CHAPTER- 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Global warming and energy policies have become a hot topic on the international
agenda in the last years. Developed countries are trying to reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions. For example, the EU has committed to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gas to
at least 20% below 1990 levels and to produce no less than 20% of its energy consumption
from renewable sources by 2020 [1]. In this context, photovoltaic (PV) power generation has
an important role to play due to the fact that it is a green source.

Among various renewable energy systems, photovoltaic power generation systems

(PV systems) are expected to play an important role as a clean electricity power source in
meeting future electricity demands. However, the power output of PV systems fluctuates
depending on weather conditions. In future, when a significant number of PV systems will be
connected to the standalone loads or grids of power utilities, combined power output
fluctuations may cause problems like voltage fluctuation and large frequency deviation in
electric power system operation. In future, with an increasing penetration of PV generation,
their impact upon the overall control of the power system will be significant. This will lead a
situation where the PV generators will be required to share some of the duties, such as load
voltage control. Therefore, for the penetration of multiple or clustered PV systems output
power in the utility without reduction of the reliability of utility power systems, suitable
measures must be applied to the PV systems side

The efficiency of a PV plant is affected mainly by three factors: the efficiency of the
PV panel (in commercial PV panels it is between 8-15%), the efficiency of the inverter
(95-98%) and the efficiency of the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm
(which is over 98%). Improving the efficiency of the PV panel and the inverter is not easy as
it depends on the technology available, it may require better components, which can increase
drastically the cost of the installation. Instead, improving the tracking of the maximum power
point (MPP) with new control algorithms is easier, not expensive and can be done even in
plants which are already in use by updating their control algorithms, which would lead to an
immediate increase in PV power generation and consequently a reduction in its price.

1
 MPPT algorithms are necessary because PV arrays have a non-linear voltage-current
characteristic with a unique point where the power produced is maximum [2]. This point
depends on the temperature of the panels and on the irradiance conditions. Both conditions
change during the day and are also different depending on the season of the year.
Furthermore, irradiation can change rapidly due to changing atmospheric conditions such as
clouds. It is very important to track the MPP accurately under all possible conditions so that
the maximum available power is always obtained. In the past years numerous MPPT
algorithms have been published [3].such as the constant voltage tracking (CVT), the
incremental conductance (INC) method, the perturb-and-observe (P&O or hill-climbing)
method, and so on. At last, these algorithms modify the actual voltage in order to increase the
power output.

The CVT is very simple, but the constant voltage cant track MPP when solar
illumination changes so the constant voltage method is not often used in the true MPPT
strategy. The P&O method is based on the principle of perturbation and observation. The
majority of these methods are based on the perturbation and observation (P&O), which has
the advantage of simple operation. It is an iterative method of obtaining MPP. It measures the
PV array characteristics, and then perturbs the operating point of PV generator to encounter
the change direction. And incremental conductance method (INC) is also commonly used due
to the rapid response.

A general grid-connected PV system has more than one power-processing stage. The
first stage is a dc-dc converter which draws maximum available power from the solar array
by incorporating maximum-power point tracking (MPPT) and also increases the dc-link
voltage level.

The output of this stage is inverted using single or multilevel dc-ac inverter before
feeding into the grid. The reliability, compactness and cost effectiveness of the PV system
can be improved by employing a single stage power processing unit (dc-ac inverter). Inverter
in a single-stage system has to extract maximum available power from the solar array by
employing a proper MPPT algorithm and dumps the power derived on the grid by
maintaining power quality discipline of the grid.

A basic three-phase inverter consists of three legs. Each connected to one of the three
load terminals. Each leg consists of two switches. In order to realize the three-phase output

2
from a circuit employing dc as the input voltage a three-phase inverter has to be used. The
inverter is built of switching devices, thus the way in which the switching takes place in the
inverter gives the required output. For sinusoidal ac outputs, the magnitude and frequency are
controlled.

1.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

PV array is used to convert the light energy in to electrical energy but the efficiency
of the PV array is very low in between 8 to 12% because of this reason MPPT controller is
used to extract the maximum available power from the solar array.

There are three major approaches for maximizing power extraction in small, medium-
and large-scale systems. They are sun tracking, maximum power point (MPP) tracking or
both. MPP tracking is popular for the small-scale systems based uneconomical reasons. The
algorithms that are most commonly used are the perturbation and observation (P&O) method
[1], dynamic approach method and the incremental conductance algorithm. P&O method has
a simple feedback structure, fewer measured parameters and easy to implement. It operates
by periodically perturbing (i.e. incrementing or decreasing) the array terminal voltage and
comparing the PV output power with that of the previous perturbation cycle

Fig 1.1 Block diagram of the control strategy of PV system.

A basic three-phase inverter consists of three legs. Each connected to one of the three
load terminals. Each leg consists of two switches. In order to realize the three-phase output
from a circuit employing dc as the input voltage a three-phase inverter has to be used. The

3
inverter is built of switching devices, thus the way in which the switching takes place in the
inverter gives the required output. For the control strategy of the grid connected PV system
the p-q theory is applied. To control the inverters output current the hysteresis band current
control technique is applied. The block diagram schematic of the proposed solar energy
conversion scheme is shown in following Fig1.1.

A single stage energy conversion is considered by using a three-phase inverter in

order to improve the reliability and effectiveness of the PV system with a minimum cost in
which inverter is used to convert DC power into AC power and fed to grid and RC filter is
used to reduce the harmonic content.

1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

In this thesis chapter-2 gives the working of PV cell along with Maximum power
point tracking of PV system and different techniques of MPPT. Chapter-3 gives the working
of three phase inverter and different current controlling techniques. Chapter-4 gives working
of grid connected PV system with proposed control technique. Chapter-5 deals with
simulation model, results and discussions. In Chapter-6 conclusion and scope for future
works are discussed.

4
 CHAPTER-2
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Solar cells are the basic components of photovoltaic panels. Solar cells take advantage

of the photoelectric effect. The ability of some semiconductors to convert electromagnetic

radiation directly into electrical current. The charged particles generated by the incident

radiation are separated conveniently to create an electrical current by an appropriate design of

the structure of the solar cell, as will be explained in brief below. For further details, the

reader can consult references [4].

2.2 OPERATION

A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which is made from two different layers of
silicon doped with a small quantity of impurity atoms: in the case of the n-layer, atoms with
one more valence electron, called donors, and in the case of the p-layer, with one less valence
electron, known as acceptors. When the two layers are joined together, near the interface the
free electrons of the n-layer are diffused in the p-side, leaving behind an area positively
charged by the donors. Similarly, the free holes in the p-layer are diffused in the n-side,
leaving behind a region negatively charged by the acceptors. This creates an electrical field
between the two sides that is a potential barrier to further flow. The equilibrium is reached in
the junction when the electrons and holes cannot surpass that potential barrier and
consequently they cannot move. This electric field pulls the electrons and holes in opposite
directions so the current can flow in one way only: electrons can move from the p-side to the
n-side and the holes in the opposite direction. A diagram of the p-n junction showing the
effect of the mentioned electric field is illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Metallic contacts are added at both sides to collect the electrons and holes so the
current can flow. In the case of the n-layer, which is facing the solar irradiance, the contacts
are several metallic strips, as they must allow the light to pass to the solar cell, called fingers.

The structure of the solar cell has been described so far and the operating principle is
next. The photons of the solar radiation shine on the cell. Three different cases can happen:
some of the photons are reflected from the top surface of the cell and metal fingers. Those

5
that are not reflected penetrate in the substrate. Some of them, usually the ones with less
energy, pass through the cell without causing any effect. Only those with energy level above
the band gap of the silicon can create an electron-hole pair. These pairs are generated at both
sides of the p-n junction. The minority charges (electrons in the p-side, holes in the n-side)
are diffused to the junction and swept away in opposite directions (electrons towards the n-
side, holes towards the p-side) by the electric field, generating a current in the cell, which is
collected by the metal contacts at both sides.

