Stacked Microchannel Heat Sinks

for Liquid Cooling of

Microelectronic Components
1

Xiaojin Wei
Yogendra Joshi
e-mail: yogendra.joshi@me.gatech.edu
G.W. Woodruff School of Mechanical
Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, Georgia 30332
A novel heat sink based on a multilayer stack of liquid cooled microchannels is investi-
gated. For a given pumping power and heat removal capability for the heat sink, the flow
rate across a stack of microchannels is lower compared to a single layer of microchan-
nels. Numerical simulations using a computationally efficient multigrid method [1] were
carried out to investigate the detailed conjugate transport within the heat sink. The effects
of the microchannel aspect ratio and total number of layers on thermal performance were
studied for water as coolant. A heat sink of base area 10 mm by 10 mm with a height in
the range 1.8 to 4.5 mm (25 layers) was considered with water flow rate in the range
0.83 10 6 m 3 /s (50 ml/min) to 6.67 10 6 m 3 /s (400 ml/min). The results of the com-
putational simulations were also compared with a simplified thermal resistance network
analysis. DOI: 10.1115/1.1647124

Introduction
With the trend of miniaturization prevailing in the electronics
and many other industries, heat removal has become one of the
key design challenges. Although heat generation per circuit has
been reduced by lowering the supply voltage, the volumetric heat
generation continues to increase due to higher circuit densities.
New types of ultra-compact heat exchangers need to be developed
to meet the thermal management needs of these electronic
systems.
Many efforts have been devoted to this area of research. Among
these, the work of Tuckerman and Pease 2 is considered as a
milestone in the development of micro-heat-exchangers. In this
work, a microchannel heat sink, consisting of parallel micro flow
passages, was demonstrated to have very small thermal resistance
as low as 9106 K/(W/m2 )). Following this work, many ex-
perimental and theoretical studies of the microchannel heat sink
have been carried out. Phillips 3 provided an analytical model to
estimate the thermal resistance of the microchannel. The results of
this model were compared with measurements and showed very
good agreement.
Weisberg et al. 4 analyzed a microchannel heat exchanger by
numerical simulation of heat transfer in the fluid and the solid
the detailed simulations. The overall thermal resistance was cal-
culated and compared with that of a single-layered microchannel
heat sink.
1 Modeling of Multilayer Microchannels
A multilayer micro heat exchanger is illustrated in Fig. 1. At
each layer, a number of parallel microchannels are machined in
the surface of a substrate, e.g. copper, silicon carbide or diamond.
These layers are then bonded into a stacked micro heat exchanger.
A thermal resistance analysis based on existing correlations for
heat transfer coefficients and friction factor in laminar channel
flow was developed. The validity of this analysis was verified
by three-dimensional numerical simulations of the conjugate
transport.
1.1 Correlations for Friction Factor and Nusselt Number.
The pressure drops associated with the stack structure include the
contraction and expansion pressure drops in the inlet and outlet
respectively, the bend pressure drop and the flow friction loss. As
pointed out by many researches 2,3, the friction losses dominate
the pressure drop in laminar flow in rectangular duct. Therefore,
only the friction loss is included here.
For developing laminar flow in a rectangular duct, the friction
factor is determined by 7

substrate. Several assumptions made in the previous research were
examined in this study. Bau 5 employed an approximate theory
to calculate the thermal resistance of the microchannel heat sink.
It was demonstrated that further reductions in the maximum
f app ReD h
3.44

24
0.674 3.44
y

y
G (1)
heated surface temperature and temperature gradient could y 12.9105 y (2)
be achieved by varying the cross-sectional dimensions of the
microchannel. where G( )11.3553 1.9467 2 1.7012 3 0.9564 4
In a recent work by Vafai and Zhu 6, a two-layered micro- 0.2537 5
channel heat sink with counter-current flow arrangement was pro- and
posed. The purpose of this arrangement was to reduce the tem- y
perature gradient along the axial direction. The effectiveness of y
ReD h D h
the concept was demonstrated through computations.
The current study proposes the concept of micro-fabricated net- In this equation, is the aspect ratio of the micro channel
work of three-dimensional 3-D microchannels. Numerical simu- which is defined as
lations of the conjugate transport were conducted using an effi-
cient computational scheme. A thermal resistance network W c /H c , if W c H c
analysis was also carried out and the results were compared with H c /W c , if W c H c

