Historical Overview

Electricity generation in Nigeria began in 1896. The Nigeria Electricity Supply Company
(NESCO) commenced operations as an electric utility company in Nigeria in 1929 with
the construction of a hydroelectric power station at Kurra near Jos.

The Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN) was established in 1951, while the first
132KV line was constructed in 1962, linking Ijora Power Station to Ibadan Power
Station.

The Niger Dams Authority (NDA) was established in 1962 with a mandate to develop the
hydropower potentials of the country. However, ECN and NDA were merged in 1972 to
form the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA). In 1998, NEPA ceased to have an
exclusive monopoly over electricity generation, transmission, distribution and sales.

Present Status of the Electricity Supply Infrastructure

The National electricity grid presently consists of nine generating stations (3 hydro and 6
thermal ) with a total installed generating capacity of 5906 MW. The details of the power
generation stations are in appendix 1.

Supply and Demand

The demand for electricity is estimated to be about 4500MW. However, the present
generation level is about 1500MW. There is about 2400 MW of self generation in the
form of small diesel and petrol generating sets. The estimated percentage of Nigerians
having access to electricity from NEPA is only 36%. The estimated demand for power in
2005 is about 9780MW. This will require a generating capacity of about 12700MW.

Thus it is necessary to fully rehabilitate the existing power stations (which will provide a
maximum of 5400MW generating capacity) rehabilitate some critical transmission and
distribution lines and their associated substations and add new generating, transmission
and distribution capacity to the grid, in the immediate and foreseeable future.

Need for Reform

The power sector is very capital intensive and government can not fund its development
as outlined above .In line with their objective the following bodies will be set up.

Nigeria Electricity Regulation Commission

This will be an independent regulation agency for electricity in the form of a

regulatory commission. It shall have many functions inter alia:
Electricity regulator for grid connected services.
It will issue licenses to the companies operating in the Nigeria Electricity Supply
Industry.
Structure of the Electric Power Industry

The objective will be met by the introduction of competition and the appropriate
regulatory framework. The unbundling of NEPA will be into:

i. a number of competing, privatized generation companies;

ii. a number of privatized distribution and retail sales (marketing) companies; and
iii. a company responsible for transmission and dispatch.

Strategy for Unbundling NEPA

A. Creation of 100% state - owned holding company and subsidiary generation and
distribution companies within it.
B. Incorporation of subsidiary companies vested with their assets and liabilities by
2002.
C. Privatizing the subsidiary companies leaving a transmission and dispatch
company plus a residual 100% state - owned holding company by 2003.
D. Development of trading arrangements among these companies which will evolve
into a bulk power market.
E. Employing the Rehabilitate, Operate and Transfer (ROT) and similar schemes as
early privatisation options, with transfers going back to the Bureau of Public
Enterprises and not NEPA;
F. Commissioning of a restructuring study to provide the details of the transition
from the current structure to the privatisation of the subsidiary companies.

Priority Actions and Opportunities in the Unbundling and Privatisation of NEPA

1. Improvement in electricity supply through the conclusion of Emergency Power

Programme (EPP) contracts;
2. Putting out to tender some of NEPA'S existing generation as Rehabilitate, Operate
and Transfer (ROT) projects;
3. Carrying out essential investments as proposed in NEPA'S Action Plan, with
agreement on essential priorities and on what is to be financed by the
Government, as opposed to what is to be financed by the new owners;
4. Contracting out NEPA'S billing and collections;
5. Repairing and upgrading the system control and communication facilities;
6. Priority strengthening of the transmission network to the able to support the new
contract markets for bulk power;
7. Developing a strategy for the equitable treatment of NEPA's employees during the
reform process, and
8. Developing a Public awareness and public relations strategy.

Negotiating Principles for IPP Contracts

There will be a need to negotiate short-term increases in generation capacity under
Emergency Power Project (EPP) agreements.Guidelines for Independent Power Projects
(IPP):

1. NEPA shall only conclude contracts, before the establishment of corporatised

transmission and distribution companies, if explicit reassignment clauses to the
future inheritor of the contract (prior to majority privatization of distribution
companies ) and to future distribution companies ( after their majority
privatization) are provided;
2. All Independent Power Projects (IPP), EPP, ROT and other large projects must be
competitively tendered;
3. Consultations and discussions on proposed regulatory framework will be made
with potential IPP partners as well as all Nigerian partners with an interest in the
reforms;
4. Government shall not provide guarantees against commercial risks

For more information on the process and timetable visit http://www.bpeng.com/

Electricity-Natural Gas inteface for Power Generation

Fuel Mix

Natural gas (and the use of currently flared and created gas) represents the major likely
fuel for the future expansion of generation. In addition, gas powered electricity
generation is the most obvious growth market for the commercial development of gas
markets and will be explored by the IPP.

Thus there will be opportunities in expanding the natural gas pipeline network, the
electricity transmission grid and the location of new generation stations.

Details of the Power Generation Stations (Appendix 1)

The Authority has nine (9) power stations, nationwide, as follows:-

(1) Kainji Hydro Power Station

This Station located in Niger State along the River Niger is the first Hydro Power Station
in the country. The 8 generating units were commissioned thus:

4x80MW 1968
2x10MW 1976
2x120MW 1978

(2) Jebba Hydro Power Station

This Station is located in Kwara State down stream of the Kainji Hydro Power Station. It
has 6 units which were commissioned thus:

6x95MW 1986

(3) Shiroro Hydro Power Station

This Station is located in Niger State on the Shiroro Gorge along the Kaduna river. It has
four generating units, which were commissioned thus:

1x150MW 1989
3x150MW 1990

(4) Afam Thermal Power Station

This Station uses natural gas and is located in the outskirts of Port Harcourt in Rivers
State. The Station started operation in 1965. The 18 units were commissioned thus:

2x10.5MW 1965
2x17.5MW 1965
4x23.9MW 1976
4x27MW 1978
6x75MW 1982

(5) Delta Thermal Power Station

This Station also uses natural gas and is located in Ughelli, Delta State. The Station
started operation in 1966. The 20 units were commissioned thus:

2x36MW 1966
6x20MW 1975
6x20MW 1978
1x100MW 1989
5x100MW 1990

(6) Egbin Thermal Power Station

This Station is located in the outskirts of Lagos State. The Station is the largest Thermal
Power Station in the country. Its units were commissioned thus:

2x220MW 1985
2x220MW 1986
2x220MW 1987

(7) Sapele Thermal Power Station

This Station is located in Ogorode, Delta State. The Station uses both steam and gas
turbines. These were commissioned thus:

6x120MW 1978
4x75MW 1981

(8) Ijora Thermal Power Station

This Station which is located in Lagos uses AGO fuel and has 3 units which were
commissioned thus:

3x20MW 1978

(9) Oji Thermal Power Station

This Station is located on the Oji River, Oji , in Enugu State. Though presently non
functional, its the only coal- powered station in the country. Its four were commissioned
as follows:

2x5MW 1956
2x10MW 1956

Energy Sources

Energy is the vital force powering business, manufacturing, and the transportation of
goods and services to serve the American and world economies. Energy supply and
demand plays an increasingly vital role in our national security and the economic output
of our nation. It is not surprising that the United States spends over 500 billion dollars
annually on energy.

Increasing energy supplies.

As America's need for energy grows, the Department of Energy is meeting the
challenge by establishing clean fuel initiatives to make the most of traditional
fossil fuels while investing in cutting edge research to develop sustainable
sources such as fusion and to employ hydrogen (an energy carrier like
electricity) which can be produced from diverse, domestic sources and greatly
reduce our dependence on imported oil.

Modernizing our energy infrastructure.

By developing the infrastructure to support these fuels, DOE is striving every
day to protect our nation's energy needs and our planet's environment.
 Ensuring the productive and optimal use of energy resources, while
limiting environmental impact.
In addition, the Department of Energy is harnessing the power of the earth itself
to meet our energy needs. Advances in wind, hydro and geothermal energy
allow us to take advantage of clean, abundant energy.

Cooperating on international energy issues.

The Departments activities are instrumental in establishing the safety,
reliability, and efficiency of energy supplies in a global marketplace.

Transmission lines carry electric energy from one point to another in an electric power
system. They can carry alternating current or direct current or a system can be a
combination of both. Also, electric current can be carried by either overhead or
underground lines. The main characteristics that distinguish transmission lines from
distribution lines are that they are operated at relatively high voltages, they transmit large
quantities of power and they transmit the power over large distances.

The types of transmission lines are:

Overhead Transmission Lines
Subtransmission Lines
Underground Transmission Li

The Changing Structure of the Electric Power Industry 2000: An Update

Executive Summary

The U.S. electric power industry, the last major regulated energy industry in the
United States, is changing to be more competitive. In some States, retail electricity
customers can now choose their electricity company. New wholesale electricity
trading markets, which were previously nonexistent, are now operating in many
regions of the country. The number of independent power producers and power
marketers competing in these new retail and wholesale power markets has increased
substantially over the past few years. To better support a competitive industry, the
power transmission system is being reorganized from a balkanized system with
many transmission system operators, to one where only a few organizations operate
the system. However, the introduction of these new markets has been far from
seamless. California, where retail competition was introduced in 1998, has had
problems recently. Electricity prices in some parts of the State have tripled and there
have been supply problems as well. Although not as severe as California, New
Yorks electricity market has had price spikes which may be attributable to problems
in the market design. While some observers argue that deregulation should be
scrapped, others argue that deregulation is a noble endeavor and that these problems
can be solved with structural adjustments to the markets.

