specimen. The comparative specimens made with pure
Complete Method can be used to evalu- waters. In the case of sea water, a
ate those sources that the Preliminary strength reduction ranging from 8 to 15
Method indicates to be promising. In per cent can be expected depending on
the Complete Method, 50 gal of test job conditions; it is not generally recom-
water flows lengthwise over a 6 by 6 by mended, however, for use in reinforced
30-in. concrete beam that contains a concrete.
wide, shallow channel, is placed at a
position of 15 to 20 deg from vertical Curing Water:
and exposed to heat lamps and forced It is improbable that a water used for
circulation of air. The rate of flow, which curing would attack concrete if it were
approximates 5 gal every 12 to 16 hr, is of the type suitable for use as mixing
adjusted to keep the channel surface of water. Organic matter or iron in the
the beam wet with a minimum runoff. curing water can cause staining or dis-
The Field Method is intended as a means coloration of concrete, but this is rather
of evaluating the water finally selected uncommon, especially where a relatively
for use and involves the curing of a 20-sq small volume of water is used; the sug-
f f slab of concrete with the test water gested performance tests (18), however,
under maximum exposure to the sun and will determine if a water possesses any
with the test slab placed at a slight angle potential staining qualities.
to keep it in a wet condition with a mini-
mum runoff. The test results using each Acknowledgment:
of these three methods are evaluated by
visual observation. The author wishes to express his ap-
preciation to Mr. Herbert K. Cook,
SUMMARY formerly Chief, Concrete Division, Wa-
terways Experiment Station, U. S. Army
Mixing Water: Corps of Engineers and his staff for
The significance of the foregoing in- bibliographic and abstracted information
formation indicates that any naturally on this subject.
REFERENCES
(1) Miles N. Clair, "Effect of Sugar on Con- (10) W. Liebs, "The Change of Strength of
crete in Large Scale Trial," Engineering Concrete by Using Sea Water for Mixing
News-Record, March, 1929, p. 473. and Making Additions to Concrete,"
(2) "Method of Test for Compressive Strength Bautechnik, pp. 315-16 (1949).
of Mortar for Use in Evaluating Water for (I1) "Design and Control of Concrete Mix-
Mixing Concrete," CRD-C 406-54, Hand- tures", published by the Portland Cement
book for Concrete and Cement, U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers (1954). Assn., 10th Ed., p. 10 (1952).
(3) E. E. Bauer, "Plain Concrete," 3rd Ed., (12) Homer Hadley, "Letter to Editor," En-
p. 82 (1949). gineering News-Record, May, 1935, pp.
(4) D. A. Abrams, "Tests of Impure Waters 716-17.
for Mixing Concrete," Proceedings, Am. (13) "Job Problems and Practice," Journal,
Concrete Inst., Vol. 20, pp. 442-486 (1924). Am. Concrete Inst., January, 1940; Pro-
(5) Requirements for Water for Use in Mixing ceedings, Vol. 36, pp. 313-314.
or Curing Concrete, CRD-C 400-54, Hand- (14) John G. Dempsey, "Coral and Salt Water
book for Concrete and Cement, U. S. Army as Concrete Materials," Journal, Am.
Corps of Engineers, p. 1 (1954). Concrete Inst., October, 1951; Proceedings,
(6) N. M. Plum, Christiani, and Nielsen, Vol. 48, p. 157.
"Concrete Manual," Bulletin No. 39, (15) B. C. Doell, "Effect of Algae Infested
Copenhagen, Denmark (1944). Water on the Strength of Concrete," Dept.
(7) "Water for Making Concrete," Journal, of Agriculture, Regina, Sask., Canada;
Am. Concrete Inst., January, 1948; Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 44, pp. 414-416 (1948); re- Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., December,
printed from an editorial, "Water for Mak- 1954; Proceedings, Vol. 51, p. 333.
ing Concrete," Concrete and Constructional 16) "Water for Use in Mixing or Curing Con-
Engineering (London), Vol. 42, No. 10, p. crete," WES Miscellaneous Paper, U. S.
25 (1947). Army Corps of Engineers, Unpublished
(8) A. Kleinlogel, "Influences on Concrete," (1953).
Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New (17) "Method of Test for the Staining Proper-
York, N. Y., p. 158 (1950). ties of Water," CRD-C 401-54, Handbook
(9) "Concrete Manual," U. S. Department of for Concrete and Cement, U. S. Army Corps
Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, p. 70 of Engineers (1954 Supplement to 1949
(1951). handbook).
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Other Materials
CURING MATERIALS
BY JOHN H. SWANBERG1
The environment of concrete during construction, there was a lack of in-

its early age, particularly with reference formation as to what constituted saris-
to moisture content and temperature, is factory and adequate curing. The ma-
an important factor with respect to its terial usually used in the early days of
future strength and durability. Even the concrete paving was earth kept wet for
use of the best materials in correct pro- a period of several days. However, with
portions and with good workmanship the expanding paving program and in-
will not assure high-quality concrete if it creasing rates of production, this became
is allowed to dry out at an early age or an expensive and uneconomical method
if it is permitted to freeze before it has of curing. A number of states and the
satisfactorily hardened. An additional Bureau of Public Roads became in-
factor, also influenced by curing con- terested in possible alternate methods
ditions, is that of cracking of the con- and in their evaluation, and a number of
crete. Teller and Bosley (I)2 have stated: field and laboratory investigations were
"Shrinkage in concrete pavement slabs initiated (1, 3, 4). The Highway Research
during and after the initial hardening Board formed a committee to study
period, either from loss of moisture, drop the problem (5, 6, 7).
in temperature, or both, acting in con- Much interesting and valuable in-
junction with the subgrade resistance, formation was obtained in these studies,
sets up tensile stresses which cause and it was amply substantiated that
cracks to form in the concrete." curing is an essential factor in the
Curing has been defined as "the preparation of quality concrete.
process of maintaining a satisfactory
moisture content and a favorable tem- CONTROL OF TEMPERATIYRE
perature in concrete during the period The hardening of concrete is seriously
immediately following placement so retarded as temperatures approach the
that hydration of the cement may con- freezing point of water. If frozen before
tinue until the desired properties are adequately hardened, serious permanent
developed to a sufficient degree to meet damage can occur to the concrete. Be-
the requirements of service" (2). low 40 F the hydration process is greatly
Although it was early recognized that retarded, and at about freezing tempera-
curing was an essential phase of concrete tures it is extremely unreliable. When
1 Engineer of Materials and Research, De- concreting is done under such conditions,
partment of Highways, State of Minnesota, extra precautions must be taken, such
St. Paul, Minn. as heating the mixing water or the
to the list of references appended to this paper, aggregates, or both, and providing ade-
see p. 364. quate protection in the form of insulating
361
www.astm.org
362 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O~" CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
materials such as straw or hay. ~ Calcium of the concrete is associated with the hy-
chloride in flake or solution form may dration of the cement in the mixture, and
be added to the mix to accelerate the it is necessary that there be sufficient
hardening so that the length of time for moisture in the concrete for continuing
which insulating materials are required hydration. The amount of water re-
can be substantially reduced. quired for satisfactory mixing and place-
In addition to the protection of con- ment is more than sufficient to accom-
crete against low temperatures, also of plish the hydration (I2). Insofar as
importance during its early age is pro- moisture is concerned, adequate curing
tection against high temperatures, es- can be accomplished by the retention
pecially those accompanied by drying in the concrete of the original mixing
winds. High temperatures and drying water or by the replacement of any
winds may cause high shrinkage, which early losses from the concrete by such
during the time of low strength may means as sprinkling.
result in a serious amount of cracking. The methods used to assure a plentiful
Conditions conducive to such cracking supply of moisture for hydration may
can be counteracted by the use of ade- be divided into two general groups: (a)
quate curing methods, using materials those which compensate for or minimize
that will minimize rapid changes in the loss of the water from the concrete
temperature. by introducing a source of water to offset
In the construction of massive struc- evaporation and (b) those which prevent
tures, the heat of hydration may be a or substantially reduce the loss by the
serious factor, and steps must be taken use of an impermeable membrane.
for its proper control. For relatively thin In the first group are included ponding,
sections this is not a problem, since the sprinkling, spraying, and the keeping
heat which is generated in the hydration wet of such materials as earth, straw,
process is rapidly dissipated. hay, sawdust, burlap, and cotton mats.
The effect of substantial temperature In the second are included such materials
deviations from those prevailing under as waterproof paper, clear and pig-
normal operating conditions has been mented membrane materials, and bi-
confirmed by both field and laboratory tuminous products such as asphalt
investigations. When adverse tempera- emulsion and cutbacks. In addition to
tures for concrete placement and curing the above, calcium chloride has been
are anticipated or encountered, steps applied to the surface or used integrally.
such as referred to above must be taken There are three general procedures
to provide adequate safeguards against employed for the control of moisture in
temperatures that are too high or too concrete pavement or sidewalk. In one
low for satisfactory curing. procedure saturated burlap or cotton
mats are applied as soon as practicable
CONTROL OF M O I S T U R E after placement of the concrete. These
The importance of moisture in con- mats are kept continuously wet during
crete has been definitely established by a the curing period. In another, water-
number of investigators. The hardening proof paper or an impermeable mem-
brane is placed as soon as possible. In
For addition information on this subject,
reference m a y be m a d e to the reports of Com- some cases there is employed a combina-
mittee 604 of the American Concrete I n s t . - - tion of these two which involves the use
I~eeommended Practice for Winter Concreting
Methods, Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Septem-
of a preliminary curing period in which
ber, 1948, Proceedings, Vol 45, p. 1. water is applied to burlap or cotton mats,
SWANBERG ON CURING MATERIALS 363
usually for 24 hr, after which the mats developing a standard laboratory test
are removed and followed by water- procedure for use in specifications." The
proof paper, wet earth, straw or hay, results are reported in terms of relative
membrane-forming compounds, or cal- efficiency based on water loss and
cium chloride. strength. It would appear logical to
For vertical surfaces the more com- assume that the efficiency of any curing
monly employed methods consist of material or method could be evaluated
wet burlap or liquid membrane-forming in terms of its ability to retain moisture
compounds. in the concrete, and present test pro-
cedures are based on that premise. Bert
:EVALUATION OF CURING PROCEDURES Myers (9) concluded on the basis of
AND MATERIALS thirteen years of experience in curing
As has been previously noted, the concrete pavements that "the effect of a
effectiveness of various curing methods curing method upon strength may be
has been studied from time to time by predicted from laboratory tests for pre-
means of experimental installations. vention of moisture loss." In the 1929
Interesting and valuable information has report of the Highway Research Board
been obtained through such field studies. Project Committee on Curing of Con-
It would appear at first thought that crete Pavement Slabs (5) which was
such field installations would be a logi- reiterated in the 1932 report of the same
cal procedure to study the relative committee (6), it was stated: "There is
efficiency of different curing methods evidence to indicate that the amount of
and materials. However, there are cer- mixing water retained in the concrete
tain variables that cannot be controlled during the curing period is an important
and which may seriously affect the re- index to the effectiveness of the various
sults, causing the data obtained to be of curing methods."
doubtful accuracy and value. Jackson TEST METHODS USED AND
and Kellermann (8) have stated: "It is T m ~ m SIGNIFICANCE
believed that such comparisons should be
made only in the laboratory under Based on the premise that the effi-
closely controlled temperature and hu- ciency of a curing material can be de-
midity conditions, using a test procedure termined by its abilityto retain moisture
that will permit direct comparisons of in the concrete, a procedure for de-
the efficiency of different curing ma- termining such efficiency has been
terials. Having determined, by means of published as a tentative method of the
a series of tests of this type, the degree Society under the title: Tentative
of compliance that may reasonably be Method of Test for "Water Retention
expected, suitable requirements could Efficiency of Liquid Membrane-Form-
be written into standard specifications ing Compounds and Impermeable Sheet
and the test procedure used as a standard Materials for Curing Concrete (C 156). 4
routine laboratory method of evaluating This method measures under controlled
the various materials and processes laboratory conditions of temperature
offered for use." In the study by Jackson and humidity the loss of moisture from
and Kellermann (8) are reported tests a concrete specimen when treated or
"made with the twofold purpose of ob- covered by the material under test. It
taining comparative data on the effec- would appear that, if the test is carefully
tiveness of various curing materials and made in accordance with the method, a
methods now in common use and of 4 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
364 TESTS AND PROPERTIES 0F CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
reasonably accurate measure can be ob- The Society also has recently pub-
tained of the material in question. lished Tentative Specification for Liquid
As of the present writing the Society Membrane-Forming Compounds for
has Standard Specifications for Water- Curing Concrete (C 309). 4 This specifi-
proof Paper for Curing Concrete (C 171) 4 cation provides for four types of com-
and Standard Specifications for Calcium pound, clear or translucent, white pig-
Chloride (D 98).4 In the specification for mented, gray pigmented, and black. In
waterproof paper, the construction of addition to such general requirements as
the paper is described and it is specified character of film, consistency, and stor-
that it be light in color, the latter re- age stability, it provides for a reflectance
quirement being designed to reduce the test on pigmented materials after 3 days'
temperature effects to a minimum. I t is exposure to sunlight, Method of Test
further required that the paper be for Daylight 45-deg, 0-deg Luminous
sufficiently strong to permit its saris- Directional Reflectance of Paint Fin-
factory use in highway and structural ishes (D 771). 6 The reflectance test is
work. Method of Test for Tensile Break- designed to give an indication of heat
ing Strength of Paper and Paper Prod- reflectance as well as to eliminate in-
ucts (D 828) 5 is included as a require- gredients in the compound that darken
ment to assure adequate strength during or yellow after exposure to sunlight.
handling, as well as the test for water Specification C 309 includes a require-
retention efficiency. The significance of ment for moisture retention, permitting
these requirements is, of course, obvious. a loss of water not to exceed 0.055 g
The specifications for calcium chloride per sq cm as measured b y Method of
cover, in the main, requirements only Test C 156. Experience has indicated that
for gradation and chemical composition, membrane-forming compounds showing
experience indicating that calcium chlo- losses less than the above limit will per-
ride of such gradation and composition form satisfactorily insofar as moisture re-
has given satisfactory results in the past. tention is concerned.
s 1955 Book of ASTM Standards~ Part 7. s '1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 4.
REFERENCES
(1) L. W. Teller and H. L. Bosley, "The Ar- Ninth Annual Meeting, Highway Re-
lington Curing Experiments," Public search Board, Vol. 9, p. 369 (1929).
Roads, Vol. 10, No. 12, February, 1930, p. (6) F. C. Lang, "Intermittent Curing of Con-
214. crete," Proceedings, Twelfth Annum Meet-
(2) "Curing of Concrete Pavements," Current ing Highway Research Board, Vol. 12,
Road Problems, No. l-R, Highway Re- p. 331 (1932).
search Board, October, 1952, p. 5. (7) Report of Committee on Curing of Con-
(3) F. H. Jackson and E. W. Bauman, "A crete Pavement Slabs, Part II, Proceedings,
Study of Methods of Curing Concrete Thirteenth Annual Meeting, Highway Re-
Pavements," Public Roads, Vol. 11, No. 11, search Board, Vol. 13, p. 7 (1933).
January, 1931, p. 209. (8) F. H. Jackson and W. F. Kellermann,
(4) F. H. ~[acksonand George Werner, "Field "Tests of Concrete Curing Materials,"
Experiments in the Curing of Concrete Public Roads, Vol. 20, No. 4, June, 1939,
Pavements," Public Roads, Vol. 9, No. 7, p. 67.
September, 1928, p. 139. (9) Bert Myers, "Experiments in Curing Con-
(5) F. C. Lang and Fred Bnrggraf, "Progress crete Pavements," Proceedings, Highway
Report, Special Investigation on Curing Research Board, Vol. 19, p. 295 (1939).
of Concrete Pavement Slabs," Proceedings, (10) Leonard Pepper and Clara F. Derrington,
SWANBERG ON CI_rRI1,;GMATERIALS 365
"Tests of Membrane-Forming Compounds (12) T. C. Powers, "A Discussion of Cement

