Satellite Dish Installation Guide

Installing a dish antenna yourself is not difficult. This guide shows you in an easy-to-follow
approach, how to select your dish, choose the best location, install, and eventually fine tune
your satellite antenna for the best reception.

Installing a Satellite TV System

A complete satellite TV system installation is a two-stage process:

Installation of the satellite dish itself and the Installation of an appropriate decoder to receive
the television programming from your service provider.

However, prior to moving on with this two-stage satellite TV installation process, you need to
select and purchase a satellite TV kit. This consists of the satellite dish and related mounting
kit, high-grade RF coaxial cable, and the satellite TV receiver, or decoder.

Selecting your Dish Antenna for Satellite TV Reception

It is important to invest a little bit of some thought here prior to choosing your satellite dish to
avoid unnecessary expense later on; the type of satellite dish you use - and receiver - will
eventually determine the kind of TV programming you will be able to receive.

Low Noise Block-down Converters: A few basics

Equally important is deciding on the number of LNBs. LNB's/LNBF are low noise 'block'
down-converters. An LNBF is an LNB with an integrated feedhorn. Most LNB's in use today
are actually LNBF's. The term 'low noise' relates to the quality of the amplification and
mixing that takes place inside the LNB.

LNB's sit in front of the actual parabola of the dish, at the end of the arm projecting from the
satellite dish. Their purpose is to receive, amplify and down convert the required 'blocks' of
microwave frequencies to lower 950MHz to 1.45GHz L-band frequency signals; these are
then sent to the satellite TV receiver or IRD (integrated receiver decoder), via RG-6 coax
cable.

The number of LNB's determines the number of satellites a satellite dish can 'see' since a
separate LNB is required to receive signals from satellites in different orbital positions.
Satellite TV service providers use multiple satellites to deliver their content - implying that
multiple LNBs are required to receive all television programming supported by a satellite TV
service provider.

LNB's use an antenna probe inside the feedhorn to pick up the signal focused by the satellite
dish. The probe has to be aligned mechanically in a vertical or horizontal direction (or left
and right hand circular polarization for DBS satellites) in line with the polarization of the
signal transmitted by the satellite transponders. This dual polarization is used by satellites to
avoid interference between adjacent channels, and is achieved by assigning even and odd
transponders on the satellite, different polarization.
LNBF's employ a dual antenna probe setup inside the throat of the feedhorn with one aligned
vertically and the other horizontally (or left and right). Switching to the correct polarized
probe is carried out electronically via a voltage sent up the coaxial cable by the receiver.

Feedhorn Installation Tips

Proper installation and adjustment of the feedhorn is critical to system performance. It is

particularly important if you are installing a feedhorn that receives Ku-Band signals. In order
to find the correct focal distance for tracking, the feedhorn must be at the correct distance
from the center of the dish, properly oriented, centered and perpendicular to the plane of the
antenna. Follow the alignment procedure outlined below:

1 - Set the scalar ring adjustment for the f/D ratio that is called for in the antenna
specifications. If you do not know the f/D ratio, you can calculate the focal distance and f/D
ratio yourself using a formula.

2 - Rotate the feed to it's proper orientation using the "polar axis template". The polar axis is
a line that runs through the center of the dish pivot points. It is the axis around which the dish
will rotate. Another way to look at it is ...... If your dish is positioned so that it is pointing at
it's highest point of travel (the zenith of the arc)...... when you stand directly in front of the
dish, the "polar axis" runs from 12 o'clock to 6 o'clock. Proper orientation in these terms
means that you point the arrow of the polar axis template at 12 o'clock (directly in line with
the axis). If you do not have a template, you can get close by siting down the long side of the
servo motor; pointing it at about 11 o'clock.

3 - Centering the feed in the dish is also critical to proper reception. This can be done by
measuring from the feedhorn to at least 3 different points around the rim of the dish (i.e.
measure from the feed to the left side, right side and bottom). The 3 measurements should be
equal. Use the adjustments in the feed support legs (or guy wires if you have a buttonhook
support) to make any necessary adjustments.

4 - The opening in the feedhorn (face) should be parallel to the face of the antenna (dish). The
easiest way to check this is to use an inclinometer or universal protractor. Check the angle at
the center of the dish and across the throat of the feedhorn; the measurements should be the
same.

The f/D ratio and scalar rings - why it is important to set properly
Proper setting of f/D on the feedhorn allows the feedhorn to take advantage of all of the
signal being reflected off of the dish, without receiving interfering ground noise or terrestrial
interference.

The f/D ratio is the focal distance of the dish (f), divided by the diameter (D). When dealing
with most prime focus antennas, the number should come out between .28 and .42. If you
notice, most of those numbers are also on scale on the side of the feedhorn. You simply set
the top edge of the scalar ring even with the line that corresponds to your correct f/D setting.

What this adjustment actually does is determines how wide of an angle the feedhorn can
"see". If the dish is very deep(example: 10ft diameter dish that is 24 in. deep), having an f/D
of .28 for example, then the focal distance is relatively short. When that is the case, the focal
distance is often only a few inches greater than the depth of the dish. Therefore, the feed
needs to be able to "see" nearly straight to the side of the opening in the throat.

Conversely, if the dish is very shallow (example: 10ft diameter dish that is 11 in. deep), the
f/D ratio would be closer to .42 and the focal distance would be much longer. In that case, the
feed would need to have an narrower field of view so it would "see" the whole dish, yet not
see past the edge of the dish.

Formulas for calculating focal distance and f/D ratios

To calculate the focal distance, you have to measure the diameter (D) and the depth (d) of the
dish. Measurements should be in like units (you can't use feet for the diameter and inches for
depth). For the example, we will say we have a dish that is 120 inches in diameter (D) and 18
inches deep (d).

focal distance (f) equals the diameter squared (D x D) divided by 16 times the depth (16 x d)
or :

D x D = 120 x 120 = 14400

16 x d = 16 x 18 = 288
D x D/16 x d = 14400/288 = 50

focal distance f = 50 inches

After you have calculated the focal distance (f), you can use that figure to calculate the f/D
ratio of your dish. In this case, using the same diameter (D) = 120; and the calculated focal
distance (f) = 50

f / D = 50 / 120 = .416
f /D = .416 which you would round up to give you a setting of .42

The list below shows how far the throat is out from the scalar rings for different f/D settings.

EXAMPLE: A dish with a .42 f/D will have the throat about flush with the rings.

Inches --- f/D

.12 ------- .42
.32 ------- .40
.52 ------- .38
.72 ------- .36
.92 ------- .34
1.12 ----- .32
 Determining the Focal Point of a Satellite Dish

Feedhorn Troubleshooting Tips

How to recognize a polarity problem

Polarity problems are usually very easy to recognize. They are usually indicated by the fact
that every other channel is bad. You will notice that on some satellites, only the even
numbered channels will come in, while on other satellites only the odd numbered channels
will come in. This happens because the probe inside the feedhorn will not turn the 90 degrees
that is required to change from a horizontally polarized channel to a vertically polarized
channel. If your satellite system is several years old, the problem is most likely that the servo
motor that drives the probe has failed. Here are some steps to take to find the problem:

1 - Use a volt meter to check the voltage at the back of your receiver to make sure that the
voltage is coming out of your receiver. The connector to check is usually labeled "Polarizer
+5v" or Polarity +5v". Disconnect the wires that go to the dish and measure the +5 connector
to GND. You should have approximately +5 to +6.5 volts dc. Receivers put out a constant +5
supply, so the voltage should be there as long as the receiver is turned ON. Other brands of
receiver may only put out the +5 when the channel is being changed or when the
polarity/skew is being adjusted.

2 - Check for dc voltage at the pulse connector. The pulse output is what tells the servo motor
how far to turn the probe. You will read from .2 to .9 (+)volts dc here. In most receivers, this
voltage will only be present when the channel is being changed or when the polarity/skew is
being adjusted.

3 - If the receiver is putting out the proper voltages on the pulse and +5v connectors, re-
connect the wires that go to the dish. Then, go out to the dish and remove the feedhorn cover.
Disconnect the 3 wires that are connected to the servo motor. Measure to verify that you are
getting the pulse and +5 voltage on each respective wire. If you are NOT getting the same
voltage as you had at the receiver, then you have a wiring problem. If you are getting the
same voltage, reconnect the 3 wires, proceed to step 4.

4 - Have someone inside change channels on the satellite receiver. If you hear the servo
motor turning, but there is no apparent change in the position of the probe (remove the throat
cover and look inside the throat to see the probe), remove the servo motor and pull up gently
on the amber colored drive shaft that couples to the servo motor. If the shaft pulls out, you
will need to send the entire feed to repair.

5 - If the servo motor does not turn, and you have the correct voltages getting to the motor,
that normally indicates that the motor is bad and needs to be replaced. You can usually
purchase a servo motor at any satellite dealer.

If you find that the servo motor seems to be buzzing all of the time or if you are watching a
program that seems to fade out intermittently and will come back by itself or if you change
the channel up or down and back, the problem is also likely to be a bad servo motor. But try
these steps to determine if the problem is more serious:

1 - Take the servo motor off of the feedhorn and hook it up directly to the back of your
receiver. You must disconnect the wires going to the dish for this test to be valid.

2 - Watch the servo while you change channels, then let it sit for a couple of minutes. If it
turns when you change channels and does not drift or buzz when you are not changing
channels, that tells you that the receiver and servo motor are working properly and the
problem is likely to be noise being pick up by your unshielded pulse line. The only way to
correct this problem is to make sure that the pulse line is shielded and the shield is grounded
at one end.

3 - If the servo motor behaves the same way when it is hooked up directly behind the receiver
as it did out at the dish, then it is most likely bad. You need to replace it. We hope this
information was helpful. If you can't solve your polarity problem after following the
instructions and tips above, we recommend calling out your local satellite dealer to
troubleshoot the system further.

Different Types of Satellite Dishes

Currently, DirecTV offers eight type of dishes while DISH Network has ten. Dishes range in
size from 18-inch to 36-inch x 22-inch. However, more than the shape or size, the real
significant difference between the various types of dishes relates to the number of LNBs, and
the number of supported outputs.