Fig 2.1 working principle of p-n junction diode

This can be seen in the figure below, Figure 2.1. This is the light-generated current
which depends directly on the irradiation: if it is higher, then it contains more photons with
enough energy to create more electron-hole pairs and consequently more current is generated
by the solar cell.

2.3 TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS

Over the past decades, silicon has been almost the only material used for
manufacturing solar cells. Although other materials and techniques have been developed,
silicon is used in more than the 80% of the production [5]. Silicon is so popular because it is
one of the most abundant materials in the Earths crust, in the form of silicon dioxide, and it
is not toxic. Mono crystalline and polycrystalline silicon solar cells are the two major types of
silicon solar cells. There is a third type, amorphous silicon, but the efficiency is worse than
with the previous types so it is less used. Other new solar cells are made of copper indium
gallium selenide (CIGS) or cadmium telluride (CdTe). Much research and development
(R&D) effort is being made to develop new materials, but nowadays there are no commercial

6
substitutes to the above types of solar cells. In this section these different solar cells are
reviewed.

One of the most important characteristics of solar cells is the efficiency, which is the
percentage of solar radiation that is transformed into electricity. It is measured under
Standard test Conditions (STC), irradiance of 1000 W/m, air mass coefficient (it
characterizes the solar spectrum after the solar radiation has travelled through the
atmosphere) A.M 1.5, and a cell junction temperature of 25C. The higher efficiency, the
smaller surface is needed for a given power. This is important because in some applications
the space is limited and other costs and parameters of the installation depend on the installed
PV surface.

2.3.1 Monocrystalline solar cells

Mono crystalline solar cells are the most efficient solar cells. They are made from
wafers (very thin slices) of single crystals obtained from pure molten silicon. These single
crystal wafers have uniform and predictable properties as the structure of the crystal is highly
ordered. However the manufacturing process must be really careful and occurs at high
temperatures, which is expensive. The efficiency of these cells is around 15-18% [6] and the
surface needed to get 1 kW in STC is about 7m2.

2.3.2 Polycrystalline solar cells

These cells are also made from wafers of pure molten silicon. However, the crystal
structure is random: as the silicon cools, it crystallizes simultaneously in many different
points producing an irregular structure: crystals of random sizes, shapes and orientation.
These structures are not as ideal as in the mono crystalline cells so the efficiency is lower,
around 11-15% [6]. However the manufacturing process is less expensive, so the lower
efficiency is compensated in some way. The surface needed to obtain 1 kW in STC is about
8m2

2.3.3 Amorphous and Thin-Film solar cells

Amorphous silicon is the non-crystalline form of the silicon and it can be deposited as
thin films onto different substrates. The deposition can be made at low temperatures. The
manufacturing process is simpler, easier and cheaper than in the crystalline cells. The weak

7
point of these cells is their lower efficiency, around 6-8% [6]. This efficiency is measured
under STC. However, the performance under weaker or diffuse irradiation, such as that in
cloudy days, can be higher than in crystalline cells and their temperature coefficient is
smaller [24]. Amorphous silicon is also a better light absorber than crystalline, so despite
having low efficiency, the thin film is a competitive and promising technology. The first solar
cells were of thin-film technology. They have been used since the 1980s in consumer
electronics applications, such as calculators. In recent years it has also begun to be used in
high power applications due to the characteristics mentioned above. One common use
nowadays is as building cladding, for example in facades, as its price is competitive
compared with other high quality cladding materials and it offer the advantage of electricity
generation.

The main advantages of thin film technologies are the ease of manufacturing at low
temperatures using inexpensive substrates and continuous production methods, avoiding the
need for mounting individual wafers and the potential for lightweight and flexible solar cells.
These advantages are common to most of the thin-film solar cells, not only the ones made
from amorphous silicon.

Over recent years, one more type of silicon has been developed, microcrystalline
silicon [5]. It can also be deposited as thin-films onto different substrates, minimizing the
quantities of crystalline silicon needed and improving the efficiency of amorphous silicon.
However, the light absorption of microcrystalline silicon compared to amorphous silicon is
poor. The solution can be an effective light trapping to keep the incident light within the film.
This type of silicon is not a commercial technology yet and more R&D is needed.

There are other materials apart from silicon that can be used for manufacturing solar
cells. These compounds are also thin-film deposited, so they have the same advantages as the
silicon thin film solar cells but with a better efficiency. Among these compounds, two are
already used in commercial solar cells. They are CIGS and CdTe. The efficiency is around
10-13% [6] and it will rise in the following years as the technologies are improved. It is
commonly said that thin film technology is the way to achieve the grid parity, i.e. the point at
which the cost of generating electricity is equal, or cheaper than grid power [6].

The main disadvantages of these technologies are the toxicity of some of the
compounds and the shortage of some of the elements used. In the case of the CIGS, indium is

8
used. This element is not as abundant as silicon in the Earths crust and it is in high demand
for other electronics products such as liquid-crystal display (LCD) monitors, which has
generated a shortage and consequently a high price rise in the recent years. Moreover, to
create the p-n junction, CIGS is interfaced with cadmium sulphide (CdS), another
semiconductor. The problem is that cadmium is a heavy metal which is cumulatively
poisonous. In the case of CdTe, the other compound used in commercial thin film solar cells,
it is not as toxic as its individual components, but some precautions must be taken during the
manufacturing process.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) has been used for space applications mainly for two
reasons: firstly, it is less susceptible to suffer damage from the space radiation than silicon,
and secondly, due to its direct band gap of 1.42 eV, it can take advantage of a greater part of
the solar spectrum. Despite being a more expensive material, space projects can afford it as
cost is not the most important factor to decide the components. Nowadays it is being
investigated to be used in terrestrial PV applications using light concentrators (mirror or
lenses) to focus the light onto small cells, reducing the price as less material is required.
Triple junction GaAs cells have already passed 40% efficiency in the laboratory using light
concentrators [5]. The main handicap at present for this technology is that concentration
systems are expensive as they have to track the Sun along the day.

One other technology that is being actively researched is dye-sensitized cells [5].
These cells are made from artificial organic materials and are seen as part of the third
generation of solar cells. The efficiency of these cells is above that of amorphous silicon and
within the thin-film ones. The main advantage is that they work well under low and diffuse
light and their temperature coefficients are lower. The materials used are non-toxic and
abundant and their manufacturing processes are relatively simple. Flexible modules can
easily be made using flexible substrates and they can be used for building integrated PV:
roofs, windows, as they can be manufactured in many shapes, sizes and design criteria.

These last two paragraphs illustrate technologies that are being currently investigated.
They are non-commercial technologies yet, but it is expected that in the following years they
will become competitive and will be also used, increasing the possibilities of PV power
generation. The silicon and thin film solar cells described before are currently the
technologies used in commercial PV applications. Nevertheless, what is important for this
work is that all the different solar cells presented above have similar non-linear voltage-

9
current characteristics and are affected by irradiation and temperature in a similar way. The
only difference is that different type of cells have different levels of sensitivity, nevertheless
the same algorithms can be used to track the MPP.

2.4 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

A Photovoltaic (PV) system directly converts sunlight into electricity. The basic
device of a PV system is the PV cell. Cells may be grouped to form panels or arrays. The
voltage and current available at the terminals of a PV device may directly feed small loads
such as lighting systems and DC motors. More sophisticated applications require electronic
converters to process the electricity from the PV device. These converters may be used to
regulate the voltage and current at the load, to control the power flow in grid-connected
systems, and mainly to track the maximum power point (MPP) of the device. The
mathematical model of the PV device may be useful in the study of the dynamic analysis of
converters, in the study of MPP tracking (MPPT) algorithms, and mainly to simulate the PV
system and its components using circuit simulators.

