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Precipitation
When the water/moisture in the clouds/atmosphere gets too heavy, the
water/moisture falls back to the earth. This is called precipitation.
Types of Precipitation:
Drizzle
Rain
Freezing rain
Sleet
Snow
Hail
Measurement Units:
Amount of precipitation/rain (mm or inch)
It is measure as total depth of rainfall over an area in one day.
Intensity of precipitation/rain (mm/hr or inch/hr)
It is the amount of precipitation at a place per unit time (rain rate). It
is expressed as mm/hr or inch/hr
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Measurement of Precipitation
Why do we need to measure rainfall?
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Measurement of Precipitation
Method of measuring rainfall:
Instrument used to collect and measure the precipitation is called rain gauge and the location
at which raingage is located is called gauging station.
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Measurement of Precipitation
Non-recording (Manual) types:
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Measurement of Precipitation
Non-recording (Manual) types:
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Measurement of Precipitation
Recording (Automatic) types:
Tipping bucket gauges
Weighing type gauges
Float recording gauges
Tipping bucket rain gauge -The bucket tips when precipitation of 0.2 mm,
0.5 mm, 1.0 mm has been collected. Each tip is recorded by a data logger.
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Measurement of Precipitation
Recording (Automatic) types:
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Measurement of Precipitation
Recording (Automatic) types:
Weather Station -
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Measurement of Precipitation
Recording (Automatic) types:
Radar -
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Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network
Catchment area: An extent of land where water from precipitation drains into a
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body of water
Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommendation:
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Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network
Placement of rainguages
Gauges are affected by wind pattern, eddies, trees and the
gauge itself, therefore it is important to have the gauge located
and positioned properly.
Raingauges should be
1m above ground level is standard -
All gauges in a catchment should be the same height
2 to 4 times the distance away from an isolated object (such as a
tree or building) or in a forest a clearing with the radius at least the
tree height or place the gauge at canopy level
shielded to protect gauge in windy sites or if obstructions are
numerous they will reduce the wind-speed, turbulence and eddies.
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Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network
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Measurement of Precipitation
Raingauge Network
For sloping ground the gauge should be placed with the opening
parallel to the ground
The rainfall catch volume (mm3) is then divided by the opening area
that the rain can enter
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Measurement of Precipitation
Sources of Errors
Instrument error
Observer error
Errors due to different observation times
Error due to occult precipitation
Errors due to low-intensity rains
Any-other ?
_________________________________
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Preparation of Data: Missing Data
Methods
Station-average method
Normal-ratio method
Inverse-distance weighting
Regression
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Preparation of Data: Missing Data
Station Average Method
1 n
PX = Pi
n i=1
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Preparation of Data: Missing Data
Example
Find out the missing storm precipitation data of station X given in following
table using station averaging method
Station 1 2 X 3 4
1 n 1
PX = Pi = (3.8 + 3.25 + 4.6 + 3.15) = 3.7in
n i =1 4
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Preparation of Data: Missing Data
Normal Ratio Method
PX 1 P1 P2 Pn 1 n Pi
= + + ..... + or PX = N X
N X n N1 N 2 Nn n i=1 Ni
PX is the missing precipitation value for station X for a certain time period
P1, P2, , Pn are precipitation values at adjacent stations for the same period
NX is the long-term, annual average precipitation at station X
N1, N2, , Nn is the long-term precipitation for neighboring stations
n is the number of adjacent stations
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Preparation of Data: Missing Data
Example
Find out the missing storm precipitation data of station X given in following
table
Station 1 2 X 3 4
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Preparation of Data: Missing Data
Example
Find out the missing storm precipitation data of station X given in following
table
Station 1 2 X 3 4
Example
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Preparation of Data: Missing Data
Inverse Distance Weighing
1 n
b
3. P =
X di Pi
W i= 1
PX is the missing precipitation value for station X for a certain time
period
Pi are precipitation values at adjacent stations for the same period
n is the number of neighboring stations
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Preparation of Data: Missing Data
Regression
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Preparation of Data: Consistency of Data
Double Mass Curve Technique
Lets take a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the neighbourhood of the
problem station X is selected
Arrange the data of stn X rainfall and the average of the neighbouring
stations in reverse chronological order (from recent to old record)
Accumulate the precipitation of station X ( Px ) and the average values of
the group base stations ( Pavg ) starting from the latest record.