Typical satellite dishes can vary from the simple 18-inch dish with a single dual LNB (this is
a two LNB configuration affixed at a small offset angle in a single housing), to five LNBs
and four outputs, with each of these LNBs pointing to a different satellite orbit.

The number of outputs on the dish determines the number of digital satellite receivers that
can be connected to that dish to watch different programs on different TVs simultaneously; in
this respect, a quad output dish supports up to four different receivers.
If you want to hook up more receivers than your dish can accommodate, you will have to use
a multi-switch to split up the satellite feed without compromising signal quality. Some multi-
switches allow you to add over-the-air broadcasts or cable feeds, and send both signals to
each viewing area via a single coax cable. In this case, you will need a diplexer for each
viewing area to split up the signals again.

You cannot split a satellite TV signal through an ordinary RF splitter as used in terrestrial TV
reception. As indicated earlier on, broadcast signals from satellites are split in two different
polarizations, and these are differentiated at the LNB. If signals with different polarization
were sent over the cable at the same time, they would interfere with each other.

A multi-switch works by taking the input from a dual LNB on the dish and then locks one of
the LNB's to always look at the even transponders while the other LNB to always look at the
odd transponders on the satellite. The switch then has multiple outputs to receivers. A
receiver connected to a multi-switch sends a switching signal back up the coax cable to
enable the switch to select the correct LNB it needs to look at.

In the case of multiple 'dual LNBs', the process is the same except that now, each of the
LNBs will be looking at a different satellite.

DIRECTV Customers:

When choosing your satellite dish, do not buy the round dish if you are getting a new
DirecTv system - only the slightly larger oval or rectangular antenna dishes will able to pick
up all DirecTV standard and HD programming.

These satellite dishes come with 5 LNBs to receive both KU-band (101, 110, 119) and
KA-band (99 & 103) satellite signals simultaneously.

For current DIRECTV customers only:

If your satellite dish was installed prior to October 2005, you would not be able to receive all
DirecTV programming.

If you don't remember when your dish was installed or if you're just not sure that it is a 5-
LNB, take a look at your dish and see if it matches either one of the DirecTV satellite dish. If
not, you will have to order a new dish.

These dishes are required to receive the new MPEG-4 local and national HD programming.
These new dishes consist of a phase III dish with an integrated switch to handle both Ku, and
Ka (99/103) satellite signals.

Dish Network Customers:

Depending on the type of dish you have, you may need to install a second dish aimed at a
different satellite to receive DISH Network HDTV service.

In general, you will be able to receive simultaneous satellite signals from the 110 and 119
satellite slots. With the slightly smaller 18-inch, you can only pick either one of these satellite
slots.

To receive all available DISH Network channels, including all high definition local and
national channels from a single satellite dish, you need an MPEG-4 compatible dish antenna.

This is a triple LNBF dish with a dish face of 19"(H) x 24" (W) designed to receive
programming from three orbital locations: 110W, 119W, and 129W DBS.

Note: Deciding on the required number of LNBs, shape and size of your satellite dish,
depends on a number of factors, including the area where you live, service provider, and
programming package selected. This is something that is best decided after you speak with
your digital satellite TV service provider.

Dish Installation Process

Now that you have made the plunge and purchased a satellite dish, you need to get that
satellite TV antenna up so you can receive all the channels!

The relatively small size of present day digital satellite TV dish antenna systems means that
these may be practically fixed just about anywhere. In particular, these compact satellite
dishes are especially suitable for city dwellers.

While you may choose to have your new satellite dish installed by a professional, yet the
actual installation process is not difficult to do. The only real difficulty that may arise in the
process is when aiming the dish to get the best signal from the satellites. This is a crucial step
and it is this step which may warrant professional assistance. Remember that the satellite dish
is your main link to those satellites floating around in space, so it has to be aimed properly to
pick up the signals. Some self-installation kits may be of assistance in this respect.

Selecting the best location for your Satellite Dish

First, you have to decide on the exact location where best to install your satellite dish. There
are a few issues that you need to take into account here.
Considerations shall include:

Remember that DSS satellites are in a geo-stationary orbit above the equator. Therefore, a
satellite dish must point due South when your position is located north of the equator and
North if you are located south of the equator.

Choose a location that is easily accessible in case you need to clean snow or debris out of
your satellite dish, or to re-adjust the dish in case it has lost its alignment. A suitable location
is to attach the dish to a post which has been sunken in the ground.

The chosen location should be unobstructed by trees, branches, buildings, telephone lines,
clotheslines, electrical wires, power lines, radio and television towers, etc. All are possible
sources of interference. In other words, there must be no obstructions between the dish site
and the satellites in the sky. Once you determines that the location is suitable, you will have
to decide on a permanent or portable installation. Unless you fell you will be relocating in the
near future or you are living on rental property, a permanent installation in concrete is the
better way to go. In addition, make sure that the growth of new foliage does not impede your
system.

Ideally, the selected location should be such as to allow you to take a route that is as straight
and as close to your television set as possible.

Finally, refer to the included instructions for any specific details.

Choose a method of installation that allows your system to withstand the elements year-round
and still remain perfectly aligned and rigidly mounted. Remember that system movement can
reduce signal reception to the point of complete loss.

Always do a trial run on the ground for coax cable installation from the satellite dish to the
place where it will enter your house. Make sure it is long enough to reach both points. Attach
the cable to the satellite dish and then run it across your yard and into the house through a
drilled hole.

Once you have the dish mounted with the LNB attached at feedhorn and all cables (LNB and
Polarotor) connected, I recommend that you place the receiver and a portable TV set near the
dish for that you see a picture while make the adjusts. Attach the cable to your television set.
Seal all outdoor electrical connections with weatherproof sealant, and bury the incoming
receiving line below the frost line level.

Ground the unit and the incoming receiving line by following local electrical code standards;
this is both a safety consideration as well as a potential code requirement. Place an
inexpensive coax grounding block at the point where the antenna cable enters the house; then
run a wire from the grounding block to your home's ground rod.

To determine the best location for your satellite dish, follow these few simple steps:

- Determine which satellite carries your most frequently viewed programs.

- Locate the area outside your home that is nearest to your television set.
- Turn and face south - or north if you are located south of the equator.
- Look from east to west, following an arc that mimics the sun's path across the sky.
- As described above, observe any obstacles that may obscure the line of sight along the arc.
This is the most critical step prior to installation.

Notes:

Typical TV satellite dish installations include 'pipe in ground' (the antenna is attached to a
pipe that is placed in concrete), and 'outside wall' (the antenna is attached to a wall with
fasteners that are designed to permanently embed themselves in the wall).

The majority of today's satellite receivers give out the particular satellite's orbit slot and the
azimuth (the location of a satellite along the east/west arc) to view that spacecraft.

Satellite positions are given in orbit slot degree coordinates and are true, not magnetic
locations. These slots will be based on an azimuth heading that must be viewed as true rather
than a compass position. Since a compass will have a magnetic variation. To read true
azimuth, turn in the opposite direction of the magnetic variation (e.g. 3 degrees west will turn
back the compass dial 3 degrees east for you to base your azimuth reading from).

'Tuning' Your Satellite Dish

Once you have managed to install your new satellite dish, you will surely want to get the
maximum number of channels. There is only one way forward - get that satellite TV antenna
tuned for perfect reception!

The following steps will help you tune your satellite dish for best signal:

1. Ensure that your satellite antenna meets three conditions:

The line-of-sight view to the particular satellite is free of obstacles and obstructions.

The mast supporting the antenna is rigidly mounted and level.

The reflector part of the satellite antenna (the dish) is not warped.

2. Adjust the antenna reflector to azimuth angle obtained for the particular satellite. This
adjustment is the east-west movement of the reflector on the mount and is given in azimuth
degrees. The satellite dish must be aligned with the azimuth magnetic value (use the magnetic
compass for this) and fix the dish in this position for the time being.

3. Adjust the antenna reflector to elevation angle obtained for the particular satellite (use a
inclinometer for this). This adjustment is from the horizon to the sky and is given as elevation
in degrees from that point.

4. Ensure that the antenna signal line is connected to the receiver and the receiver is turned on
and positioned on a beacon channel (a beacon channel is a channel being transmitted from the
satellite to allow you to peak your antenna to it) or set your receiver for the channel that is
most likely to have video (consult a satellite TV guide for this or set in a high channel
number with video signal).
5. Begin tuning by slowly moving the reflector first to the east in one-degree increments for a
total of three degrees, then in the opposite direction (west) while monitoring the receiver's
signal meter.

6. Peak the signal to the highest scale at this point. Ideally, this should be done using a signal
'strength' meter due to the greater signal sensitivity of the latter.

7. Lock the antenna azimuth adjustment on the mount once the signal level is maximized.

8. Perform the same procedure as in steps 4 through 6, using the elevation adjustment, first up
and then down for peaking. Lock the satellite dish elevation at the point of maximum signal
reception. Your dish should now be aligned and and with a good picture in screen. Look the
quality picture in others channels and if necessary repeat the adjustments.

9. Ground the antenna and the signal line entrance into the residence to electrical code
standards as detailed above.

The next step is to plug your receiver into a household outlet; then turn your television set on
and make any necessary adjustments to the satellite system settings. Once ready, you can
relax and enjoy your new system !

Satellite Meter for Perfect Dish Alignment

These satellite finders are really useful little helpers when it comes down to perfectly aligning
a satellite dish.

Meters are sensitive gauges the amount of signal coming from satellite. This sensitivity
allows finding the sweet spot of the satellite dish. Here, we?ve got already a perfectly aligned
dish, the meter is at the maximum. Even the slightest movement of the dish to either side of
the perfect alignment reduces the signal level (and audio tone) of the meter. You can see that
once the fine-tuning is finished, the signal level is again at the maximum.