This reorganization is actually the second major structural realignment in the history
of the industry. The first occurred during the late 1920s and early 1930s. However,
the changes then were mandated by a Federal law that was designed to stop holding
company misconduct. Today, the changes that are occurring are not driven by
misconduct, but rather by economic and technological factors. In fact, three primary
catalysts are driving the current movement toward a restructured electric power
industry. First is a general reevaluation of regulated industries and a rethinking of
how the introduction of competition might improve efficiencies. The
telecommunications and banking industries have been made more competitive, and
the electric power industry is being evaluated for similar efficiency gain potential.
The second factor driving the restructuring debate is the wide disparity of electricity
rates across the United States (Figure ES1). In 1998, consumers in New York paid
more than two and one-half times the rates that consumers in Kentucky paid for
their electricity. In the western United States, the rates paid by consumers in
California were well over twice the rates paid by consumers in Washington.
Technological improvements in gas turbines have changed the economics of power
production. No longer is it necessary to build a 1,000- megawatt generating plant to
exploit economies of scale. Combined-cycle gas turbines reach maximum efficiency
at 400 megawatts, while aero-derivative gas turbines can be efficient at scales as
small as 10 megawatts. These improvements, involving less capital investment and
less time to build capacity, are the third set of catalysts driving restructuring.

Because it provides the capability to move power over long distances, the
transmission system is an integral component of the Nations electric power
industry. Through regulatory reform, the Federal Energy Regula-tory Commission
(FERC) has promoted the development of competitive wholesale power markets and
opening the transmission system to all qualified users. Since the late 1980s, FERC
has approved more than 850 applications to sell power competitively in wholesale
markets. In arguably its most ambitious effort to date, in December 1999, FERC
issued Order 2000 calling for electric utilities to form regional transmission
organizations (RTOs) that will operate, control, and possibly own the Nations
power transmission system. The potential benefits of RTOs are the elimination of
discriminatory behavior in using the transmission system, improved operating
efficiency, and increased reliability of the power system.
Solar

Solar Energy Technology Program, managed by the Office of

The Department of Energys
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy accelerates the development of solar technologies as
energy sources for the nation and world. The solar program also educates the public about the
value of solar as a secure, reliable, and clean energy choice.

Developing technologies that take advantage of the clean abundant energy of the sun is important
to reducing greenhouse gasses and helps stimulate the economy. Examples of solar technologies
Photovoltaic
being developed by the Department of Energy and Industry are
cells, concentrating solar power technologies and low temperature solar collectors.

Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity and are made of semiconductors such as
crystalline silicon or various thin-film materials. Photovoltaics can provide tiny amounts of power for
watches, large amounts for the electric grid, and everything in between.

Concentrating solar power technologies use reflective materials to concentrate the sun's heat
energy, which ultimately drives a generator to produce electricity. These technologies include
dish/engine systems, parabolic troughs, and central power towers.

Low-temperature solar collectors also absorb the sun's heat energy, but the heat is used directly for
hot water or space heating for residential, commercial, and industrial facilities.

solar thermal and solar

You can also find statistical information relating to the use of
photovoltaic energy through the Energy Information Administration.

Renewables

Renewable energy sources like wind, solar, geothermal, hydrogen and biomass play an important
role in the future of our nation. The Department of Energy is committed to the development of
renewable sources of energy.

For instance, DOE believes tomorrow's generation of automobiles and trucks will have to be cleaner
and much more efficient if the United States is to strengthen its energy security and continue to
improve its environment. Beginning in fiscal 2003, the Department of Energy's Office of Fossil
Energy (FE) shifted its clean fuels research program from ultra-clean forms of petroleum-based
fuels to a new research effort focused on lower cost ways to produce hydrogen from coal and
natural gas - a key element of President Bush's Hydrogen Fuel Initiative.

In addition, the Department of Energys Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
(EERE) focuses on the range of renewable energy sources, partnering with other government
entities and the private sector to better leverage the Federal investment in research, development
and deployment (RD&D) of new technologies. These partnerships involve other components of the
Department of Energy, including the Offices of Fossil Energy, Nuclear Energy, and Science, as
well as other Federal agencies. EERE also has begun to establish a much closer working relationship
with State organizations pursuing energy technology R&D.
The Oregon Solar Electric Guide provides easy-to-understand
information about solar electric power for your home or business. It
covers both utility connected and independent systems.

download Adobe Acrobat file

Energy from the sun can be directly converted to electricity using solar
cells, also known as photovoltaics or PVs. Todays solar electric
systems have 20 to 25 year warranties, are pollution free and can be
used to offset your utility power or as stand-alone power for remote
applications. The down side to this technology is that it costs three to
five times more than utility power.

If you are connected to a utility and wish to produce your own

electricity, Oregons "net metering" law ( ORS 757.300) requires
utilities to let you exchange any surplus power produced by your solar
electric system for utility power you use when your system is not
producing enough power to meet your needs (such as at night). Your
meter simply spins backwards during sunny portions of the day when
you are producing more than you use. At the end of the billing period,
you are only billed for the net energy you use.

Oil

Oil is the lifeblood of Americas economy. Currently, it supplies more than 40% of our total energy
demands and more than 99% of the fuel we use in our cars and trucks. The Department of Energys
Office of Fossil Energy focuses on two important concerns over oil - an immediate readiness to
respond to oil supply disruptions and keeping Americas oil fields producing in the future.

In the event the United States is confronted with a serious disruption in oil supplies, the Strategic
Petroleum Reserve can provide an emergency supply of crude oil. The oil is stockpiled in
underground salt caverns along the Gulf of Mexico coastline. President Bush has ordered the
Reserve to be filled to its full 700 million barrel capacity by 2005.

The Department of Energy also maintains an emergency supply of heating oil for consumers in the
Northeast who depend on this fuel for much of their heating needs. Two million barrels are stored
in commercial terminals and can be released quickly should severe weather or other emergencies
create life-threatening fuel shortages.

One way to prevent an oil supply disruption is to ensure our domestic production of oil is
maintained. Remaining U.S. oil fields are becoming increasingly costly to produce because much of
the easy-to-find oil has already been recovered. Yet, for every barrel of oil that flows from U.S.
fields, nearly two barrels remain in the ground. Better technology is needed to find and produce
much of this left-behind oil, and DOEs Fossil Energy program, through its National Petroleum
Technology Office, is developing new exploration, drilling and production processes that can keep
U.S. oil fields producing for well into the future.

For information about oil sources, exploration and production, consumption, prices, and
related topics you can also visit the Energy Information Administration.

Hydropower

Hydropower (also called hydroelectric power) facilities in the United States can generate enough
power to supply 28 million households with electricity, the equivalent of nearly 500 million barrels of
oil. The total U.S. hydropower capacityincluding pumped storage facilitiesis about 95,000
megawatts. Researchers are working on advanced turbine technologies that will not only help
maximize the use of hydropower, but also minimize adverse environmental effects.

The mission of the Department of Energy's Hydropower Program is to develop, conduct, and
coordinate research and development with industry and other Federal agencies to improve the
technical, societal, and environmental benefits of hydropower.

hydropower generation and consumption, visit the Energy

For information related to
Information Administration.

Hydroelectric Power Generation

How the Potential Energy of Water is Used to Generate
Electricity
Susan Kristoff

May 6, 2008
Hydroelectric power is one of the oldest power generation methods and is a critical part
of world electricity generation.

Hydroelectricity is power generated by capturing energy from flowing water. According

to REN21s 2006 Renewables Status Report, hydroelectric power contributed 19% of the
worlds power in 2006, and is the most widely used renewable energy source in the
world. Hydroelectric power requires no fuel and produces no direct emissions or by-
products.

History of Hydroelectric Power

The energy of moving water has been used by humans for thousands of years to power
flour mills and irrigation systems. Water wheels were placed within a flowing stream of
water, and the rotation generated in the wheel was used to perform work. Water powered
the textile and industrial mills of the 19th century, and mill buildings dot the edges of
rivers throughout the United States and Europe.

The first commercial hydroelectric project in the United States was built in Appleton, WI,
in 1882. This plant used a water wheel to power a generator, which delivered power to
two area paper mills.

Hydroelectric Power from Dams

Today, most hydroelectric power is generated from dams. Dams build up reservoirs
behind them and allow for large potential energy to be developed. The reservoir water is
sent through the turbines at the bottom of the dam, maximizing the energy that can be
harvested from the water.

The potential power from a dam is based on the formula P = hrk, where P is the
theoretical power generation, h is the maximum water height behind the dam, r is the
flow rate of water into the turbines, and k is a conversion factor that takes into account
system efficiency, acceleration due to gravity, and the density of the water.

World Hydroelectric Power Generation

China is the leader in worldwide hydroelectric power production, with 486.7 TWh of
production in 2007, according to the China Electricity Council. Other countries with
significant hydroelectric power production include Canada, Brazil, and the United States.
China also has the largest capacity of hydroelectric power in the planning and
construction stages, ensuring that it will be the world leader in hydroelectric power
generation for the forseeable future.