2.4.1 Benefits

Solar electric systems offer many advantages, including the following:

They are safe, clean and quiet to operate

They are highly reliable
They require virtually no maintenance

2.4.2 Limitations

You should also be aware of the practical limitations of PV systems

Grid-connected systems are rarely economical, primarily because the current cost of
the PV technology is much higher than the cost of conventional energy.
Since these systems can be expensive, choosing a solar electric power system often
comes down to a personal lifestyle decision-just like the type of house or car you
might own.

2.5 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SOLAR CELL

The solar cell can be represented by the electrical model shown in Fig 2.2. Its Current-

10
 Voltage characteristic is expressed by the following equation (1):

q(VIRS )
VIRS
I = IL I0 (e AKT 1) (2.1)
RSH

where I and V are the solar cell output current and voltage respectively, I0 is the dark
saturation current, q is the charge of an electron, A is the diode quality (ideality) factor, k is
the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature and RS and RSH are the series and shunt
resistances of the solar cell. RS is the resistance offered by the contacts and the bulk
semiconductor material of the solar cell. The origin of the shunt resistance RSH is more
difficult to explain. It is related to the non-ideal nature of the pn junction and the presence of
impurities near the edges of the cell that provide a short-circuit path around the junction. In an
ideal case RS would be zero and RSH infinite. However, this ideal scenario is not possible and
manufacturers try to minimize the effect of both resistances to improve their products.
2.6 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PV ARRAY AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
The PV array is made up of number of PV modules connected in series called string
and number of such strings connected in parallel to achieve desired voltage and current. The
PV module used for simulation study consists of 36 series connected polycrystalline cells.

2.6.1 PV Model
The electrical equivalent circuit model of PV cell consists of a current source in
parallel with a diode as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig 2.2 Electrical Equivalent Circuit Model of PV Cell

From the electrical equivalent circuit of the PV cell, PV output current (IPV) is given by
IPV = IPh ID ISh (2.2)
q(VPV +IPV RS )
Where ID = IO (e KT 1) (2.3)

11
 VPV +IPV RS
And ISh = (2.4)
RSh

As the value of Rsh is very large, it has a negligible effect on the I-V characteristics of PV
cell or array. Thus (2.2) can be simplified to
q(VPV +IPV RS )
= IO (e KT 1) (2.5)

For PV array consisting of Ns series and Np parallel connected PV modules, (2.5) becomes,
q(VPV +IPV RS )
= { IO (e KTNs 1)} (2.6)

The parameters q, , k and T denote the electronic charge, ideality factor of the diode,
Boltzmann constant and temperature in Kelvin respectively. Iph is photocurrent, I0 is diode
reverse saturation current, IPV and VPV are the PV output current and voltage respectively.

2.6.2 PV Characteristics
The simulated I-V and P-V characteristics of the Solar ex PV module at constant
temperature and varying insolation are shown in Fig. 2.3(a) and Fig. 2.3(b) respectively. It can
be seen from Fig. 2.3(a) that the decrease in insolation reduces the current largely but voltage
fall is small. Fig.2.3 (b) shows that the reduction in isolation reduces the power largely as both
voltage and current are decreasing.

Fig 2.3 (a) I-V characteristics and (b) P-V characteristics of the Solar PV module at
constant temperature T=300C and varying irradiation.

The effect of temperature on I-V and P-V characteristics of Solar PV module is shown
in Fig. 2.4(a) and Fig. 2.4(b) respectively. It can be seen from Fig. 2.4(a) that the increase in
temperature reduces the open circuit voltage largely but rise in current is very small. Fig.

12
2.4(b) shows that the increase in temperature reduces the PV output power as the reduction in
the voltage is larger than the increase in current due to temperature rise.
Sometimes, to simplify the model, as in, the effect of the shunt resistance is not
considered, i.e. RSH is infinite, so the last term in (4) is neglected. A PV panel is composed of
many solar cells, which are connected in series and parallel so the output current and voltage
of the PV panel are high enough to the requirements of the grid or equipment.

Fig 2.4 (a) I-V characteristics and (b) P-V characteristics of the Solar PV module at constant
irradiation =1000W/m2 and different temperature.

Taking into account the simplification mentioned above, the output current-voltage
characteristic of a PV panel is expressed by equation (6), where np and ns are the number of
solar cells in parallel and series respectively.

2.7 SPECIFICATIONS OF PV CELL

Two important points of the current-voltage characteristic must be pointed out: the
open circuit voltage VOC and the short circuit current ISC. At both points the power generated
is zero. VOC can be approximated from (7) when the output current of the cell is zero, i.e. I=0
and the shunt resistance RSH is neglected. It is represented by equation (8). The short circuit
current ISC is the current at V = 0 and is approximately equal to the light generated current IL.

AKT I
VOC ln (IL + 1) (2.7)
q 0

ISC IL (2.8)

13
 The maximum power is generated by the solar cell at a point of the current-voltage
characteristic where the product VI is maximum. This point is known as the MPP and is
unique, as can be seen in Fig 2.5, where the previous points are represented.

Fig 2.5 Important points in the characteristic curves of a solar panel.

Using the MPP current and voltage, IMPP and VMPP, the open circuit voltage (VOC)
and the short circuit current (ISC), the fill factor (FF) can be defined as:
IMPP VMPP
FF = (2.9)
ISC VOC

It is a widely used measure of the solar cell overall quality. It is the ratio of the actual
maximum power (IMPPVMPP) to the theoretical one (ISCVOC), which is actually not
obtainable. The reason for that is that the MPP voltage and current are always below the open
circuit voltage and the short circuit current respectively, because of the series and shunt
resistances and the diode depicted in Fig 2.2. The typical fill factor for commercial solar cells
is usually over 0.70.
Two important factors that have to be taken into account are the irradiation and the
temperature. They strongly affect the characteristics of solar modules. As a result, the MPP
varies during the day and that is the main reason why the MPP must constantly be tracked and
ensure that the maximum available power is obtained from the panel. The effect of the
irradiance on the voltage-current (V-I) and voltage-power (V-P) characteristics is depicted in

14
Figure 2.3, the voltage and current are normalized using the VOC and the ISC respectively, in
order to illustrate better the effects of the irradiance on the V-I and V-P curves. As was
previously mentioned, the photo-generated current is directly proportional to the irradiance
level, so an increment in the irradiation leads to a higher photo-generated current. Moreover,
the short circuit current is directly proportional to the photo-generated current; therefore it is
directly proportional to the irradiance. When the operating point is not the short circuit, in
which no power is generated, the photo-generated current is also the main factor in the PV
current, as is expressed by equations (2.1) and (2.2). For this reason the voltage-current
characteristic varies with the irradiation. In contrast, the effect in the open circuit voltage is
relatively small, as the dependence of the light generated current is logarithmic, as is shown in
equation (2.4)
As the effect on both the current and voltage is positive, i.e. both increase when the
irradiation rises, the effect on the power is also positive: the more irradiation, the more power
is generated. The temperature, on the other hand, affects mostly the voltage. The open circuit
voltage is linearly dependent on the temperature, as shown in the following equation:
STC KV,%
VOC (T) = VOC + (T 273.15) (2.10)
100

According to (2.10), the effect of the temperature on VOC is negative, because Kv

is negative, i.e. when the temperature raises, the voltage decreases. The current increases
with the temperature but very little and it does not compensate the decrease in the voltage
caused by a given temperature rise. That is why the power also decreases. PV panel
manufacturers provide in their data sheets the temperature coefficients, which are the
parameters that specify how the open circuit voltage, the short circuit current and the
maximum power vary when the temperature changes. As the effect of the temperature on
the current is really small, it is usually neglected.
As was mentioned before, the temperature and the irradiation depend on the
atmospheric conditions, which are not constant during the year and not even during a single
day; they can vary rapidly due to fast changing conditions such as clouds. This causes the
MPP to move constantly, depending on the irradiation and temperature conditions. If the
operating point is not close to the MPP, great power losses occur. Hence it is essential to
track the MPP in any conditions to assure that the maximum available power is obtained
from the PV panel. In a modern solar power converter, this task is entrusted to the MPPT
algorithms.