for Curing Concrete," Technical Memo- Hydration in Relation to the Curing of
randum No. 6-385, Waterways Experiment Concrete," Proceedings, Highway Re-
Station, Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, search Board, Vol. 27, p. 178 (1947).
Miss. (1954). (13) G. E. Burnett and M. R. Spindler, "Ef-
(11) Donald C. McNeese, "Early Freezing of fect of Time of Application of Sealing
Non-Mr-Entraining Concrete," Journal, Compound on the Quality of Concrete,"
Am. Concrete Inst. December, t952; Pro- Journal, Am. Concrete Inst. November,
ceedings, Vol. 49, p. 293. 1952; Proceedings, Vol. 49, p. 193.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Other Materials
AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES
BY C. E. WIJERPEL~
SYNOPSIS
This paper comprises a brief review of the role of air-entraining ad-
mixtures on the purposeful entrainment of air in concrete and mortars; the
optimum air content and factors which influence its development; tests
made to determine the presence of entrained air in plastic concrete; and
the significance of the standard laboratory tests made to evaluate air-
entraining admixtures.
The most significant factors related to I t will be helpful if the usage of certain
the use of air-entraining admixtures in terms, common in discussion of air entrain-
mortar or concrete are the form and dis- ment in mortars and cement, are defined at
tribution of the air so entrained. To de- this point. They are:
Air Entrainment.--The phenomenon that
velop fully the desirable effects on the
occurs as a result of the intermixing of air-
initial plasticity and the ultimate dura- entraining material in mortar or concrete.
bility of the mixtures, the entrained air Entrained Air.--The air which becomes
must be distributed throughout the matrix part of a mixture as a result of the phenom-
(cement-water paste component) of the enon of air entrainment.
m o r t a r or concrete so that all portions are Air Void or Air Bubble.--Any perceptible
affected b y its presence. The work of space in the mixture that at the time of ob-
Powers ($,24, 30) 2 is outstanding in con- servation is not filled with a solid or a liquid.
tributing to the knowledge of air en- Entrained-Air Voids.--Air voids resulting
from air entrainment. Such voids are prone
trainment and especially in the develop-
to be essentially spherical in shape and of a
m e n t of the theory that led to K M g e r ' s
size range similar to fine sand.
"bubble spacing factor" of 0.01 in. This Natural Voids.--Air voids not resulting
was defined b y Klieger (33) as "a measure from air entrainment. Such voids are prone
of the average maximum distance from a to be larger than "entrained-air voids" and
point in the cement paste to the nearest of a size range similar to small gravel.
air void, this being an indication of the Air-Entrained Concrete.--Concrete or
distance water would have to travel, mortar in which air is entrained.
during the freezing process, to reach a Air-Entraining A gent.--A substance
protective air void." which causes air entrainment when included
in a mixture; a term that should be used only
1 Technical Director, Marquette Cement when it is intended to refer to substances
Manufacturing Company, Chicago, Ill. that can be used both as air-entrainlng addi-
to the bibliography appended to this paper, see tions and admixtures.
p, 372. Air-Entraining Addition.--Air-entraining
366
WUERPEL oN AIR-ENTRAININC ADMIXTURES 367
material interground with, or to be inter- effect. Also, a major portion of field and
ground with, hydraulic cement (see ASTM laboratory concrete, in which purposefully
Definition C 219). 3 entrained air was used initially, was of
Air-Entraining Admixture.--Air-entrain- the paving type, containing coarse aggre-
ing material added to a concrete or mortar gate of about 189 maximum size. Ac-
mixture at the time it is batched for mixing
cordingly, the widely used specification
(see ASTM Definition C 125). 4
that concrete should contain 4.5 4- 1.5
Since air, per se, can contribute no de- per cent air was based upon the premise
sirable structural attribute and a void that the concrete would contain coarse
can possess no strength nor contribute aggregate of about 1}-in. maximum size,
resistance to stress, it is essential that and about 1.5 per cent of the total air in
the entrained air exist in the form of very the mix would consist of relatively ineffec-
small bubbles, so that a minimum of air tive natural voids. I n most instances, the
volume m a y present a maximum of approximately 3 per cent entrained air
boundary surface. Therefore, a suitable in such concrete will be present in bubble
air-entraining admixture for a n y partic- sizes that satisfy the later demonstrated
ular mortar or concrete must be one that demand for a bubble spacing factor of
will produce very rapidly (during the about 0.01 in., with a sufficient safety
relatively brief period during which the factor to allow for normal maldistribution
mortar or concrete is mixed) a system of or local segregation of the bubbles. Within
finely divided stable foam, the individual its recognized limitations, this manner of
bubbles of which resist coalescence, and specifying and controlling purposeful air
also one that exerts no deleterious chemi- entrainment serves well the purpose of
cal effect on the mortar or concrete. remarkably improving frost resistance
Since the virtues 5 of air entrainment and other qualities of mortar and concrete,
have come to be recognized, it has been without introducing important negative
the practice to specify and measure the effects.
entrained air in terms of its effect on the An outstanding example of a specifica-
unit volume of the plastic (unhardened) tion of the type discussed above in current
concrete. I t was recognized from early use is contained in the Corps of Engineers,
laboratory tests t h a t greatest resistance U. S. Army, "Guide Specifications for
to frost action occurred when the en- Concrete," CE 1401.01, October, 1953,
trained air amounted to about 3 per cent Section -08 e, "Entrained-Air Content,"
of the total volume, and that 1.0 to as which states:
much as 2.0 per cent of the total air usu-
"The total calculated air content of that
ally present was in the form of natural
portion of the concrete containing aggregate
voids 6 too large in size to exert beneficial
smaller than the 189 square mesh sieve
3 Definition of the Term Addition as Applied shall be between 4 and 7 per cent of the
to Hydraulic Cement (C 2t9), 1955 Book of volume of the concrete based on measure-
ASTM Standards, Part 3. ments made on concrete immediately after
4 Definition of Terms Relating to Concrete discharge from the mixer. The quantity of
and Concrete Aggregates (C 125), 1955 Book of
ASTM Standards, Part 3. air within this range shall be as directed and
5 The virtues are not within the scope of this shall be changed whenever such change is
paper; see appended bibliography, especially
references (4, 8, 25, and 31). marks," are essentially of no benefit to the
The action imparted to the mass during plastic or the hardened mixture because of their
mixing tends to entrap air in mortar and con- large size, but they do affect the unit volume of
crete as well as to entrain it. The relatively the mixture and are indistinguishable from en-
large natural voids of entrapped air, some of trained air by methods of measurement based
which appear on vertical surfaces as "pock- on volume.
368 TESTS AND PROPERTIES O f CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
determined necessary to meet the varying the field. However, the Corps of Engi-
conditions encountered during construc- neers spedfication cited (which is princi-
tion." pally for mass concrete) gives an implied
The above specification contains a range recognition of an important limitation--
in permissible air content somewhat higher the effect of the coarse-aggregate size.
than the 4.5 4- 1.5 per cent previously Since it is the cement-paste matrix
mentioned, in recognition of a tendency that is really affected (protected) by the
for some air to escape from the concrete entrained air, and since it is within this
T A B L E I . - - C I I A R A C T E R I S T I C S OF CONClZETES AT O P T I M U M ~ A I R C O N T E N T .
(After Klieger, Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1952, Tables 17 and 18.)
Cement Content: 4 bags Cement Content: 589 bags Cement Content: 7 bags
per cu yd per cu yd per cu yd
r
Max Size of g e ~ x ~
Aggregate r,.) 9 . rD~ "~. rD~
L~
~ .~ :~ ~ . ~ c~'~
o~"
09~o g, 2
~.~ <
~oa ~oa i
21.~ in... 4.5 8.8 18.5 0.012 6.3s 4.5 9.1 1 6 . 7 0 . 007 4.75' 4.5G 14.7 0.007 4.(
1 ~ in.. 4.5 8.3118.2 0.013 6.60 4.5 8.5116.41o.oos 4.75 4.5] 8.4 14.3 0.008 4.(
in.. 5.5 8.9119.8 0.013 7.55 5.0 8.3116.91o.oo9 5.25 5.51 9.2 16.8 0.007 4.~
ad in.. 8.5 11.1 26.2 0.009 8.50 6.5 8.7119.710.011 6.00 7.0L 9.~ 19 40.00~ 4.~
No. 4. 12.5 12.5 31.6 0.006 10.30 9.0 9 0123 010.01 7.55 lO.OtlO.C 2 3 . 4 0.008 5.~
Optimum determined from relation between expansion during 300 cycles of freezing and thawing
and air content of concrete.
b Calculated as follows:
A
Mortar air content, per cent = X 100
C+W+S+A
A
Paste air content, per cent X 100
C+W+A
where:
C = absolute volume of cement,
W = volume of net mixing water,
S = absolute volume of fine aggregate (street surface dry), and
A = volume of air.
c Calculated from linear traverse data using method outlined in Bulletin No. 33, Portland Cement
Assn.
during transportation and consolidation matrix that the bubble-spacing factor is