Controversies with Hydroelectric Power Systems

When a dam is built, a location is selected where a large reservoir can be collected behind
the dam, maximizing the potential energy that the water can provide. In order to create a
significant depth, often large tracts of land must be flooded to create the reservoir. The
Three Gorges Dam project in China has generated significant controversy for the number
of people that have been displaced in order to create the reservoir. In 2007, the BBC
reported that as many as 4 million people would have to be relocated over the course of
development of the Three Gorges Dam. In addition, many historical and archeological
sites have been flooded as the water level has risen.

Another issue associated with hydroelectric dams is the inability of fish to navigate the
dammed river. This issue has led to the severe reduction of population of salmon in the
Pacific Northwest region of North America, who rely on swimming upstream to
spawning grounds in order to reproduce. The introduction of fish ladders has reduced
population declines in recent years.

Hydroelectric power is one of the oldest power generation methods. It is a critical part of
world power generation, and will continue to expand due to its non-reliance on fossil
fuels.

Sources

REN21 Renewables Global Status Report, 2007

How They Work

 Cutaway View of Turbine/Generator Assembly

Courtesy of Doug Filer, Army Corp of Engineers

Hydroelectric Design Center

Above is a cutaway view of a turbine/generator assembly. As can be seen, water entering

the turbine flows through a series of louvers, called wicket gates, which are aranged in a
ring around the turbine inlet. The amount of water entering the turbine can be regulated
by opening or closing the wicket gates as required. This allows the operators to keep the
turbine turning at a constant speed even under widely varying electrical loads.
Maintaining precise speed is important since it is the rate of rotation which determines
the frequency of the electricity produced.

The turbine is coupled to an electric generator by a long shaft. The generator consists of a
large, spinning "rotor" and a stationary "stator". The outer ring of the rotor is made up of
a series of copper wound iron cells or "poles" each of which acts as an electromagnet.
The stator is comprised of a series of vertically oriented copper coils nestled in the slots
of an iron core. As the rotor spins its magnetic field induces a current in the stator's
windings thereby generating electricity.
How Geothermal Works
Geothermal comes from the Greek words meaning earth heat. From earliest times, people have used
geothermal water that flowed freely from the earth's surface as hot springs. Today we drill wells into
geothermal reservoirs to bring the hot water to the surface. Once the hot water travels up the wells to
the surface, they can be used directly to heat buildings or to generate electricity in power plants.

Overview of Geothermal Energy

The city of Klamath Falls uses geothermal energy directly to supply heat for a district heating system.
Geothermal heat sources in several other Oregon counties supply heat to buildings, swimming pools
and resorts and industrial uses.

There is no generation of electricity from geothermal sources within the state of Oregon. However,
there are several sites where geological data suggest a resource sufficient for power generation may
exist. The potential for production of electricity from Oregons geothermal resources has been
explored at three sites in Oregon.

In 1996, CalEnergy Company received a site certificate from the Energy Facility Siting Council to build
a 30-megawatt geothermal power plant near the Newberry Volcanic Monument in Deschutes County.
However, despite considerable investment in exploratory drilling, the company did not find a source of
heat and steam sufficient for generating electricity. The company canceled the Newberry project and
is now pursuing a similar project in northern California.

Other exploration has occurred near Vale and in the Alvord Dessert near Borax Lake. The latter site is
no longer feasible due to the risk of harm to the endangered Borax Lake chub. The exploration at the
Vale site failed to locate a geothermal source adequate for generating electricity.

Resource uncertainty as well as high development and exploration costs are substantial barriers to
future development of geothermal sources for power production. The location of potential geothermal
sources in environmentally sensitive areas has been a barrier to siting geothermal power facilities in
the state.

Geothermal Resources
Geothermal Information Layer for Oregon - Oregon Department of Geology & Mineral Industries
The interactive GTILO map lets you view information on location, temperature, and other features of
thermal springs and wells (geothermal exploration, geothermal test, and water wells) as well as
known geothermal resource areas and direct-use areas.

Geothermal in Oregon - Where it is being used, Where it can be used

This document includes general information on geothermal potential and uses in Oregon.

Oregon Geothermal Resource Map

A map of geothermal resources in Oregon from Idaho National Laboratory.

Where are Geothermal Resources Located?

A Geo-Heat Center map of the US showing where geothermal resources are located and provides links
to the ten western states with collocated communities.

Outside Links
Geothermal Energy Curriculum (designed for use with grades 4-8): This curriculum describes
geothermal energy in the context of the worlds energy needs. It was created in 1994 by the
Geothermal Education Office for the Oregon Department of Energy with the support of the Bonneville
Power Administration.

Geothermal Fact Sheet from the US Department of Energy

The Geo Heat Center at Oregon Institute of Technology provides technical analysis for those actively
involved in geothermal development. This assistance can be in the area of feasibility at the outset of a
project, equipment and materials selection during the design phase or follow-up troubleshooting for
operational systems.

Geothermal Education Office: The Geothermal Education Office (GEO) produces and distributes
educational materials about geothermal energy to schools, educators, libraries, industry and the
public. GEO collaborates frequently with education and energy organizations with common goals and
responds to requests and questions from around the world.

Geothermal Technologies Program: The U.S. Department of Energy's Geothermal Technologies

Program works in partnership with industry to establish geothermal energy as an economically
competitive contributor to the nation's energy supply.

GeoPowering the West: The U.S. Department of Energy's GeoPowering the West program works
with industry, power companies, industrial and residential consumers, and federal, state, and local
officials to provide technical and institutional support and limited, cost-shared funding to state-level
activities to develope geothermal energy in the western United States.

Geothermal-Biz.com: This website was developed by Bob Lawrence and Associates, a private
consulting firm, to help geothermal entrepreneurs develop geothermal direct use and small power
generation projects.

Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels coal, oil and natural gas -- currently provide more than 85% of all the energy
consumed in the United States, nearly two-thirds of our electricity, and virtually all of our
transportation fuels. Moreover, it is likely that the nations reliance on fossil fuels to power an
expanding economy will actually increase over at least the next two decades even with aggressive
development and deployment of new renewable and nuclear technologies.

Because our economic health depends on the continued availability of reliable and affordable fossil
fuels, the Department of Energys Office of Fossil Energy oversees two major fossil fuel efforts:

1) Emergency stockpiles of crude oil and heating oil

The Department is responsible for maintaining the readiness of the Strategic Petroleum
Reserve and the Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve. In the event of a major supply
interruption, the President could order emergency stocks from either of these two reserves to be
released into the market.

2) Research and Development of future fossil energy technologies

Innovative technologies can make the future production and use of fossil fuels more efficient and
environmentally cleaner. Energys Fossil Energy program, through the National Energy Technology
Laboratory, is developing a full array of new technologies that can locate and produce oil and gas
beyond the reach of todays technologies, overcome the environmental challenges of using coal, and
extract clean-burning hydrogen from fossil fuels.

In addition, the Office of Fossil Energy supports several initiatives to develop clean fuels from
hydrogen and cleaner burning coal.
 oil, natural gas, coal, and the electricity it produces, visit
For statistical information relating to
the Energy Information Administration.

Electricity generation is the process of creating electricity from other forms of energy.

The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s
and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used
today: electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper
between the poles of a magnet.[1]

For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The
other processes, electric power transmission, electricity distribution, and electrical power
storage and recovery using pumped storage methods are normally carried out by the
electrical power industry.

Electricity is most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators,

primarily driven by heat engines fueled by chemical combustion or nuclear fission but
also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. There are
many other technologies that can be and are used to generate electricity such as solar
photovoltaics and geothermal power.

Sources of electricity in the U.S. in 2006;[2] fossil fuel generation (mainly coal) was the
largest source.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Methods of generating electricity
o 2.1 Turbines
o 2.2 Reciprocating engines
o 2.3 Photovoltaic panels
o 2.4 Other generation methods
3 Production by country
4 Global warming
5 See also
6 References

7 External links
 [edit] History

Sources of electricity in France in 2006;[3] nuclear power was the main source.

Centralised power generation became possible when it was recognized that alternating
current power lines can transport electricity at very low costs across great distances by
taking advantage of the ability to raise and lower the voltage using power transformers.

Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1881. The first power plants were
run on water power or coal,[4] and today we rely mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas,
hydroelectric, and petroleum with a small amount from solar energy, tidal harnesses,
wind generators, and geothermal sources.

[edit] Methods of generating electricity

There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of energy into
electrical energy:

Static electricity, from the physical separation and transport of charge (examples:
triboelectric effect and lightning)
Electromagnetic induction, where an electrical generator, dynamo or alternator
transforms kinetic energy (energy of motion) into electricity
Electrochemistry, the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as
in a battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse
Photoelectric effect, the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar
cells
Thermoelectric effect, direct conversion of temperature differences to electricity,
as in thermocouples and thermopiles
Piezoelectric effect, from the mechanical strain of electrically anisotropic
molecules or crystals
Nuclear transformation, the creation and acceleration of charged particles
(examples: betavoltaics or alpha particle emission)

Static electricity was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic
generator is still used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and
MHD generators. Electrons are mechanically separated and transported to increase their
electric potential.
Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in
which mechanical energy forces an electrical generator to rotate. There are many
different methods of developing the mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro,
wind and tidal power.