15
2.8 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING ALGORITHMS

Under uniform solar irradiation conditions, PV panels exhibits a unique operating

point where PV power is maximized. The PV power characteristic is nonlinear considering a
single PV cell, which varies with the level of solar irradiation and temperature. In order to
track the continuously varying Maximum Power Point (MPP) of the solar array, the
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) should be applied in PV systems. The MPPT
scheme ensures the operation of system at Maximum Power Point regardless of
environmental conditions and load conditions. Since the existing solar cell technology does
not allow appreciably high conversion efficiencies, it is always endeavoured to have the high
conversion efficiencies using MPPT capability embedded with the solar PV system. Thus, in
order to overcome this problem, several methods for extracting the maximum power have
been proposed in the literature and a careful comparison of these methods can result in
important information for the design of these systems. Some of the popular and important
MPPT techniques are presented.

While the IV curve for a photovoltaic cell, module, or array defines the
combinations of voltage and current that are permissible under the existing ambient
conditions, it does not by itself tell us anything about just where on that curve the system will
actually be operating. This determination is a function of the load into which the PVs deliver
their power.

As shown in Fig.2.5 the same voltage is across both the PVs and load, and the same
current runs through the PVs and load. Therefore, when the I V curve for the load is plotted
onto the same graph that has the I V curve for the PVs, the intersection point is the one spot
at which both the PVs and load are satisfied. This is called the operating point. Since power
delivered to any load is the product of current and voltage, there will be one particular value
of resistance that will result in maximum power. The operating point of the module varies
throughout the day depending on intensity of solar radiation, temperature etc.

Fig. 2.5 shows, the characteristic curves with a fixed resistance and it can be seen that
the operating point slips off the MPP as conditions change and the module becomes less and
less efficient. The purpose of MPPT is to keep the PVs operating at their highest efficiency
point at all. MPPT is an electronic instrument that extracts maximum power available from

16
PV array at any given instant. It ensures that maximum amount of power that generated by
PV array is transferred to load.

2.8.1 Perturb and Observe Method

Perturb & Observe (P&O) is the simplest method. In this we use only one sensor, that
is the Voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less
and hence Easy to implement. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less but on
reaching very closes to the MPP it doesnt stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing on both
the directions. When this happens the algorithm has reached very close to the MPP and we
can set an appropriate error limit or can use a wait function which ends up increasing the time
complexity of the algorithm..

Start

Inputs V(t), I(t), V(t-1), I(t-1)

P(t), P(t-1) are calculated
from the inputs

P=P(K)-P(K-1)
V=V(K)-V(k-1)

Yes
P=0

No Yes

Yes
P > 0

No

V(K)>0 V(K)>0

No
No Yes
Yes

Increase V Decrease Increase V Decrease

ref Vref ref Vref

Return

Fig 2.6 The flowchart of P&O algoritham

However the method does not take account of the rapid change of irradiation level (due to
which MPPT changes) and considers it as a change in MPP due to perturbation and ends up
calculating the wrong MPP. To avoid this problem we can use incremental conductance
method.

17
 The P&O algorithm is also called hill-climbing, but both names refer to the same
algorithm depending on how it is implemented. Hill-climbing involves a perturbation on the
duty cycle of the power converter and P&O a perturbation in the operating voltage of the DC
link between the PV array and the power converter. In the case of the Hill-climbing,
perturbing the duty cycle of the power converter implies modifying the voltage of the DC
link between the PV array and the power converter, so both names refer to the same
technique.

In this method, the sign of the last perturbation and the sign of the last increment in
the power are used to decide what the next perturbation should be. The, left of the MPP
incrementing the voltage increases the power whereas on the right decrementing the voltage
increases the power. If there is an increment in the power, the perturbation should be kept in
the same direction and if the power decreases, then the next perturbation should be in the
opposite direction. Based on these facts, the algorithm is implemented [3]. The process is
repeated until the MPP is reached. Then the operating point oscillates around the MPP. This
problem is common also to the In Cond method, as was mention earlier. A scheme of the
algorithm is shown in Figure 2.6

2.8.2 Incremental Conductance Method

The incremental conductance algorithm is based on the fact that the slope of the curve power
vs. voltage (current) of the PV module is zero at the MPP, positive (negative) on the left of it
and negative (positive) on the right

Incremental conductance method uses two voltage and current sensors to sense the
output voltage and current of the PV cell.

At MPP the slope of the PV curve is 0.

()
[] = (2.11)

0 = I + [] (2.12)

[] = - I/V (2.13)

18
 Incremental conductance method uses two voltage and current sensors to sense the
output voltage and current of the PV array. At MPP the slope of the PV curve is 0.

The left hand side is the instantaneous conductance of the solar panel. When this
instantaneous conductance equals the conductance of the solar then MPP is reached. Here we
are sensing both the voltage and current simultaneously.

Start

Sensed V(K) and I(K)

I=I(K)-I(K-1)
V=V(K)-V(k-1)

No Yes
V>0

Yes
I=0

Yes
I/V>-I/V
No Yes
I>0
No

Yes
V(K)>V(K-1) V=Vref-v V=Vref+v

No

V=Vref+v V=Vref-v

I(t)=I(t-dt), V(t)=V(t-dt)

Return

Fig 2.7 Incremental conductance flow chart

Hence the error due to change in irradiance is eliminated. However the complexity
and the cost of implementation increase. As we go down the list of algorithms the complexity
and the cost of implementation goes on increasing which may be suitable for a highly
complicated system. This is the reason that Perturb and Observe and Incremental
Conductance method are the most widely used algorithms. Owing to its simplicity of
implementation we have chosen the Perturb & Observe algorithm for our study among the
two.

19
2.8.3 Ripple Correlation Control Method

Ripple correlation control (RCC), is a recently proposed and attractive MPPT

technique that is currently under research [7] to track the maximum power of a single array.
The main advantages of RCC include the asymptotic convergence to the MPP and the
utilization of the ripple available in the power electronic converter instead of using external
perturbation [6, 7].

The main operation concept of the RCC is that it correlates the time varying PV array
power with the time varying PV array current or voltage. From the basic PV array P-I curve
shown in Figure 2.8 it is clear that if the current (i) of the array is increasing and the power
(p) is increasing then the time derivatives of (p) and (i), (p) and (i), are both positive, and
thus their product is positive.

Fig 2.8 P-I characteristics of solar Array

Therefore, if we know these time derivatives we could notice that the operating point on the
curve is before the MPP (Region A of the curve in Figure 2.8). On the other hand, if (p) is
decreasing, then the product of (p) and (i) is negative and the operating point is after the
MPP (Region B of the curve in Figure 2.8).

2.8.4 Fuzzy Logic Control

Microcontrollers have made using fuzzy logic control popular for MPPT over last
decade. Fuzzy logic controllers have the advantages of working with imprecise inputs, not
needing an accurate mathematical model, and handling nonlinearity [12].

20
 2.8.5 Neural Network control
Another technique of implementing MPPT which are also well adapted for
microcontrollers is neural networks. Neural networks commonly have three layers: input,
hidden, and output layers the number nodes in each layer vary and are user-dependent.