Some people are trying to align their satellite dishes with the on-screen digibox signal bar
which is way too slow, inaccurate and not sensitive enough for a good alignment. Save
yourself the hassle and get one of these satellite finders the prices dropped down to almost
US$29.
A good meter is the Winegard SF-1000 Satellite Signal Finder/Meter

Keep in Mind: While installing your satellite dish yourself can save you money, yet it
possible to enjoy a totally FREE satellite dish installation by a professional if you qualify for
one of the promotional offers from DirecTV, DISH Network or other service provider.

C Band Frequently Asked Questions

What is C-Band ?

C-Band is a range of satellite transmission frequencies (3700-4200 MHz) that TV and radio
channels use to transmit to larger satellite dishes.

How many channels can be received with a C-Band satellite system ?

C-Band satellite systems provide more viewing choices than any other TV delivery system,
including cable TV and the smaller dishes. More than 750 channels transmit on a regular
basis and another 250 transmit on an occasional basis. The "1000 channel universe" is a
reality with a full-size dish.

How big does the dish have to be to receive C-Band signals ?

The size of the satellite dish you should buy depends on where you live in the United States
or Canada. In the Central United States, you can use a dish that has a minimum diameter of
between six and eight feet for analog C-Band reception. On either coast, an eight to ten-foot
dish is recommended for analog C-Band. For digital C-Band reception a ten-foot dish is
recommended.

How much do C-Band satellite systems cost, and where can I buy one ?
C-Band satellite systems range in price, depending on if you purchase a new or used system.
The average cost is $1,000 for a new system.

What brands of used C-Band satellite receivers should I look for ?

Used satellite receiver brands to look for are Uniden, Chaparral, Toshiba, General Instrument
and Motorola.

What is a transponder ?

Satellite TV and radio channels are transmitted back to earth via a transponder on a satellite.
C-Band satellites have 24 transponders.

Do all satellite TV channels require a subscription fee ?

No. More than 100 channels broadcast programming on a regular basis, and another 150 or
more channels transmit wild feeds. Only C-Band satellite TV provides hundreds of free
channels and wild feeds.

What are wild feeds ?

Wild feeds are unannounced, free (not scrambled, no subscription required) satellite
transmissions of sporting events, news and hundreds of syndicated shows such as Seinfeld.
Satellite ORBIT magazine "tracks" wild feeds and provides an extensive listing of them
every month. See the "Wild Feeds" section of this magazine for an abbreviated listing of the
most recent wild feeds. Satellite ORBIT publishes a complete listing each month.

What is VideoCipher II RS and DigiCipher II ?

VideoCipher II RS (or VCRS) is the scrambling system that nearly all subscription analog C-
Band satellite TV channels use, while DigiCipher II is the scrambling system that most
subscription digital C-Band satellite channels use. To receive VCII RS pay channels, a VCII
RS descrambler module is needed inside of your analog satellite receiver. In order to receive
digital C-Band programming, either a 4DTV satellite receiver or a Sidecar satellite receiver is
needed.

How much do pay channels cost ?

Pay channels range in price. Multi-channel premium movie channels like HBO, Showtime,
and Starz range from $10 to $17 a month, and basic channels like ESPN and CNN can be
purchased for $1 to $4 each per month. One of the greatest things about C-Band is that you
can select just the channels that you are interested in subscribing to and only pay for those
channels. This can save you a lot of money.

How do I order pay channels ?

Local satellite dealers can order programming for you, or you can call the programming
companies directly.

What is the future of C-band ?

The future of C-Band is digital. 4DTV is a new type of receiver which can tune in four types
of satellite transmissions:

1) Free, unscrambled analog channels and wild feeds

2) VideoCipher II RS subscription services
3) Free DigiCipher II services
4) Subscription DigiCipher II channels. DigiCipher transmissions are digital (not analog) and
take up less transponder space, allowing for much more programming to be transmitted on
each satellite.

Ku Band Frequently Asked Questions

WHAT IS ON Ku BAND ?

There are various types of services on Ku-band. Some of the services include NBC, news
feeds, Satellite News Gathering mobile truck uplinks, educational networks, teleconferences,
sports backhauls, various other backhauls, international programming, business networks,
variety and entertainment programming for Canada, and not as important on Ku-band are
niche channels, and Single Channel Per Carrier and FM Squared audio services. Ku-band
charts in various references (books, magazines, satellite charts) are a good place to find out
what is on Ku-band.

WHAT IS INVOLVED IN A Ku BAND UPGRADE ?

If you have an existing C-band system, you will need to check the mesh on your dish if you
have a mesh dish. You will also need to purchase a Ku-band LNB and a C/Ku-band feedhorn,
and have some coax for the Ku-band LNB.

WHAT DISH TYPE IS BEST ?

A dish that is a one piece or very few pieces. It is better to have a 4 section dish than it is an 8
section or more. The smaller the number of sections, the better parabola shape you have and
also the harder it would be to warp the dish (because of the smaller number of seams where
the sections come together).

WHAT DISH MOUNT TYPE IS BEST ?

The Horizon-to-Horizon dish mount is the better than a polar mount for Ku-band. Ku-band
requires the system to be well aimed and to follow the arc, and the horizon-to-horizon mount
follows the whole arc much better than a polar mount.

WHAT SUPPORT IS BEST ?

The tri or quad supports are best -- they'll keep the Ku-band feedhorn really stable so winds
don't affect critical Ku-band reception. Abuttonhook feed can move in the wind and you can
easily lose Ku-band reception. It is best to put guy-wires on the buttonhook feed for support
if you can't get a tri or quad support.
WILL MY SATELLITE DISH WORK FOR Ku BAND ?

If you have a solid dish, you should be fine as far as compatibility. If you have a mesh dish,
you will have to run a test to see if Ku-band could be done. The test is very simple. You need
to measure the "holes" in the mesh. If they are 1/4" or larger, chances are your dish won't
reflect Ku-band signals too well and you might want to consider getting a new mesh dish
where the hole size is smaller.

WHAT KIND OF SATELLITE RECEIVER WILL WORK ?

You will need a receiver whose IF Block input frequency will match that of a Ku-band LNB.
Once you have that matched, you will also need to have the ability to invert the picture
polarity as well as tune the Ku-band LNB signal. There is no standard layout for the Ku-band
satellites. One type of satellite will usually have a different uplink/downlink frequency format
than another type (GSTAR vs. Telstar 400 series, for example).

WILL A WARPED DISH WORK ?

No. You need to have a very parabolic dish. Warpage will cause signal mis-reflection and
you won't be getting the best performance out of your system. To check your dish for
warpage, you will need to get some string and some tape. Take one string and stretch it as
tight as you can and anchor it to the dish edges with the tape. Make this string go "north" and
"south" across the face of your dish. Do the same thing with the other string, yet go "east"
and "west" across the face of the dish. Make sure both strings are tight. If the strings do not
come together in the center, then your dish is warped and you will need to find some way to
take the warp out for maximum performance. If the strings touch in the center, your dish
looks very good as far as not being warped.

WHAT TO DO IF I DON'T HAVE A Ku BAND CABLE ?

For any upgrade to Ku-band, you will need another length of coax cable to go from your Ku-
band LNB to your satellite receiver.

WHAT TYPE OF CABLE SHOULD I USE ?

I prefer to use RG-6 since it has pretty good low loss figures at the 950-1450 frequencies that
your Ku-band LNB will be sending to your receiver.

WHAT ABOUT INSTALLATION ? (F/D ADJUSTMENT)

The best advice is to follow the instructions that come with the dual-band feedhorn. From the
instructions I've seen (for a Chaparral and an ADL feedhorn), you want to first measure your
dish's F/D (focal length over diameter) and slide the throat of the feedhorn through the scaler
ring and tighten it down where the F/D ratio marked on the throat matches up with the
marking on the scaler ring that it has to.

WHAT ABOUT INSTALLATION ? (FOCAL LENGTH ADJUSTMENT)

Once you have set the throat/scaler ring assembly to the right F/D ratio, you want to attach
the feedhorn to the support (quad, tri, or buttonhook) and, without disturbing the F/D setting
you did in step 4a above, move the feedhorn in and out until the focal length is set. You want
the focal length to equal the length from the center of the dish to about 1/8" inside the throat
of the feedhorn. Tighten down the feedhorn to the support once you have set the focal length.

WHAT ABOUT INSTALLATION ? (CENTERING)

The final step in the process is to make sure you feedhorn is centered in aiming into the dish.
There are various gadgets to do this (one being a laser pointer to tell you where the feedhorn
is pointed to), but I have had great luck doing the F/D ratio and the focal adjustment correctly
and then "eyeball"ing the centering part to make sure it looks like it is properly centered.

WHAT ABOUT INSTALLATION ? (RE-TRACKING THE ARC)

In many cases, you will have to retrack the dish. Ku-band has a smaller wavelength signal,
and therefore it is not as forgiving for reception as a C-band signal is.

That provides a benefit. It is best to use the Ku-band when tracking a dish because of its
unforgiveness. Once you track up a dish perfectly on Ku-band, you will also have very good
tracking on C-band as well.

I prefer the three satellite method of tracking due to its simplicity. What you first do is peak
your dish on the satellite due south of you. After that is done, you move you dish to a satellite
that is as far east as you can see and peak up on that. Make a mark on the elevation
adjustment screw. Move your dish back to the center satellite and peak up on it again. Next,
move your dish to the extreme western Ku-band satellite you can get and peak on it. Make
another mark. The final step involves you finding the center of the two marks and setting
your elevation adjustment. That is a very good, easy-to-do method of tracking for do-it-
yourselfers.

WHAT ABOUT Ku BAND FREQUENCIES/FORMATS ?

There are many various formats for the Ku-band satellites. Any good reference book or
satellite channel chart will have a list of these satellite formats and the downlink frequencies.

TROUBLE-SHOOTING: WHAT IF I DON'T GET A SIGNAL ?

No signal could mean (and the suggested solution):

1) You are not tracking the arc -- check the tracking of your dish
2) You are not on a Ku-band satellite -- move your dish east and west in search of a Ku-band
satellite
3) Water in your feedhorn -- make sure there is no water in the feedhorn throat or waveguides
-- water is a good signal blocker
4) Coax cable bad -- make sure the cable is continuous and not chopped or have rusted wires.
Check and make sure the connectors are still on properly and are not rusted, loose, etc.
5) Improper focal length -- check your focal length
6) Your Ku-band LNB is bad. Borrow a friend's LNB or have someone hook up your LNB to
see if it works on their system.