Plot the ( Px ) against ( Pavg ) as shown on the next figure
A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is observed that
indicates a change in precipitation regime of station X, i.e., inconsistency.
Therefore, data at stn X should be corrected/adjusted as
Pcx=(Mc/Ma)*Px
Mc is slope of data before breakpoint
Ma is slope of line after breakpoint
Pcx is corrected precipitation at StationX
Px is original precipitation at StationX
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Double Mass Curve Analysis
5
accumulated annual rainfall of X stn in 10^3 cm
4.5
4
Ma
3.5
Break Point
a Mc c
3
c
=
2.5 Ma a
2
1.5
0.5 Mc
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Accumulated annual rainfall of neigbouring stns in 10^3 cm
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M a
Mc corrected slope of the double mass curve
Ma original slope of the mass curve after break
Preparation of Data: Consistency of Data
Double Mass Curve Technique
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Preparation of Data: Consistency of Data
Double Mass Curve Technique
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Preparation of Data: Consistency of Data
Double Mass Curve Technique
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Preparation of Data: Consistency of Data
Double Mass Curve Technique
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Part II
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Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall
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Rainfall Intensity, cm/hr
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time, min
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Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall
45
40
A n n u a l ra i n f a l l , m m
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30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Years
Annual Precipitation
average precipitation
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Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall
Source: Gary R Fuelner, Rainfall and climate records from Sharjah Airport: Historical data for
38 the study of recent climatic periodicity in the U.A.E.
Temporal Averaging of Precipitation
Storm rainfall/precipitation: It is the precipitation of a particular
storm/rainfall event.
P
i =1
i
Pavg =
N
Where Pavg is average rainfall for N years and Pi is annual rainfall for ith
year
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Temporal Averaging of Precipitation
Estimate average monthly and annual precipitation from given data
Pi
Pavg = i =1
= (18.8 + 25 + 22.1 + 7.2 + 0.4 + 0 + 0.8 + 0 + 0 + 1.1 + 2.7 + 16.2 ) / 12 = 7.86mm
N
Annual Precipitation ?
365 12
Pann = Pi Pann = Pi
i =1 i =1
Pann = (18.8 + 25 + 22.1 + 7.2 + 0.4 + 0 + 0.8 + 0 + 0 + 1.1 + 2.7 + 16.2 ) = 94.3
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Climate data for Dubai
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high 31.6 37.5 41.3 43.5 47.0 46.7 49.0 48.7 45.1 42.0 41.0 35.5 49
C (F) (88.9) (99.5) (106.3) (110.3) (116.6) (116.1) (120.2) (119.7) (113.2) (107.6) (105.8) (95.9) (120.2)
Average 24.0 25.4 28.2 32.9 37.6 39.5 40.8 41.3 38.9 35.4 30.5 26.2 33.4
high C (F) (75.2) (77.7) (82.8) (91.2) (99.7) (103.1) (105.4) (106.3) (102) (95.7) (86.9) (79.2) (92.1)
Average 14.3 15.4 17.6 20.8 24.6 27.2 29.9 30.2 27.5 23.9 19.9 16.3 22.3
low C (F) (57.7) (59.7) (63.7) (69.4) (76.3) (81) (85.8) (86.4) (81.5) (75) (67.8) (61.3) (72.1)
Record low 6.1 6.9 9.0 13.4 15.1 18.2 20.4 23.1 16.5 15.0 11.8 8.2 6.1
C (F) (43) (44.4) (48.2) (56.1) (59.2) (64.8) (68.7) (73.6) (61.7) (59) (53.2) (46.8) (43)
Precipitatio
18.8 25.0 22.1 7.2 0.4 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 1.1 2.7 16.2 94.3
n mm
(0.74) (0.984) (0.87) (0.283) (0.016) (0) (0.031) (0) (0) (0.043) (0.106) (0.638) (3.711)
(inches)
Avg. precipit
5.4 4.7 5.8 2.6 0.3 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.2 1.3 3.8 25.2
ation days
% humidity 65 65 63 55 53 58 56 57 60 60 61 64 59.8
Mean
monthly sun 254.2 229.6 254.5 294.0 344.1 342.0 322.4 316.2 309.0 303.8 285.0 256.6 3,511.4
shine hours
Pi
i =1
Pavg =
N
Where, Pavg is the average precipitation, N is the total number of stations and
Pi is the average annual precipitation for ith station.