The direct conversion of nuclear energy to electricity by beta decay is used only on a
small scale. In a full-size nuclear power plant, the heat of a nuclear reaction is used to run
a heat engine. This drives a generator, which converts mechanical energy into electricity
by magnetic induction.

Most electric generation is driven by heat engines. The combustion of fossil fuels
supplies most of the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission
and some from renewable sources. The modern steam turbine invented by Sir Charles
Parsons in 1884 - today generates about 80 percent of the electric power in the world
using a variety of heat sources.

[edit] Turbines

Large dams such as Three Gorges Dam in China can provide large amounts of
hydroelectric power; it will have a 22.5 GW capability.

Susquehanna Steam Electric Station, a nuclear power plant.

A combined cycle natural gas power plant near Orem, Utah.

All turbines are driven by a fluid acting as an intermediate energy carrier. Many of the
heat engines just mentioned are turbines. Other types of turbines can be driven by wind or
falling water.

Sources includes:

Steam - Water is boiled by:

o nuclear fission,
o the burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or petroleum). In hot gas (gas
turbine), turbines are driven directly by gases produced by the combustion
of natural gas or oil. Combined cycle gas turbine plants are driven by both
steam and natural gas. They generate power by burning natural gas in a
gas turbine and use residual heat to generate additional electricity from
steam. These plants offer efficiencies of up to 60%.
o Renewables. The steam generated by:
Biomass
The sun as the heat source: solar parabolic troughs and solar power
towers concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is
then used to produce steam.
Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges from the
ground and drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling
liquid to create vapour to drive a turbine.
Other renewable sources:
o Water (hydroelectric) - Turbine blades are acted upon by flowing water,
produced by hydroelectric dams or tidal forces.
o Wind - Most wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring
wind. Solar updraft towers use wind that is artificially produced inside the
chimney by heating it with sunlight, and are more properly seen as forms
of solar thermal energy.

[edit] Reciprocating engines

Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel,
biogas or natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back up generation, usually at low
voltages. Biogas is often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or wastewater
treatment plant, with a reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a small gas
turbine.
A coal-fired power plant in Laughlin, Nevada U.S.A. Owners of this plant ceased
operations after declining to invest in pollution control equipment to comply with
pollution regulations.[5]

[edit] Photovoltaic panels

Unlike the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels convert
sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity is
still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power
due to the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in
cost and multijunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now
commercially available. Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental
systems.[6] Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where
there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as a supplemental electricity source for
individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and
photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns,
have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is
growing by 40% per year led by increases in Germany, Japan, California and New Jersey.

[edit] Other generation methods

Wind-powered turbines usually provide electrical generation in conjunction with other

methods of producing power.

Various other technologies have been studied and developed for power generation. Solid-
state generation (without moving parts) is of particular interest in portable applications.
This area is largely dominated by thermoelectric (TE) devices, though thermionic (TI)
and thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems have been developed as well. Typically, TE
devices are used at lower temperatures than TI and TPV systems. Piezoelectric devices
are used for power generation from mechanical strain, particularly in power harvesting.
Betavoltaics are another type of solid-state power generator which produces electricity
from radioactive decay. Fluid-based magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation has
been studied as a method for extracting electrical power from nuclear reactors and also
from more conventional fuel combustion systems. Osmotic power finally is another
possibility at places where salt and sweet water merges (eg deltas, ...)

Electrochemical electricity generation is also important in portable and mobile

applications. Currently, most electrochemical power comes from closed electrochemical
cells ("batteries") [7], which are arguably utilized more as storage systems than generation
systems, but open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, have been undergoing a
great deal of research and development in the last few years. Fuel cells can be used to
extract power either from natural fuels or from synthesized fuels (mainly electrolytic
hydrogen) and so can be viewed as either generation systems or storage systems
depending on their use.

Electric Power

America and much of the world -- is becoming increasingly electrified. Today, more
than half of the electricity generated in the United States comes from coal. For the
foreseeable future, coal will continue to be the dominant fuel used for electric power
production. The low cost and abundance of coal is one of the primary reasons why
consumers in the United States benefit from some of the lowest electricity rates of any
free-market economy.

The Departments Office of Fossil Energy is working on ways to keep coal in Americas
electricity future. The key challenge is to remove the environmental objections to the
use of coal in tomorrows power plants. New technologies being developed in the Fossil
Energy program could virtually eliminate the sulfur, nitrogen, and mercury
pollutants released when coal is burned. It may also be possible to capture greenhouse
gases emitted from coal-fired power plants and prevent them from contributing to global
warming concerns.

Research is also underway to increase the fuel efficiency of coal-fueled power plants.
Todays plants convert only a third of coals energy potential to electricity. New
technologies in Energys Fossil Energy program could nearly double efficiency levels in
the next 10-15 years. Higher efficiencies mean even more affordable electricity and
fewer greenhouse gases.
While coal is the nations major fuel for electric power, natural gas is the fastest growing
fuel. More than 90 percent of the power plants to be built in the next 20 years will likely
be fueled by natural gas. Natural gas is also likely to be a primary fuel for distributed
power generators mini-power plants that would be sited close to where the electricity is
needed.

Energys Fossil Energy program is developing natural gas-powered fuel cells for future
distributed generation applications. Fuel cells use hydrogen that can be extracted from
natural gas or perhaps in the future from biomass or coal.

Energys Office of Nuclear Energy sponsors R&D programs aimed at maintaining the
operating capability of the nations existing nuclear power plants and developing the next
generation of nuclear technologies. Nuclear energy is our nation's largest source of
emission-free electricity. The 103 U.S. nuclear units supply about 20 percent of the
electricity produced in the United States second only to coal as a fuel source. The
Nuclear Energy program is working to develop cost-efficient technologies that further
enhance nuclear safety, minimize the generation of nuclear waste, and further reduce the
risk of proliferation.

The United States electricity infrastructure is one of the greatest engineering marvels of
the 20th century. However, to meet the rising electric power demand of the 21st century,
significant improvements in Americas electric system are necessary. Blackouts serve as a
powerful reminder of the critical role electricity plays in the everyday lives of people.
The mission of the Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability is to lead
national effort to modernize the electric grid, enhance security and reliability of the
energy infrastructure, and facilitate recovery from disruptions to the energy supply.

In addition, the Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability seeks to develop
new technologies for the storage of energy and the transmission of energy that will
contribute to energy efficiency of the electric industry. For instance, the copper wires
used in typical transmission lines lose a percentage of the electricity passing through
them because of resistance, which causes the wires to heat up. But "superconducting"
materials have no resistance, and if they are used to transmit electricity in the future, very
little of the electricity will be lost.

For statistical information relating to electricity it produces, visit the Energy Information
Administration.
 Electricity Generation
Electricity is produced at a an electric power plant. Some fuel source, such as
coal, oil, natural gas, or nuclear energy produces heat. The heat is used to boil
water to create steam. The steam under high pressure is used to spin a turbine.
The spinning turbine interacts with a system of magnets to produce electricity.
The electricity is transmitted as moving electrons through a series of wires to
homes and business.

This is a typical electric power plant located in Shawville, Pennsylvania.

Notice the large pile of coal on the left side of the plant.

Notice the three smokestacks, each one taller than the previous.

The tallest stack was built to cut down on the local air pollution. The sulfur
oxides are emitted higher into the atmosphere. This has not proven to be a
solution to the probelm. As a result the sulfur oxides now travel great distances
before coming down in the form of acid rain.
Click for larger image
Click for larger image

Electric Power Plants:

Electric Power Plants have a number of components in common and are an interesting
study in the various forms and changes of energy necessary to produce electricity.
Boiler Unit: Almost all of power plants operate by heating water in a boiler unit into
super heated steam at very high pressures. The source of heat from combustion reactions
may vary in fossil fuel plants from the source of fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas.
Biomass or waste plant parts may also be used as a source of fuel. In some areas solid
waste incinerators are also used as a source of heat. All of these sources of fuels result in
varying amounts of air pollution, as well as, the carbon dioxide ( a gas implicated in
global warming problems).

In a nuclear power plant, the fission chain reaction of splitting nuclei provides the source
of heat.

Turbine-Generator: The super heated steam is used to spin the blades of a turbine,
which in turn is used in the generator to turn a coil of wires within a circular
arrangements of magnets. The rotating coil of wire in the magnets results in the
generation of electricity.

Cooling Water: After the steam travels through the turbine, it must be cooled and
condensed back into liquid water to start the cycle over again. Cooling water can be
obtained from a nearby river or lake. The water is returned to the body of water 10 -20
degrees higher in temperature than the intake water. Alternate method is to use a very tall
cooling tower, where the evaporation of water falling through the tower provides the
cooling effect.

Creating Electricity using a Generator:

If a magnetic field can create a current then we have a means of generating electricity.
Experiments showed that a magnetic just sitting next to a wire produced no current flow
through that wire. However, if the magnet is moving, a current is induced in the wire. The
faster the magnet moves, the greater the induced current.