in place. so important, it follows that the optimum
Since wide acceptance of the theory air content of any mixture must vary in
that the controlling influence is the dis- proportion to the quantity of paste in
tribution of the air bubbles in the ce- the matrix. The paste content is highest
ment-paste matrix, such an indirect in rich sand-mortars and lowest in lean
attack on the problem of control as is mass-concrete mixtures containing large
exemplified by the above specification aggregate. If it ever becomes feasible to
can be justified only on the basis of prac- measure the air content of the cement-
tical expediency. So far, no better or paste component of plastic concrete, or,
comparable method of specification or even more importantly, the bubble-
control is available to the engineer in spacing factor of the air therein, it will
WUERPEL ON AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES 369
be a major step forward toward the atively uniform specific gravity are used.
fullest potential utilization of entrained However, errors m a y be introduced
air. Field experience and laboratory ex- where the specific gravities of the fine
periments indicate, however, that for all and coarse aggregate differ materially
practical purposes, optimum conditions or where either aggregate is itself com-
for bubble distribution will be produced posed of particles of materially differing
in the matrix of placed mortar or con- densities.
crete by the more prominently available The most widely used method is that
air-entraining admixtures when the described in ASTM Method C 2318 which
ranges of total air content are as listed in is a procedure for determining the air
Table I. content of freshly mixed concrete by
The total air contents of the mixtures application of pressure. Based on Boyle's
shown (Table I) vary through a wide law, that at a constant temperature, the
range, but the air content of the mortar volume of a given quantity of any gas
in the concrete mixtures is essentially varies inversely with the pressure to
constant at about 9.0 per cent; the re- which the gas is subjected, the method
ductions in total air being a result of a is generally adequate for use with all
progressive replacement of paste by ordinary types of mortar or concrete
aggregate. As the maximum size of coarse containing reasonably dense aggregate.
aggregate increases, less mortar and paste Large errors will be introduced where
are required. Therefore, change in total highly vesicular or porous aggregates are
air content with change in maximum used due to the impracticability of differ-
size of coarse aggregate is proper, and entiating between the air in the aggre-
apparent rather than real in terms of gate particles and the entrained air in
effectiveness in improving the concrete. the paste. There are a number of pressure
I t might be noted here that the use of meters on the market which, by this
finer sands common to masonry mortar method, produce satisfactory results with
leads to a normal air content of about concrete mixtures containing aggregate
14 per cent. up to about 2 in. in maximum size. When
Development of a method for measur- larger aggregate is used, the larger parti-
ing the air content, or better, the bubble cles may be removed and the effect of
spacing factor in the mortar component such a removal calculated in arriving at
of plastic concrete should be simpler the total air content (42). Passing samples
than and almost as effective as direct of freshly mixed concrete over a sieve
measurements on the paste itself. How- to exclude large particles may lead to
ever, no such method has been developed important errors resulting from loss of
within the author's knowledge---certainly air during the screening operation.
not to the point of being usable in field There are other methods of measuring
operations. air content, such as the volumetric
The gravimetric method described in method described in ASTM Method C
ASTM Method C 1387 is a simple test i73, 9 but these are infrequently used
to make. I t is based on the relation of (20).
actual to calculated air-free unit weight In addition to the coarse aggregate,
of the concrete and produces reasonably
accurate results when aggregates of tel- s Method of Test for Air Content of FreshIy
Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
7 Method of Test for Weight per Cubic Foot, (C 231), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Con- 9 Method of Test for Air Content (Volu-
crete (C 138), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, metric) of Freshly Mixed Concrete (C 173), 1955
Part 3. Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
the following also may affect the en- varies with the type and the condition
trainment of air in about the manner of the mixer (35). The amount of air
described: entrained by any given mixer will de-
Fine Aggregate.--Changes in grading crease appreciably as the blades become
of sand may alter the volume and nature worn. An inefficient mixing action may
of air in the mortar (17). Appreciable in- result in an apparently normal volume
crease in the quantity of very fine parti- of entrained air, but the bubbles may
cles of sand will decrease the amount of be large. An increase in entrained air
entrained air and may reduce the maxi- will occur if the mixer is loaded to less
mum and median size of the individual than rated capacity, and a decrease will
air bubbles (32). Appreciable increase in result from overloading the mixer. A
the quantity of the middle sizes of sand stationary mixer, a paving mixer, and a
witl tend to increase the air in the mortar. transit mixer may develop significant
Sands have been reported as containing differences in the volume of air entrained
organic matter difficult to remove by in a given concrete mixture. The air
ordinary measures which cause entrain- content will increase with increased time
ment of large quantities of air in con- of mixing up to about 2 rain in stationary
crete. Such sands are relatively rare, but or paving mixers (and to about 15 rain
they illustrate the importance of the in most transit mixers), after which the
distribution of the air as compared with air content may remain approximately
simple volume. Macnaughton suggests constant for a considerable period before
(44) this type of entrained air be termed it begins to drop off. The reduction in
"accidental air" and since "it may be air may result from an increase in very
unstable in nature and vary in size . . . fine particles in the mixture with pro-
[it] should not be confused w i t h . . . longed mixing action or simply from an
'entrained air'." increase in the ratio of air-escape to foam-
Cement.--As the cement content in- generation in the latter portion of the
creases, the air entraining potential of mixing period.
all admixture will tend to diminish, and Temperature.--Less air will be en-
an increase in the fineness of cement will trained at 100 F than at 70 F and more
result in a decrease of the air entrained will be entrained at 40 F. In other words,
in the mortar (34, 36, 38). Some regular everything else being equal, air entrain-
(non-air-entraining) cements naturally ment varies inversely with temperature
entrain more air than others, and these (36).
require Iess air-entraining admixture to Vibration.--Intensive internM vibra-
develop a given mortar air content. tion applied to concrete will cause air
Water.--Increase in water-cement ratio bubbles to rise to the surface and be
is likely to result in an increase of air in expelled. The larger natural voids are
the mortar. most readily expelled (39, 40, 41). Moder-
Consistency. --Within the normally ately small bubbles may tend to work
used range, increase in slump is accom- upward if the vibration is intense and
panied by an increase in air content in prolonged. There is increasing evidence,
concrete mixtures (34, 3s). Recent work however, that the critically important
by Klieger (43) indicates that this in- spacing of small entrained-air bubbles in
crease may be more apparent than real, the matrix is disturbed very little, even
and probably is not reflected by a change by intense vibration. If vibration is
in the mortar air content. applied as it should be, with just enough
Mixing.--The effect of the mixing intensity and duration to effect consolida-
action on the amount of air entrained tion, and if the mixture is designed
WUERPEL ON AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES 371
properly, important removal of entrained ratories of the Portland Cement Assn.