Contributed by the Electronic and Photonic Packaging Division for publication in

The Nusselt number for thermally developing laminar flow in a
the JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC PACKAGING. Manuscript received June 2003. Asso- rectangular duct is usually available in tabular form. In this study,
ciate Editor: D. Agonafer. the correlation for thermally developing laminar flow between

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 Fig. 2 Thermal resistance network for a three-layered micro-
channel stack

For the base,

dT Q
const , 0xt (4)
dx k s A
For the fin,
d 2
m 2 , 0xH c (5)
dx 2
Fig. 1 Three-dimensional stack of microchannels
where TT f , m 2h/k s W f
Energy balance on the fluid gives

parallel plates with uniform heat flux 8 is modified to consider
the effect of the duct aspect ratio. A parallel plate channel can be
considered as a special case with aspect ratio of zero.
For thermally developing laminar flow between parallel plates
with uniform heat flux, the Nusselt number is 8
F y 2.236 y (1/3) , y 0.001 is part of the solution. Therefore the solution procedure is iterative
2.236 y 1/3 0.9, 0.001y 0.01 resistance.
0.364/y 8.235, y 0.01 (2)
where the nondimensional length is
y base of the first layer, given the heat flux and the temperature at
y
ReD h PrD h
For thermally developing laminar flow in a rectangular duct, the
Nusselt number is
Num,q G F y (3) 5. Using the heat flux calculated in step 4 and the temperature
where G ( )12.0421 3.0853 2.4765 1.0578 4
2 3
0.1861 5 is the ratio of Nusselt number for fully developed
rectangular duct flow to that for fully developed plane channel
flow 8.
It is assumed here that aspect ratio effect for the thermally
developing laminar flow is the same as for the thermally devel-
oped flow.
Equation 2 is applied for uniform heat flux boundary condi-
tions on the duct walls.
1.2 Thermal Resistance Model. The thermal resistance
network for a three-layered microchannel stack is illustrated in
Fig. 2. In this figure, R1, R3 and R5 are the conduction resistances
of the bases of the three layers respectively. R2 and R4 are the
conduction resistances along fin length of each layer. R6-R10 are
the resistance due to convection heat flow from the walls to the
fluid. R12-R14 are the resistances due to temperature rise in the
fluid, also called calorimetric resistances 9.
Assuming one-dimensional heat transfer at the base and the fin
of each layer, the local thermal resistance is obtained by solving
the heat conduction equation:
q c A
T f T f ,i (6)
f C pv mA c
The heat flux at the bottom of the multilayer microchannel is
given as input. The top of the stack structure is considered adia-
batic. In general, the boundary condition for the intermediate layer
in nature. The following steps are used to calculate the thermal
1. Assume the temperature at the bottom of the base of the first
layer Bottom.
2. Use Eq. 4 to calculate the temperature at the top of the
the bottom.
3. Assume the temperature of the fluid in the first channel.
4. Calculate the heat flux at the bottom of the first fin of the
first layer.
calculated in step 2 as the boundary condition, solve Eq. 5 for
the fin of the first layer. Obtain the temperature and heat flux at the
top of this fin.
6. Use the energy balance Eq. 6 to calculate the temperature
of the fluid.
7. Compare the temperature of the fluid in step 6 with that in
step 3. If there is sufficient agreement, proceed to next step. Oth-
erwise, an iterative function is established to obtain a new tem-
perature. Using the new temperature, repeat steps 4-6 until
convergence.
8. Using the results of temperature and heat flux obtained in
step 5, repeat step 2-7 until the last layer.
9. Evaluate the heat flux at the top of the fin of the last layer.
Because of the adiabatic condition, the correct heat flux should be
zero within a convergence of O(105 ). Otherwise, an iterative
function is established to calculate the new temperature of the
base of the first layer. Using this new temperature, repeat steps 2
to 8.
The temperature at the bottom of the base of the first layer is
used to calculate the total thermal resistance. The results are pre-
sented in the next section.