MPPT Technique PV dependent? True Analog or Periodic Convergence Implementation Sensed parameters
MPPT? digital Tuning Speed Complexity

Hill-climbing No YES Both No Varies Low Voltage,

/P&O current

Inc Cond No YES Digital No Varies Medium Voltage,

current

Fractional Yes No Both Yes Medium Low Voltage

Voc

Fractional Isc Yes No Both Yes Medium Medium Current

Fuzzy logic
control Yes Yes Digital Yes Fast High Varies
Neural
network Yes Yes Digital Yes Fast High Varies
RCC No Yes Analog No Fast Low Voltage,
current

Table 2.1 Comparison of MPPT Techniques

The input variables can be PV array parameters like and , atmospheric data
like irradiance and temperature, or any combination of these. The output is usually one or
several reference signals like a duty cycle signal used to drive the power converter to operate
at or close to the MPP [4].

21
2.9 CONCLUSION
This chapter describes the principle of working and characteristics of the PV cell. The
mathematical model of PV cell is presented. Different techniques has been presented for
maximum power point tracking (MPPT), such as Incremental conductance method, fractional
open circuit voltage, fractional short circuit current, Perturb and Observe (hill-climbing)
method. The majority of these methods are based on the perturbation and observation (P&O),
which has the advantage of simple operation and easy to implemented.

22
 CHAPTER -3
MULTI LEVEL INVERTERS

3.1 Inverter:

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating

current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of
appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits.

Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications,
from small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct
current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC
power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.

The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because

early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were
"inverted", to convert DC to AC.

3.2 Multilevel inverters:

Multilevel power conversion technology is a very rapidly growing area of power

electronics with good potential for further development. The most attractive application of
this technology is in the medium-to-high-voltage range, and includes motor drives, power
distribution, and power conditioning applications.

In general multilevel inverter can be viewed as voltage synthesizers, in which the high output
voltage is synthesized from many discrete smaller voltage levels. The main advantages of this
approach are summarized as follows.

They can generate output voltages with extremely low distortion and lower ( d v /d t ).
They draw input current with very low distortion.
They can operate with a lower switching frequency.
Their efficiency is high (>98%) because of the minimum switching frequency.
They are suitable for medium to high power applications.
Multilevel waveform naturally limits the problem of large voltage transients.

23
3.2.1 SINGLE PHASE FIVE LEVEL INVERTER

The single phase five level inverter topology considered here is shown in the Fig.3.

Fig. 3.1 Single phase five level inverter topology

The five level inverter topology consists of a full bridge inverter with an auxiliary circuit

consisting of a diode bridge as shown in Fig. 3.

The operating principle of the inverter is to generate five levels of voltage. ie, Vin,

Vin/2, 0, -Vin/2, -Vin. The half voltage level in the output voltage can be obtained by

switching the auxiliary circuit switch properly. The pulse width modulation scheme for the

five level inverter is as follows: Two reference signals Vref1 and Vref2 are compared with a

high frequency carrier signal, Vtri at the same time. If Vref1 exceeds the peak amplitude of the

carrier, then Vref2 will be compared with the carrier until it reaches zero. After that Vref1 will

be compared with Vtri. Fig. 3.2 shows the PWM law and the switching signals for the single

phase five level inverter

24
Fig.3.2 PWM law and switching pattern for the single phase five level inverter

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Vinv
ON OFF OFF OFF ON +Vpv/2
OFF ON OFF OFF ON +Vpv
OFF OFF Or OFF Or ON Or ON Or 0
ON ON OFF OFF

ON OFF OFF ON OFF -Vpv/2

OFF OFF ON ON OFF -Vpv

Table 3.1 Inverter output voltage during switches S1-S5 on and off

3.2.2 SINGLE PHASE SEVEN LEVEL INVERTER

The single phase seven level inverter topology considered here is shown in the Fig. 5.

This topology was actually derived from the five level inverter discussed in section IV. It

comprises of single phase conventional H-bridge inverter, two bidirectional switches and a

capacitor voltage divider formed by C1, C2, and C3 as shown in Fig.5. This topology has got

25
many advantages over other topologies like it requires only less number of power switches,

power diodes and capacitors for the same number of voltage levels.

Fig. 3.3 Single phase seven level inverter topology

The operating principle of the inverter is to generate seven levels of voltage. ie, Vin,
Vin/3, 2Vin/3, 0, -Vin/3, -2Vin/3, -Vin. The intermediate voltage levels in the output voltage
can be obtained by proper switching. The PWM for the seven level inverter requires three
reference signals Vref1, Vref2, and Vref3. These three reference signals were compared with a
carrier signal (Vcarrier). The reference signals had the same frequency and amplitude and were
in phase with an offset value that was equivalent to the amplitude of the carrier signal. The
reference signals were each compared with the carrier signal. If Vref1 had exceeded the peak
amplitude of Vcarrier, Vref2 was compared with Vcarrier until it had exceeded the peak
amplitude of Vcarrier. Then, onward, Vref3 would take charge and would be compared with
Vcarrier until it reached zero. OnceVref3 had reached zero, Vref2 would be compared until it
reached zero. Then, onward,Vref1 would be compared with Vcarrier. The switching pattern for
the seven level inverter is shown in Fig.3.4.

26
 Fig.3.4 Switching pattern for the seven level inverter
Table II shows the output voltage level Vinv of the inverter during the switches S1-S6 on and
off.
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 Vinv
ON OFF OFF ON OFF OFF Vdc
OFF OFF OFF ON ON OFF 2Vdc/3
OFF OFF OFF ON OFF ON Vdc/3
OFF OFF ON ON OFF OFF 0
OFF ON OFF OFF ON OFF -Vdc/3
OFF ON OFF OFF OFF ON -2Vdc/3
OFF ON ON OFF OFF OFF -Vdc

Table 3.2 Inverter output voltage during switches S1-S6 on and off

As previously mentioned, three different major multilevel converter structures have

been applied in industrial applications: cascaded H-bridges converter with separate dc
sources, diode clamped, and flying capacitors. Before continuing discussion in this topic, it
should be noted that the term multilevel converter is utilized to refer to a power electronic
circuit that could operate in an inverter or rectifier mode. The multilevel inverter structures

27
are the focus of in this chapter; however, the illustrated structures can be implemented for
rectifying operation as well

3.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CURRENT CONTROL STRATEGIES

This section presents the considered control techniques, providing for each of them
both a short description of the basic features and the discussion of the main refinements
characterizing the state-of-the-art implementations.

3.3.1 Hysteresis current control technique

The basic implementation of hysteresis current controller derives the switching signals from
the comparison current errors with a fixed hysteresis band.

For the control of the output current of the inverter we will apply the hysteresis band
current control technique, which is shown in figure 3.3 [10]. With this method we create a
zone around the reference current trying to keep the inverters output current within this zone.
The advantages of hysteresis control technique are:

1. Simple application.
2. Very good dynamic behaviour.
3. Fast response.

Fig 3.5 Diagram of hysteresis band current control technique.

The hysteresis current control defines the timing and duration of each pulse. The switching
logic for phase a is summarized as follows:

If the inverters output current reaches the zones upper limit then the upper switch is
OFF and the lower switch is ON.

28
 If the inverters output current reaches the zones lower limit then the upper switch is ON
and the lower switch is OFF .The switching functions for phases b and c are determined
similarly.

3.3.2 Linear Current Control

The conventional version of the linear current controller performs a sine-triangle

PWM voltage modulation of the power converter using as the modulating signal the current
error filtered by a proportional integral (PI) regulator. It is worth noting that we have here
considered the original analog implementation of the PWM technique, since it ensures to the
system the fastest possible speed of response. A sudden change in the modulating signal is
indeed instantaneously turned into a duty-cycle variation, without the unavoidable delay
equal to one-half of the modulation period, in the case of space-vector modulation (SVM), or
to a whole modulation period, in the case of sampled PWM. The application of these
modulation techniques can only reduce the systems speed of response.