TROUBLE-SHOOTING: WHAT IF I GET A C-BAND SIGNAL ?

You have the wrong coax connected to your Ku-band input. With your C-band LNB
connected to the Ku-band input, you'll get inverse video C-band signals that will show up on
channels they are not supposed to be on. A switch of the C and Ku-band cables should get the
cable to the right input and correct that problem.

TROUBLE SHOOTING: WHAT ABOUT A WEAK SIGNAL ?

A weak signal could result from the feedhorn not centered, the focal length wrong, you not
being right on the arc, you not being right on a Ku-band satellite, a cable that is slowly going
bad, water in the feedhorn, nests in the feedhorn among other factors.

WHAT PROBLEMS OCCUR IN Ku BAND RECEPTION WITH A PERFECT

ALIGNED SYSTEM ?

The major problem with Ku-band reception with a perfect aligned system is rain fade and
what I call "snow fade". Snow fade" is what I call the situation when snow accumulates on a
dish and changes the focal point of the dish. The focal point affects Ku-band much more than
C-band (since you have some tolerance in reception of C-band signals). Another problem is
the wind -- you can be right on a Ku-band satellite and a gust of wind can come and move
your dish off of the satellite. Horizon-to-horizon mounts are better fighters of wind gusts than
polar mount systems are. Another problem is spot-beaming, that is, concentrating a signal in
a certain geographic region. A prime example of this phenomena is the NBC Pacific Time
Zone feed on Satcom K2. While the western U.S. can get that NBC feed perfectly, if you are
in the Eastern United States (east of a line roughly north and south going through Dallas,
Texas), you won't get the NBC Pacific Time Zone feed.

Free to Air (FTA) Satellite System

A Free to Air Satellite receiver (abbreviated FTA receivers) refers to satellite receivers that
are designed to receive unencrypted FTA satellite transmissions. Using these satellite
receivers, one can legally receive TV signals without subscription. The signal is typically
encoded in an MPEG-2 video and may be restricted geographically. In some places around
the world, people can receive encrypted Free to Air satellite channels through the UHF and
VHF band. The channels transmitted through Free to Air satellite are received by utilizing a
common MPEG-2 video compatible satellite receiver. Many people use FTA to receive
thousands of satellite TV channels free of charge.

The equipment needed for you to enjoy the freebies are an FTA receiver (and here one has a
choice between Pansat, Coolsat, Conaxsat, and many other great brand names) and a satellite
dish within the specifics required by the satellite one wishes to point at. However, many
satellites only require a standard DTV compliant dish that can be easily found in any satellite
TV or electronic store. Both C-band and K-Band dishes work just fine. If you wish to receive
channels from more than one satellite, you will also need to have an antenna motor and the
LNBF.

In order to complete the installation of the system, you will need to have a coaxial cable
running from the dish and making its way to the FTA receiver which should be connected to
the television. This is usually the most difficult part.
Though pointing the dish is not very difficult, many people would prefer to hire an
experienced person to fix it on the roof of the house. It is important to make sure that the best
FTA support services are obtained.

The user can then go to the options of the FTA receiver and select the satellite to point to.
Regular firmware updates will ensure that the device works efficiently. The FTA keys will
need to be entered manually, and so its important to be familiar with this process. Settings
may vary among different satellite receivers.

Free to Air Satellite System

Free to air satellite systems can be defined as a satellite system primarily designed to receive
"in the clear" or unscrambled satellite broadcasts. At the present time, there are literally
hundreds of channels of news, sports, networks, special interest programming and ethnic
channels and foreign language channels that are available without a subscription. The
selection is also constantly changing, with new channels coming online and some old ones
going offline or changing their broadcast schemes. In the past 5 years, most broadcasters have
switched their broadcasts to digital, although there are still a number of analog broadcasts,
mostly in the C band range that are available.

Introduction

The concept of receiving free to air satellite signals dates back to the inception of satellite
broadcasts in the mid 1970's and 1980's where large C/Ku band satellite systems were a
popular way of tapping into hundreds of available channels from the sky. The downside to
these systems were extremely large dish sizes and expensive equipment. These made satellite
systems prohibitive for many people. However over the years, increasingly powerful
commercial satellites and improvements in technology have brought prices and dish sizes
down quite dramatically.

The mid 1990's saw the introduction of digital direct to home technology, which for the first
time allowed main stream users to access a wide variety of channels not available via their
local cable company, while enjoying incredible picture and sound quality, all from a dish far
smaller than had ever been seen before. The small dish revolution nearly caused the
extinction of the large dish industry, which simply could not compete on dish sizing, price or
ease of installation.

The late 1990's saw the digital revolution spread to the large dish industry with services such
as 4DTV which brought the same digital picture and sound as the small dish systems to large
dish users, although a new and expensive decoder was required for reception.

The last several years has seen most broadcasters switch their broadcasts to digital, which
allowed broadcasts to be compressed, allowing more channels per satellite transponder and
also a superior picture and sound quality. As well, a common digital standard known as
MPEG2-DVB has been adopted by many broadcasters, which allows all free to air satellite
channels that use the DVB (Digital Video Broadcast) standard to be received from one
satellite decoder.

Over the years, the free to air market has slowly begun to see a small comeback, primarily
due to an abundance of programming not available anywhere else, such as international and
foreign language channels as well as improved picture and sound quality.

Required Components

There are a number of components necessary for free to air satellite reception, some are
mandatory and others are optional.

Clear line of sight to the satellites

In order to properly receive free to air satellite signals, you must have a clear view to the
satellites. In North America, you need to have a relatively clear view to the southern sky.
Obstacles such as tall buildings or trees or mountains will severely impair or make reception
impossible. If you are only interested in signals from one or two satellites, you will more than
likely be able to locate your dish in a location favorable to reception of the desired satellite. If
however you wish to receive multiple satellites, you will need an unobstructed view. A do it
yourself site survey with a compass and a satellite location chart or a professional satellite
site survey will determine your eligibility for free to air reception.

Dish

In order to receive most Ku band signals in North America, you will require a minimum of a
30"(75cm) Ku band satellite dish antenna. For fringe area reception or reception of signals
outside of a satellite footprint, or locations with an abundance of trees, you will need to
upgrade to a larger dish size. Additionally, if you live in an area prone to heavily rain
showers, you may want to consider a larger dish diameter as weather can adversely affect
satellite signal quality. If you also wish to receive the low power C band signals, you will
need a much larger (6-10') C band dish and a more elaborate setup. Your dish must be
installed in a location where it will not be prone to excessive movement. Smaller dishes, such
as 30" can be mounted to a building or roof. Larger dish sizes should probably be mounted to
a firm pole in the ground, reinforced with concrete.

LNBF/LNB

The LNBF or LNB is the device at the end of the dish arm that collects the signal, amplifies it
and sends it to the receiver to be decoded. Ku band systems use an LNBF(Low Noise Block
Amplifier with integrated Feed) and large C band systems use an LNB(Low Noise Block
Amplifier) with an external feedhorn. Most dedicated Ku band systems use offset dishes,
meaning the dish is designed in such a way that the LNBF is offset towards the bottom of the
dish so as not to interfere with the signal. This allows a smaller dish size as opposed to large
C band systems which locate the LNB at the focal point or center of the dish which tend to
block out a portion of the incoming signal.

Quality of the LNBF/LNB is paramount. Ku band LNBF's are measures in DB(Decibals). A

good quality Ku band LNBF will have a rating not above .6db. A superior one will be .5db or
lower. C band LNB's are measured in degrees. A good quality C band LNB will have a rating
of 17 degrees of below. There are also 2 distinct types of Ku band LNBF's. LNBF's designed
for use with direct to home satellite services such as Directv or Dish Network which use
circular polarization and are not compatible with free to air satellite signals. For all free to air
signals, you will want a linear Ku band LNBF as conventional Ku satellites use
linear(horizontal or vertical) polarization.
Actuator/Rotor

Also known as a satellite dish positioner or dish mover, this is the electric motor device that
moves a dish from left to right (azimuth) and up and down (elevation) in order to receive
programming from multiple satellites. If you only are interested in programming from a
single satellite, you will more than likely not require one of these devices as your satellite
dish will be fixed in one constant position. However if you wish to receive signals from
multiple satellite, you will need a dish positioner. Most recent quality receivers now come
with a feature known as DiSEqC (Digital Satellite Equipment Control), which can control a
dish positioner directly. However if you have an older satellite receiver than does not support
this feature, you will likely need to purchase a seperate dish positioner control if you wish to
track multiple satellites.

Free to Air Satellite Receiver

This of course is the most important part of your system. There are currently several different
digital broadcast formats, however most free to air broadcasts use the common MPEG2-DVB
format. When selecting a satellite receiver, you will want to ensure that you are choosing a
receiver that decodes the correct format. If you reside in Europe, many pay broadcasters such
as Irdeto, Viaaccess, Nagravision, Mediaguard, Betacrypt also use the MPEG2-DVB format
and you can receive these signals(upon subscription) if you select a receiver that supports a
common interface module which is a removable module that allows for a smart card which is
required for reception of various European pay services. Additionally, a number of foreign
pay channels receivable in North America can be decoded using a common interface and a
subscription. If you intend on using your DVB receiver for pay programming, you will need a
smart card and a subscription, both of which are available from the satellite service provider.
North American direct to home services cannot be received via a DVB receiver as they use
proprietary equipment. Common interface modules are due to laws in several European
countries that forbid sales of proprietary satellite receivers that are locked into a single
service. However, for most North American free to air applications, you will need little more
than a quality free to air receiver.

If you wish to record your programming, you may wish to invest in a free to air receiver with
a integrated personal video recorder(pvr), allowing for dozens of hours of recorded
programming. Additionally, there are a number of things to be taken into consideration when
choosing a satellite receiver. Some retail outlets offer European DVB satellite receivers.
While these will work with North American signals, some are not pre-programmed with the
locations of North American satellites as are most receivers designed for North American
users and most come equipped with connections that are for the most part inapplicable here in
North America, such as SCart connections and different coaxial connectors. As well, not all
receivers are created equal, many have features that others do not.