This is the principal behind simple electric generators in which a wire loop is rotated
between to stationary magnetics. This produces a continuously varying voltage which in
turn produces an alternating current .

Diagram of a simple electric generator is shown on the left.

To generate electricty then, some (mechanical) mechanism is used to turn a crank that
rotates a loop of wire between stationary magnets. The faster the crank turns, the more
current that is generated.

In hydroelectric, the falling water turns the turbine. The wind can also turn the turbine. In
fossil fuel plants and nuclear plants, water is heated to steam which turns the turbine.

Reference: http://zebu.uoregon.edu/1999/ph161/l3.html
Electric power is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an
electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt.

Electrical power is transmitted with overhead lines on pylons like these in Brisbane,
Australia.
For underground transmission see high voltage cables.

When electric current flows in a circuit, it can transfer energy to do mechanical or

thermodynamic work. Devices convert electrical energy into many useful forms, such as
heat (electric heaters), light (light bulbs), motion (electric motors), sound (loudspeaker)
or chemical changes. Electricity can be produced mechanically by generation, or
chemically, or by direct conversion from light in photovoltaic cells, also it can be stored
chemically in batteries.

Contents
[hide]
1 Mathematics of electric power
o 1.1 Circuits
1.1.1 Direct current
1.1.2 Alternating current
o 1.2 In space
2 See also
o 2.1 Power generation

3 References
 [edit] Mathematics of electric power
[edit] Circuits

Electric power, like mechanical power, is represented by the letter P in electrical

equations. The term wattage is used colloquially to mean "electric power in watts."

[edit] Direct current

In direct current resistive circuits, electrical power is calculated using Joule's law:

where P is the electric power, V the potential difference, and I the electric current.

Joule's law can be combined with Ohm's law (V = RI) to produce alternative expressions
for the dissipated power:

and

where R is the electrical resistance.

[edit] Alternating current

In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductance and

capacitance may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion
of power flow that, averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net
transfer of energy in one direction is known as real power (also referred to as active
power). That portion of power flow due to stored energy, that returns to the source in each
cycle, is known as reactive power.

Power triangle The components of AC power

The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent power can be
expressed by representing the quantities as vectors. Real power is represented as a
horizontal vector and reactive power is represented as a vertical vector. The apparent
power vector is the hypotenuse of a right triangle formed by connecting the real and
reactive power vectors. This representation is often called the power triangle. Using the
Pythagorean Theorem, the relationship among real, reactive and apparent power is:

(apparent power)2 = (real power)2 + (reactive power)2

Real and reactive powers can also be calculated directly from the apparent power, when
the current and voltage are both sinusoids with a known phase angle between them:

(real power) = (apparent power) * cos(theta)

(reactive power) = (apparent power) * sin(theta)
The ratio of real power to apparent power is called power factor and is a number always
between 0 and 1.

The above theory of reactive power and the power triangle is true only when both the
voltage and current is strictly sinusoidal. Therefore is more or less abandoned for low
voltage distribution applications where the current normally is rather distorted. It can still
be used for high voltage tranmission applications and, with some care, for medium
voltage applications where the current normally is less distorted.

[edit] In space

Electrical power flows wherever electric and magnetic fields exist together and fluctuate
in the same place. The simplest example of this is in electrical circuits, as the preceding
section showed. In the general case, however, the simple equation P = IV must be
replaced by a more complex calculation, the integral of the vector cross-product of the
electrical and magnetic fields over a specified area, thus:

The result is a scalar since it is the surface integral of the Poynting vector.

[edit] See also

Energy portal
High voltage cable
AC power
EGRID
World energy resources and consumption
 Rural electricity

[edit] Power generation

Electricity generation
Energy development
Nuclear Power
Fossil fuel power plant
Geothermal Power

Wind

People have harnessed the wind to deliver energy for centuries. Today, wind generates electricity
that powers millions of American homes and businesses and is one our nations fastest-growing
sources of energy. Taking advantage of this abundant domestic resource to generate electricity
helps meet Americas growing energy demands while improving our energy security and protecting
our environment.

The Department of Energy's Wind & Hydropower Technologies Program is working to

improve wind technology and increase the use of wind energy in the U.S. The Wind Program works
with partners in the wind industry to develop clean, domestic, innovative wind energy technologies
that are cost-competitive with fossil fuels. In addition, the Wind Program collaborates with the
electric power industry to integrate wind power into our electricity supply while maintaining the
stability and reliability of the electric grid. Finally, the Wind Program works with other federal
agencies, states, and communities to reduce barriers to wind power development. These efforts
have culminated in some of the industry's leading products today and have contributed to record-
breaking growth in the deployment of wind technologies.

You can find statistical information on the use of wind energy in the U.S. through the Energy
Information Administration.

Coal

Coal is one of the true measures of the energy strength of the United States. One quarter of the
worlds coal reserves are found within the United States, and the energy content of the nations coal
resources exceeds that of all the worlds known recoverable oil. Coal is also the workhorse of the
nations electric power industry, supplying more than half the electricity consumed by Americans.

Coal-fired electric generating plants are the cornerstone of America's central power system. To
low-cost environmental
preserve this economically-vital energy foundation, innovative,
compliance technologies and efficiency-boosting innovations are being developed by the
Energy Department's Fossil Energy research program.

To tap the full potential of the nations enormous coal supplies, the U.S. Department of Energys
Office of Fossil Energy is working with the private sector to develop innovative technologies for
an emission-free coal plant of the future.

This research and development program is pioneering more effective pollution controls for existing
coal-fired power plants and an array of new technologies that would eliminate air and water
pollutants from the next generation of power plants. Research is also underway to capture the
greenhouse gases emitted by coal plants and prevent them from entering the atmosphere.

For statistical information relating to the extraction and consumption of coal and the electricity
it produces, visit the Energy Information Administration.

Bioenergy

Biomass offers America tremendous opportunity to use domestic and sustainable

resources to provide its fuel, power, and chemical needs from plants and plant-derived
materials. The Department of Energys Renewable Energy Biomass Program, run by the
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy includes major programs for
developing and improving technology for biomass power; for making biofuels such as
ethanol (from biomass residues as well as grain) and renewable diesel; and for making
plastics and chemicals from renewable, biobased materials.

Bioenergy technologies use renewable biomass resources to produce an array of energy

related products including electricity, liquid, solid, and gaseous fuels, heat, chemicals,
and other materials. Bioenergy ranks second (to hydropower) in renewable U.S. primary
energy production and accounts for three percent of the primary energy production in the
United States.

The term "biomass" means any plant derived organic matter available on a renewable
basis, including dedicated energy crops and trees, agricultural food and feed crops,
agricultural crop wastes and residues, wood wastes and residues, aquatic plants, animal
wastes, municipal wastes, and other waste materials.

Electric Power Source Breakthrough? Unlimited Energy

from the Environment
Energy Generated by Non-Animal Organism Multiplied Into Clean, Free Electric Current

CANTON, Mass., Dec. 20 -- An alternative electric power generating system that draws energy
from a seemingly unlikely yet abundant, eminently renewable and virtually free power source has
been submitted for patenting by MagCap Engineering, LLC, Canton, Mass., in collaboration with
Gordon W. Wadle, an inventor from Thomson, Ill.

Wadle has invented a way to capture the energy generated by a living non- animal organism --
such as a tree. Chris Lagadinos, president of MagCap, developed circuitry that converts this
natural energy source into useable DC power capable of sustaining a continuous current to charge
and maintain a battery at full charge.

"As unbelievable as it sounds, we've been able to demonstrate the feasibility of generating
electricity in this manner," said Wadle. "While the development is in its infancy, it has the potential
to provide an unlimited supply of constant, clean energy without relying on fossil fuels, a power
generating plant complex or an elaborate transmission network."
The developers now intend to establish a collaborative agreement with a company, academic
institution or potential investors who can help finance the additional research and development
necessary to take the invention to the next level -- a practical, commercially viable power
generating system.

Wadle likened the invention to the discovery of electricity over 200 years ago when charged
particles were harnessed to create an electric current. "Now we've learned that there is an
immense, inexhaustible source of energy literally all around us that can be harnessed and
converted into usable electric power," he said.

Ultimately, it should prove to be more practical than solar energy or wind power, and certainly more
affordable than fuel cells, he added.

Wadle said he got the original idea of harnessing a tree for electrical energy from studying
lightening, more than 50 percent of which originates from the ground. This prompted him to
develop the theories resulting in a method to access this power source. Lagadinos then designed
circuitry that filtered and amplified these energy emanations, creating a useable power source.

Basically, the existing system includes a metal rod embedded in the tree, a grounding rod driven
into the ground, and the connecting circuitry, which filters and boosts the power output sufficient to
charge a battery. In its current experimental configuration, the demonstration system produces 2.1
volts, enough to continuously maintain a full charge in a nickel cadmium battery attached to an
LED light.

"Think of the environment as a battery, in this case," said Lagadinos, "with the tree as the positive
pole and the grounding rod as the negative."

Near term -- within the next six months or so -- and with additional research and development,
Lagadinos said the system could be enhanced enough to generate 12 volts and one amp of power,
"a desirable power level that could be used to power just about anything," he said.