3.3.3 Digital Deadbeat Control

The advantages of the digital current control can be achieved by adopting an improved
version of the well-known deadbeat control technique.

In the conventional implementation, the digital control calculates the phase voltage,
so as to make the phase current each its reference by the end of the following modulation
period. The calculations are often performed in the , frame, and the space-vector
modulation (SVM) strategy, which very well suits the digital implementation, is applied to
the switching converter.

An important advantage of this technique is that it may not require the line voltage
measurement in order to generate the current reference. Indeed, the deadbeat controls
algorithm implies an estimation of the line voltage instantaneous value, which can, therefore,
also be used for the current reference generation.

The inherent delay due to calculations is indeed a serious drawback for this technique
due high required speed of response it becomes the main limitation and many unsatisfactory
performance levels.

29
 These delay is reduced by sampling and control variables executing the control
routines twice in modulation period the turn and turn of times of power converter switches
are therefore decided seperately in to successive control periods. According the control
algorithm interpolates the reference value for the current modulation period from those
cslculated in preceeding ones.

3.4 CONCLUSION

This chapter describes the operation of three phase full bridge inverter with 1200
conduction mode in detail and different types of current control techniques were presented.
Among all the current control techniques presented hysteresis current control techniques is
having fast response, dynamic behaviour and easy to implement.

30
 CHAPTER-4
GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Grid interconnection of photovoltaic (PV) power generation system has the advantage
of more effective utilization of generated power. However, the technical requirements from
both the utility power system grid side and the PV system side need to be satisfied to ensure
the safety of the PV installer and the reliability of the utility grid.

Grid-connected solar Photovoltaic (PV) systems employ the direct conversion of

sunlight into electricity which is fed directly into the electricity grid without storage in
batteries. This will be a very good way to boost the existing electricity production capacity in
the country, which is mainly from hydro and thermal sources. This will contribute positively
to the worsening energy situation in the country. Solar energy, being a renewable source, will
also provide energy without pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions.

4.2 BASIC COMPONENTS OF GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEM

The basic Grid Connected PV system design has the following components:

PV ARRAY: A number of PV panels connected in series and/or in parallel giving a DC

output of the incident irradiance. Orientation and tilt of these panels are important design
parameters, as well as shading from surrounding obstructions.

Fig 4.1 Diagram of Grid Connected System

31
INVERTER: A power converter that 'inverts' the DC power from the panels into AC power.
The characteristics of the output signal should match the voltage, frequency and power
quality limits in the supply network.

TRANSFORMER: A transformer can boost up the ac output voltage from inverter when
needed. Otherwise transformer less design is also acceptable.

LOAD: Stands for the network connected appliances that are fed from the inverter, or
alternatively, from the grid.

METERS: They account for the energy being drawn from or fed into the local supply
network.

PROTECTIVE DEVICES: Some protective devices is also installed, like under voltage
relay, circuit breakers etc. for resisting power flow from utility to SPV system.

OTHER DEVICES: Other devices like dc-dc boost converter, ac filter can also be used for
better performance.

4.3 TYPES OF GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

PV technology was first applied in space, by providing electricity to satellites. Today,

PV systems can be used to power just about anything on Earth. On the basis working
operation PV systems operate in four basic forms [11].

4.3.1 Reliability of the Grid Systems

These systems are connected to a broader electricity network. The PV system is

connected to the utility grid using a high quality inverter, which converts DC power from the
solar array into AC power that conforms to the grids electrical requirements. During the day,
the solar electricity generated by the system is either used immediately or sold off to
electricity supply companies. In the evening, when the system is unable to supply immediate
power, electricity can be bought back from the network.

4.3.2 Hybrid System

A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of power generation, usually a diesel
generator. Biogas is also used. The other form of power generation is usually a type which is

32
able to modulate power output as a function of demand. How evermore than one form of
renewable energy may be used e.g. wind and solar. The photovoltaic power generation serves
to reduce the consumption of non-renewable fuel.

4.3.3 Grid tied with Battery Backup PV system

Solar energy stored in batteries can be used at night time. Using net metering, unused
solar power can be sold back to the grid. With this system, you will have uninterruptable
power.

4.3.4 Importance of grid Connected System

Because as day by day the demand of electricity is increased and that much demand
cannot be meeting up by the conventional power plants. And also these plants create
pollution. So if we go for the renewable energy it will be better but throughout the year the
generation of all renewable energy power plants. Grid tied PV system is more reliable than
other PV system. No use of battery reduces its capital cost so we go for the grid connected
topology. If generated solar energy is integrated to the conventional grid, it can supply the
demand from morning to afternoon (total 6 hours mainly in sunny days) that is the particular
time range when the SPV system can fed to grid. As no battery backup is there, that means
the utility will continue supply to the rest of the time period. Grid-connected systems have
demonstrated an advantage in natural.

4.4 GRID CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

In this project the connection of PV system on the grid takes place in one stage using
voltage source inverter. Number of PV cells are grouped together to form a PV array.
Number of PV arrays is connected in series and parallel to obtain more voltage and current.

Based on the P&O algorithm and output voltage of the PV array is changed the
maximum power point changes simultaneously. For the implementation of P&O algorithm
directly to the inverter, the switching elements of the inverters must be approximately pulsed
so that every moment the voltage capacitor of the DC bus is equal to the reference voltage
which is given by MPPT algorithm. Therefore the algorithm brings in, the capacitor voltage
and PV current as a inputs, the desirable PVs voltage as a output.

33
 This control strategy is exactly similar to a vector control where the current is oriented
along the direct and quadrature axis of a reference frame attached to Synchronously
rotating Grid voltage space vector and hence the name Voltage Oriented Control [13]. A
conventional PLL is used to monitor the grid voltage angle which is used for
transformation to Synchronous reference frame. A voltage controlled IGBT inverter can be
used as the power electronic converter. For the control of the output current of the inverter we
will apply the hysteresis band current control technique.

Fig 4.2 Grid connected PV system

An inverter converts direct current (DC) produced by the PV array to alternating

current (AC) and transformer stepped up the voltage level as need for export to the grid. Grid
interactive PV systems can vary substantially in size. However all consist of solar arrays,
inverters, electrical metering and components necessary for wiring and mounting.

4.5 CONDITIONS FOR GRID INTERFACING

There are some conditions to be satisfied for interfacing or synchronizing the SPV
system with grid or utility. If proper synchronizing is not done then SPV potential cannot be
fed to the grid. The conditions for proper interfacing between two systems are discussed
below:

34
4.5.1 Phase Sequence Matching

Phase sequence of SPV system with conventional grid should be matched otherwise
synchronization is not possible. For a three phase system three phases should be 120 deg
phase apart from each other for both the system.

4.5.2 Frequency Matching

Frequency of the SPV system should be same as grid. Generally grid is of 50 Hz frequency
capacity, now if SPV systems frequency is slightly higher than grid frequency (0.1 to 0.5)
synchronization is possible but SPV system frequency should not be less than grid frequency.

4.6 PHASE LOCKED LOOP(PLL)

Grid synchronisation requires grid phase angle. So, the wind turbine control should
accommodate an algorithm capable of detecting the phase angle of grid voltage in
order to synchronize the delivered power. Moreover, the phase angle plays an
important role in control, being used to transform the feedback variables to a suitable
reference frame in which the control structure is implemented. Hence, phase angle
detection has a significant role in control of the grid side converter in a wind turbine.

Vq*=0
Wff

vq 1
PI Mode
Va s
dq controller (2)
vb
vd
vc abc

Fig 3.3 Block diagram of 3 phase PLL

Numerous research works are reporting several algorithms capable of detecting the
grid voltage phase angle, i.e. Zero crossing detection, the use of arc tan function or phase-
locked loop (PLL) technique.