air will not occur. In some instances and elsewhere points toward advances in
externally applied vigorous vibration the comprehension of the mechanics of
may cause an increase in air content. air entrainment which should further
However, the added air is in the form of establish this major advance in the
relatively large natural voids. technology of concrete. For the time
Admixtures.--Solid, finely divided ad- being, however, evaluation must con-
mixtures, or cement replacements, such tinue for the most part along the indirect
as fly ash or bentonite, will reduce the lines of volume of air in the total mixture.
air content. The effect becomes marked ASTM Specifications C 260 l~ evaluates
with fly ash as the percentage of carbon the effects which any given admixture
increases. Calcium chloride can be used under test may exert on the bleeding,
successfully with air-entraining admix- compressive and flexural strength, re-
tures, but if added in direct contact with sistance to freezing and thawing, strength
certain common admixtures, a prompt of bond to steel, and the volume change
chemical reaction may occur between of a standard concrete mixture. The
the two, largely inhibiting air entrain- methods by which these effects may be
ment. On the other hand, some tests tested are given in ASTM Method C
have indicated that when the inhibiting 233.11 The criteria of Specifications C
reaction does not take place, the air 260 l~ are assumed to afford assurance
content may be increased about one per that if, under the particular conditions
cent. Therefore, especial care must be of the specified mixtures and conditions
taken when other admixtures are used in in Method C 233,11 the particular sample
conjunction with air entrainment. of the admixture under test exerts satis-
One of the most frequent and pronounced factory influence on certain properties
causes for variation in air content results of the laboratory concrete, it will be
from variation in the amount, type, or reasonable to expect that the quantity
condition of the air-entraining admixture of the air-entraining admixture repre-
itself. This last cause, as with many of sented by the sample will develop sat-
the other variations in concrete, is a func- isfactory entrainment of air in field
tion in turn of the alertness and adequacy concrete without deleterious effects.
of the control and inspection given the work. However, the scope of Method C 23311
Some of the variations in total air acknowledges that the
content, such as that occurring with
change in size of coarse aggregate, are " . . . tests are based on arbitrary stipula-
more apparent than real, indicating, tions permitting highly standardized testing
in the laboratory and are not intended to
actually, a desirably uniform entrain- simulate actual job conditions."
ment of air in the matrix. Any influence
which would maintain or even actually All of the elaborate testing required
improve the distribution of the bubbles by Specifications C 260 l~ reduces simply
within the matrix or increase the ratio to a very indirect method of deter-
of air-boundary surface to air volume mining whether: (1) the particular
would be of this type. It is certain that admixture under test will create a rela-
an improved surface-to-volume ratio tively stable foam which will become
would reduce considerably the total
10 Specifications for Air-Entraining Admix-
volume of air to be entrained compared tures for Concrete (C 260), 1955 Book of A S T M
with what is now considered normal for Standards, P a r t 3.
optimum results. n M e t h o d of Testing Air-Entraining Ad-
mixtures for Concrete (C 233), 1955 Book of
Work under way in the research labo- A S T M Standards, P a r t 3.
widely dispersed throughout the m a t r i x to produce, in a great preponderance of

of field m o r t a r or concrete so as to pro- cases, a b o u t the o p t i m u m bubble spacing
duce a bubble spacing factor of a b o u t in the matrix when the total air content
001 in.; and (2) the admixture contains shown in Table I is present in the field
nothing which will have a deleterious mixtures.
chemical effect on such mixtures. T h e T h e method of evaluation in Specifica-
m e t h o d appears to work, b u t a large tions C 2601~ is too elaborate for frequent
portion of its practical efficacy results or job use. Therefore, in the final analy-
from the moral responsibility of the ad- sis, the job performance of an air-en-
mixture producer coupled with the for- training admixture m u s t still be based on
t u n a t e phenomenon t h a t the simple the direct measurement of " t o t a l air
air-entraining admixtures available so content" and the other classic field cri-
economically in the United States a p p e a r t e r i a - s l u m p and strength.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) C. E. Wuerpel, "Field Use of Cement Con- Civil Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 11, Novem-
taining Vinsol Resin," Journal, Am. Con- ber, 1946, pp. 496-498.
crete Inst., September, 1945; Proceedings, (8) Symposium on Entrained Air in Concrete,
Vol. 42, pp. 49-82. See also Concrete Re- Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1946;
search, No. 84 Second Interim Report, Part Proceedings, Vol. 42, p. 601. Contains 15
II, Central Concrete Laboratory. papers.
(2) "Concrete Including Air-Entraining (9) E. W. Brickett and Henry L. Kennedy,
Agents," Technical Information Letter No. "The Application of Air-Entraining Agents
gl, National Ready-Mixed Concrete Assn., in Concrete and Products," Pit and Quarry,
Presented at an Open Forum, Washington, Vol. 38, No. 9, March, 1946, p. 144.
D. C., March, 1945. (10) Anon., "Air-Entraining Admixtures in
(3) C. E. Wuerpel, "Some Effects of Air-En- Public Roads Administration Specifica-
trainment and Coarse Aggregate Type on tion," Engineering News-Record, Vol. 137,
the Properties of Concrete," Nat. Crushed No. 20, November 14, 1946, p. 114.
Stone Assn., Washington, D. C. (1945). (11) Thomas B. Kennedy, "Air Entrainment
(4) C. E. Wuerpel, "Laboratory Studies of and Its Effect on the Design of Concrete
Concrete Containing Air-Entraining Mixtures," Air Entrainment in Concrete
Agents," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., Design, Bulletin No. 30, Waterways Ex-
February, 1946, Proeeedings~ Vol. 42, p. periment Station, November, 1947, pp.
305. Contains extensive bibliography up 1-18.
to 1945. (12) Bryant Mather, "The Testing of Aggre-
(5) T. C. Powers, "A Working Hypothesis for gates in Air-Entrained Concrete," Air En-
Further Studies of Frost Resistance of trainment in Concrete Design, Bulletin No.
Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., 30, Waterways Experiment Station, No-
February, 1945; Proceedings, Vol. 41, pp. vember, 1947, pp. 41-56.
245-272.Discussion by Ruth D. Terzaghi, (13) Thomas G. Taylor, "Effect of CarbOn
Douglas McHenry, H. W. Brewer, A. Black and Black Iron Oxide on the Air
Collins, and T. C. Powers, Journal, Am. Content and Durability of Concrete,"
Concrete Inst., November, 1945, Supple- Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., April, 1947;
ment; Proceedings, Vol. 41, pp. 272-1- Proceedings, Vol. 44, p. 613.
272-20; also Bulletin No. 5A, Portland (14) Paul Klieger, "Effect of Entrained Air on
Cement Assn. Concrete Made with So-Called 'Sand
(6) Victor S. Murray, "Air Entrainment by
Admixture Used at Concrete Mixer," Gravel' Aggregates," Journal, Am. Con-
Roads and Bridges, Vol. 83, No. 8, pp. 68- crete Inst., October, 1948; Proceedings,
69, 102, 104 (1945). Vol. 45, pp. 149-163.
(7) C. E. Wuerpel, "Addition of Air-Entraining (15) F. J. Mardulier, "Particle Size of Dispersed
Agent at Concrete Mixer Advocated," Carbon Black Affects Entrainment of Air
WUERPEL ON AIR-ENTRAINING ADNIIXTIIRES 373
in Concrete," Civil Engineering, Vol. 18, pp. 211-214, 222 (1950); ChemicalAbstracts,
No. 3, March, 1948, p. 43. Vol. 44, No. 6, March 25, 1950, p. 2725c.
(16) P. H. Petersen, "Properties of Some Light- (28) Frank H. Jackson and Albert G. Timms,
weight Aggregate Concretes with and "Evaluation of Air-Entraining Admixtures
Without Air-Entraining Admixtures," for Concrete," Public Roads, Vol. 27, No.
Building Materials and Structures Report 12, February, 1954, pp. 259-267.
No. 112, Nat. Bureau Standards, August (29) W. J. Halstead and Bernard Chaiken,
16, 1948, 7 pp. "Chemical Analysis and Sources of Air-
(17) E. W. Scripture, Jr., F. B. Hornbrook, and Entraining Admixtures for Concrete,"
D. E. Bryant, "Influence of Size Grading Public Roads, Vol. 27, No. 12, February,
of Sand on Air Entrainment," Journal, Am. 1954, pp. 268-278.
Concrete Inst., November, 1948; Proceed- (30) T. C. Powers, "Void Spacing as a Basis for
ings, Vol. 45, pp. 217-228. Producing Air-Entrained Concrete," Jour-
(18) George J. Verbeck, "The Camera Lucida nal, Am. Concrete Inst., May, 1954; Pro-
Method for Measuring Air Voids in Hard- ceedings, Vol. 50, pp. 741-760.
ened Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete (31) C. E. Wuerpel, "Purposeful Entrainment
Inst., May, 1947; Proceedings, Vol. 43, pp. of Air in Concrete," Privately printed
1025-1040.5. The first determinations of brochure distributed by Marquette Cement
size and distribution of the air bubbles. Manufacturing Co., Chicago, Ill.
(19) C. A. Menzel, "Development and Study of (32) Katharine Mather, "Crushed Limestone
Apparatus and Methods for the Deter- Aggregates for Concrete," Mining Engi-
mination of the Air Content of Fresh Con- neering, October, 1953, pp. 1022-1028;
crete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May Technical Publication No. 36164, Am. Inst.
1947; Proceedings, Vol. 43, pp. 1053-1072.5 Mining and Metallurgical Engrs.
(20) Symposium on Measurement of Entrained (33) Paul Klieger, "Effect of Entrained Air on
Air in Concrete, Proceedings, Am. Soc. Strength and Durability of Concrete Made
Testing Mats., Vol. 47, p. 832 (1947). Eight with Various Maximum Sizes of Aggre-
papers and discussion. gate," Proceedings, Highway Research
(21) Thomas G. Taylor, "Determination of the Board, Vol. 31, pp. 177-201 (1952); Bulle-
Air Content of Mortars by the Pressure tin No. 40, Research and Development
Method," ASTM BULLETIn,No. 155, De- Laboratory, Portland Cement Assn.
cember, 1948, p. 44 (TP252). (34) E. W. Scripture, Jr. and F. J. Litwinowicz,
(22) Bailey Tremper and W. L. Gooding, "Some Factors Affecting Air Entrain-
"Washington Method of Determining Air ment," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst.,
in Fresh Concrete," Proceedings, Highway February, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. 45, pp.
Research Board, Vol. 28, pp. 210-218 433-442. Data on effects on air entrainment
(1948). of variations in slump, cement factor, and
(23) R. F. Blanks and W. A. Cordon, "Prac- sand to total aggregate ratio of the con-
tices, Experiences, and Tests with Air- crete mixture.
Entraining Agents in Making Durable (35) E. W. Scripture, Jr. and F. J. Litwinowicz,
Concrete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., "Effects of Mixing Time, Size of Batch,
February, 1949; Proceedings, Vol. 45, pp. and Brand of Cement on Air Entrainment,"
469-488.4. Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., May, 1949;
(24) T. C. Powers, "The Air Requirement of Proceedings, Vol. 45, pp. 653-662.
Frost-Resistant Concrete," Proceedings, (36) E. W. Scripture, Jr., S. W. Benedict, and
Highway Research Board, Vol. 29, pp. F. J. Litwinowicz, "Effect of Temperature
184-211 (1949). and Surface Area of the Cement on Air
(25) William Lerch, "Basic Principles of Air- Entrainment," Journal, Am. Concrete
Entrained Concrete," Research Labora- Inst., November, 1951; Proceedings, Vol.
tories of the Portland Cement Assn. (1950). 48, pp. 205-210.
Contains extensive bibliography to 1950. (37) E. W. Scripture, Jr., S. W. Benedict, and
F. J. Litwinowicz, "Air Entrainment and
(26) L. S. Brown and C. U. Pierson, "Linear Resistaace to Freezing and Thawing,"
Traverse Technique for Measurement of Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., December,
Air in Hardened Concrete," Journal, Am. 1951; Proceedings, Vol. 48, pp. 297--308.
Concrete Inst., October, 1950; Proceedings, (38) P. J. F. Wright, "Entrained Air in Con-
Vol. 47, pp. 117-124. crete," Proceedings, Inst. Civil Engrs.
(27) j'. A. Nicholson, "Add Air-Entraining (London), Vol. 2, Part 1, May, 1953, pp.
Agents at Mixer," Rock Products, Vol. 53, 337-358.
(39) Elmo C. Higginson, "Some Effects of ment Station (1952). See also "Investiga-
Vibration and Handling on Concrete Con- tion of Field Methods for Determilfing Air
taining Entrained Air," Journal, Am. Con- Content of Mass Concrete," Technical
crete Inst., September, 1952; _Proceedings, Memo No. 6-352, Waterways Experiment
Vol. 49, pp. 1-12. Station, November, 1952.
(40) Walter O. Crawley, "Effect of Vibration on (43) Paul Klieger, "Further Studies on the Ef-
Air Content of Mass Concrete," Journal, fect of Entrained Mr on the Strength and
Am. Concrete Inst., June, 1953; Proceed- Durability of Concrete Made With Various
ings, Vol. 49, pp. 909-920. Discussion by Maximum Sizes of Aggregates," To be
C. E. Wuerpel, pp. 920-1-920-2. published in Proceedings, Highway Re-
(41) Lewis H. Tuthill, "Vibration of Mass Con- search Board, Vol. 34 (1955). Also to be
crete," Journal, Am. Concrete Inst., June, published as a Bulletin of the Portland
1953; Proceedings, Vol. 49, pp. 921-931. Cement Assn.
(Especially p. 929 for "Effect on Air En- (44) M. F. Macnaughton and John B. Herbich,
trainment.") " 'Accidental' Air in Concrete," Journal,
(42) "Handbook for Concrete and Cement," Am. Concrete Inst., November, 1954; Pro-
Method CRD-C 41-52, Waterways Experi- ceedings, Vol. 51, pp. 273-284.
STP169-EB/Jan. 1956
Other Materials
MINERAL ADMIXTURES
BY H. S. MEISSNER~
SYNOPSIS
Frequently powdered mineral admixtures can be used in concrete with ad-