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 Fig. 4 Validation of the iterative method with 3

Fig. 3 Computational domain

1.3 Numerical Simulation. The conjugate heat transfer and
the fluid flow inside the microchannel structure were numerically
modeled. Steady state continuity, momentum and energy equa-
tions are solved. Laminar incompressible flow and constant prop-
erties were assumed. The dimensionless form of these equations
follows.
U V W
0 (7)
X Y Z
1. The code is first used to solve a fully developed laminar flow
problem. The results agreed well with the analytical solutions with
a difference less than 2%. In all the computations, uniform grids
were used as dictated by the multigrid method. Grid size indepen-
dence was arrived at by refining the grid size until no significant
changes in results were observed. For a typical calculation a 22
2218 grid is employed.
2 Results and Discussions
2.1 Validation of the Iterative Resistance Network Method

U
U
X
V
U
Y
W
U

1 2U 2U 2U

Z Re X 2 Y 2 Z 2

P
X
(8) In order to validate the iterative method used, the dimensionless
thermal resistance for a single layer structure with different aspect
ratios of the microchannel, evaluated using the formation in sec-

U
V
X
V
V
Y
W
V

Z Re X 2
1 2V 2V 2V
Y 2
Z 2
P
Y (9)
tion 1.2, is compared to that obtained from Eq. 12 for the single-
layer microchannel.

Kf
W W W 1 2W 2W 2W P
R tot (12)
U V W Hc
X Y Z Re X 2 Y 2 Z2 Z
(10) is calculated using Eq.
where the overall thermal resistance R tot

13 in literature 3,
1 2 2 2
U V W (11) R cd R convR c p
R tot (13)
X Y Z Re Pr X 2 Y 2 Z 2
In these equations, the velocity scale for the normalization is where R cd t/K s , R conv(W c W f )/(hW c 2h f H c ), R c p
the inlet velocity u i , the length scale is the depth of the channels (L(W c W f ))/( C p H c v m W c )
H c and the scale for pressure is u i2 . The nondimensional tem- Fig. 4 shows the variation of (TT f ,i )/q H c /K f as a
perature is defined by function of aspect ratio (H c /W c ). Good agreement is obtained
TT f ,i /q H c /K f , where T f ,i is the inlet temperature of between the two methods. This indicates that the iterative proce-
the coolant, and q is the heat flux. dure developed has reliable convergence and can be used to
The computational domain shown in Fig. 3 is half of the chan- calculate the thermal resistance of the multilayer microchannel
nel and half of the fin and the nondimensional overall length of structure.
the channel is L. The boundary conditions for this conjugate heat
transfer problem are
1. At inlet, X0, U1, V0, W0, 0
2. At outlet, fully developed flow gives, XL, U/ X0, V
0, W0, 2 / X 2 0
3. At the centerline, axisymmetric condition applies, Z(W c
W f )/H c , U/ Z0, V/ Z0, W0 and / Z0.
4. At the bottom, Y 0, UVW0, uniform heat flux con-
dition gives, K s /K f / Y 1.
5. At the top, Y H, UVW0, adiabatic condition is used
for the temperature, / Z0.
To solve the conjugate problem, viscosity for the solid region is
set as a very large number (11030).
The symmetrically coupled Gauss-Seidel SCGS based multi- Fig. 5 Comparison of the ratio of the thermal resistance for
grid method was employed to solve the equations due to its ex- different number of layers to that of single layer micro-channel
cellent convergence rate compared with SIMPLE or SIMPLER structure

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 Fig. 6 Comparison of thermal resistance for different number
of layers at fixed flow rate 0.83106 m3 s or 50 mlmin Fig. 9 Pressure drop and flow rate at fixed pumping power

2.2 Resistance Network Calculations. The thermal and
hydrodynamic performances of the multilayer microchannel struc-
ture were compared to that of a singlelayer structure. Each layer in
the multilayer structure has identical dimensions.
A single-phase liquid-cooling micro-fluid loop includes a
micro-heat-sink and a micro-pump. Unfortunately, the current
micro-pump technology is not effective in delivering liquids with
high-pressure-head and large flow rates needed for liquid cooling.
In view of the constraints imposed by the micro-pump, in this
paper, fixed pressure drop, fixed flow rate and fixed pumping
power are used as the basis of the comparison.
2.2.1 Fixed Pressure Drop Comparisons. It was found that
for the same pressure drop, thermal performance of the multi-
layer microchannel is better than one single-layer microchannel.
For a single-layer water-cooled silicon structure, with
properties at 25C (C p f 4179 J/kgC, K f 0.614 W/mC, f
995.8, f 0.883106 m2 s, Pr6.13, K s 148 W/mC, P
0.5 bar, W c W f 71 m, H c /W c 6.0, L/(W c W f )
70), the calculated thermal resistance is 0.120C/(W/cm2 ), and
the pumping power consumed per unit area is 0.208 W/cm2 . For a
two-layer water-cooled silicon heat sink at exactly the same con-
dition, the calculated thermal resistance is 0.082C/(W/cm2 ) and
the pumping power consumption is doubled at 0.416 W/cm2 .
In Fig. 5, the thermal resistance for the structure with different
layers is compared for a fixed pressure drop 0.1 bar. All the
thermal resistances are normalized to that of the single-layer case.
As can be seen from Fig. 5, the thermal resistance decreases as the
number of layers increases. The thermal resistance of a double
layer microchannel is almost half that of a single layer case. This
is a significant improvement. When more layers of microchannel
are added, however, the thermal resistance decreases weakly. This
is due to the fact that when more layers are added, conduction
thermal resistance increases. Materials with high thermal conduc-
tivities can be used to take full advantage of the proposed stacked
microchannels.
2.2.2 Fixed Flow Rate Comparison. For this comparison,
the flow rate is fixed at 0.83106 m3 /s 50 ml/min. The ther-
mal resistance for different number of layers is normalized to that
of a single layer microchannel.
As can be seen from Fig. 6, although the thermal resistance
decreases slightly when the number of layers increases from one
to two, it tends to increase after that. There are two competing