35
4.6 Conclusion

This chapter describes the basic components of grid connected PV system, types of
grid connected PV systems, conditions for grid interfacing in detail and phase locked loop.

36
 CHAPTER-5
SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter deals with the simulation, results and observations made for the proposed
system model. All the simulations have been done with output filter and the results are
presented below.

5.1. PV SYSTEM

5.1.1Simulink model 1 MW PV panel

Fig .5.1 Mathematical model of PV panel

The figure 5.1 shows the mathematical model of 1MW PV panel. Based up on the
equation (2.6) Mathematical model of PV panel was developed in simulink which is shown in
fig 5.1

37
 Simulation Parameters for 1 MW PV panel are shown below.

ISC short circuit current = 1610 A

IMP max power current = 1590A

VMP max power output = 630V

VOC open circuit voltage = 720 V

With the irradiance =10002 .

.
(a) P-V Graph (b) I-V Graph
Fig.5.2. P-V, I-V graphs for 1 MW PV panel

From the figure 5.2 it is evident that maximum power point varies with respect to
variation of irradiance but the voltage at which maximum power occurs is independent of
irradiation.

38
5.1.2 Simulation results of 1 MW PV panel with MPPTcontroller

Fig 5.3 voltage, current and power outputs of a PV panel

From the figure 5.3 we can say that for the input of the light energy with the constant

irradiation 10002 .The PV panel converts these light energy into electrical energy ,we obtain

the panel output voltage is 630V ,output current and power are 1590A and 1MW
respectively.

39
5.2. PV FED INVERTER WITH STANDALONE LOAD

5.2.1. Simulink model of PV fed inverter with standalone load

Fig 5.4 Simulink model of PV fed inverter with standalone load

Figure 5.4 shows the simulink model of PV fed inverter with standalone load. Inverter
converts the DC into the required AC.simulation results are given bellow

Simulation parameters:

Input dc voltage =650V,

Switching frequency =1 kHz,

Operating frequency =50 Hz in 1200 conduction mode,

Capacitor = 0.01 F

Standalone load = 1 MW

40
5.2.2. Simulation results of PV fed inverter with standalone load

Fig 5.5(a) inverter input voltage, current, power waveforms of three phase inverter

From the Fig 5.5(a) shows inverter input voltage, current, power waveforms of three
phase inverter which are 650V,1590A and 1MW respectively.

41
 Fig 5.5(b) output voltage, current, power waveforms of the standalone load

From the Fig 5.5(b) shows the 3-phase output voltage, current, power wave forms of
the standalone load where fundamentals voltage and current are 8809V and 72.2A
respectively. Which are shown in figure 5.5(C).

42
 Fig 5.5(C) harmonic content in voltage and current of standalone load

From the figure 5.5(c) shows the harmonic content in standalone load voltage and
current are 4.37 %( THD) and 4.37 %( THD) respectively.

43
5.3 .GRID INTERFACED PV FED INVERTER

5.3.1. Simulation Model of Grid interfaced PV fed inverter

Fig 5.7 Simulation model of grid connected PV system.

In order to reduce the total harmonic distortion an R-C filter has been used.A
complete simulation model of grid connected PV system using single stage VSC baed
Inverters is shown in figure 5.7

44
5.3.2. Simulation results of Grid interfaced PV fed inverter

Fig5.7 (a) Inverter input voltage, current, power

From the figure 5.8(a) shows that the inverter input voltage, current, power ,with the

constant irradiation 1000 2 .we obtain the inverter input voltage is 630V ,inverter input

current and power are 1590A and 1MW respectively.

45
 Fig 5.7(b) Grid voltage, current, power wave forms

From the figure 5.7(b) shows the grid voltage, current, power waveforms of the PV
fed inverter with grid interfacing with filter. We obtain the grid voltage, current, power are
33KV, 8A and 1MW respectively.

46
 Fig 5.7(c) harmonic content in grid voltage

From the figure 5.7(c) shows the harmonic content in grid voltage. It is observed that
the fundamental voltage is30.07kv and 0.57%( THD).

47
 Fig 5.7(d) Harmonic content in grid current

From the figure 5.8(d) shows the harmonic content in grid current. It is observed that
the fundamental current is7.827 (A) and 0.57 %( THD).

48
5.3.3 Step change in irradiation
solar irradiation(W/m 2)

1000

800

600
3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0
time(sec)
1000
Vp-out

500

0
3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0
time(sec)
2000
Ip-out

1000

0
3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0
6
x 10 time(sec)
2
Pp-out

1
0
3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0
6 time(sec)
x 10
2
P-grid

0
3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0
time(sec)

Fig 5.8 Step change in irradiation, voltage, current and power outputs of a PV panel

From the figure 5.8 we can say that the step change in irradiation from1000 2 to

8002 . It clear that the dc link voltage changes with solar irradiation to track the maximum

power from solar panel. It is also observed that the maximum power point varies from 1MW
to 0.8MW with variation of the irradiation.

49
 CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION

6.1. CONCLUSION

This project provides detailed discussion about the modelling and control aspects of
grid connected VSC based single stage solar based PV system with the inclusion of Multi-
level inverter for better power quality. Synchronous voltage oriented control and voltage
PWM control has been discussed in order to familiarise the project. This project reveals a
detailed discussion about modelling and control aspects of the grid connected solar based
system. The Simulink model of proposed design has been observed using MATLAB
simulation. A detailed explanation of each sub-blocks were also provided. The electrical
quantity variations in the PV panel were observed and steady state conditions for different
irradiations. The power quality of the grid voltage and grid current were found to be well
within IEEE standards for grid connected system. Dynamic behaviour of the system has been
provided and stability of has been verified. MPPT has been verified in the simulations more
over there is a good improvement in the proposed modelled project.

MULTI LEVEL INVETER TOPOLOGY FOR 1MVA GRID INTERFACED

SINGLE STAGE SOLAR INVERTER

50
6.2 FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK

The main objectives set for this project work has been successfully achieved.
However, it has been felt during the course of this project that there is further scope to
establish and develop technologies for grid connected and autonomous systems, which can be
further investigated, are as follows

1. An investigation may be made to study the fault ride through capabilities of grid connected
solar based PV systems.

2. An investigation may be made to study the low voltage ride through (LVRT) capabilities
of grid connected solar based PV systems.

51
 APPENDIX

A) Program for P&O algorithms

1 - function [vmp , ppv]=fcn(vdc , idc , vdcp, idcp)
2 - pdc=vdc*idc;
3 - pdcp=vdcp*idcp;
4 - pd=pdc-pdcp;
5 - vd=vdc-vdcp;
6 - if(pd>1)
7- if(vd<0)
8- vdc=vdc+0.1;
9- else
10 - vdc=vdc-0.1;
11 - end
12 - else if(vd>0)
13 - vdc=vdc+0.1
14 - else
15 - vdc=vdc-0.1
16 - end
17 - end
18 - vmp=vdc;
19 - ppv=vdc*idc;

52
B) Switching characteristics of controllable switch (IGBT/MOSFET)

Consider a single controllable switch (IGBT/MOSFET) connected across a DC

voltage of value . Current through switch during ON time is considered as . Fig. B.1
shows the waveforms of voltage across and current through the switch when it is operated at
a switching frequency of = 1 / , where Ts is the switching period. To simplify the
expressions the switching waveforms are represented by linear approximations.
Instantaneous voltage and current through the switch can be expressed as,

(t) = - ( - )
,

i(t) =
,

Fig-B.1 Linearized switching characteristics of controllable switch (IGBT/MOSFET)

53
 Table 1: Differential between IGBT and MOSFET
IGBT
Preferred conditions:
Low duty cycle
Narrow or small line or load Variations
High-voltage applications (>1000V)
Operation at high junction temperature
is
allowed (>100C)
>5kW output power
Typical IGBT applications include:
Motor control: Frequency <20 kHz,
short circuit/in-rush limit protection
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS):
Constant load, typically low Frequency
Welding: High average current, low
frequency (<50 kHz), ZVS circuitry
Low-power lighting: Low frequency
(<100 kHz)
54
MOSFET
Preferred condition:
High frequency applications (>200kHz
Wide line or load variations
Long duty cycles
Low-voltage applications (<250V
< 500W output power
Typical MOSFET applications include:
Switch mode power supplies (SMPS):
Hard switching above 200kHz
Switch mode power supplies (SMPS):
ZVS below 1000 watts
Battery charging
(C) Synchronous reference frame theory

This control strategy is exactly similar to a vector control where the current is oriented
along the direct and quadrature axis of a reference frame attached to Synchronously
rotating Grid voltage space vector and hence the name Voltage Oriented Control [13]. A
conventional PLL is used to monitor the grid voltage angle which is used for
transformation to Synchronous reference frame. A voltage controlled IGBT inverter can be
used as the power electronic converter.