It is enough power to charge batteries for any type of vehicle, including hybrids and electric cars, or
to use with an AC converter to produce household power, he added. The LED industry is a prime
example of a potential user of this power source.

Other applications would be to provide power for signs, security lights, street, park and hiking trail
lights, surveillance or sensor equipment -- any application that heretofore couldn't be serviced
because it lay beyond the hard-wired power grid.

Government agencies and the military could find the system especially useful because the power is
basically free, unlimited and can be produced in remote locations.

MagCap is now seeking to establish a collaborative relationship with a third party, explained
Lagadinos and Wadle. This is a step that could not be taken until proper patent protection was
applied for.

A patent application for this pioneering invention was filed in December by the developers' patent
counsel, Mintz, Levin, Cohn, Ferris, Glovsky and Popeo, P.C., Boston, Mass.

While the basic concept of this invention -- using a tree to generate electric power -- seems too
incredible to be true, Lagadinos said it can be demonstrated quite simply. "Simply drive an
aluminum roofing nail through the bark and into the wood of a tree -- any tree -- approximately one
half inch; drive a copper water pipe six or seven inches into the ground, then get a standard off-the-
shelf digital volt meter and attach one probe to the pipe, the other to the nail and you'll get a
reading of anywhere from 0.8 to 1.2 volts of DC power," he said.
"You can't do anything with it in that form because it is 'dirty' -- i.e. highly unstable and too weak to
power anything," he added. In order to properly harness this potential energy source, MagCap
devised two test circuits: one with three capacitors that were connected in parallel by means of a
switch and charged to 0.7 volts each. When fully charged they are switched to a series mode,
multiplying the voltage to 2.1 volts and flashing an LED to show that sufficient power could be
generated to produce a useable result.

The second circuit included a filtering device to stabilize and "clean" the current so it could be used
to charge and maintain a NiCad battery. The battery then could be connected to the LED to keep
the LED lit continuously.

Wadle pointed out that there seems to be no limit to the amount of power that can be drawn from
an individual tree, no matter how many "taps" are inserted -- each produces the same amount of
energy, an average of 0.7 - 0.8 volts. Size of the tree also seems not to matter.

Interestingly, while conventional wisdom would seem to indicate that the tree draws much of its
energy from photosynthesis via its leaves, the voltage output actually increases to 1.2-1.3 volts in
the winter after the leaves have fallen.

Headquartered in Canton, Mass., MagCap Engineering, LLC is a leading custom designer and
manufacturer of magnetics of all sizes for the broadcast, telecommunication, microwave, military,
defense and energy industries. For more information, see http://www.magcap.com/ .

Biomass Energy and the Environment

Unlike any other energy resource, using biomass to produce energy is often a way to
dispose of biomass waste materials that otherwise would create environmental risks. In the
following ways, using biomass for energy can deliver unique environmental dividends as
well as useful energy.

Reducing Greenhouse Gases: Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, nitrous oxide and certain other gases are called
greenhouse gases because they trap heat in the Earths atmosphere. The global
concentration of CO2 and other greenhouse gases is increasing. A natural greenhouse effect
of trace gases and water vapor warms the atmosphere and makes the Earth habitable.
However, human-caused greenhouse gas emissions are having an effect on regional climate
and weather patterns. The rate and magnitude of climate change effects are not yet clear.

Trees and plants remove carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, forming new
biomass as they grow. Carbon is stored in biomass. When biomass is burned, carbon returns
to the atmosphere in the form of CO2. This cycle makes it possible for biomass energy to
avoid increasing the net amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.

There is no net increase in atmospheric CO2 if the new growth of plants and trees fully
replaces the supply of biomass consumed for energy. However, if the collection or
processing of biomass consumes any fossil fuel, additional biomass would need to be
grown to offset the carbon released from the fossil fuel.

In contrast, the combustion of natural gas, coal and petroleum fuels for energy adds CO2 to
the atmosphere without a balancing cycle to remove it. Using biomass fuels instead of
fossil fuels may reduce the risk of adverse climate change from greenhouse gas emissions.

Reducing Greenhouse Gases: Methane

Compared to CO2, methane has 21 times the global warming potential. Natural
decomposition of organic material, especially in wetlands, releases methane. It has been
estimated that 60 to 80 percent of methane emissions are the result of human activity. For
example, solid waste landfills, cattle feedlots and dairies are sources of human-caused
methane emissions. Because human-caused emissions, the global atmospheric
concentration of methane increased 6 percent from 1984 to 1994.

Using biomass-derived methane to produce useful energy consumes methane and reduces
the risk to the environment that would otherwise result from natural decomposition. In
addition, generating electricity with biomass-derived methane fuel can offset power
produced from fossil fuels and reduce the net CO2 emissions from electric power
generation.

Federal Clean Air Act regulations require collection of methane produced in landfills. The
regulations allow operators to use landfill methane for energy production or burn off the
gas to avoid the release of methane into the atmosphere. Besides the potential effect of
methane emissions on climate, uncontrolled landfill gas emissions cause odor problems and
a risk of explosion and fire.

Methane released from decomposition of livestock and poultry manure generates about 9
percent of all human-caused methane emissions in the United States. Processing manure
through anaerobic digesters can make the methane available for conversion to useful energy
and avoid methane emissions to the atmosphere.

Protecting Clean Water

Livestock manure generated at feedlots and dairies poses a risk of surface and ground water
contamination from runoff. Microorganisms such as salmonella, brucella and coliforms in
manure can transmit disease to humans and animals. Anaerobic digestion of manure
destroys most of these microorganisms. The process produces environmentally stable liquid
and fiber residue.

The liquid portion of digester residue (called filtrate) contains approximately 75 percent of
the nitrogen present in raw manure but in a more soluble form. In this form, the nitrogen is
more available to plants. However, the filtrate should be applied as close to the ground as
possible to avoid volatile ammonia emissions. Farmers must carefully manage land
application of filtrate to avoid overloading the soil with more nutrients than the plants can
use.

Keeping Waste Out of Landfills

Using urban wood waste for fuel reduces the volume of waste that otherwise would be
buried in landfills. The ash residue that remains after combustion of waste wood is less than
1 percent of the volume of the wood waste consumed. Uncontaminated ash can be used as a
soil amendment to add minerals and to adjust soil acidity.

Reducing Air Pollution

Field burning of agricultural residue emits particulate matter and other air pollutants.
Because of air quality concerns, state regulations have reduced the amount of open field
burning of grass seed straw in Oregon's Willamette Valley. Grass seed straw and other
agricultural residues are potential biomass fuels. These materials are suitable as fuel for
appropriately designed combustion boilers to produce heat, steam or electric power. They
are also potential feedstock for conver-sion to ethanol.

Smoke emissions from forest fires and slash burning adversely affect air quality. Removing
biomass from forested areas where an excess of dead wood has accumulated reduces forest
fire risk. Compared to the smoke emitted from forest fires and slash burning, the emissions
from using wood fuel for energy are far less harmful. Industrial combustion boilers with
pollution control equipment in place burn more efficiently and cleanly than open fires.

Residential woodstoves can be a major source of particulate air pollution. Improvements in

stove technology have made woodstoves more efficient and have reduced particulate matter
emissions by as much as 90 percent over older woodstoves and fireplaces. In 1983, Oregon
became the first state to enact regulations restricting woodstove emissions. New
woodstoves currently must meet certification standards of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.

Reducing Acid Rain and Smog

Air pollution from burning fossil fuels is the major cause of acid rain. Emissions of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen and
oxidants to form acidic compounds (sulfuric acid and nitric acid). Some of these
compounds fall to earth in the form of acid rain, snow or fog. Acid rain increases acidity of
lakes and streams and damages trees at high elevations. Acid rain accelerates the decay of
building materials and paints.

Aside from their contribution to acid rain, SO2 and NOx gases and their particulate matter
derivatives (sulfates and nitrates) contribute to smog and endanger public health. Tighter
control of these emissions is desirable in areas with frequent smog problems and in areas
protected for their pristine qualities.

Efficient combustion of biomass results in low emissions of SO2 and production of fewer
organic compounds that cause smog compared to emissions from facilities that burn coal or
oil. Co-firing biomass with coal can reduce SO2 and NOx emissions at coal-fired power
plants. The level of NOx emissions from biomass combustion facilities depends on the
design of the facility and the nitrogen content of the feedstock. Pollution control equipment
can further reduce NOx and particulate emissions.
Protecting Forests
Dense growth has limited the size and resiliency of trees in some forested areas of the state.
In the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon, for example, the health of large areas of
forestland has deteriorated. Similar conditions exist in forests throughout the Western
United States. In many areas the natural ecosystem has been significantly altered, creating a
high risk of intense wildfire. According to Western Forest Health and Biomass Energy
Potential, a study prepared for the Department of Energy, 39 million acres (about 30
percent) of National Forest land in the West is threatened by unnatural fuel accumulations.

The condition of the forest in these overgrown areas is not natural. It is largely the result of
fire suppression and past logging practices. Selective thinning would improve the general
health of the remaining trees and reduce the risk of fire. With less competition for nutrients
and water, the remaining trees would have a better chance of maturing into old growth
stands.