Fig. 7 Pressure drop and Pumping power at fixed flow rate

Fig. 8 Comparison of thermal resistance for different number Fig. 10 Dimensionless temperature distributions at the outlet
of layers at fixed pumping power cross-section

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 Fig. 11 Numerical simulation versus resistance analysis
effects involved that influence the convection thermal resistance.
One is the overall surface area and the other is the heat transfer
coefficient. When the flow rate is fixed, as more channels are
used, the flow velocity decreases, resulting in a decrease in heat
transfer coefficient, even though the heat transfer surface area
increases. At the same time, the increase in conduction resistance
also contributes to the increase in the overall thermal resistance.
Due to the decrease in the velocity, the pressure drop and pumping
power also decrease, see Fig. 7.
2.2.3 Fixed Pumping Power Comparisons. Fixed pumping
power is a constraint with many types of micro-pumps. A typical
reciprocating valve-less micro-pump may provide a maximum
pumping power of 0.003 Watts, Olsson 1998 1.
In the example considered here, pumping power is fixed at
0.002 Watts/cm2 . As shown in Fig. 8, the thermal resistance of the
multilayer microchannel heat exchanger is less than that of the
single-layer case. The effect of decreasing heat transfer coefficient
due to lower velocity is over compensated by the increasing sur-
face area. Fig. 9 indicates stacking more layers of microchannel
allows pumping more fluid at lower pressure drop.
Based on the comparisons presented, it is clear that thermal
performance of the multilayer microchannel heat exchanger can
be better or worse than that of the single-layer case depending on
the basis of comparison. At fixed pressure drop or fixed pumping
power, multilayer microchannel heat exchanger performance is
superior to a single-layer configuration. At a fixed flow rate, al-
though the performance is worse for micro-channels with more
than two layers, thermal performance of two-layered microchan-
nel is slightly advantageous over the single-micro-channel. There-
fore, for a given heat removal capability for the heat sink, the
required pumping power or pressure drop for a stack of micro-
channels with more than two layers is significantly lower com-
pared to a single layer of microchannels, while the required flow
rate for a two-layered micro-channel heat sink is slightly lower
compared to a single layer of microchannels. The less-pumping-
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Fig. 12 Variation of normalized thermal resistance with the
number of layers for different materials
power-demanding, stacked-microchannel cooling technique de-
scribed in this paper provides a solution for the stringent con-
straints imposed by micro-pump technology.
2.3 Numerical Modeling. The numerical method described
in section 1.3 has been implemented in a FORTRAN program.
The validity of this program is verified by solving a fully devel-
oped laminar flow in rectangular channels. The results obtained
agree well with the analytical results 8.
Figure 10 illustrates typical temperature distribution at the exit
cross-section of microchannels. This calculation corresponds to
water flowing in silicon channel with cross section 20050 m at
1 m/s. As can be seen from Fig. 10(b), the mean temperature of
the water at the outlet of the top layer is lower than the bottom
layer, implying decreased rate of heat transferred to water in the
top layer. Shown in Fig. 11 is a comparison between numerical
simulations and resistance network results for the overall resis-
tance in structures of varying stack sizes. It is clearly seen that the
calculated thermal resistance by both methods agree well. In view
of this, the thermal resistance network method can be used to
optimize the three-dimensional microchannel structure for a given
application.
3 Parametric Study
In order to implement the concept of three-dimensional micro-
channels, the effects of some important parameters must be inves-
tigated. The effects of thermal conductivity of microchannel ma-
terials used and the aspect ratio of the microchannels were
specifically studied in the current work. Water is used as the work-
ing fluid, and the length and width of the microchannel structure
are fixed at 1 cm1 cm. Constant properties for water at 25C are
used.
Transactions of the ASME
 microchannel cooling technique described in this paper provides a
solution for the stringent constraints imposed by the current
micro-pump technology.
Meanwhile, the effectiveness of stacked structures also depends
on several design parameters. For materials with relatively low
thermal conductivities, such as steel, adding more layers of mi-
crochannels increases the overall thermal resistance. In general,
materials with high thermal conductivity improve the thermal per-
formance of the microchannel stack. However, the effects of ther-
mal conductivity are not as important if the flow rate is low, since
the main thermal resistance for these conditions exists on the fluid
side. If the flow rate is limited due to pumping capacity, copper is
a good substitute for diamond.