vantage. They may improve the physical texture of the fresh concrete, im-
parting to it extra workability; alleviate bleeding; and, when possessing
pozzolanic properties or hydraulic properties, add to its final strength. How-
ever, the advent of air-entrainment, with its marked effect on the workability
of concrete, has in great measure displaced mineral admixtures as a means for
improving concrete mixes. The contribution of admixtures to concrete quality
is more noticeable in lean mixes than in rich ones and is most marked in mixes
which are deficient in fines. Those admixtures possessing pozzolanic properties
offer the greatest advantage to mass concrete, lowering the heat of hydration
and permitting the use of otherwise difficult but desirable lean mixes. Many
mineral admixtures have also been shown to inhibit the alkali-aggregate
reaction.
Admixtures are generally used to Admixtures are defined, under ASTM

modify the properties of concrete so that Definition C 125, 2 as substances other
it will be more suitable for particular than cement, aggregate, and water that
work. This may involve alteration of the are used as ingredients for concrete. The
characteristics of fresh concrete or of its accepted definition restricts the term to
properties after it has hardened. Among those materials added to the batch im-
the effects often sought with admixtures mediately before or during mixing. Ma-
are: reduction in bleeding, increased terials included in the classification are
workability, acceleration or retardation organic compounds such as triethanol-
of hardening, strength development, re- amine, sulfonated lignins, oils, fats,
duction in heat of hydration, added re- resins, and carbohydrates; inorganic com-
sistance to freezing and thawing, in- pounds such as calcium chloride, borax,
creased impermeability, increased sodium carbonate, and sodium silicate;
strength at later ages, and correction of and finely divided mineral powders. It is
expansive reaction between aggregat~ with the latter category of admixtures
and alkalies of cement. Of these, the in- only that this paper is concerned.
fluence which admixtures exert on the The term mineral admixture includes
workability and bleeding of concrete cementitious materials such as natural
has offered the greatest inducements to cement, hydrated lime, hydraulic lime,
their use. blast-furnace slag; pozzolanic materials,
1Formerly Research Engineer, United States Definition of Terms Relating to Concrete
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo.--De- and Concrete Aggregates (C 125), 1955 Book
ceased. of ASTM Standards, Part 3.
375
376 T E S T S AND P R O P E R T I E S OF C O N C R E T E AND A G G R E G A T E S
such as fly ash, bentonite, diatomaceous addition of a small amount of admixture.

earth, and inert materials such as pul- Admixtures have been a simple palliative
verized talc or stone. For the purposes of for these troubles, many of which, how-
this paper, powdered aluminum, whose ever, could have been corrected by some
major function in concrete is the pro- adjustments in the mix.
duction of minute gas bubbles, is not Diatomaceous earth is an extremely
discussed; nor are the soluble minerals fine powder with a large surface area that
which act as chemical accelerants or acts as a sponge. It takes five times as
retardants upon the normal hydration of much water as is needed in portland ce-
portland cement. The class of admixtures ment to form a paste of normal con-
to be considered comprises that group of sistency. A small amount added to a
finely divided powders which, with water, portland-cement paste therefore alters
will form pastes and, therefore, supple- the properties of that paste materially.
ment the portland-cement paste in con-
crete. As indicated above, they may be Role of Paste in Providing Workability:
TABLE I.--RELATIVE VOLUMES OF
The workability of concrete is de-
PASTE AND MORTAR PRODUCED WITH pendent upon the quality and quantity
EQUAL WEIGHTS OF ADMIXTURE. of the paste which separates and lubri-
( F r o m p a p e r b y G. M . W i l l i a m s (1)) cates the aggregate particles. Generally,
Relative "elative an increase in the volume of the paste
Amount r Relative
Admixture of Mix *f Paste Increase contributes to workability, unless the
)ergl00 in Mortar
Water
Required Volume paste is greatly stiffened. Addition of any
powdered fine material to a mix will in-
(Mortar) ........ crease the quantity of paste and also
Cement ......... "1".0 1".O0 1.0 change its consistency. The change in
Powder 2 ........ 3.2 1.95 1.1
Powder 3 ........ 3.3 1.95 1.1 consistency of the paste may or may not
Tripoli .......... 2.4 1.62 1.3 benefit workability. If, as is usual in
Hydrated lime .... 3.4 2.00 1.5 these circumstances, water is also added
Diatolnite ........ 13.0 5.70 4.1
to the mix along with the additional
powdered material, the resulting increase
inert, have hydraulic properties of their in paste volume will invariably improve
own, or may combine slowly with the workability; the degree to which it is
products of portland-cement hydration benefited will depend upon the charac-
to form new cementitious material. In the teristics of the added fines.
latter case they are also termed pozzo-
lans. Effect of Admixtures on Paste:
ADMIXTURES AS W O R K A B I L I T Y A G E N T S
G. M. Williams (1)3 compared the
workability afforded by several admix-
Admixtures have long been used to tures and attempted to gage the effect of
impart workability to concrete. The addi- each in resisting segregation in concrete;
tion of some 10 lb of diatomaceous earth portland cement was also considered as
to a cubic yard of concrete has been ob- an admixture. He concluded that their
served to transform a harsh, segregating relative efficiency was related to the vol-
mix into a smooth plastic mass. In mixes umes of paste produced by a given weight
where 10 per cent of the mix water would of each. Some of his data are reproduced
normally rise to the surface, bringing in Table I.
with it a scum that subsequently turned
a T h e boldface n u m b e r s in p a r e n t h e s e s refer
to powder that could be brushed away, t o t h e list of references a p p e n d e d t o t h i s p a p e r ,
such bleeding would vanish after the see p. 387.
MEISSNER ON MINERAL ADMIXTURES 377
Using pastes of equal consistency, he mortar or volume of paste produced by

measured their resulting volumes and the several admixtures. The concrete
found that all of the admixtures yielded tests were repeated, using adjusted
larger volumes of paste per unit than did amounts of admixtures to keep the added
portland cement. Diatomaceous earth volume of paste equal. The amount of
was outstanding in this respect. He then segregation was then found to be about
added equal weights of the admixtures the same for all concretes (column 6), as
to identical sand-cement mortars, ad- was the volume of mortar (column 5).
justed them to the same flow, and Williams concluded: (1) that all admix-
determined the resulting relative in- tures tested, including added cement,
crease in mortar volume. reduced segregation and benefitted work-
Tests were then made to determine the ability; and (2) that the relative effi-
amount of segregation that would occur ciency of admixtures was indicated by
TABLE IL--RELATION OF MORTAR VOLUME TO SEGREGATION OF AGGREGATE