The surplus biomass that could be available from thinning unnaturally overgrown forest
areas is a large renewable energy resource. Carefully planned forest thinning activities can
preserve wildlife habitat and minimize soil erosion so that the use of forest biomass can be
done in a sustainable manner.

An Overview of Biomass Energy

Biomass is the organic matter in trees, agricultural crops and other living plant material. It is made up
of carbohydrates organic compounds that are formed in growing plantlife. Ever since the earliest
inhabitants of the region burned wood in their campfires for heat, biomass has been a source of
energy for meeting human needs in the Pacific Northwest.

Biomass is solar energy stored in organic matter. As trees and plants grow, the process of
photosynthesis uses energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates (sugars,
starches and cellulose). Carbohydrates are the organic compounds that make up biomass. When
plants die, the process of decay releases the energy stored in carbohydrates and discharges carbon
dioxide back into the atmosphere. Biomass is a renewable energy source because the growth of new
plants and trees replenishes the supply.

Over millions of years, natural processes in the earth transformed organic matter into todays fossil
fuels: oil, natural gas and coal. Fossil fuels are not renewable. The oil, natural gas and coal we use
today are gone forever.

The use of biomass for energy causes no net increase in carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere.
As trees and plants grow, they remove carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. If the
amount of new biomass growth balances the biomass used for energy, bioenergy is carbon dioxide
"neutral." That is, the use of biomass for energy does not increase carbon dioxide emissions and does
not contribute to the risk of global climate change. In addition, using biomass to produce energy is
often a way to dispose of waste materials that otherwise would create environmental risks.

Biomass sources provide about 3 percent of all energy consumed in the United States. In 2002,
biomass supplied about 47 percent of all renewable energy consumed in the United States. Electric
generation from biomass (exluding municipal solid waste) represents about 11 percent of all
generation from renewable sources in the United States. In fact, biomass supplied more energy to the
nation in 2002 than any other form of renewable energy, including hydroelectric power. Biomass
supplied almost six times the energy of geothermal, solar and wind energy sources combined.
Globally, biomass meets about 14 percent of the worlds energy needs.
The Department of Energy estimates that the total energy value of biomass fuel consumed in Oregon
was 79 trillion Btu in 2003. This is about 10 percent of the total amount of non-transportation energy
consumed in the state. Biomass supplies about 9 percent of all industrial energy consumed in the
state.

Living plant material is the source of all biomass fuel. Some biomass fuel resources are waste
products left over after plant materials have been used for other purposes or consumed by animals.
Other biomass resources are plant materials directly harvested for their energy value. Biomass fuels
are readily available throughout the world. Oregons biomass resources include wood, agricultural
crop residue and organic waste.

The Pacific Northwest generates as much as 1,000 trillion Btu of biomass fuel each year. However,
competing uses and the cost of collection and transportation limit the amount that is available for
energy production. Only one-third of the total biomass fuel generated annually may be economically
available for electric power production in the region.

The production of heat for industrial processes and for residential and commercial space heating
consumes the largest amount of biomass fuel in Oregon. Wood products industries burn wood chips,
bark and wood waste to supply heat for industrial processes. Some mills use biomass fuel to generate
electricity for on-site uses. Pulp mills burn the residual fiber and lignin components of spent pulping
liquor to recover and recycle pulping chemicals and to generate steam. Pellets and fuel logs
manufactured in Oregon and firewood collected from Oregon forests supply heat to homes.

Consumption of Renewable Energy in the United States

2002

Oregon Biomass Working Groups

The Oregon Biomass Coordinating Group provides support and oversight for the Agriculture,
Forest, and Urban Biomass Working Groups. These three separate working groups focus on
specific opportunities, barriers and solutions in the three sectors.

Special Reports
Report: Environmental Effects of Forest Biomass Removal, Office of the State Forester, Oregon
Department of Forestry. December 1, 2008

The U.S. Department of Energy has prepared a Biomass Energy Data Book about current biomass
energy production activity and the potential contribution biomass resources can make. This first
edition focuses on biomass conversion technologies and commercially utilized biomass resources.
http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/index.shtml

Ethanol From Biomass: Americas 21st Century Transportation Fuel [495 kb pdf, April 2005]
Recommendations by the Governors' Ethanol Coalitition for expanding ethanol production to include
lower-value, higher-availability feedstock such as grasses, straws, waste wood and corn stover.

Oregon Cellulose-Ethanol Study: An overview of ligno-cellulosic feedstock available in Oregon and an

assessment of the critical barriers and perceived risks to the development of commercial ethanol
production in Oregon using that feedstock.

Western Forest Health and Biomass Energy Potential: A report documenting forest conditions in the
West, the risk of wildfire and the role of a potential biomass energy market in forest restoration
projects.

Biomass Resource Assessment and Utilization Options for Three Counties in Eastern Oregon: An
assessment of the biomass feedstock resources in Baker, Union and Wallowa Counties and the use of
biomass for electric power generation or conversion to ethanol fuel.

The Ethanol Forum: A collection of information and reports about ethanol issues: energy balance,
sustainability, environmental impacts, health and economics.

Regional Partnership
Biomass Energy Partnership

In 1978, the Pacific Northwest became the first area of the country to organize a regional biomass
energy program. Congress recognized the advantages of a regional approach to bioenergy
development in 1983 and established the Regional Biomass Energy Programs. The U.S. Department of
Energy now administers five regional bioenergy programs throughout the country. These programs
encourage regionally specific applications of biomass energy technologies, matching local resources to
local energy needs and opportunities.

The Pacific Regional Biomass Energy Program supports applied research and technology
demonstration projects and bioenergy commercialization activities. It guides the work of state
bioenergy programs in Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Oregon and Washington.

Outside Links
Governors' Ethanol Coalition: A coalition of the Governors of thirty states and international
representatives from Brazil, Canada, Mexico, Sweden and Thailand, to increase the production and use
of ethanol based fuels.

Energy and Agriculture: The Oregon Department of Agricultures website on energy opportunities for
Oregons agricultural community.

USDA information on the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002: The "Farm Bill" includes an
Energy Title that provides new incentives for biomass energy development.
Idaho B20 Biodiesel Program

E85 Fleet Toolkit: US Department of Energy website on E85 fuel and infrastructure development.

Biomass Technology Chart

Conversion Major Biomass Energy or

Technology
Process Type Feedstock Fuel Produced

Direct Thermochemical wood heat

Combustion agricultural waste steam
municipal solid electricity
waste residential
fuels

Gasification Thermochemical wood low or medium-

agricultural waste Btu producer
municipal solid gas
waste

Pyrolysis Thermochemical wood synthetic fuel

agricultural waste oil (biocrude)
municipal solid charcoal
waste

Anaerobic Biochemical animal manure medium Btu

Digestion (anaerobic) agricultural waste gas (methane)
landfills
wastewater

Ethanol Biochemical sugar or starch ethanol

Production (aerobic) crops
wood waste
pulp sludge
grass straw

Biodiesel Chemical rapeseed biodiesel

Production soy beans
waste vegetable
oil
animal fats

Methanol Thermochemical wood methanol

 Production agricultural waste
municipal solid
waste

Industrial Biomass Combustion

Industrial biomass combustion facilities can burn many types of biomass fuel, including wood,
agricultural residues, wood pulping liquor, municipal solid waste (MSW) and refuse-derived fuel.
Combustion technologies convert biomass fuels into several forms of useful energy for commercial or
industrial uses: hot air, hot water, steam and electricity.

A furnace is the simplest combustion technology. In a furnace, biomass fuel burns in a combustion
chamber, converting biomass into heat energy. As the biomass burns, hot gases are released. These
hot gases contain about 85 percent of the fuels potential energy. Commercial and industrial facilities
use furnaces for heat either directly or indirectly through a heat exchanger in the form of hot air or
water.

A biomass-fired boiler is a more adaptable direct combustion technology because a boiler transfers the
heat of combustion into steam. Steam can be used for electricity, mechanical energy or heat. Biomass
boilers supply energy at low cost for many industrial and commercial uses.

A boilers steam output contains 60 to 85 percent of the potential energy in biomass fuel. The major
types of biomass combustion boilers are pile burners, stationary or traveling grate combustors and
fluidized-bed combustors.

Pile burners consist of cells, each having an upper and a lower combustion chamber. Biomass fuel
burns on a grate in the lower chamber, releasing volatile gases. The gases burn in the upper
(secondary) combustion chamber. Operators must shut down pile burners periodically to remove ash.
Although capable of handling high-moisture fuels and fuels mixed with dirt, pile burners have become
obsolete with the development of more efficient combustion designs with automated ash removal
systems.

In a stationary or traveling grate combustor, an automatic feeder distributes the fuel onto a grate,
where the fuel burns. Combustion air enters from below the grate. In the stationary grate design,
ashes fall into a pit for collection. In contrast, a traveling grate system has a moving grate that drops
the ash into a hopper.

Fluidized-bed combustors burn biomass fuel in a hot bed of granular material, such as sand. Injection
of air into the bed creates turbulence resembling a boiling liquid. The turbulence distributes and
suspends the fuel. This design increases heat transfer and allows for operating temperatures below
972 C (1700 F), reducing nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. Fluidized-bed combustors can handle
high-ash fuels and agricultural biomass residue.