For example, if you are interested in good sound quality, then you will want a receiver with a
Dolby Digital or AC3 connection. Not all receivers are equipped with this. As well, you will
likely want a receiver equipped with an S-Video or at the very least composite video and
audio connections. Also if you are interested in looking for hard to find channels or "wild
satellite feeds", then you may want to invest in a receiver that has a blind search function
which will scan an entire satellite for all channels on all bands. As well, you will want to
ensure that your receiver has a fairly fast processor, some can take 1.5-2 seconds to change
between channels which can be painful, especially if you are used to DTH systems which are
relatively fast.

Free to air satellite programming transmits using C-band (a frequency allocation used for a
communications satellite that uses 5.925 to 6.425 GHz for uplinks and 3.7 to 4.2 GHz for
downlinks). However, modern free-to-air satellite TVs use Ku-Band programming that uses
frequencies of 14 to 14.5 GHz for uplinks and around 11.7 to 12.7 GHz for downlinks.
Uplinks are signal paths from earth stations going to a satellite. On the other hand, downlinks
are signal paths from a particular satellite going to earth.

Free to air satellite TVs enable you to pick up different unencrypted broadcasts via any
appropriate receiver. You should not confuse free to air satellite TV with FTV (or free-to-
view) because FTV programming also comes without charge, but is encrypted. This means
that having free-to-view programming on your television can restrict various broadcasts,
depending on your geographic location.

How to Receive Free to Air Satellite TV Channels

Unlike ordinary satellite TV programming that needs subscriptions from DirecTV, Dish
Network or other satellite TV broadcast providers, free to air satellite TV channels can be
received even without paying a monthly fee to broadcast providers. Free-to-air programming
is commonly used for international broadcasting.

In order to receive free-to-air satellite TV channels, you need to have a satellite dish (either a
K-band or C-band), a free-to-air satellite receiver or a suitable PC card, an LNBF (low noise
block with an integrated feedhorn) and an antenna motor, if you desire to capture channels
from different satellites, instead of through only one satellite.

Earlier systems used C-band satellite dishes, which are several feet in diameter, in receiving
signals. However, modern dishes use Ku-band and other dishes that are under one meter for
international DVB (or digital video broadcasting) standards. U.S satellites carry most signals
from international DVB. Because of this, free to air satellite TV channels may be scattered
within multiple satellites. When this happens, you need multiple "low noise blocks" in order
to receive all the channels you wish.

Free to air satellite TV, regardless of the type of dish programming used, is a great alternative
when you are located in areas with poor over-the-air reception.

Frequently Asked Questions About Free To Air Channels

What are Free To Air (FTA) channels?

Free to Air channels are digital MPEG2 channels that are not scrambled and require no
subscription or monthly payment. They are provided free of charge and are perfectly legal to
receive with an FTA receiver. You can find a listing of these channels on www.lyngsat.com.

What hardware do I need to receive the FTA channels?

A digital satellite receiver and a dish with KU Band LNB.

Do you guarantee that these FTA channels will remain free?

Absolutely not. No one can guarantee free channels. You will receive those FTA channels as
long as they remain free and not encrypted. We only offer FTA hardware (receiver, dish and
LNB). We make no guarantee or claim about the programming.

Are there any Dish Network or DirecTV channels that are FTA?

Almost all of the channels provided by these companies are not FTA. The channels are
encrypted and require an authorized receiver and monthly subscription. A few FTA channels
are available on Dish Network such as the music channels on www.lyngsat.com/echo7.shtml.

Can I use an FTA receiver to receive premium channels like Dish Network or DirecTV?

Absolutely not. These channels require subscription and special receivers supplied by the
service provider. Any tampering with your FTA receiver (whether by hardware or software
modification) to try to receive the premium channels without paying is not only a violation of
the law and unethical, but also will void the warrantee on your receiver and may hinder it
unusable.

What size dish I need for the Free to air channels?

For the C-Band signal channels you will need a 10 ft dish. For KU-band channels you will
need a 30 inch (76 cm) dish or larger.
Where can I find out what channels are available free to air?

There are many free to air channels available in North America on satellites such as Galaxy
10R, AMC4, Telstar 5, AMC3, etc. There are from the USA and from around the world. See
www.lyngsat.com/america.shtml for a complete listing of what is available. Anything with an
F designation is FREE TO AIR.

How do I find the satellite?

The satellite you want to use will be determined by the programming you want to view.
Telstar 5 is a very popular satellite for ethnic channels. Locate your satellite using our Dish
Alignment Widget with Google Maps and align your dish to that satellite.

Glossary of Satellite Terms

|A|B|C|D|E|F|G|H|I|J|K|L|M|N|O|P|Q|R|S|T|U|V|W|X|Y|Z

A...

Actuator
The mechanism that drives and controls the antenna as it scans the sky for satellites.

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

The baseband signal is caused to vary the amplitude or height of the carrier wave to create the
desired information content.
Amplifier
A device used to boost the strength of an electronic signal.

Analog
A form of transmitting information characterized by continuously variable quantities, as
opposed to digital transmission, which is characterized by discrete bits of information in
numerical steps. An analog signal is responsive to changes in light, sound, heat and pressure.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)

Process of converting analog signals to a digital representation. DAC represents the reverse
translation.

ANIK
The Canadian domestic satellite system that transmits Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's
(CSC) network feeds throughout the country. This system also carries long distance voice and
data services throughout Canada as well as some transborder service to the U.S. and Mexico.

Antenna
A device for transmitting and receiving radio waves. Depending on their use and operating
frequency, antennas can take the form of a single piece of wire, a di-pole a grid such as a yagi
array, a horn, a helix, a sophisticated parabolic-shaped dish, or a phase array of active
electronic elements of virtually any flat or convoluted surface.

Antenna Depth "d"

Antenna depth is the depth of the parabolic antenna. To make this, anchor two nylon lines
making two diameter in perpendicular angles. Measure the antenna depth from that crossing
until the antenna base.

Antenna Diameter "D"

Antena diameter is the length of the diameter of the parabolic antenna and is indispensable to
measure in center line.

Antenna Efficiency "EF"

Antena eficiency is an mesure of how much of the signal is effectively collected by parabolic
antenna. The eficiency is determinate by exactness of the antenna surface and inperfections in
your surface will go degenerate the signal received from satellite.

Antenna Temperature
Antena temperature is how much of terrestial noise is detected by it. An antenna detect more
noise when your elevation reduce.

Aperture
A cross sectional area of the antenna which is exposed to the satellite signal.

Apogee
The point in an elliptical satellite orbit which is farthest from the surface of the earth.
Geosynchronous satellites which maintain circular orbits around the earth are first launched
into highly elliptical orbits with apogees of 22,237 miles. When the communication satellite
reaches the appropriate apogee, a rocket motor is fired to place the satellite into its permanent
circular orbit of 22,237 miles.
Apogee Kick Motor (AKM)
Rocket motor fired to circulate orbit and deploy satellite into geostationary orbit.

Attenuation
The loss in power of electromagnetic signals between transmission and reception points.

Attitude Control
The orientation of the satellite in relationship to the earth and the sun.

Audio Subcarrier
The carrier between 5 MHz and 8 MHz containing audio (or voice) information inside of a
video carrier.

Automatic Frequency Control (AFC)

A circuit which automatically controls the frequency of a signal.

Automatic Gain Control (AGC)

A circuit which automatically controls the gain of an amplifier so that the output signal level
is virtually constant for varying input signal levels.

AZ/EL Mount
Antenna mount that requires two separate adjustments to move from one satellite to another;

Azimuth
The angle of rotation (horizontal) that a ground based parabolic antenna must be rotated
through to point to a specific satellite in a geosynchronous orbit. The azimuth angle for any
particular satellite can be determined for any point on the surface of the earth giver the
latitude and longitude of that point. It is defined with respect to due north as a matter of easy
convenience.

B...

B-Mac
A method of transmitting and scrambling television signals. In such transmissions MAC
(Multiplexed Analog Component) signals are time-multiplexed with a digital burst containing
digitized sound, video synchronizing, authorization, and information.

Backhaul
A terrestrial communications channel linking an earth station to a local switching network or
population center.

Backoff
The process of reducing the input and output power levels of a traveling wave tube to obtain
more linear operation.

Band Pass Filter

An active or passive circuit which allows signals within the desired frequency band to pass
through but impedes signals outside this pass band from getting through.
Bandwidth "BW"
A measure of spectrum (frequency) use or capacity. For instance, a voice transmission by
telephone requires a bandwidth of about 3000 cycles per second (3KHz). A TV channel
occupies a bandwidth of 6 million cycles per second (6 MHz) in terrestrial Systems. In
satellite based systems a larger bandwidth of 17.5 to 72 MHz is used to spread or "dither" the
television signal in order to prevent interference.

Baseband
The basic direct output signal in an intermediate frequency based obtained directly from a
television camera, satellite television receiver, or video tape recorder. Baseband signals can
be viewed only on studio monitors. To display the baseband signal on a conventional
television set a "modulator" is required to convert the baseband signal to one of the VHF or
UHF television channels which the television set can be tuned to receive.

Baud
The rate of data transmission based on the number of signal elements or symbols transmitted
per second. Today most digital signals are characterized in bits per second.

Beacon
Low-power carrier transmitted by a satellite which supplies the controlling engineers on the
ground with a means of monitoring telemetry data, tracking the satellite, or conducting
propagation experiments. This tracking beacon is usually a horn or omni antenna.

Beamwidth
The angle or conical shape of the beam the antenna projects. Large antennas have narrower
beamwidths and can pinpoint satellites in space or dense traffic areas on the earth more
precisely. Tighter beamwidths thus deliver higher levels of power and thus greater
communications performance.

Bird
Slang for a communications satellite located in geosynchronous orbit.