Fig. 13 Effects of aspect ratio on the thermal resistance for
different materials two-layer microchannel with fixed channel
width W c ; fixed flow rate at 6.67106 m3 s or 400 mlmin
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge support for this work under the
DARPA HERETIC Program through contract N00164-99-C-0039,
managed by Drs. Elias Towe, Dan Radack and Christie Marrian.

3.1 Thermal Conductivity of Microchannel Material Nomenclature

The thermal conductivities studied are 50 W/K m, 148 W/K m,
283 W/K m, 400 W/K m and 1200 W/K m, corresponding to Ac cross sectional area of microchannel
steel, silicon, silicon carbide, copper and diamond respectively. Cp specific heat of fluid at constant pressure
The coolant flow rates are fixed at two values, 0.83106 m3 /s Dh hydraulic diameter; 4H c W c /2H c 2W c
f app apparent friction factor
50 ml/min and 6.67106 m3 /s 400 ml/min. As can be seen
Hc channel depth
from Fig. 12(a), for 0.83106 m3 /s 50 ml/min, if steel is Kf thermal conductivity of fluid
used, adding more layers of microchannels only increases the Ks thermal conductivity of solid
overall thermal resistance compared with that of a single-layered P nondimensional pressure
structure. For silicon microchannels, if more than two layers are
used, the thermal resistance also increases. For silicon carbide and

R tot overall thermal resistance
copper, adding more than two layers does not give apparent im- R cd conduction thermal resistance; t/K s
provement in thermal resistance. For diamond, although there is R conv convection thermal resistance; W c W f /
some improvement if more layers are used, it is not dramatic. hW c 2h f H c
In Fig. 12(b), the flow rate is fixed at 6.67106 m3 /s 400 R c p caloric thermal resistance; L(W c W f )/
ml/min. For a five-layered diamond structure the overall thermal C P H c v m W c
resistance is about 30% less than the resistance of a single-layered q c net heat flux into fluid
structure. When the flow rate is low the main thermal resistance is Q uniform heat flux
due to convection. Using high thermal conductivities does not T temperature
bring about significant improvement in thermal performance. This Tf fluid temperature
can be readily inferred from Fig. 12(a). On the other hand, when T f ,i inlet fluid temperature
the flow rate is high, the main thermal resistance is due to con- vm mean velocity
duction and the effects of substrate thermal conductivity are more U, V, W nondimensional velocity
significant. Wc width of channel
3.2 Aspect Ratio. In general, increasing the aspect ratio of Wf width of fin
microchannels will enhance the convective heat transfer at fixed Greek Letters
flow velocity. However, as can be seen from Fig. 13, if the thermal aspect ratio of microchannel, defined by W c /H c
conductivity is as low as that of steel, increasing aspect ratio does f fin efficiency; tanh(mHc)/mHc
not significantly reduce the overall thermal resistance. Increasing nondimensional temperature; (TT f ,i )/q H c /K f
the aspect ratio will decrease the velocity of the fluid. Higher
f density of fluid
aspect ratio also means higher conduction thermal resistance.
Thus the effects of aspect ratio on heat transfer are dual under this Nondimensional Groups
condition. For steel, increasing aspect ratio increases the overall Num,q mean Nusselt number for constant heat flux
thermal resistance beyond H c /W c 4. Pr Prandtl number
Re Reynolds number based on inlet velocity and channel
depth
4 Conclusions ReDh Reynolds number based on hydraulic diameter
A stacked configuration of microchannels featuring increased
heat transfer surface area is investigated. For a given heat removal
capability for the heat sink, the required pumping power or pres-
sure for a stack of microchannels with more than two layers is References
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