FROM CONCRETE MASS.
(From paper by G. M. Williams (1))
Equal Weight of Relative Weight of Admixture
Admixture Added Added
Admixture Ratio, Ratio,

Mortar Relative Mortar
Volume t Per Cent Weight of Per Cent
Segregation Admixture Volume to
Concret, Concrete Segregation
Volume Volume
P l a i n concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O.472 13.13

Cement ................................ O.679 11.30 5.7 0.517 4.20
Powder 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.482 9.01 3.0 0.510 4.85
Powder 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O.482 10.57 3.0 0.514 4.95
Tripoli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O.482 9.90 3.5 0.514 4.73
Hydrated lime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.487 9.92 2.8 0.518 5.00
Diatomite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O.514 4.95 1.0 0.517 3.98
in identical concrete mixes to which equal the volume of paste produced by a given
weights of the admixtures were added. weight of each.
The mortar in these concretes was ad- In his studies of the workability of
justed to the same flow in each case; the concrete, Powers (2) observed the effects
mix contained an excess of coarse aggre- of various admixtures upon the character
gate which would segregate and roll of pastes. He measured the consistencies
beyond the mortar flow line on the flow of pastes of various compositions by tim-
table. The segregated coarse aggregate ing their rate of flow through a tube,
was collected after a flow test and
noting that, in all cases, the higher the
weighed. Column 3 in Table I I lists these
proportion of solids the slower the flow,
weights as percentages of the whole
that is, the stiffer the consistency (Fig. 1).
coarse aggregate. Table I I shows that
segregation is least for diatomite admix- Using the remolding apparatus to
ture and greatest for the plain concrete. measure the workability of concrete,
Segregation is decreased when additional Powers studied the relationships between
cement paste is used, and further de- remolding effort, paste content, and
creased when the other four admixtures composition of pastes. One of his charts,
are used. The improvement appears to showing the difference between con-
be roughly proportional to the volume of cretes containing portland-cement pastes
and pastes composed of diatomaceous maceous earth paste giving a workability

earth, is reproduced in Fig. 2. equal to that given by the same volume
The similarity of curves in Figs. 1 and of portland-cement paste, are very nearly
2 is obvious. Just as an increase in the the same as the composition and flow
12
(tl
I0
8
"--0
o0
O0--
6
.~ ~, All Siliceous Moterials were i
V- r Mixed with Saturated Lime Water
=
50 55 60 65 70 "75 80 85 90 95 I00
Per cent Liquids in Paste by Absolute Volume,
FIG. 1.--Relation of Consistency of Paste to Composition of Paste. Flow rate determined by
timing flow of paste under a pressure of 1 lb per sq in. from a 100 ml buret. (From paper by T. C.
Powers (2).)
80
7O
._~ 60
gi -
,~ 50
_~
40
o
hl
3O
-6 2O
E
e#
w
C,me , o2,,4.;e.Z S-
10- Solids by Absolute Volume
(6.3 Gel per Sock)
o I I I I
0.?_3 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.32 0.:33
Paste Content-Rerio of Poste Volume to Sum of
Absolute Volumes of All M a t e r i e l s
FIG. 2.--Relation Between Remolding Effort and Paste Content. (From paper by T. C. Powers (2).)
amount of water makes a paste more rate of this particular portland-cement

fluid, an increase in the amount of paste paste (Fig. 1).
reduces the remolding effort of concrete. It was concluded that "the consistency
Also, as the consistency of a paste is in- and quantity of paste are the primary
fluenced by its composition, so too is factors determining the workability of
the workability of the concrete. The concrete." This work, as well as that of
composition and flow rate of the diato- Williams, indicates that the relative
MEISSN:E.R ON M I N : E R A L A D M I X T U R E S ,379
TABLE III.--INDICES OF RELATIVE study (see Table III). Aquagel did, how-
WORTH OF ADMIXTURES ON
WORKABILITY BASIS. ever, substantially reduce strength.
( F r o m p a p e r b y F. R . M e M i l l a n a n d T. C.
P o w e r s (3)) Effectiveness in Lean Mixes:
Index of There is general agreement among
Material Worth
concrete engineers that admixtures offer
greatest benefit when employed in lean
T r i p o l i silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.56
California pumicite .............. 1.47 mixes with high water-cement ratios.
Pulverized blast-furnace slag ...... 1.07 Mineral admixtures are particularly
Hydraulic lime .................. 1.37
Hydrated lime ................... 1.76
advantageous in mass concrete used for
Magnolia cement ................ 1.20 dams, where cement contents are pur-
Diatomaceous earth ............. 5.00 posely kept low, not only for reasons of
Precipitator ash ................. 1.00
Precipitator ash ................. 1.11 economy but, also to alleviate a great
Bentonite ....................... 17.60 many of the difficulties accompanying
Crystalline talc .................. 1.67 heat of hydration. On the other hand
Kansas pumieite ................. 1.92
concrete technicians who are accustomed
6O
50
4o
'~ 30
~- 2 0
LU
:~ I o
E
o
5 6 7 8 5 6 7 8 5 6 7 8
Water Content of Paste, gal per sack of cement
F r o . 3 . - - R e l a t i o n of R e m o l d i n g E f f o r t to W a t e r C o n t e n t of C e m e n t P a s t e f o r G i v e n G r a d a t i o n
of A g g r e g a t e a n d P a s t e C o n t e n t . ( F r o m p a p e r b y T . C. P o w e r s (2).)
amounts of various fine powders required to work with rich mixes are dubious
to produce the same workability in con- about the value of any admixtures.
crete are reflected by the relative Powers (2) has neatly explained how both
amounts of each required to yield pastes of these opinions can be held in the light
of comparative volumes and consisten- of the effect of admixtures on paste and
cies. on the mobility of the concrete.
Attention is called to the small amount Figure 3 reproduced from Powers'
of Aquagel (bentonite) required to pro- paper shows the relation of the work-
ability of concrete (in terms of remolding
duce pastes comparable to that produced
effort) to the composition of the paste
by other materials. Powers and McMil-
for mixes in which the volume of the
lan (3) gave this material the highest paste is kept constant. Each diagram
rating on a workability basis of all ad- considers data for different aggregate
mixtures evaluated by them in a later gradings, the finest on the left and
380 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE A N D A G G R E G A T E S
coarsest on the right. It is observed that, equally workable concrete is obtained as

in general, as the amount of water per long as the quantity and consistency of
sack of cement is increased, the work- the pastes are the same. First, determin-
ability is also increased; that is, as ce- ing the percentages of various admixture
ment is replaced by water, the concrete solids which produced pastes of con-
becomes more mobile. This is true for sistency equal to that of portland-cement
diagram A; for the gradation shown in paste, they calculated the combined
diagram B, however, a point is reached amounts of cement admixture and water
where such a change does not decrease which would yield the same paste vol-
the remolding effort; and for the grada- umes. Trial concrete mixes were then
tion shown in diagram C, after a certain made with these several pastes, identical
point an increase in the water content of with respect to aggregate and its grading,
the paste (more fluid consistency) ac- and with paste volumes practically the
tually increases the remolding effort. For same except for a slight adjustment found
those mixes in diagram C represented by necessary to give all concretes the same
points on the right-hand of the low part workability as measured by remolding
of the curves, the addition of fine ma- effort. A group of concretes were thus ob-
terials to the paste (stiffening it) would tained, of the same workability, but of
reduce the remolding effort. In those different cement and admixture contents.
mixes represented by points to the left, From these it was possible to evaluate
the addition of fines or admixtures would the effectiveness of an admixture by com-
increase the remolding effort. paring the amount of admixture in one
Admixtures can, therefore, be ob- concrete with the additional cement used
served to either add to or to decrease the in the concrete made without admixture.
mobility of concrete, according to the Most admixtures were found superior
character of the mix, the grading of the to portland cement in their contribution
aggregates, and the consistency of the to workability as indicated in Table III,
paste before the admixture is added. wherein their value is expressed as the
With this in mind it is apparent why, in pounds of cement equivalent (on a
some instances, admixtures are held to be workability basis) to 1 lb of admixture.
beneficial and in others regarded to be
ADMIXTURES TO CONTROL BLEEDING
without value. A further examination of
Fig. 3 reveals that the low points on the Bleeding is usually revealed by the
curves fall furthest to the left (towards appearance of a film of water on the
the lower water-cement ratios) for the surface of freshly compacted concrete.
coarsest gradings of aggregate. That type While this is its outward manifestation,
of grading, found most often in the lean its most undesirable effects take place
mass concrete mixes, therefore encom- within the body of the concrete. During
passes the mixes which are most likely to placement and for some short time there-
be benefited by the addition of admix- after, the force of gravity causes aggre-
gate particles to settle in the mortar and
tures.
paste until they contact each other and
Evaluating Admixtures for Workability: so arrest their settlement. Settlement of
the sand particles and grains within the
Powers and McMillan (3) described a paste nevertheless continues so that
test method for evaluating admixtures, layers of water gather on the underside
based upon the premise that, using pastes of the aggregate particles. As a result,
of different composition, substantially the mortar and paste fail to establish
MEISSNEIZ ON MINERAL ADMIXTURES 381
bond on the underside of the aggregate, controlled bleeding in concrete. For this
and open fissures are created throughout purpose he devised a procedure that has
the concrete mass. Bleeding is thus re- been formalized in ASTM Method
sponsible for loss in strength, increased C 232. 5 In this method the bled water
permeability, and probably contributes to which accumulates on the surface of
low durability. concrete is collected, measured, and ex-
Finely divided mineral admixtures pressed in percentage of the original
have generally found use in concrete mix water. Admixtures were compared to
mixes which exhibit water gain or bleed- natural fines in sand as to their ability to
ing since this condition is very often inhibit bleeding, and it was observed that
associated with aggregate deficient in the degree to which they were effective
fines. Official recognition of admixtures was fairly proportional to the amount of
as correctives for poorly graded aggregate
is to be found in ASTM Specifications TABLE IV.--PROPOI~TIONATE PARTS
OF D I F F E R E N T M A T E R I A L S R E Q U I R E D
C 33. 4 This standard requires that sand TO P R O D U C E B L E E D I N G A C T I O N E Q U A L
for non-air-entraining concrete shall have TO T H A T I N T R O D U C E D B Y 1 P A R T OF
a minimum of 2 per cent passing the No. NATURAL FINES
100 sieve unless this deficiency is bal- (From pa pe r by J. C. Sprague (4))
anced by employing a mineral admix- Part by
ture. Weight
Normal Used to
Bleeding is also related to the character Mineral Admixture Con- Replace
sistency, One Part
of the cementing paste, being more proper cent Natural
Fines in
nounced when the paste is watery. Sand
Stiffening such a paste by increasing its
cement content or by adding mineral 2 per cent n a t u r a l fines. 27.5 1.0O
P o r t l a n d cement . . . . . . . 23.5 0.93
powder will greatly minimize the sedi- Precipitator ash . . . . . . . 31.0 0.81
mentary action described above. How- Admixture B . . . . . . . . . . . . I 40.0 0.70
ever, if the paste is originally of a fat Amorphous colloidal clay. I 31.5 1.08
Colloidal suspension paste I 81.0 0.33
consistency, additional fines may show Pulverized siliceous ma -
no improvement, because often admix- terial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 23.5 0.97
Diatomaceous silica . . . . . [ 152.0 0.II
tures also require additional water which Meta-colloidal s i l i c a . . .?. ]
J
50.0 0.30
defeats their purpose. When the paste I
has a high water-cementratio, fine ma-