Conventional combustion equipment is not designed for burning agricultural residues. Straws and
grasses contain potassium and sodium compounds. These compounds (called alkali) are present in all
annual crops and crop residues and in the annual growth of trees and plants. During combustion,
alkali combines with silica, which is also present in agricultural residues. This reaction causes slagging
and fouling problems in conventional combustion equipment designed for burning wood at higher
temperatures.

Volatile alkali lowers the fusion temperature of ash. In conventional combustion equipment having
furnace gas exit temperatures above 1450 F, combustion of agricultural residue causes slagging and
deposits on heat transfer surfaces. Specially designed boilers with lower furnace exit temperatures
could reduce slagging and fouling from combustion of these fuels. Low-temperature gasification may
be another method of using these fuels for efficient energy production while avoiding the slagging and
fouling problems encountered in direct combustion.

Cogeneration
Biomass combustion facilities that produce electricity from steam-driven turbine-generators have
a conversion efficiency of 17 to 25 percent. Using a boiler to produce both heat and electricity
(cogeneration) improves overall system efficiency to as much as 85 percent. That is, cogeneration
converts 85 percent of the fuels potential energy into useful energy in two forms: electricity and
steam heat.

Two cogeneration arrangements, or cycles, are possible for combining electric power generation with
industrial steam production. Steam can be used in an industrial process first and then routed through
a turbine to generate electricity. This arrangement is called a bottoming cycle. In the alternate
arrangement, steam from the boiler passes first through a turbine to produce electric power. The
steam exhaust from the turbine is then used for industrial processes or for space and water heating.
This arrangement is called a topping cycle. Of the two cogeneration arrangements, the topping cycle is
more common.

Direct-Fired Gas Turbine Technology

The direct-fired gas turbine is another combustion technology for converting biomass to electricity. In
this technology, fuel pretreatment reduces biomass to a particle size of less than 2 millimeters and a
moisture content of less than 25 percent. Then the fuel is burned with compressed air. Cleanup of the
combustion gas reduces particulate matter before the gas expands through the turbine stage. The
turbine drives a generator to produce electricity.

Co-Firing
Co-firing biomass as a secondary fuel in a coal-burning power plant using high-sulfur coal could help
reduce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. Also, CO-firing decreases net carbon dioxide
emissions from the power plant (if the biomass fuel comes from a sustainable source). CO-firing may
require wood fuel preparation or boiler modifications to maintain boiler efficiency.

Gasification
Gasification is a thermochemical process that converts biomass into a combustible gas called producer
gas. Producer gas contains carbon monoxide, hydrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, tar vapor and
ash particles. Gasification produces a low-Btu or medium-Btu gas, depending on the process used.

Producer gas contains 70 percent to 80 percent of the energy originally present in the biomass
feedstock. The gas can be burned directly for space heat or drying, or it can be burned in a boiler to
produce steam. Medium-Btu producer gas can be converted into methanol, a liquid fuel. Electric power
generation is possible by combining a gasifier with a gas turbine or fuel cell.
Filters and gas-scrubbers remove tars and particulate matter from producer gas. The clean gas is
suitable for use in an internal combustion engine, gas turbine or other application requiring a high-
quality gas. Use of producer gas in a fuel cell requires reforming clean gas into hydrogen ions and
carbon monoxide. Fuel cells produce electricity and thermal energy from hydrogen through an
electrochemical conversion process.

Gasification technology is in the development stage. There are a few demonstration projects that use
varied gasifier designs and plant configurations. However, pretreatment of biomass feedstock is
generally the first step in gasification. Pretreatment involves drying, pulverizing and screening.
Optimal gasification requires dry fuels of uniform size, with a moisture content no higher than 15
percent to 20 percent.

Biomass gasification is a two-stage process. In the first stage, called pyrolysis, heat vaporizes the
volatile components of biomass in the absence of air at temperatures ranging from 450 to 600 C
(842 to 1112 F). Pyrolysis vapor consists of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, volatile tars,
carbon dioxide and water. The residue, about 10 percent to 25 percent of the original fuel mass, is
charcoal.

The final stage of gasification is called char conversion. This occurs at temperatures of 700 to 1200
C (1292 to 2192 F). The charcoal residue from the pyrolysis stage reacts with oxygen, producing
carbon monoxide.

In the process of combustion, both stages of gasification occur. When wood burns, the heat of
combustion produces pyrolytic vapors. Some gasification of these vapors also occurs. In combustion,
however, the pyrolytic vapors are immediately burned at temperatures in the range of 1500 to 2000
C. In contrast, the process of gasification is controlled, allowing the volatile gases to be extracted at a
lower temperature before combustion.

Types of Gasifiers
There are three principal types of gasification systems: updraft, downdraft and fluidized-bed. In an
updraft (or "counterflow") gasifier, the biomass fuel enters the top of the reaction chamber while
steam and air (or oxygen) enter from below a grate. The fuel flows downward, and upflowing hot
gases pyrolyze it. Some of the resulting charcoal residue falls to the grate, where it burns, producing
heat and giving off carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O). The CO2 and H2O react with other
charcoal particles, producing carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) gases. The gases exit from
the top of the chamber. Ashes fall through the grate.

The updraft design is relatively simple and can handle biomass fuels with high ash and moisture
content. However, the producer gas contains 10 percent to 20 percent volatile oils (tar), making the
gas unsuitable for use in engines or gas turbines.

Successful operation of a downdraft (or "co-flow") gasifier requires drying the biomass fuel to a
moisture content of less than 20 percent. Fuel and air (or oxygen) enter the top of the reaction
chamber. Downflowing fuel particles ignite, burning intensely and leaving a charcoal residue. The
charcoal (which is about 5 to 15 percent of the original fuel mass) then reacts with the combustion
gases, producing CO and H2 gases. These gases flow down and exit from the chamber below a grate.
The producer gas leaving the gasifier is at a high temperature (around 700 C). Combustion ash falls
through the grate. The advantage of the downdraft design is the very low tar content of the producer
gas.

A fluidized-bed gasifier typically contains a bed of inert granular particles (usually silica or ceramic).
Biomass fuel, reduced to particle size, enters at the bottom of the gasification chamber. A high
velocity flow of air from below forces the fuel upward through the bed of heated particles. The heated
bed is at a temperature sufficient to partially burn and gasify the fuel. The processes of pyrolysis and
char conversion occur throughout the bed. Although fluidized-bed gasifiers can handle a wider range
of biomass fuels, the fuel particles must be less than 10 centimeters in length and must have no more
than 65-percent moisture content. The fluidized-bed design produces a gas with low tar content but a
higher level of particulate compared with fixed-bed designs.

If the gasifier is pressurized, it produces gas at a pressure suitable for electric power generation using
a gas turbine. High-pressure fuel-feed systems are in the development stage. Hot gas cleanup
technology is also under development. Hot gas cleanup removes tars, chars and volatile alkalis to
improve system efficiency.

Progress in the development of biomass-fired gas turbine technology may include combined-cycle
electricity generation. In a combined-cycle facility, a gas-fired turbine generator produces primary
power. Waste heat from the turbine exhaust is used to produce high-pressure steam, which then
drives a steam turbine to generate secondary power.

Pyrolysis
In a process known as fast pyrolysis, fine, low-moisture biomass fuel particles are heated rapidly to
temperatures in the range of 450 to 550 C (842 to 1022 F), resulting in liquid pyrolysis oil but
very little gas. The oil produced in fast pyrolysis is 60 percent to 75 percent of the original fuel mass.
It can be used as a synthetic fuel oil. Recent analysis suggests, however, that pyrolytic oils are more
valuable as chemicals for use in making other products.

Residential Fuels
Many Oregonians convert biomass to useful energy in their homes by burning wood in a fireplace or
woodstove. Newer forms of residential biomass fuels are pellets and manufactured logs. Charcoal
briquettes used in backyard barbecues are another common residential biomass fuel.

Pellets, briquettes and manufactured logs are different forms of densified fuels. These biomass fuels
are made from wood wastes, waste paper and cardboard, and agricultural residues. The first steps in
densification are reducing the biomass feedstock to particles inch or less in diameter and drying the
feedstock to a moisture content of 10 to 15 percent. Mechanical compression or extrusion then forms
the material into a product that has less than one-third of the feedstock's original volume.

Heat and compression soften the lignin bonds in the biomass, so that the final product maintains its
densified shape. Residual moisture in the feedstock turns to steam during compression and helps
lubricate the compression die. Some densification processes use additional binders or lubricants.
Different machines produce densified fuel products of different shapes and sizes, ranging from pea-
sized pellets to logs 12 inches long and 6 inches in diameter.

Modern pellet stoves are efficient home heating appliances. A conventional fireplace is less than 10-
percent efficient at delivering heat to a home. In contrast, average pellet stove efficiency is better
than 55-percent.

The use of pellet stoves in place of conventional wood stoves reduces the amount of particulate matter
in the air. This is especially beneficial in areas where wood smoke from home wood-heating is a major
component of local air pollution. In pellet stoves, particulate matter emissions are as much as 90-
percent lower than emissions from conventional wood stoves.