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Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Raingauges rainfall represent only point sampling of the areal
distribution of a storm
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Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Arithmetic Mean Method
When the area is physically and climatically
homogenous and the required accuracy is small,
the average rainfall ( P ) for a basin can be
obtained as the arithmetic mean of the Pi values
recorded at various stations.
Applicable rarely for practical purpose
N
P1 + P2 + ..... + Pi + .....Pn 1
P =
N
=
N
P
i =1
i
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Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Thiessen Polygon Method
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Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Thiessen Polygon Method
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Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Thiessen Polygon Method
P7
P6
A7
A6
P2
A2
A1
A8 A5
P1
P8 P5
A3 A4
P3
P4
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Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Thiessen Polygon Method
P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ..... + Pm Am
P =
( A1 + A2 + ..... + Am )
Generally for M station
PA i i M
Ai
P = i =1
Atotal
=
i =1
Pi
A
Ai
The ratio is called the weightage factor of station i
A
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Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Thiessen Polygon Method
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Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Thiessen Polygon Method
Ai Ai
Pi = Pi
A A
M
Ai
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Mean precipitation =
i =1
Pi
A =121.84
Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Isohyetal Method
An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude.
10.0
8
D
6 C A5
12
9.2
12
A4
7.0 A3
4 B
7.2
A
A2 E 10.0
9.1
4.0
F A1
8
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6
4
Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Isohyetal Method
P1, P2, P3, . , Pn the values of the isohytes
A1, A2, A3, ., A4 are the inter isohytes area respectively
Atotal the total catchment area
P - the mean precipitation over the catchment
P1 + P2 P2 + P3 Pn1 + Pn
A1 + A2 +...+ An1
P= 2 2 2
Atotal
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Pi + Pi+1 Ai Ai
Pavg = Ai Pavg
2 Atotal Atotal
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Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data
Isohyetal Method
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Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Relationship
Hyetograph
- is a plot of the precipitation against time
Hyetograph of a storm
Total depth = 10.6 cm
0.5
Duration = 48 hr
Intensity, cm /hr
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
08 8 16 16 24 24 32 32 40 40 48
Time, hours
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Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Relationship
60
50
40
30 1st storm,
16 mm
20 2nd storm,
34 mm
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, hour
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Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF)
Relationship
Example: The mass curve of rainfall in a storm of total duration 270
minutes is given below. Draw the hyetograph of the storm at 30 minute
time step.
Time since start (min) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Cumulative Rainfall (mm) 0 6 18 21 36 43 49 52 53 54
Incremental depth in
interval of 30 min (mm) 6 12 3 15 7 6 3 1 1
Rainfall intensity (mm/hr) 12 24 6 30 14 12 6 2 2
Hyetograph
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Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
30
25
20
15
10
0
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
59 Time (min)
Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF)
Relationship
Return Period (T) - The average length of time in years for an event (e.g.
flood or rainfall) of given magnitude to be equalled or exceeded.
For example, if the rainfall with a 50 year return period at a given location
is 200mm, this is just another way of saying that a rainfall 200mm, or
greater, should occur at that location on the average only once every 50
years.
Basic Relationships
T=1/P or P=1/T
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Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF)
Relationship
Probability analysis may be made either by empirical or by analytical
methods.
A simple empirical technique is to arrange the given annual extreme series
in descending order of magnitude and to assign an order number, m. Thus
for the first entry m=1 and for the second entry m=2 and so on, till the last
event for which m=N=number of years of record. The probablity, P, of an
event equalled to or exceeded is given by the Weibul formula.
M
P=
N +1
1 N +1
T= =
P m
IDF Curve
x i Intensity (cm/hr)
kT
i = n
D Duration (hours)
(D + a ) K, x, a, n are constant for a given
catchment
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Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Relationship
14
T = 25 years
12
In tesity, cm /h r
T = 50 years
10 T = 100 years
8
6 k = 6.93
4 x = 0.189
2 a = 0.5
n = 0.878
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Duration, hr
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Thank you
Questions.
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