Fig C.1 Schematic diagram of Grid connected PWM inverter

Fig.4.3 shows block diagram of a PWM inverter. Let Va, Vb, Vc be the grid voltage, uA,
uB, uC be the voltage at the terminals of inverter and iA, iB, iC be the line currents and L is the
filter inductance.

Grid side voltage equations on stationary reference frame can be represented as follows:

= (C.1)

= sin( 2
3
) (C.2)

= ( 4
3
) (C.3)

Transforming these equations to a frame synchronous rotating with grid voltage space
vector, we get

55

2 2
sin ( ) ( + 3 )
3
( )= 23 ( 2 2
) ( )=T (C.4)

( ) ( + 3 )
3

( )

Control of grid inverter is done by aligning the d-axis of the rotating coordinates on
the grid voltage space phasor Vs as shown in Fig C.2, where Us is the output voltage space
vector of the grid- connected inverter, Is is the output current space vector for grid-connected
inverter, is power factor angle.

Us d
Vi

Vr
Vs

Is

Fig C.2 Space vector diagram of grid voltage

The inductance voltage Vi equals the difference between Vs and Us neglecting the
resistance voltage drop. and are the stationary coordinates. The output voltages of a
balanced 3-phase system on synchronous dq frame are expressed by

2 2
( ) ( )
( ) =(sin 3 3 )( ) (C.5)

2 2
sin ( 3 ) ( + 3 )

Assuming

+R = (C.6)

+R = (C.7)

In order to make the output track the reference current, the PI-type current controller
can be utilized. In this case, the output voltage of the current controllers is as follows

= ( )+ ( ) (C.8)

56
 = ( )+ ( ) (C.9)

From above equations the d and q-axis reference output voltage of inverter can be obtained as

= + + (C.10)

= + + (C.11)

These voltages can be transformed back to stationary 3 phase frame as shown below and can
be used as the reference voltage to control the inverter.

2 2
( ) ( )
( ) =(sin 3 3 ) ( ) (C.12)
2 2

sin ( 3 ) ( + 3 )

After transformation the real and reactive power can be given by following equations

2 3
P= 3 ( , , + , , ) p = 2 , (C.13)

2 3
Q= 3 ( , , , , ) Q = , (C.14)
2

From above equation it is clear that transforming all voltages and currents to synchronous
reference frame enables decoupled control of real and reactive power by controlling and
current components respectively.

On simplifying above equation we get

( ) =( ) -L ( ) -R( )+L( ) (C.15)

The output voltage of the grid-connected inverter in the synchronous d-q frame are given by

( ) = ( )+L ( ) +R( )-L( ) (C.16)

57
 REFERENCES

[1] N. Femia, G. Petrone, G. Spagnuolo, M. Vitelli, "Optimizing sampling rate of P&O

MPPT technique," in Proc. IEEE PESC, 2004, pp. 1945- 1949.
[2] T. Esram and P.L. Chapman, "Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum Power
Point Tracking Techniques," IEEE Trans. on Energy Conv., vol. 22, no. 2, pp.439-449,
June 2007.
[3] P. A. Lynn, Electricity from Sunlight: An Introduction to Photovoltaics, John Wiley &
Sons, 2010, p. 238
[4] P. A. Lynn, Electricity from Sunlight: An Introduction to Photovoltaics, John Wiley&
Sons, 2010, p. 238.
[5] Norjasmi Bin Abdul Rahman, Inverter Topologies for Photovoltaic Systems,
Masters Thesis, Dept. Electrical Engineering, Aalto University School of Science and
Technology, Espoo, Finland, 2010.
[6] Lazek S. Czarnecki, Instantaneous Reactive Power p-q Theory and Power Properties
of Three-Phase Systems, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery Vol. 21 No. 1,
January 2006 nxu Duan
[7] Fangrui Liu, Sha Fei Liu, Bangyin Liu and Yong Kang, An Variable Step Size INC
MPPT Method for PV Systems, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 55,
No. 7, July 2008.
[8] Marian P. Kazmierkowski, Luigi malesani, Current Control Techniques for Three-
Phase Voltage-Sourece PWM Converters: A Survey, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics Vol. 45 No. 5, October 1998.
[9] Eung-Sang Kim, Seul-Ki Kim, Gwon-jong Yu. A study on interconnection operation of
photovoltaic generation system to power distribution system. In Technical digest of the
international PVSEC-12, Korea; 2001. p. 40710.

[10] L.-R. Chen, R. C. Hsu, and C.-S. Liu, A design of a grey-predicted Li-ion battery
charge system, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 10, pp. 36923701, Oct. 2008.
[11] F. Iov, M. Ciobotaru, D. Sera, R. Teodorescu and F.Blaabjerg, Power Electronics and
Control of Renewable Energy Systems, PEMD 2007, Bangkok, pp. 6-28
[12] Mohamed A. Eltawil, Zhengming Zhao, Grid - connected photovoltaic power systems:
Technical and potential problems-A review, ELSEVIER Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews 14 (2010), pp. 112- 129

58
[13] Roberto Faranda, Sonia Leva, Energy comparison of MPPT techniques for PV
Systems, WESAS TRANSACTION on POWER SYSTEMS, Issue 6, Volume 3, June
2008.
[14] Peftitsis D., Adamidis G., Bakas P., Balouktsis A., Photovoltaic system MPP Tracker
investigation and implementation using DSP engine and buck boost DC-DC
converter EPE-PEMC 2008
[15] Huajum Yu, Junmin Pan, An Xiang, A multi-function grid-connected PV system with
reactive power compensation for the grid, ELSEVIER Solar Energy 79 (2005) 101-
106
[16] M. Marian P. Kazmierkowski, Luigi malesani, Current Control Techniques for Three-
Phase Voltage-Sourece PWM Converters: A Survey, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics Vol. 45 No. 5, October 1998
[17] B. Bana Sharifian, Y. Mohamadrezapour, M. Hosseinpour and S. Torabzade, Single-
Stage Grid Connected Photovoltaic System with Reactive Power Control and Adaptive
Predictive Current Controller, Journal of Applied Sciences, 2009 ISSN 1812-5654.
[18] Tomas Skocil, Manuel Perez Donsion, Mathematical Modelling and Simulation of
Photovoltaic Array, ICREPQ 2008
[19] The European Union climate and energy package, (The 20 20 20 package),
http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/eu/package_en.htm [Accessed 28/10/2011].
[20] Sunny Family 2010/2011 - The Future of Solar Technology, SMA product
catalogue,2010.[Online].Available:http://download.sma.de/smaprosa/dateien/2485/SOL
ARKAT-KUS103936W.pdf [Accessed 14/12/2010].
[21] From site www. Solartradingpost.com.

59