Bit
A single digital unit of information

Bit Error Rate

The fraction of a sequence of message bits that are in error. A bit error rate of 10-6 means
that there is an average of one error per million bits.

Bit Rate
The speed of a digital transmission, measured in bits per second.

Blanking
An ordinary television signal consists of 30 separate still pictures or frames sent every
second. They occur so rapidly, the human eye blurs them together to form an illusion of
moving pictures. This is the basis for television and motion picture systems. The blanking
interval is that portion of the television signal which occurs after one picture frame is sent and
before the next one is transmitted. During this period of time special data signals can be sent
which will not be picked up on an ordinary television receiver.
Block Down Converter
A device used to convert the 3.7 to 4.2 KHz signal down to UHF or lower frequencies (1
GHz and lower).

Boresight
The area of highest gain in the center of the pattern of a directional antenna.

Business Television
Corporate communications tool involving video transmissions of information via satellite.
Common uses of business television are for meetings, product introductions and training.

C...

C Band
This is the band between 4 and 8 GHz with the 6 and 4 GHz band being used for satellite
communications. Specifically, the 3.7 to 4.2 GHz satellite communication band is used as the
down link frequencies in tandem with the 5.925 to 6,425 GHz band that serves as the uplink.

Carrier to Noise Ratio (C/N)

The ratio of the received carrier power and the noise power in a given bandwidth, expressed
in dB. This figure is directly related to G/T and S/N; and in a video signal the higher the C/N,
the better the received picture.

Carrier
The basic radio, television, or telephony center of frequency transmit signal. The carrier in an
analog signal. is modulated by manipulating its amplitude (making it louder or softer) or its
frequency (shifting it up or down) in relation to the incoming signal. Satellite carriers
operating in the analog mode are usually frequency modulated.

Carrier Frequency
The main frequency on which a voice, data, or video signal is sent. Microwave and satellite
communications transmitters operate in the band from 1 to 14 GHz (a GHz is one billion
cycles per second).

Cassegrain Antenna
The antenna principle that utilizes a subreflector at the focal point which reflects energy to or
from a feed located at the apex of the main reflector.

CDMA
Code division multiple access. Refers to a multiple-access scheme where stations use spread-
spectrum modulations and orthogonal codes to avoid interfering with one another.

Channel
A frequency band in which a specific broadcast signal is transmitted. Channel frequencies are
specified in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission. Television
signals require a 6 MHz frequency band to carry all the necessary picture detail.

Circular Polarization
Unlike many domestic satellites which utilize vertical or horizontal polarization, the
international Intelsat satellites transmit their signals in a rotating corkscrew-like pattern as
they are down-linked to earth. On some satellites, both right-hand rotating and left-hand
rotating signals can be transmitted simultaneously on the same frequency; thereby doubling
the capacity of the satellite to carry communications channels.

Clamp
A video processing circuit that removes the energy dispersal signal component from the
video waveform.

Clarke Orbit
That circular orbit in space 22,237 miles from the surface of the earth at which
geosynchronous satellites are placed. This orbit was first postulated by the science fiction
writer Arthur C. Clarke in Wireless World magazine in 1945. Satellites placed in these orbits,
although traveling around the earth at thousands of miles an hour, appear to be stationary
when viewed from a point on the earth, since the earth is rotating upon its axis at the same
angular rate that the satellite is traveling around the earth.

C/No
Carrier-to-noise ratio measured either at the Radio Frequency (RF) or Intermediate
Frequency (IF)

Codec
Coder/decoder system for digital transmission.

Co-Location
Ability of multiple satellites to share the same approximate geostationary orbital assignment
frequently due to the fact that different frequency bands are used.

Color Subcarrler
A subcarrier that is added to the main video signal to convey the color information. In NTSC
systems, the color subcarrier is centered on a frequency of 3.579545 MHz, referenced to the
main video carrier.

Common Carrier
Any organization which operates communications circuits used by other people. Common
carriers include the telephone companies as well as the owners of the communications
satellites, RCA, Comsat, Direct Net Telecommunications, AT&T and others. Common
carriers are required to file fixed tariffs for specific services.

Companding
A noise-reduction technique that applies single compression at the transmitter and
complementary expansion at the receiver.

Composite Baseband
The unclamped and unfiltered output of the satellite receiver's demodulator circuit, containg
the video information as well as all transmitted subcarriers.

Conus
Contiguous United States. In short, all the states in the U.S. except Hawaii and Alaska.
Cross Modulation
A form of signal distortion in which modulation from one or more RF carrier(s) is imposed
on another carrier.

C/T
Carrier-to-noise-temperature ratio.

D...

DAMA
Demand-Assigned Multiple Access - A highly efficient means of instantaneously assigning
telephony channels in a transponder according to immediate traffic demands.

DBS
Direct broadcast satellite. Refers to service that uses satellites to broadcast multiple channels
of television programming directly to home mounted small-dish antennas.

dBi
The dB power relative to an isotropic source.

dBW
The ratio of the power to one Watt expressed in decibels.

Decibel (dB)
The standard unit used to express the ratio of two power levels. It is used in communications
to express either a gain or loss in power between the input and output devices.

Declination
The offset angle of an antenna from the axis of its polar mount as measured in the meridian
plane between the equatorial plane and the antenna main beam.

Decoder
A television set-top device which enables the home subscriber to convert an electronically
scrambled television picture into a viewable signal. This should not be confused with a digital
coder/decoder known as a CODEC which is used in conjunction with digital transmissions.

Deemphasis
Reinstatement of a uniform baseband frequency response following demodulation.

Delay
The time it takes for a signal to go from the sending station through the satellite to the
receiving station. This transmission delay for a single hop satellite connection is very close
on one-quarter of a second.

Demodulator
A satellite receiver circuit which extracts or "demodulates" the "wanted "signals from the
received carrier.
Deviation
The modulation level of an FM signal determined by the amount of frequency shift from the
frequency of the main carrier.

Digital
Conversion of information into bits of data for transmission through wire, fiber optic cable,
satellite, or over air techniques. Method allows simultaneous transmission of voice, data or
video.

Digital Speech Interpolation

DSI - A means of transmitting telephony. Two and One half to three times more efficiently
based on the principle that people are talking only about 40% of the time.

Downconvert
To reduce the frequency of a signal, typically from RF to IF.

Downlink
The signal that comes down from a satellite to an earth station.

Dual Spin
Spacecraft design whereby the main body of the satellite is spun to provide altitude
stabilization, and the antenna assembly is despun by means of a motor and bearing system in
order to continually direct the antenna earthward. This dual-spin configuration thus serves to
create a spin stabilized satellite.

Duplex
A term meaning two-way communications: simuntaneous reception and transmission using
different frequencies.

E...

Earth Station
The term used to describe the combination or antenna, low-noise amplifier (LNA), down-
converter, and receiver electronics. used to receive a signal transmitted by a satellite. Earth
Station antennas vary in size from the.2 foot to 12 foot (65 centimeters to 3.7 meters)
diameter size used for TV reception to as large as 100 feet (30 meters) in diameter sometimes
used for international communications. The typical antenna used for INTELSAT
communication is today 13 to 18 meters or 40 to 60 feet.

Echo Canceller
An electronic circuit which attenuates or eliminates the echo effect on satellite telephony
links. Echo cancellers are largely replacing obsolete echo suppressors.

Echo Effect
A time-delayed electronic reflection of a speaker's voice. This is largely eliminated by
modern digital echo cancellers.

Edge of Coverage
Limit of a satellite's defined service area. In many cases, the EOC is defined as being 3 dB
down from the signal level at beam center. However, reception may still be possible beyond
the -3dB point.

EIRP
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power - This term describes the strength of the signal leaving the
satellite antenna or the transmitting earth station antenna, and is used in determining the C/N
and S/N. The transmit power value in units of dBW is expressed by the product of the
transponder output power and the gain of the satellite transmit antenna.

Elevation
The upward tilt to a satellite antenna measured in degrees required to aim the antenna at the
communications satellite. When aimed at the horizon, the elevation angle is zero. If it were
tilted to a point directly overhead, the satellite antenna would have an elevation of 90
degrees.

Encoder
A device used to electronically alter a signal so that it can only be viewed on a receiver
equipped with a special decoder.

EOL
End of Life of a satellite.

Equatorial Orbit
An orbit with a plane parallel to the earth's equator.

ESC
Engineering Service Circuit - The 300-3,400 Hertz voice plus teletype (S+DX) channel used
for earth station-to-earth station and earth station-to-operations center communications for the
purpose of system maintenance, coordination and general system information dissemination.
In analog (FDM/FM) systems there are two S+DX channels available for this purpose in the
4,000-12,000 Hertz portion of the baseband. In digital systems there are one or two channels
available which are usually convened to a 32 or 64 Kbps digital signal and combined with the
earth station traffic digital bit stream. Modern ESC equipment interfaces with any mix of
analog and digital satellite carriers, as well as backhaul terrestrial links to the local switching
center.

F...

F/D
Ratio of antenna focal length to antenna diameter. A higher ratio means a shallower dish. f/D
is a pure number

FDMA
Frequency division multiple access. Refers to the use of multiple carriers within the same
transponder where each uplink has been assigned frequency slot and bandwidth. This is
usually employed in conjunction with Frequency Modulation.

Feed
This term has at least two key meanings within the field of satellite communications. It is
used to describe the transmission of video programming from a distribution center. It is also
used to describe the feed system of an antenna. The feed system may consist of a subreflector
plus a feedhorn or a feedhorn only.

Feedhorn
A satellite TV receiving antenna component that collects the signal reflected from the main
surface reflector and channels this signal into the low-noise amplifier (LNA)

FI
Intermediate Frequency. This refers to the low frequency RF level to which the satellite
signal is converted before processing inside a receiver, typically 70 MHz.

FM
Frequency Modulation - A modulation method whereby the baseband signal varies the
frequency of the carrier wave.