terial can frequently be added without water required by each for a paste of
increasing the water, with general bene- normal consistency. Of all admixtures
ficial effect in regard to bleeding. This is tested for the control of bleeding, diato-
especially true of lean mixes for mass maceous silica, with a normal consistency
concrete in which cobbles up to 8 in. are of 152 ml of water, was found most
employed. Bleeding under such large- efficient. Table IV lists Sprague's (4)
size aggregates can be especially pro- evaluation of the admixtures which he
nounced and detrimental. tested. In the right-hand column are the
relative amounts of admixture which,
Evaluating Admixtures for Control o/ when substituted for natural sand fines,
Bleeding: gave the same amount of bleeding in
John C. Sprague (4) measured the de- concrete.
gree to which several mineral admixtures
6 Method of Te s t for Bleeding Concrete
4 Specification for Concrete Aggregates (C 33), (C 232), 1955 Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t
1955 Book of A S T M Standards, P a r t 3. 3.
382 TESTS AND PROPERTIES OF CONCP.ETE AND AGGREGATES
CONTRIBUTION TO STRENGTH e x p r e s s p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in a n a d m i x -
A d m i x t u r e s should be evaluated b y ture's contribution to strength, regard-
a p p r a i s i n g all of t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s a n d b y less of t h e special a t t r i b u t e s i t m i g h t
c o n s i d e r i n g t o g e t h e r all of t h e effects t h e y o t h e r w i s e possess. T h i s is logical, for
h a v e o n c o n c r e t e . T h i s i n c l u d e s in- s t r e n g t h is of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e t o
TABLE V.--INDICES OF RELATIVE WORTH ON THE BASIS OF 28-DAY STRENGTH

FOR ADMIXTURES USED IN COMBINATIONS SHOWN.
(From paper by McMillan and Powers (3))
Cement = 400 lb per cu yd Cement = 500 Ib per cu yd

Admixture Quantity of of
Index Admixture,
lb per cu yd
Index QAuantity
dmixture
b per eu yd
Tripoli silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.70 0 to 40 0.37 0 to 40

0.50 80 0.20 80
California pumicitc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.80 0 to 50 0.35 0 to 50
0.60 100 0.25 100
Blast-furnace slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.60 0 to 50 0.20 0 to 50
0.50 100 0.15 100
Hydraulic lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 0 to 50 0.50 0 to 50
0.75 100 0.40 100
Hydrated lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.95 0 to 40 0.12 0 to 40

0.50 80 0.12 80
Magnolia cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . 00 0 to 50 1.00 0 to 50
0.85 100 0.85 100
Diatomaceous earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.50 0 to 10 1.50 0 to 10

2.40 20 1.25 20
Precipitator ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 0 to 50 0.90 0 to 50

0.80 100 0.80 100
Precipitator ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.80 0 to 50 0.70 0 to 50

0,65 100 0.50 100
Bentonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0 to 4 --5.0 ~ 0 to 4

--0.65 a 8 --5.0 ~ 8
Crystalline talc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0 to 40 --0.25 0 to 40

0.35 75 --0.25 80
Kansas pumicite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0 to 40 --0.25 0 to 40

0.12 80 ... 80
a Negative value for the index indicates that extra cement is required to maintain strength.
formation on workability, volume c o n c r e t e , a n d it is i n e v i t a b l e t h a t aI1 a d -

change, bleeding, freezing and thawing mixtures be c o mp a r e d with p o r t l a n d
r e s i s t a n c e , c o n t r o l of e x p a n s i v e r e a c t i o n , c e m e n t , t h e e l e m e n t w h i c h is d e p e n d e d
permeability, and strength. Each admix- u p o n to p r o v i d e s t r e n g t h . P o r t l a n d ce-
ture generally possesses some particular m e n t , a p o w d e r e d m i n e r a l , s h o u l d also be
q u a l i t y w h i c h r e c o m m e n d s its use. evaluated as an admixture. If i m p r o v e d
N e v e r t h e l e s s , m o s t e n g i n e e r s will a l w a y s w o r k a b i l i t y is d e s i r e d , it c a n g e n e r a l l y
be achieved with increased cement con- stantially to strength. Only three ma-
tent, which will also ameliorate bleeding terials were found to cause substantial
and add to strength. reduction of strength. For the combina-
Mineral admixtures should not be ex- tion of materials used in their tests, they
pected to enhance strength to any ap- calculated the pounds of portland cement
preciable extent unless they are them- which, at 28 days, produced a strength
selves cementitious or have pozzolanic equal to that of a pound of admixture.
properties. Those which have high water These indices were found to vary with the
requirements, and therefore increase the richness of the mix and with the amount
water content of the mix, will detract of admixture used. A summary of the
from the strength unless such effect is evaluation for strength of the admixtures,
balanced by some cementing action. given in Table III of the paper, is repro-
However, where admixtures improve the duced in Table V. The figure under the
texture of the concrete or ameliorate column, "Index," indicates the pounds of
excessive bleeding under the aggregate cement which produce strength equal to
particles, it is conceivable that they will one pound of admixture, for the relative
improve the strength of concrete without amounts of cement and admixture shown.
themselves providing any cementing
action. POZZOLANIC ADMIXTURES
Duff A. Abrams (5) studied the effect Many admixtures, in addition to the
of hydrated lime and other powdered physical effects they may exert in modi-
mineral admixtures on the strength of fying the texture of concrete, also ex-
concrete by adding them to a given mix hibit pozzolanic properties. Pozzolans
and adjusting the amount of water to are defined by ASTM Definition C 219, 6
secure a uniform slump consistency. He as siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
found that pulverized brick, clay, whit- materials which in themselves pos-
ing, sand, natural cement, limestone, sess little or no cementitious value but
lava, fluorspar, kaolin, kieselguhr, tufa, will, in finely divided form and in the
hydrated lime, ironite, yellow ocher presence of moisture, react chemically
mica, pitch, and gypsum all reduced the with calcium hydroxide at ordinary tem-
strength of concrete variously, but ap- peratures to form compounds possessing
proximately in proportion to the quan- cementitious properties. Portland cement
tity used. Rich mixes showed a greater is composed mainly of hydraulic calcium
loss in strength due to powdered admix- compounds which, upon hydrolysis,
tures than did the leaner ones. The liberate calcium hydroxide. Hydrolysis of
strength of leaner mixes and those with portland cement occurs not only simul-
coarse aggregate gradings was little af- taneously with hydration but continues
fected or was slightly increased. Pul- indefinitely, especially if the concrete is
verized slag gave a slight increase to exposed to moisture. The liberated cal-
strength; the addition of cement in- cium hydroxide, being soluble, is subject
creased strength directly in proportion to leaching by percolating or contact
to the quantity added. waters. Active silica, if present in a poz-
Powers and McMillan, however, in the zolanic admixture, can combine chem-
work previously referred to (3), wherein ically with this free lime hydrate to form
they proportioned the admixtures on the new insoluble silicates and thus fix it.
basis of the amounts required to produce The resulting calcium silicate reaction
pastes of equal consistencies and vol-
umes, found that most admixtures did s Definitions of Terms Relating ~o Hydraulic
Cement (C 219), 1955 Book of ASTM Stand-
contribute slightly, and sometimes sub- ards, Part 3.
not only adds to the cementing matrix maceous earth are smaller as more of it is
of the concrete but also arrests the leach- used, and that the indices are larger in
ing of portland-cement constituents. lean mixes than in the richer ones.
The pozzolanic action, by definition, is Evaluation of a pozzolanic admixture re-
chemical, and it may be concluded that quires, therefore, some study of the quan-
the admixtures which exhibit the greatest tities in which it can be used, and the
chemical activity with calcium hydroxide type of mixes to which it is best adapted.
are to be preferred. This would ordinarily Pozzolanic admixtures offer greatest
be true except in instances where the promise in concrete for massive con-
fineness and specific surface of the ad- struction, Where the problems attending
mixture is of such a high order that its the generation of heat by the hydrating
5000
"~ 4 0 0 0
3000
/ I> / f ' I E p,ono,ion
x I00 )ercent Portland Cement
o 3 0 p e r c e n t Fly Ash, 7Opercent
E / ~ Portland Cement
o 2000
/
/
/ / I
t~ 40 percent Fly Ash, 60percent
Portland Cement
I000
I00 200 300
Age, deys
Fie. 4.--Strength Attained by Portland-Cement Concrete and Concrete Containing Fly Ash
During One year. (From paper by R. F. Blanks (10).)
resulting high water requirement in con- cement are acute. In efforts to avoid
crete nullifies the value it has as a pozzo- much of the temperature rise, mass con-
lan. Diatomaceous earth which displays crete mixes have been designed with ex-
great pozzolanic activity is a good extremely low cement contents using large
ample. When used in small quantities, it amounts of coarse, cobble aggregate.
is an excellent plasticizer and, because of However, lean mixes made with cobbles
its high surface area, controls bleeding are harsh, unworkable, bleed badly, and
admirably with considerable contribu- have high permeability rates. The addi-
tion to strength. If, however, attempt is tion of a pozzolanic admixture to these
made to use it in any quantity, the high lean mixes imparts to them the desired
amount of water which it requires be workability and watertightness and
added to concrete precludes the develop- eliminates the bleeding. The resulting
ment of strength. Its effectiveness is also concrete has low temperature rise and,
far less when used in rich mixes than if the admixture has good pozzolanic
when used in lean concrete. In Table V properties, will have good strength at
it can be seen that the indices for diato- later ages in spite of low cement content
(6, 7). Figure 4 shows that the strength ADMIXTURES TO INHIBIT ALKALI-
attained by a lean concrete with fly ash AGGREGATE REACTION
admixture at the end of 1 year is equal
Expansive cracking and deterioration
to that of the same concrete made with
of concrete due to interaction of alkalies
portland cement alone (lO).
in portland cement and certain siliceous
There are to date no standards or na-
tionally recognized test methods for types of aggregates have been the subject
judging or establishing the pozzolanic of much discussion and study in recent
activity of admixtures. Moran and Gilli- years (11, 12). Where aggregates contain-
land (8) have reviewed the several tests ing material that will react harmfully
proposed and tried. They concluded with alkali in cement must be employed,
" t h a t a single, short-time test will not ASTM Specifications C 334 recom-
0.6
/ -- ~ ~ Gr ntrol -/Vo Pozzolan