FM Threshold
That point at which the input signal power is just strong enough to enable the receiver
demodulator circuitry successfully to detect and recover a good quality television picture
from the incoming video carrier. Using threshold extension techniques, a typical satellite TV
receiver will successfully provide good pictures with an incoming carrier noise ratio of 7db.
Below the threshold a type of random noise called "sparkles" begins to appear in the video
picture. In a digital transmission, however, signal is sudden and dramatically lost when
performance drops under the threshold.

Focal Length
Distance from the center feed to the center of the dish.

Focal Point
Focal Point is the point where the feedhorn is placed. Focal Point is the distance betwen the
antenna base and the input signal point of the feedhorn measured in inches.

Footprint
A map of the signal strength showing the EIRP contours of equal signal strengths as they
cover the earth's surface. Different satellite transponders on the same satellite will often have
different footprints of the signal strength. The accuracy of EIRP footprints or contour data
can improve with the operational age of the satellite. The actual EIRP levels of the satellite,
however, tends to decrease slowly as the spacecraft ages.

Forward Error Correction (FEC)

Adds unique codes to the digital signal at the source so errors can be detected and corrected
at the receiver.

Frequency
The number of times that an alternating current goes through its complete cycle in one second
of time. One cycle per second is also referred to as one hertz; 1000 cycles per second, one
kilohertz; 1,000,000 cycles per second, one megahertz: and 1,000,000,000 cycles per second,
one gigahertz.

Frequency Coordination
A process to eliminate frequency interference between different satellite systems or between
terrestrial microwave systems and satellites. In the U.S. this activity relies upon a
computerized service utilizing an extensive database to analyze potential microwave
interference problems that arise between organizations using the same microwave band. As
the same C-band frequency spectrum is used by telephone networks and CATV companies
when they are contemplating the installation of an earth station, they will often obtain a
frequency coordination study to determine if any problems will exist.

Frequency modulated
A system where the instantaneous radio frequency varies in proportion to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.

Frequency re-use
A technique that allows two separate TV channels to be broadcast simultaneously on the
same transponder by alternating their polarizations (i.e., one channel is horizontally polarized
and the other vertically polarized).

G...

Gain
A measure of amplification expressed in dB.

Geostationary
Refers to a geosynchronous satellite angle with zero inclination. so the satellite appears to
hover over one spot on the earth's equator.

Geosynchronous
The Clarke circular orbit above the equator. For a planet the size and mass of the earth, this
point is 22,237 miles above the surface.

Gigahertz (GHz)
One billion cycles per second. Signals operating above 3 Gigahertz are known as
microwaves. above 30 GHz they are know as millimeter waves. As one moves above the
millimeter waves signals begin to take on the characteristics of Iightwaves.

Global Beam
An antenna down-link pattern used by the Intelsat satellites, which effectively covers one-
third of the globe. Global beams are aimed at the center of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian
Oceans by the respective Intelsat satellites, enabling all nations on each side of the ocean to
receive the signal. Because they transmit to such a wide area, global beam transponders have
significantly lower EIRP outputs at the surface of the Earth as compared to a US domestic
satellite system which covers just the continental United States. Therefore, earth stations
receiving global beam signals need antennas much larger in size (typically 10 meters and
above (i.e.30 feet and up). Gregorian Dual-reflector antenna system employing a paraboloidal
main reflector and a concave ellipsoidal subreflector.

G/T
A figure of merit of an antenna and low noise amplifier combination expressed in dB. "G" is
the net gain of the system and "T" is the noise temperature of the system. The higher the
number, the better the system. Also called of Merit Factor.
Guard Channel
Television channels are separated in the frequency spectrum by spacing them several
megahertz apart. This unused space serves to prevent the adjacent television channels from
interfering with each other.

H...

Half Transponder
A method of transmitting two TV signals through a single transponder through the reduction
of each TV signal's deviation and power level. Half-transponder TV carriers each operate
typically 4 dB to 7 dB below single-carrier saturation power.

Headend
Electronic control center - generally located at the antenna site of a CATV system - usually
including antennas, preamplifiers, frequency converters, demodulators and other related
equipment which amplify, filter and convert incoming broadcast TV signals to cable system
channels.

Hertz (Hz)
The name given to the basic measure of radio frequency characteristics. An electromagnetic
wave completes a full oscillation from its positive to its negative pole and back again in what
is known as a cycle. A single Hertz is thus equal to one cycle per second.

Hub
The master station through which all communications to, from and between micro terminals
must flow. in the future satellites with on-board processing will allow hubs to be eliminated
as MESH networks are able to connect all points in a network together.

I...

IBS
INTELSAT Business Services.

Inclination
The angle between the orbital plane of a satellite and the equatorial plane of the earth.

INMARSAT
The International Maritime Satellite Organization operates a network of satellites for
international transmissions for all types of international mobile services including maritime,
aeronautical, and land mobile.

INTELSAT
The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization operates a network of satellites
for international transmissions.

Interference
Energy which tends to interfere with the reception of the desired signals, such as fading from
airline flights, RF interference from adjacent channels, or ghosting from reflecting objects
such as mountains and buildings.
ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network
A CCITT standard for integrated transmission of voice, video and data. Bandwidths include:
Basic Rate Interface - BR (144 Kbps - 2 B & 1 D channel) and Primary Rate - PRI (1.544 and
2.048 Mbps).

Isotropic Antenna
A hypothetical omnidirectional point-source antenna that serves as an engineering reference
for the measurement of antenna gain.

ITU
International Telecommunication Union.

J...

JPEG
ISO Joint Picture Expert Group standard for the compression of still pictures.

K...

Ka Band
The frequency range from 18 to 31 GHz.

Kbps
Kilobits per second. Refers to transmission speed of 1,000 bits per second.

Kelvin (K)
The temperature measurement scale used in the scientific community. Zero K represents
absolute zero, and corresponds to minus 459 degrees Fahrenheit or minus 273 Celsius. Is also
the amount of thermal noise generated by an LNB. The lower the Noise Temperature (in K
degree), the better the performance of the LNB. Thermal noise characteristics of LNB are
measured in Kelvins.

Kilohertz (kHz)
Refers to a unit of frequency equal to 1,000 Hertz.

Klystron
A type of high-power amplifier which uses a special beam tube.

Ku Band
The frequency range from 10.9 to 17 GHz.

L...

L-Band
The frequency range from 0.5 to 1.5 GHz. Also used to refer to the 950 to 1450MHz used for
mobile communications.

Leased Line
A dedicated circuit typically supplied by the telephone company.
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
This is the preamplifier between the antenna and the earth station receiver. For maximum
effectiveness, it must be located as near the antenna as possible, and is usually attached
directly to the antenna receive port. The LNA is especially designed to contribute the least
amount of thermal noise to the received signal.

Low Noise Block Downconverter (LNB)

A combination Low Noise Amplifier and downconverter built into one device attached to the
feed. The LNB converts the entire 3.7 to 4.2 GHz band down to a lower band 950 to 1450
MHz.

LNB Temperature
LNB (Low noise block) temperature is how much of noise is generated by his eletronic
circuit. An LNB of low noise is required for an system of good quality. The tipical values is
25 Kelvin degree.

M...

MAC (A, B, C, D2)

Multiplexed analog component color video transmission system. Subtypes refer to the various
methods used to transmit audio and data signals.

Margin
The amount of signal in dB by which the satellite system exceeds the minimum levels
required for operation.

Master Antenna Television (MATV)

An antenna system that serves a concentration of television sets such as in apartment
buildings, hotels or motels.

Megahertz (MHz)
Refers to a frequency equal to one million Hertz, or cycles per second.

Merit Factor
The same that G/T.

Microwave
Line-of sight, point-to-point transmission of signals at high frequency. Many CATV systems
receive some television signals from a distant antenna location with the antenna and the
system connected by microwave relay. Microwaves are also used for data, voice, and indeed
all types of information transmission. The growth of fiber optic networks have tended to
curtail the growth and use of microwave relays.

Microwave Interference
Interference which occurs when an earth station aimed at a distant satellite picks up a second,
often stronger signal, from a local telephone terrestrial microwave relay transmitter.
Microwave interference can also be produced by nearby radar transmitters as well as the sun
itself. Relocating the antenna by only several feet will often completely eliminate the
microwave interference.
Modulation
The process of manipulating the frequency or amplitude of a carrier in relation to an
incoming video, voice or data signal.

Modulator
A device which modulates a carrier. Modulators are found as components in broadcasting
transmitters and in satellite transponders. Modulators are also used by CATV companies to
place a baseband video television signal onto a desired VHF or UHF channel. Home video
tape recorders also have built-in modulators which enable the recorded video information to
be played back using a television receiver tuned to VHF channel 3 or 4.

Multiplexing
Techniques that allow a number of simultaneous transmissions over a single circuit.

N...

Noise
Any unwanted and unmodulated energy that is always present to some extent within any
signal.

Noise Figure (NF)

A term which is a figure of merit of a device, such as an LNA or receiver, expressed in dB,
which compares the device with a perfect device.

Noise Temperature
The amount of thermal noise present in a device or system, expressed in K degree. The lower
the noise temperature, the better.

NTSC - National Television Standards Committee

A video standard established by the United States (RCA/NBC} and adopted by numerous
other countries. This is a 525-line video with 3.58-MHz chroma subcarrier and 60 cycles per
second.

O...

Orbital Period
The time that it takes a satellite to complete one circumnavigation of its orbit.

P...

Packet Switching
Data transmission method that divides messages into standard-sized packets for greater
efficiency of routing and transport through a network.

PAL - Phase Alternation System

The German developed TV standard based upon 50 cycles.per second and 625 lines.

Parabolic Antenna
The most frequently found satellite TV antenna, it takes its name from the shape of the dish
described mathematically as a parabola. The function of the parabolic shape is to focus the
weak microwave signal hitting the surface of the dish into a single focal point in front of the
dish. It is at this point that the feedhorn is usually located. There are two basic types of
parabolic dish antennas : The prime focus feed and the Cassegrain feed.

Path Loss
The loss of signal strength incurred between the poit of transmission and the point of
reception.

Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)

A type of electronic circuit used to demodulate satellite signals.