0.5
/ ~ i -~Puro Quartz - Raw

0.4
o
0.3 / I
/ k'Dav/s Dam Pozzo/an- Ran,
/ if F r / a n t Purnicite
0.2
U3
~""~Fl; Ash No. 3527
J ,
/ I ~Dav/'s D a m Pozzolan-Galr 1500F
i-- [
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II 12
Age, months
FIG. 5.--Pozzolanic Reduction of Reactive Mortar Expansion. 1 by 1 by 10-in. bars. 1 : 2.25 mortar
made with high-alkali cement (1.20 per cent Na~O, 0.04 per cent K~O) and crushed pyrex glass sand.
Pozzolans replace 20 per cent by weight of the cement. Specimens stored sealed with moisture at
100 F. (From paper by H. S. Meissner (6).)
evaluate pozzolanic activity, particularly mend that they be used only with a
when any one of several properties may cement containing less than 0.6 per cent
be desired in a given material. I t appears alkalies or with the addition of a ma-
that each material requires exhaustive terial that has been shown to inhibit
testing, after which it may be possible to expansion due to this cause.
empirically relate a quick test for con- I t has been shown that several natural
trol purposes." Powers and McMillan or artificial pozzolans are capable of re-
(9) classified a group of mineral admix- ducing expansion caused by high-alkali
tures as to pozzolanic effect by means of
cements when used in combination with
compressive strength in concrete, follow-
reactive siliceous aggregates (o, 13, 14).
ing the strength-age relationship to six
Not all pozzolans are uniformly effective
months. They judged an admixture to be
pozzolanic when it caused a steady in- in this respect, and it would be desirable
crease in the rate of hardening over that to have some rapid test to evaluate the
of a comparable concrete made without efficiency of admixtures for this purpose.
the admixture. A number of investigators have used the
mortar bar test, ASTM Method C 227, 7 protection is generally afforded with 20
to study such inhibitors (6, 14, IS). to 35 per cent (by weight) of the cement.
From this mortar bar procedure the Bu-
reau of Reclamation has developed a SUM~Ru
test which has been used in some of its Finely divided mineral admixtures
specifications for the purchase of pozzo- have been found useful for improving the
l a n s (16). Crushed pyrex glass is used as workability of fresh concrete and for con-
an aggregate to fabricate mortar bars trolling bleeding. Their relative efficiency
with a high-alkali cement. Such a mor- in these respects is measured by the rela-
tar, cured in the presence of moisture at tive volumes of paste produced when
100 F, expands as shown in the top equal weights of admixtures are made
curve of Fig. 5. When, however, 20 per into pastes of approximately equal con-
cent of the cement is replaced with an sistencies. The degree to which admixtures
effective pozzolan, the expansion is re- offer improvement to concrete work-
duced as is shown by the curves for such ability is dependent upon the grading of
materials. Pulverized opal and calcined the aggregate and the consistency of the
Monterey shale are significantly superior paste in the mix before the admixtures
admixtures in this respect. Bureau of are added; under certain circumstances
Reclamation specifications for pozzolan the addition of fine materials can reduce
require that a material which is to be the mobility of concrete as well as en-
depended upon to control alkali-aggre- hance it. Portland cement should be
gate expansion shall, when substituted listed among the mineral admixtures and
for 25 per cent of the high-alkali cement its use considered when concrete appears
by absolute volume, reduce the expan- to require additional fines to improve the
sion of the pyrex glass mortar bar 60 to texture and character of fresh concrete.
75 per cent. While mineral admixtures offer advan-
Three general types of pozzolans have tages in workability and for the control
been observed to reduce the expansion of bleeding, the properties which they
caused by alkali-aggregate reaction. The possess in this respect often make them
first includes materials containing undesirable when other qualities in the
amorphous siliceous or siliceous and hardened concrete are taken into ac-
aluminous substances such as opal and count. Bentonite, for instance, although
highly opaline rocks, volcanic glasses, providing great workability is highly
diatomaceous earth, calcined clays of the inimical to strength. Diatomaceous earth,
kaolinite type, and fly ash. Montmoril- while excellent for controlling bleeding,
lonite-type clays comprise the second must be used sparingly because the large
type of pozzolans when they are calcined amounts of water which it requires be
added to the mix otherwise negates any
in the range from 1000 to 1800 F; the
desirable qualities that the admixture
third type covers combinations of the
provides.
other two. The amount of admixture
The use of admixtures to improve
required in a concrete to control expan- workability and alleviate bleeding has
sive reaction will vary for individual practically disappeared since the advan-
aggregates and the alkali content of the tages of air entrainment were discovered.
cement; it has been found, however, that Air-entrainment has been found to ac-
complish these effects in fresh concrete
7 Method of Test for Potential Alkali Reac-
tivity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations more simply, economically, and consis-
(C 227), 1955 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3, tently than admixtures.
MEISSNER ON MINERAL AI)mXTUI~ES 387
A d m i x t u r e s are finding their best use a d m i x t u r e is sought, since it serves to fix

in lean mixes for mass concrete in which the soluble c o n s t i t u e n t s of the c e m e n t
it is desired to keep c e m e n t c o n t e n t s as a n d to a u g m e n t later strength. Pozzo-
low as possible. Such mixes m a d e with lanic a d m i x t u r e s h a v e also been found to
coarse, cobble aggregate would be ex- exercise control over the alkali-aggregate
t r e m e l y difficult to h a n d l e w i t h o u t ad- reaction a n d so p e r m i t the use of other-
m i x t u r e s to s u p p l e m e n t the c e m e n t paste. wise i n c o m p a t i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s of ce-
F o r this t y p e of concrete, a pozzolanic m e n t a n d aggregate.
REFERENCES
(1) G. M. Williams, "Admixtures and Work- lanic Effect by"Means of Compressive
ability of Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Strength of Concrete," Proceedings, Am.
Concrete Inst. Vol. 27, p. 647 (1931). Concrete nst., Vol. 34, p. 129 (1938).
(2) T. C. Powers, "Studies of Workability of (10) R. F. Blanks, "Fly Ash as a Pozzolan,"
Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Concrete Proceedings, Am. Concrete Inst., Vol. 46,
Inst. Vol. 28, p. 419 (1932). p. 701 (1950).
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STP169-EB - Test & Properties of Conc

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Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 23 22:24:11 EDT 2013

~ISTM Special Technical Publication No. z6 9

Price List To Members

Printed in Baltimore, U.S.A.

This publication represents the culmination of several years of concerted

Concrete and Concrete Aggregates

TECHNIQUES, PROCEDURES, AND PRACTICES OF SAMPLING

Because a sample must be representa- and importance of concrete as a con-

(1) "Concrete Manual," U. S. Department of (5) C. E. Proudley, "Sampling of Mineral Ag-

Concrete and Concrete Aggregates

SIZE AND N U M B E R OF SAMPLES AND STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

produced (1).3 L i k e acceptance tests of basis for action, a n d it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t

Numberof ProbabilityLevel where:

I t has been established by Committee In establishing an average strength of

TABLE II.--CORRELATION COEFFI-

liability of individual tests and a reliable

Concrete and Concrete Aggregates

are reasonable, in comparison with vari- The application of statistical methods

Concrete and Concrete Aggregates

Thawing in Water4; C 291, Rapid Freez- freezing in air by preventing evaporation,

Effect of Air Entrainment:--Concrete been growing until now even certain

though determined approximately, Plastic Flow and Stress Release Under

with appropriate tolerances seems to structures in which saving in weight is

Freshly Mixed Concrete

UNIFORMITY, SEGREGATION, AND B L E E D I N G

UNIFORMITY OF CONCRETE that concrete is not always a uniform

mixing or improper handling is highly used or a nearly perfect sampling

reactions in the cement and viscosity water--there should be no increase of

Freshly Mixed Concrete

DENSENESS AND UNIT WEIGHT

The terms "denseness" or degree of field measures, it is suggested that a

consistency of concrete. An example of considered as impermeable material and

TABLE II.--EFFECT OF AIR ENTRAINMENT ON CONCRETE DENSENESS.

Air- Air- Air- Normal Air-

2-II~. SLUMP CO~Cl~ET~

6-IIV. SLIIMI' COI~CRETE

stitute for water, although somewhat where:

Determination of apparent absolute cluding the amount required to fill per-

bination of rodding, jigging, or even of concrete---denseness, strength, per-

Freshly Mixed Concrete

WORKABILITY AND PLASTICITY

Probably no other characteristics of It goes without saying that proper

which it is composed, have an influence Grading of Fine Aggregate:

grading should be uniform from fine to or angular. However, spherical shape of

Freshly Mixed Concrete

I t might be assumed that the setting DEFINITION

METHODS OF TEST point at which the curve levels off. This

"4, " "--.

13 0 0 0 -- c] Ploin Series "IT"

IIOOO _ 02percent CoCI 2

& Admixture "A"

9 ooo Dry Sund Mold

shape of the curve can be completely Strength Determinations.--Another

each individual, depending on the specific probably be in terms of a maximum

Freshly Mixed Concrete

Tests for air content of fresh concrete Gravimetric Method: ~

slump, the gravimetric method should interstices of nonsaturated, porous ag-

Comparative results of air-content concrete mixtures to secure the full bene-

TABLE L--RESULTS OF COMPARATIVE TESTS FOR AIR CONTENT OF FRESH

Limestone Slag Gravel

G r a v l m e t r i c (C 1 3 8 - 44) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.vl 4.4 6.o I 5.2 3.5 4.0

SIGNI]~ICANCE OF TEST IZESUI~S lean, air-entrained concrete mixtures

This discussion is intended to show relation between samples and materials