Polarization
A technique used by the satellite designer to increase the capacity of the satellite transmission
channels by reusing the satellite transponder frequencies. In linear cross polarization
schemes, half of the transponders beam their signals to earth in a vertically polarized mode;
the other half horizontally polarize their down links. Although the two sets of frequencies
overlap, they are 90 degree out of phase, and will not interfere with each other. To
successfully receive and decode these signals on earth, the earth station must be outfitted with
a properly polarized feedhorn to select the vertically or horizontally polarized signals as
desired.

In some installations, the feedhorn has the capability of receiving the vertical and horizontal
transponder signals simultaneously, and routing them into separate LNAs for delivery to two
or more satellite television receivers. Unlike most domestic satellites, the Intelsat series use a
technique known as left-hand and right-hand circular polarization.

Polarization Rotator
A device that can be manually or automatically adjusted to select one of two orthogonal
polarizations.

Polar Mount
Antenna mechanism permitting steering in both elevation and azimuth through rotation about
a single axis. While an astronomer's polar mount has its axis parallel to that of the earth,
satellite earth stations utilize a modified polar mount geometry that incorporates a declination
offset.

Polar Orbit
An orbit with its plane aligned in parallel with the polar axis of the earth

Power Received "EIRP"

The power received EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power) is how much of the signal
irradiated by satellite is received on surface of the earth effectively (measure in dBW).

Prime Focus
The type of feed in a parabolic dish antenna which is positioned above the dish as the
antenna's focal point. As differentiated from a Cassegrain feed.

PTT - Post Telephone and Telegraph Administration

Refers to operating agencies directly or indirectly controlled by governments in charge of
telecommunications services in most countries of the world.
Pulse Code Modulation
A time division modulation technique in which analog signals are sampled and quantized at
periodic intervals into digital signals. The values observed are typically represented by a
coded arrangement of 8 bits of which one may be for parity.

Q...

QPSK - Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

System of modulating a satellite signal.

R...

Rain Outage
Loss of signal at Ku or Ka Band frequencies due to absorption and increased sky-noise
temperature caused by heavy rainfall.

Receiver (Rx)
An electronic device which enables a particular satellite signal to be separated from all others
being received by an earth station, and converts the signal format into a format for video,
voice or data.

Receiver Sensitivity
Expressed in dBm this tells how much power the detector must receive to achieve a specific
baseband performance, such as a specified bit error rate or signal to noise ratio.

Reflector
The antenna's main curved dish, which collects and focuses signals onto either the secondary
reflector or the feed.

S...

Satellite
A sophisticated electronic communications relay station orbiting 22,237 miles above the
equator moving in a fixed orbit at the same speed and direction of the earth (about 7,000 mph
east to west).

Scalar Feed
A type of horn antenna feed which uses a series of concentric rings to capture signals that
have been reflected toward the focal point of a parabolic antenna.

Scrambler
A device used to electronically alter a signal so that it can only be viewed or heard on a
receiver equipped with a special decoder.

Secam
A color television. system developed by the French and used in the USSR. Secam operates
with 625 lines per picture frame and 50 cycles per second, but is incompatible in operation
with the European PAL system or the U.S. NTSC system.
Sidelobe
The response of an antenna to unwanted signals originating from sources other than the
intended transmitter. This type of interference can greatly reduce antenna efficiency.

Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N)

The ratio of the signal power to the noise power in a specified bandwidth, expressed in dB. A
video S/N of 54 to 56 dB is considered to be an excellent S/N, that is, of broadcast quality. A
video S/N of 48 to 52 dB is considered to be a good S/N at the headend for Cable TV.

Single-Channel-Per-Carrier (SCPC)
A method used to transmit a large number of signals over a single satellite transponder.

Skew
An adjustment that compensates for slight variance in angle between identical senses of
polarity generated by two or more satellites.

Slant Range
The length of the path between a communications satellite and an associated earth station.

Slot
That longitudinal position in the geosynchronous orbit into which a communications satellite
is "parked". Above the United States, communications satellites are typically positioned in
slots which are based at two to three degree intervals.

Snow
A form of noise picked up by a television receiver caused by a weak signal. Snow is
characterized by alternate dark and light dots appearing randomly on the picture tube. To
eliminate snow, a more sensitive receive antenna must be used, or better amplification must
be provided in the receiver (or both).

Solar Outage
Solar outages occur when an antenna is looking at a satellite, and the sun passes behind or
near the satellite and within the field of view of the antenna. This field of view is usually
wider than the beamwidth. Solar outages can be exactly predicted as to the timing for each
site.

Spectrum
The range of electromagnetic radio frequencies used in transmission of voice, data and
television.

Spillover
Satellite signal that falls on locations outside the beam pattern's defined edge of coverage.

Spin Stabilization
A form of satellite stabilization and attitude control which is achieved through spinning the
exterior of the spacecraft about its axis at a fixed rate.

Splitter
A passive device (one with no active electronic components) which distributes a television
signal carried on a cable in two or more paths and sends it to a number of receivers
simultaneously.

Spot Beam
A focused antenna pattern sent to a limited geographical area. Spot beams are used by
domestic satellites to deliver certain transponder signals to geographically well defined areas
such as Hawaii, Alaska and Puerto Rico.

Spread Spectrum
The transmission of a signal using a much wider bandwidth and power than would normally
be required. Spread spectrum also involves the use of narrower signals that are frequency
hopped through various parts of the transponder. Both techniques produce low levels of
interference Between the users. They also provide security in that the signals appear as
though they were random noise to unauthorized earth stations. Both military and civil satellite
applications have developed for spread spectrum transmissions.

SSPA
Solid state power amplifier. A VSLI solid state device that is gradually replacing Traveling
Wave Tubes in satellite communications systems because they are lighter weight and are
more reliable.

Stationkeeping
Minor orbital adjustments that are conducted to maintain the satellite's orbital assignment
within the allocated "box" within the geostationary arc.

Subcarrier
A second signal "piggybacked" onto a main signal to carry additional information. In satellite
television transmission, the video picture is transmitted over the main carrier. The
corresponding audio is sent via an FM subcarrier. Some satellite transponders carry as many
as four special audio or data subcarriers whose signals may or may not be related to the main
programming.

Synchronization (Sync)
The process of orienting the transmitter and receiver circuits in the proper manner in order
that they can be synchronized . Home television sets are synchronized by an incoming sync
signal with the television cameras in the studios 60 times per second. The horizontal and
vertical hold controls on the television set are used to set the receiver circuits to the
approximate sync frequencies of incoming television picture and the sync pulses in the signal
then fine tune the circuits to the exact frequency and phase.

T...

T1
The transmission bit rate of 1.544 millions bits per second. This is also equivalent to the
ISDN Primary Rate Interface for the U.S. The European T1 or E1 transmission rate is 2.048
million bits per second.

T3 Channel (DS-3)
In North America, a digital channel which communicates at 45.304 Mbps.
TDMA
Time division multiple access. Refers to a form of multiple access where a single carrier is
the shared by many users. Signals from earth stations reaching the satellite consecutively are
processed in time segments without overlapping.

TI - Terrestrial Interference
Interference to satellite reception caused by ground based microwave transmitting stations.

Transmitter
An electronic device consisting of oscillator, modulator and other circuits which produce a
radio or television electromagnetic wave signal for radiation into the atmosphere by an
antenna.

Transponder
A combination receiver, frequency converter, and transmitter package, physically part of a
communications satellite. Transponders have a typical output of five to ten watts, operate
over a frequency band with a 36 to 72 megahertz bandwidth in the L, C, Ku, and sometimes
Ka Bands or in effect typically in the microwave spectrum, except for mobile satellite
communications. Communications satellites typically have between 12 and 24 onboard
transponders although the INTELSAT VI at the extreme end has 50.

TVRO
Television Receive Only terminals that use antenna reflectors and associated electronic
equipment to receive and process television and audio communications via satellite.
Typically small home systems.

Tweeking
The process of adjusting an electronic receiver circuit to optimize its performance.

TWTA
Traveling wave tube amplifier.

U...

Uplink
The earth station used to transmit signals to a satellite

V...

VSWR
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. A measurement of mismatch in a cable, waveguide, or antenna
system.

VSAT
Very small aperture terminal. Refers to small earth stations, usually in the 1.2 to 2.4 meter
range. Small aperture terminals under 0.5 meters are sometimes referred to Ultra Small
Aperture Terminals (USAT's)

W...
Waveguide
A metallic microwave conductor, typically rectangular in shape, used to carry microwave
signals into and out of microwave antennas.

X...

X.25
A set of packet switching standards published by the CCITT.

Y...

Z...

Satellite Related Links

Latest News

The NASA Event News

SatNews
Space.com
Global Positioning System Overview
Tele Satellite International
Realtime Satellite Tracking
SpaceFlight Now

SAT Firm/Org

LYNGSAT Satellite Charts

SAT Home Pages

TrackingSat GPS - Satellite Dish Alignment Tools

Small Satellites Home Page
Group for Earth Observation
Lockheed Martin
Asia Pacific Satellite TV Guide
SatSignal Software - Weather Satellite Software

Space Launches

Kennedy Space Center

Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan
Live from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan
Music and Video about Baikonur Cosmodrome
Live from Guiana Space Center, Europes Spaceport
Guiana Space Center, Europes Spaceport
Ariane Space Video Corner
Ariane Space
Sea Launch
Sea Launch - Past Launches

Space Firm/Org

NASA Home Page

European Space Agency
Federation of American Scientists

Space Home Pages

Center for Astrophysics

Brian's Space Hotlist
HobbySpace - Webguide to Space Hobbies and Activities
Universe Today

Links to Keplerian Elements Pages

Space-Track.org
Celestrak.com
Definition of NORAD Two-line Element Set
Definition of Orbital Elements
Frequently Asked Questions: Two-Line Element Set Format
NORAD Two-Line Element Sets Current Data

Two-Line Element Sets Current Data

Amateur Radio Geostationary GOES

GPS IntelSat Iridium
NOAA Orbcomm Resource
Shuttle Space Station Visual
Weather

Others Pages
Begin your CubeSat Mission with the CubeSat Kit

TubeSat Personal Satellite Kit

Links to our Partners